Evolution via gravitational instabilities Evolution of a gravitationally

unstable disc leads to spiral

Gravitational forces act over a long distance. Gravitational torques
waves
in a disc which is not axisymmetric can lead to outward angular
momentum transport. But the disc must be massive enough.
Criteria for instability is given by the Toomre condition:
c sΩ Thermal support
Q= ≤1 Rotational support
πGΣ Self-gravity

...where cs is the local sound speed, Σ is the surface density and

and Ω is the angular velocity.

Important for young, massive discs ~> 0.1 M*

Simulation from Pickett et al. (1998)

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Self-gravity and angular momentum transport Disc evolution: turbulent transport

Most discs are not massive enough for gravitational instability.
Believed that evolution is driven by turbulence, which has the
Mdisc = 0.25 Mstar
effect of an enhanced viscosity. Dimensional argument:
• Scale of turbulent cell must be smaller than H
• Velocity in turbulence must be smaller than sound speed cs
to avoid rapid dissipation via shock waves

Write the effective “viscosity” as:

ν = vt lt = αcsH
Ω-1
tcool(r)= 5Ω where α is a dimensionless parameter smaller than unity. This is
the Shakura-Sunyaev α prescription.
Rice et. al. 2002 This is a fudge with very little physical basis. For > 20 years,
Total time ~ 4000 years. Size : ~ 100 AU.
mechanisms that lead to turbulence remained unknown.
The α prescription paper is one of the most cited in astrophysics...
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The evolution of a thin disc is described by a diffusive equation: Disc evolution: timescales and useful formulae
∂Σ 3 ∂ ∂


(ν Σ R 1 2 )
(1) A viscous disc of radius R evolves on a timescale:
= R1 2
 

∂R R ∂R ∂R



2
R2


1 R
tν ≈ ≈


ν αΩ


In simple cases, this can be solved analytically. Generic behaviour H

for the evolution of a ring of gas looks like: 

2 

3/2
0 . 01 R / H R
≈ 10 7
 

years
α
 

25 100 AU
Σ
(2) The radial velocity in the disc is vR = -3ν/2R
(3) In a steady-state, and away from the boundaries, the relation
between the surface density and the mass accretion rate (kg/s, or
solar masses per year) is:
•
R M
νΣ =
Most of the mass flows inwards, while the angular momentum 3π
is carried to large R by a negligible fraction of the mass
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 Minimum mass Solar Nebula Disc evolution: the problem
If only interested in disc structure, then the disc model is completed In a thin accretion disc, the specific angular momentum (ie, per
by specifying a surface density profile. An important example is unit mass of gas) increases outwards as R1/2
the minimum mass Solar Nebula:


−3 2
For mass to flow inwards and be accreted by the star, angular
R momentum has to be transported outwards or lost
Σ ( R ) ≈ 10 4 −2
 

kg m
1 AU
Derived by imagining grinding up the planets, distributing their
mass smoothly with radius, and adding back enough gas to make
Solar composition. Gives a mass of ~0.01 Msun out to ~30 AU.
Given surface density, can compute temperature structure, where
different minerals and ices can exist etc...
If disc evolves, as observations of T Tauri stars suggest, then no
reason for this to have much to do with real discs...
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A similar argument to why a disc forms in the first place
Angular momentum could be lost in a jet or outflow
More frequently, we consider angular momentum being redistributed
within the disc - angular momentum transport. This is often called
viscosity, though the ordinary molecular viscosity is many orders
of magnitude too small to account for evolution in astrophysical
situations
Angular momentum conservation + inefficient angular momentum
transport explain why discs last for AS3012
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Planet formation Formation of gas giants

Traditional theories of planet formation seek to explain:
(1) Terrestrial planets. Rocky or icy planets have composition
very different from disc gas. These must have formed from
collisional growth of dust or ices in the nebula.
(2) Giant planets. In principle, these could form:
• Like stars - ie from fragmentation during collapse of
molecular cloud cores.
• From gravitational instabilities in the protoplanetary disc.
• Via core accretion. A core of ~10 Earth masses is
formed as for terrestrial planets, then accretes an envelope
of gas.
Evidence from the Solar System is thought to support
the core accretion theory.
• Terrestrial planets do exist - so idea of growth of a core
via collisions is not unreasonable.
• Uranus and Neptune have small gas envelopes - ie
composition is very different from Solar. If these planets
formed via direct gravitational collapse of the disc, hard to
see why they should be so enriched with heavy elements.
No evidence of this nature is available for extrasolar planets.
Given their unusual properties, worth keeping an open mind
about their formation mechanisms...

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Stages in planet formation

Role of gas Speed Dust growth

1. Settling and growth of Well-coupled to Probably • Dust contained in pre-collapse molecular cloud
dust grains gas rapid – Formed in atmospheres of red giants
• Cool
• Dense
2. Pebbles and boulders to Hydrodynamic drag Must be
– Ejected with stellar wind into Interstellar Medium (ISM)
km sized planetesimals -> inward motion rapid
• Dust growth: requires interactions and sticking
3. Planetesimals to planet-sized Independent of gas Slow
– In later stages of cloud evolution
bodies / giant planet cores • Molecular depletion onto grains
– In protostellar disc
4. Gas accretion onto giant Orbital migration due Slow – Settling onto mid-plane increases density of solid particles
planet cores to gravitational torques • Initially small particles ~ µm in size
– Need to grow to ~km size before self-gravity can become important

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