Switchgear and Protection

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Switchgear and Protection
Course No.: EEEEC19
(Course Credit – 04)

Lecture 01 - Introduction
Pre-Requisite & Course Objectives (COs)
• Pre-requisite:
• Power Systems, Power Transmission and Distribution

• Course Objectives:
1. To understand the various protective devices for power system
2. To apply the protection schemes to power system equipment
3. To analyze the need of protection schemes to power system equipment
4. To design the protection schemes to power system equipment
5. To evaluate various protection schemes for power system

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Course Content

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Course Content

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Suggested Readings:
1. J. J. Grainger, and W.D. Stevenson, “Power System Analysis”, Tata McGraw-Hill, 2003.
2. Paul M. Anderson “Power System Protection” IEEE Press.
3. C L Wadhwa, “Electrical Power System” Wiley Eastern Ltd., 3rd edition, 2000.
4. D.P. Kothari, and I.J. Nagrath “Modern Power System Analysis“, Tata McGraw-Hill, 4th
Edition.
You may also refer:
1. “Badri Ram , D. N Viswakarma”, “Power System Protection and Switchgear”, TMH
Publications, 2011.
2. “Sunil S Rao”, “Switchgear and Protection”, Khanna Publishers, 2008.
NPTEL Lectures: https://archive.nptel.ac.in/courses/108/107/108107167/
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Single line diagram of electric power system

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Why do we need protection?
• Electrical apparatus operates at various voltage levels and may be enclosed or placed in
open.
• Under abnormal operating conditions protection is necessary for safety of electrical
equipment's.
• Safety of human personnel.

• Why a system need protection?

• There is no ‘fault free’ system.
• It is neither practical nor economical to build a ‘fault free’ system.
• Electrical system shall tolerate certain degree of faults.
• Usually faults are caused by breakdown of insulation due to various reasons: system aging,
lighting, etc.
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Purpose of Protection System
Minimize damage
Leave unaffected equipment in-service
Maintain equipment operating limits
Maintain electrical system stability

Abnormal conditions:
• Short circuits in the transmission or distribution line
• Over voltages due to switching or lightning
• Over speeding of generators or motors
• Loss of excitation of machines
• Over heating of stator and rotor of the machine
• Insulation breakdown between the inter-turn coils of the winding
• Low level oils in the transformer and circuit breakers
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Nature and causes of faults
• Breaking of conductors
• Failure of insulation
• Mechanical failure
• Accidents
• Excessive internal and external stress
• High degree of pollution on an insulator string (<insulation strength)

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Desirable Protection Attributes
Reliability - ability of the protection system to operate correctly
Dependability - certainty of a correct operation of the designed system, on
occurrence of any fault
security - ability of the designed system to avoid incorrect operation during faults
Speed - Minimum operating time to clear a fault in order to avoid damage to equipment.
The Relay Time - This is the time between the instant of occurrence of the fault to
the instant at which the relay contacts open.
The Breaker Time - This is the time between the instant of closing of relay
contacts to the instant of final arc extinction inside the medium
and removal of the fault.
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Desirable Protection Attributes
Selectivity - This feature aims at maintaining the continuity of supply system by
disconnecting the minimum section of the network necessary to isolate the fault. The entire
system is divided into several protective zones.
Sensitivity - the smallest value of the actuating quantity at which the relay operates
detecting any abnormal condition.
Stability - to remain stable within a set of defined operating scenarios and procedures.
Adequacy (Economic): the cost of the protection system should be adequate in its cost.

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Economics, Art & Science of Protection
Selection of protective relays requires compromises:
• Maximum and Reliable protection at minimum equipment cost
• High Sensitivity to faults and insensitivity to maximum load currents
• High-speed fault clearance with correct selectivity
• Selectivity in isolating small faulty area
• Ability to operate correctly under all predictable power system conditions
• Cost of protective relays should be balanced against risks involved if protection is not
sufficient and not enough redundancy.
• Primary objectives is to have faulted zone’s primary protection operate first, but if there are
protective relays failures, some form of backup protection is provided.
• Backup protection is local (if local primary protection fails to clear fault) and remote (if
remote protection fails to operate to clear fault)
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Economics {Consider total cost of the system is 100%}

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Probability of Occurrence of Faults

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Types of Faults in Overhead Lines

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Probability of Occurrence of Faults in Overhead Lines

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Zones of Protection
• An electric power system is divided into several zones of protection.

• Each zone of protection, contains one or more components of a power system in

addition to two circuit breakers.

• When a fault occurs within the boundary of a particular zone, then the protection
system responsible for the protection of the zone acts to isolate (by tripping the Circuit
Breakers) every equipment within that zone from the rest of the system.

• The circuit Breakers are inserted between the component of the zone and the rest of
the power system.

• The location of the circuit breaker helps to define the boundaries of the zones of
protection.
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Zones of Protection (Contd…)
• Different neighboring zones of protection are made to overlap each other, which
ensure that no part of the power system remains without protection.

• However, occurrence of the fault with in the overlapped region will initiate a
tripping sequence of different circuit breakers so that the minimum necessary to
disconnect the faulty element.

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Zones of Protection (Contd…)

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Zones of Protection (Contd…)

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Zones of Protection (Contd…)

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Types of Protection Scheme
Primary Protection
• The primary protection scheme ensures fast and selective clearing of any fault
within the boundaries of the circuit element that the zone is required to protect.
• Primary Protection as a rule is provided for each section of an electrical installation.
• The primary protection may fail. Reason are enumerated below:
1. Current or voltage supply to the relay.
2. D.C. tripping voltage supply
3. Protective relays
4. Tripping circuit
5. Circuit Breaker
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Types of Protection Scheme
Back-up Protection
• Back-up protection is the name given to a protection which backs the primary
protection whenever the later fails in operation.
• The back-up protection by definition is slower than the primary protection system.
• The design of the back-up protection needs to be coordinated with the design of the
primary protection and essentially it is the second line of defense after the primary
protection system.

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What is a Relay?
Formally, a relay is a logical element that processes the inputs (mostly voltages and
currents) from the system/apparatus and issues a trip decision if a fault within the relay's
jurisdiction is detected.

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Typical Relay System

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Classification of Relays
According to the Construction principle
• Electromechanical, Solid State, Microprocessor, and Numerical Relay.

According to the actuating signals

• Current, Voltage, Power, Frequency, Temperature, Pressure, Speed, and Others

Function: The functions for which the protection system is designed

• Directional Over current, Distance, Over voltage, Differential, Reverse Power, Others
Characteristics
• Instantaneous, time-delayed, and inverse time-delayed.

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Historical Development
Electromagnetic Relays
• When the principle of electromechanical energy conversion is used for decision
making, the relay is referred as an electromechanical relay.
• These relays represent the first generation of relays.

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Electromagnetic Relays

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EMRs (Working Principle)
The working principle of an electromechanical relay can be divided into three main
stages:
1. Activation: When an electrical current is applied to the relay’s coil, a magnetic field
is generated. This magnetic field attracts the armature, causing it to move towards the
coil.
2. Movement: The movement of the armature changes the position of the contacts,
either opening or closing the electrical circuit.
3. Deactivation: When the current flowing through the coil is removed, the magnetic
field disappears, and the armature returns to its original position due to the spring
force. This action reverts the contacts to their initial state.

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Classification of EMRs
1. Based on their applications
• General Purpose Relays – Such as miniature relays, latching relays, timer relays,
contactors, machine tool relays, hybrid relays, smart relays, signal relays, automobile
relays and PCB relays etc.
• Protection Relays – Such as thermal overload relays, earth fault relays, under or over
voltage relays, under or over current relays, buchholz relay, differential relays, distance
protection relays, sequence protection relays, electronic relays etc.

2. Based on contact configurations

• Single-Pole Single-Throw (SPST)
• Single-Pole Double-Throw (SPDT)
• Double-Pole single-Throw (DPST)
• Double-Pole Double-Throw (DPDT) 31
Classification of EMRs

3. Based on their construction & operation

• Electromagnetic Attraction Type Relay – Such as attraction armature type EMR,
solenoid type EMR, balanced beam type EMR.
• Electromagnetic Induction Type Relay – Such as shaded pole type EMR, watt-hour
meter type EMR, induction cup type EMR.
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 Electromagnetic Attraction Type Relay

Electromagnetic Induction Type Relay

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Advantages and Disadvantages of EMRs
Advantages
• Electrical Isolation: Electromechanical relays provide excellent electrical isolation
between input and output circuits, protecting sensitive electronic components from
potential damage.
• Cost-Effectiveness: They are generally less expensive than solid-state relays, making
them a popular choice for budget-conscious applications.
• Reliability: Due to their simple construction and minimal component count,
electromechanical relays are highly reliable and have a long operational life.
• Noise Immunity: These relays are less susceptible to electromagnetic interference,
making them suitable for use in electrically noisy environments.
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Advantages and Disadvantages of EMRs
Disadvantages
• Switching Speed: Electromechanical relays have slower switching times compared
to solid-state relays, limiting their use in high-speed applications.
• Mechanical Wear: The mechanical nature of electromechanical relays can lead to
wear and tear over time, reducing their lifespan compared to solid-state alternatives.
• Power Consumption: The power required to operate the coil can be relatively high,
especially for larger relays, which may be a concern in energy-sensitive
applications.

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Application of EMRs
Due to their versatile nature and scalability, electromagnetic relays find widespread
use across many industries. Here are a few typical applications:
Industrial Controls: They provide safe operation of heavy machinery by isolating
control circuits from the machine power supply.
Automotive Systems: Relays are often used in car electrical systems to control
headlights, blinkers, and other components.
Telecommunication Equipment: In complex telecommunication systems, relays help
manage and switch between various communication lines.

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Static Relays (Solid State Relays)
• The relay which does not contain any moving parts is known as the static relay.
• In such type of relays, the output is obtained by the static components like magnetic
and electronic circuit etc.
level detectors,
logic gate &
comparators like
amplitude & phase.

Block Diagram 37
SSRs Working Principle
• Switching is done swiftly through semiconductors like triac, transistor, diode, and
thyristors.

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Types of SSRs
Based on Construction
1. Electronic relays: An electronic relay is one kind of electronic switch used to
operate the circuit contacts by opening & closing without any mechanical action.
2. Transductor relays: Transductor Relay is also known as magnetic amplifier relay
which is very simple mechanically & even though some of them may be
electrically little complicated so this does not change their reliability.
3. Transistor relays: a transistor is used as an amplifying device & a switching device
which makes it suitable for attaining any functional characteristic.

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Types of SSRs
Based on Construction
4. Rectifier bridge relays: includes a polarized moving iron relay & moving coil and
also two rectifier bridges.
5. Gauss effect relays: Some metals as well as semiconductors resistivity changes at
less temperatures once they are exposed to the magnetic field in relays which is
known as the Gauss effect relay.
6. Hall Effect Relays: When a conductor is kept perpendicular to the magnetic field
and a direct current is passed through it, it results in an electric field. In some
semiconductors such as indium arsenide, indium antimonite, indium phosphate,
germanium etc., this voltage is enough for measurement with a sensitive moving
coil instrument. This phenomenon is called the Hall Effect.
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Types of SSRs
based on their input control signals and output load capabilities
1. AC Output SSR: These SSRs are designed to control alternating current (AC)
loads. They typically use a triac or a thyristor as the output switching device.
2. DC Output SSR: These SSRs are used for controlling direct current (DC) loads.
They generally use a transistor, such as a MOSFET, as the output switching device.
3. AC/DC Output SSR: These SSRs can control both AC and DC loads, making
them suitable for a wide range of applications.
4. Input/Output SSR: These SSRs have both input and output stages within the
same device, enabling them to accept a wide range of input control signals and
drive various types of loads.
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Advantages of Static Relay
The following are the benefits of static relays.
1. The static relay consumes very less power because of which the burden on the
measuring instruments decreases and their accuracy increases.
2. The static relay gives the quick response, long life, high reliability and accuracy
and it is shockproof.
3. The reset time of the relay is very less.
4. It does not have any thermal storage problems.
5. The relay amplifies the input signal which increases their sensitivity.
6. The chance of unwanted tripping is less in this relay.
7. The static relay can easily operate in earthquake-prone areas because they have
high resistance to shock. 42
Limitations of Static Relay
1. The components used by the static relay are very sensitive to the electrostatic
discharges. The electrostatic discharges mean sudden flows of electrons between
the charged objects. Thus special maintenance is provided to the components so
that it does not affect by the electrostatic discharges.
2. The relay is easily affected by the high voltage surges. Thus, precaution should be
taken for avoiding the damages through voltage spikes.
3. The relay has less overloading capacity.
4. The static relay is more costly as compared to the electromagnetic relay.
5. The construction of the relay is easily affected by the surrounding interference.

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Application of SSRs
Industrial automation: SSRs are used in process control systems, programmable
logic controllers (PLCs), and other automation equipment for precise control of
motors, pumps, valves, and other electrical loads.
Lighting control: SSRs are used in lighting systems to control the intensity and
duration of illumination, as well as for dimming and color-changing applications.
Home appliances: SSRs are found in devices such as washing machines, air
conditioners, and microwave ovens for accurate control of heating elements, motors,
and other electrical components.
Renewable energy systems: SSRs are used in solar and wind power systems to
manage the flow of electrical energy between storage batteries, inverters, and the grid.

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Numerical Relays
• Numerical relay, digital relay, microprocessor based relay or computer based relay.
• In Numerical relays measured ac quantities are sequentially sampled and converted
into numeric data form. A microprocessor performs mathematical and/or logical
operations on the data to make trip decisions.

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Advantages of Numerical Relays
1. Compact design and lower cost due to integration of many functions in to one relay.
2. High availability even with less maintenance due to integral self-monitoring
3. No drift (aging) of measuring characteristics due to fully numerical processing
4. High measuring accuracy due to digital filtering and optimized measuring
algorithms
5. Many integrated add-on functions, for example, for load monitoring and event/fault
recording
6. Local operation keypad and display designed to modern ergonomic criteria (Menu-
driven human interfaces)

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Disadvantages of Numerical Relays
• Numerical Relay offers more functionality, and greater precision. Unfortunately,
that does not necessarily translate into better protection.
• Numerical Relay protection often relies on non-proprietary software, exposing the
system to potential risk of hacking.
• Numerical Relay protection sometimes has exposure to externally-sourced transient
interference that would not affect conventional technology.
• Numerical Relay protection shares common functions. This means that there are
common failure modes that can affect multiple elements of protection.

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Pick Up Current of Relay
• In all electrical relays, the moving contacts are not free to move.
• All the contacts remain in their respective normal position by some force applied to
them known as the controlling force of the relay.
• This controlling force may be the gravitational force, may be a spring force, or may
be a magnetic force.
• The force applied to the relay’s moving parts for changing the normal position of
the contacts is called deflecting force.
• This deflecting force is always in opposition of controlling force and is present
always in the relay.

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Pick Up Current of Relay
• Although the magnitude of this force is less than controlling force in normal
condition, the relay does not operate.
• If the actuating current in the relay coil increases gradually, the deflecting force in
electromechanical relay is also increased.
• Once, the deflecting force crosses the controlling force, the moving parts of the
relay initiate to move to change the position of the contacts in the relay.
• The current for which the relay initiates its operation is called pick up current of
relay.

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Current Setting of Relay
• The deflecting force of the coil is proportional to its number of turns and the
current flowing through the coil.
• If we can change the number of active turns of any coil, the required current to
reach at minimum pick value of the deflecting force, in the coil also changes.
• That means if active turns of the relay coil are reduced, then proportionately more
current is required to produce desired relay actuating force.
• Similarly, if active turns of the relay coil are increased, then proportionately
reduced current is required to produce same desired deflecting force.
• This is achieved by providing the required number of tapping in the coil.

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Current Setting of Relay
• These taps are brought out to a plug bridge.
• The number of active turns in the coil can be changed by inserting a plug in
different points in the bridge.
• The current setting of relay is expressed in percentage ratio of relay pick up
current to the rated secondary current of CT.

• The current setting is sometimes referred as current plug setting.

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Plug Setting Multiplier of Relay
Plug setting multiplier of relay is referred as ratio of fault current in the relay
to its pick up current.

• In the electromagnetic relay, the current setting can be done by

adding resistance value. This action is performed by inserting plugs. The
resistances are connected in series with the relay operating coil.
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Plug Setting Multiplier of Relay
• The plug is a small short link that connects the relay operating coils and resistance.
• The high number of plug position increases the resistance value, therefore to
operate the relay coils which need a high value of current to energize.
• At the same time, the lower number of plug positions would be of less resistance,
hence to operate relay coil, which needs low current value.
• Therefore, The plug position ensures the current setting value of the relay. Plug
setting multiplier (PSM) Indicates the severity of the fault.
• The plus setting multiplier is used only in electromagnetic relays, not in numerical
relays. Therefore, the numerical relay does not require plugs.

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Time Setting Multiplier of Relay
• The operating time of an electrical relay mainly depends upon two factors :
1. How long distance to be traveled by the moving parts of the relay for
closing relay contacts and
2. How fast the moving parts of the relay cover this distance.
• So far by adjusting relay operating time, both of the factors to be adjusted.
• The adjustment of traveling distance of an electromechanical relay is commonly
known as time setting.
• This adjustment is commonly known as time setting multiplier of relay. The time
setting dial is calibrated from 0 to 1 in steps of 0.05 sec.
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Time Setting Multiplier of Relay
• The time of operation also depends upon the speed of operation.
• The speed of moving parts of relay depends upon the force due to the current in the
relay coil.
• Hence, the speed of operation of an electrical relay depends upon the level of fault
current.
• In other words, the time of operation of the relay depends upon plug setting
multiplier.

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 Here the position zero indicate the tripping
position and green color shade indicate the
operating position. In the first disc, position
indicates the TMS is 10%.

• when the time setting is 0.1, the moving parts of the relay have to travel only 0.1
times of the total traveling distance, to close the contact of the relay.
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Calculation of Relay Operation Time
Step-1
From CT ratio, we first see the rated secondary current of CT. Say the CT ratio is 100 / 1
A, i.e. secondary current of CT is 1 A.
Step-2
From current setting we calculate the pick up current of the relay. Say current setting of
the relay is 150 % therefore pick up current of the relay is 1 × 150% = 1.5 A.
Step-3
Now we have to calculate PSM for the specified faulty current level. For that, we have to
first divide primary faulty current by CT ratio to get relay faulty current. Say the faulty
current level is 1500 A, in the CT primary, hence secondary equivalent of faulty current
is 1500/(100/1) = 15 A
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Calculation of Relay Operation Time

From the curve, say we found the time of operation

of relay is 3 second for PSM = 10.

Step-5
Finally that operating time of relay would be
multiplied with time setting multiplier, in order to get
actual time of operation of relay. Hence say time
setting of the relay is 0.1.
Therefore the actual time of operation of the relay for
PSM 10, is 3 × 0.1 = 0.3 sec or 300 ms. 58
Overcurrent Relay
• In an overcurrent relay or o/c relay the actuating quantity is only current. There is
only one current operated element in the relay, no voltage coil etc. are required to
construct this protective relay.
• A protective relay which operates when the load current exceeds a preset value, is
called an Overcurrent relay.
• The value of the preset current above which relay operate is known as pickup value.
• Overcurrent relay offer a cheapest and simplest form of protection.
• These relays are used for protection of distribution lines, large motors, power
equipment and industrial system.

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Overcurrent Relay Working Principle
• In an over current relay, there would be essentially a current coil.
• When normal current flows through this coil, the magnetic effect generated by the
coil is not sufficient to move the moving element of the relay, as in this condition
the restraining force is greater than deflecting force.
• But when the current through the coil increases, the magnetic effect increases, and
after a certain level of current, the deflecting force generated by the magnetic effect
of the coil, crosses the restraining force.
• As a result, the moving element starts moving to change the contact position in the
relay.

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Overcurrent Relay Working Principle
• Overcurrent Relay are fed from current
transformer.
• Whenever the current through the relay
exceeds the preset value the relay
operate and actuates the trip coil of the
circuit breaker and isolate the faulty
network.
• Although there are different types of
overcurrent relays but basic working
principle of overcurrent relay is more
or less same for all. 61
Types of Overcurrent Relay
• Depending upon time of operation, there are various types of Over Current relays,
such as,
1. Instantaneous over current relay.
2. Definite time over current relay.
3. Inverse time over current relay.

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Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay
• The relay operates as soon as the
current in the coil gets higher than
pick upsetting current.
• There is no intentional time delay
applied. But there is always an
inherent time delay which we cannot
avoid practically.
• In practice, the operating time of an
instantaneous relay is of the order of
a few milliseconds.
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Definite Time Overcurrent Relay
• This relay is created by applying
intentional time delay after crossing
pick up the value of the current.
• A definite time overcurrent relay
can be adjusted to issue a trip output
at an exact amount of time after it
picks up.
• Thus, it has a time setting
adjustment and pickup adjustment.

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Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay
• Inverse time is a natural character of
any induction type rotating device.
• Here, the speed of rotation of
rotating part of the device is faster if
the input current is more.
• In other words, time of operation
inversely varies with input current.
• If the fault is severe, it will clear the
fault faster.

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Classification of Inverse Time Relay
1. Inverse definite minimum
time (IDMT),
2. very inverse time,
3. extremely inverse time
over current relay

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Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) Relay

• Ideal inverse time characteristics cannot be achieved, in an overcurrent relay.

• As the current in the system increases, the secondary current of the current
transformer is increased proportionally.
• The secondary current enters the relay current coil.
• But when the CT becomes saturated, there would not be a further proportional
increase of CT secondary current with increased system current.
• From this phenomenon, it is clear that from trick value to certain range of faulty level,
an inverse time relay shows specific inverse characteristic.

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Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) Relay
• But after this level of fault, the CT becomes saturated and relay current does not
increase further with increasing faulty level of the system.
• As the relay current does not increase further, there would not be any further
reduction in time of operation in the relay.
• We define this time as the minimum time of operation.
• Hence, the characteristic is inverse in the initial part, which tends to a definite
minimum operating time as the current becomes very high.
• That is why the relay is referred as inverse definite minimum time over current
relay or simply IDMT relay.

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Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) Relay

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Directional Relay
• A directional relay is a type of protective relay that operates based on the direction of
the power flow/current in an electrical circuit.
• It compares the direction of the fault current to a predetermined reference direction.
• If the fault current is in the direction of the reference, the relay operates to trip the
appropriate circuit breaker.
• This functionality helps to isolate the faulty section of the network, minimizing
disruptions and ensuring system stability.

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Directional Overcurrent Relay
• An overcurrent relay will operate for fault current flow in any direction, i.e., either in
forward or in the reverse direction.
• In order to achieve the operation of the relay in the forward direction, a directional
feature is added to the overcurrent relay by adding a directional relay to the
overcurrent relay, such a relay will respond to fault flow in a particular direction.

• In the case of directional overcurrent relay the driving torque is developed due to the
magnetic fields produced by both the operating current and voltage of the circuit in
which it is connected for protection. The relay operates when the current exceeds a
predetermined set value in a specified direction.
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Directional Overcurrent Relay Construction

• Directional relay unit, and

• Non-directional or overcurrent relay unit.

Voltage is taken as the polarizing quantity

which remains more or less fixed when the
other quantity i.e., the current undergoes
wide changes in phase angle.

The operation of the overcurrent relay is

controlled by a directional unit. Therefore,
the directional unit must operate first in
order to operate the overcurrent relay.

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