ChE 211 - Chemical Engineering Calculations

1. Introduction to Engineering Calculations

Overview

What do chemical engineers do? Although their backgrounds and professional skills are
similar, chemical engineers work in a wide variety of industries, in addition to chemicals and
petroleum, such as:

Biotechnology Lime and cement

Consulting Man-made fibers
Drugs and pharmaceuticals Metallurgical and metal products
Fats and oils Paints, varnishes, and pigments
Fertilizer and agricultural chemicals Pesticides and herbicides
Environment Waste water treatment

All the industries as mentioned above are involving numerous of chemical process unit.
Therefore, chemical engineers play an important role on design, operation, control,
troubleshooting, research and management in the chemical process. Chemical process is
a combination of process equipment designed to efficiently convert raw materials into
finished or intermediate products. Figure 1 shows the example of chemical processes
converting the raw material into desired product.

Figure 1: Chemical Process

ChE 211 – Topic 1 Introduction to Engineering Calculations 1

Topic Learning Outcomes

At the end of this section, the student must be able to

1. Understand and explain the difference between dimensions and units.
2. Perform conversion of one set of units in a function or equation into another equivalent
set
3. Specify the basic and derived units in SI and American engineering systems for mass,
length, volume, density, and time, and their equivalences.
4. Apply the concepts of dimensional consistency to determine the units of any term in a
function.
5. Familiarize with the process and process variables.

Discussion
1.1 Definition of Terms / 1.2 Units and Dimensions
“What are units and dimensions and how do they differ?”

Dimensions are our basic concepts of measurement such as length, time, mass,
temperature, and so on; units are the means of expressing the dimensions, such as feet or
centimeters for length, or hours or seconds for time. Units are associated with some quantities
you may have previously considered to be dimensionless. A good example is molecular weight,
which is really the mass of one substance per mole of that substance. This method of attaching
units to all numbers which are not fundamentally dimensionless has the following very practical
benefits:
a. It diminishes the possibility of inadvertent inversion of any portion of the calculation.
b. It reduces the calculation in many cases to simple ratios, which can be easily
manipulated on a hand-held calculator.
c. It reduces the intermediate calculations and eliminates considerable time in problem
solving.
d. It enables you to approach the problem logically rather than by remembering a formula
and plugging numbers into the formula.
e. It demonstrates the physical meaning of the numbers you use.

Every freshman knows that what you get from adding apples to oranges is fruit salad! The
rule for handling units is essentially quite simple: treat the units as you would algebraic
symbols. You can add, subtract, or equate numerical quantities only if the units of the
quantities are the same. Thus the operation
5 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 + 3 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠

ChE 211 – Topic 1 Introduction to Engineering Calculations 2

Is meaningless because the dimensions of the two terms are different. The numerical operation
10 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑠 + 5 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠
Can be performed (because the dimensions are the same, mass), only after the units are
transformed to be the same, either pounds, or grams, or ounces, and so on. In multiplication
and division, you can multiply or divide different units, such as (10 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 ÷
4 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠) = 2.5 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠/𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑, but you cannot cancel them out unless they are the
same. For example, 3 𝑚2 /60 𝑐𝑚 must first be converted to 3 𝑚2 /0.6 𝑚 and then 5 m. The units
contain a significant amount of information content that cannot be ignored. They also serve as
guides in efficient problem solving, as you will see shortly.

Example 1.1-1 Dimension and Units

Add the following:

a. 1 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑡 + 3 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
b. 1 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 + 300 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠

Solution
The operation indicated by
1 𝑓𝑡. + 3 𝑠
has no meaning since the dimensions of the two terms are not the same. One foot has the
dimensions of length, whereas 3 seconds has the dimensions of time. In the case of
1 ℎ𝑝 + 300 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
The dimensions are the same (energy per unit time) but the units are different. You must
transform the two quantities into like units, such as horsepower, watts, or something else, before
the addition can be carried out. Since 1 ℎ𝑝 = 746 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠,
746 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 + 300 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 = 1046 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠

Conversion of Units and Conversion Factors

Example 1.1-2 Conversion of Units

If a plane travels at twice the speed of sound (assume that the speed of sound is 1100 𝑓𝑡/s),
how fast is it going in miles per hour?
Solution:

ChE 211 – Topic 1 Introduction to Engineering Calculations 3

 1 𝑚𝑖 60 𝑠 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖
2| || || | = 1500
5280 𝑓𝑡 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛 1 ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟
𝑚𝑖
1100 𝑓𝑡 60 ℎ𝑟 𝑚𝑖
2| || | = 1500
𝑠 𝑓𝑡 ℎ𝑟
88
𝑠
Of course, it is possible to look up conversion ratios, which will enable the length of the
calculation to be reduced; for instance, we could have used the conversion factor of 60 𝑚𝑖/ℎ𝑟
equals 88 𝑓𝑡/𝑠. However, it is usually takes less time to use values you know than to look up
shortcut conversion factors in a handbook.
We have set up the dimensional equation with vertical lines to separate each ratio, and
these lines retain the same meaning as an X or multiplication sign placed between each ratio.
The dimensional equation will be retained in this form throughout most of this text to enable you
to keep clearly in mind the significance of units in problem solving. It is recommended that you
always write down the units next to the associated numerical value (unless the calculation is
very simple) until you become quite familiar with the use of units and dimensions and can carry
them in your head.
At any point in the dimensional equation you can determine the consolidated net units
and see what conversions are still required. This may be carried out formally, as shown below
by drawing slanted lines below the dimensional equation and writing the consolidated units on
these lines or it may be done by eye, mentally cancelling and accumulating the units, or, you
can strike out pairs of units as you proceed:
2 𝑥1100 𝑓𝑡 1 𝑚𝑖 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛
| || |
𝑠 5280 𝑓𝑡 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛 1 ℎ𝑟

𝑓𝑡 𝑚𝑖 𝑚𝑖
𝑠 𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑛
Consistent use of dimensional equations throughout your professional career will assist you in
avoiding silly mistakes such as converting 10 centimeters to inches by multiplying 2.54:
2.54 𝑐𝑚 𝑐𝑚3
10 𝑐𝑚 | ≠ 25.4 𝑐𝑚| 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑 = 25.4
𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛
Note how easily you discover that a blunder has occurred by including the units in the
calculations:
Example 1.1-3 Use of Units
𝑖𝑛3 𝑐𝑚3
Change 400 𝑡𝑜
𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑚𝑖𝑛

Solution:

ChE 211 – Topic 1 Introduction to Engineering Calculations 4

 400 𝑖𝑛3 2.54 𝑐𝑚 3 1 𝑑𝑎𝑦 1 ℎ𝑟 𝑐𝑚3
|( ) || | = 4.56
𝑑𝑎𝑦 1 𝑖𝑛 24 ℎ𝑟 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛
In this example note that not only are the numbers raised to a power, but the units also are
raised to the same power.

There shall be one measure of wine throughout our kingdom, and one measure of ale,a
nd one measure of grain… and one breadth of cloth… and of weights it shall be as of measures.
So reads the standard measures clause of the Magna Carta (June 1215). The standards
mentioned were not substantially revised until the nineteenth century. When the American
colonies separated from England, they retained, among other things, the weights and measures
then in use. It is probable that at that time these wer the most frimly established and widely used
weights and measures in the world.
No such uniformity of weights and measures existed on the European continent.
Weights and measures differed not only from country to country but even from town to town and
from one trdae to another. This lack of uniformity led the National Assembly of France during
the French Revolution to enact a decree (May 8, 1790) that called upon the French Academy
of Science to act in concert with the Royal Society of London to “deduce an invariable standard
for all of the measures and all weights.” Having already an adequate system of weights and
measures, the English did not participate in the French undertaking. The result of the French
endeavor has evolved into what is known as the metric system.
Certainly in the American-British system there is ample room for confusion. The old
question:”Which is heavier, a pound of feathers or a pound of gold?” indeed has a catch, one
that is not obvious. The pound of feathers is heavier, because gold is measured introy units in
which 1 𝑜𝑧 = 3.110𝑥10−2 𝑘𝑔 and the feathers are measured in avoirdupois units, in which
1 𝑜𝑧 = 2.834𝑥10−2 𝑘𝑔. But the troy pound comprises only 12 rather than 16 oz.
The metric system became preferred by scientists of the nineteenth century, partly
because it was intended to be an international system of measurement, partly because the units
of measurement were theoretically supposed to be independently reproducible, and partly
because of the simplicity of its decimal nature. Problems in the specification of the units for
electricity and magnetism led to numerous international conferences to rectify inconsistencies
and culminated in 1960 in the eleventh General Conference on Weights and Measures adopting
the SI (Systéme International) system of units. As of this date the United States is the last large
country not employing or engaged in transforming to some form of the SI units. Tables 1.1 and
1.2 show the most common systems of units used by engineers in the last few decades. Note

ChE 211 – Topic 1 Introduction to Engineering Calculations 5

 that the SI, the cgs, the fps (English absolute), and the British engineering systems all have
three basically defined units and that the fourth unit is derived from these define units.
Many of the derived units in the SI system are given special names (see Table 1.2)
honoring physicists and have corresponding sysmbols. The unit of force, for example, has the
symbols 𝑘𝑔 ⋅ 𝑚 ⋅ 𝑠 −2 ; for convenience, this combination has been given the name newton and
the symbol N. Similarly, the unit of energyis the newton⋅meter,
𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚 = 𝑚2 ⋅ 𝑘𝑔 ⋅ 𝑠 −2
With the short name joule, and symbol J. the unit of power is the watt, defined as one joule per
second.
Only the American engineering system has four basically defined units. Consequently,in
the American engineering system you have to use a conversion factor, 𝑔𝑐 , a constant whose
numerical value is not unity, to make the units come out properly. We can use Newton’s law to
see what the situation is with regard to conversion of units:
𝐹 = 𝐶𝑚𝑎

Where
𝐹 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝐶 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐹, 𝑚, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎
𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑎 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Table 1.1-1 Common Systems of Units
Length Time Mass Force Energy* Temperature Remarks

Absolute (dynamic) centimeter second gram dyne* erg, joule or 𝐾, ℃ Formerly common
systems calorie scientific
cgs
Fps (ft-lb-s or English foot second pound poundal* ft poundal °𝑅, ℉
absolute)
SI meter second kilogram newton* joule 𝐾, ℃ Internationally adopted
units for ordinary and
scientific use
Gravitational systems foot second slug* pound Btu(ft) 𝑙𝑏𝑓 ) °𝑅, ℉
British engineering weight
American engineering foot second, pound mass pound force Btu or °𝑅, ℉ Used by chemical and
hour (𝑙𝑏𝑚 ) 𝑙𝑏𝑓 ) (hp)(hr) petroleum engineers in
the United States
*Unit derived from basic units; all energy units are derived.

ChE 211 – Topic 1 Introduction to Engineering Calculations 6

Table 1.1-2 SI Units
Basic SI Units
Physical Quantity Name of Unit Symbol for unit*
Length metre, meter m
Mass kilogramme, kilogram kg
Time second s
Thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol

Derived SI Units
Physical Name of Unit Symbol for unit* Definition of unit
quantity
Energy joule J 𝑘𝑔 ⋅ 𝑚2 − 𝑠 −2
Force newton N 𝑘𝑔 ⋅ 𝑚 − 𝑠 −2 = 𝐽 ⋅ 𝑚−1
Power watts W 𝑘𝑔 ⋅ 𝑚2 − 𝑠 −3 = 𝐽 ⋅ 𝑚−1
Frequency hertz Hz 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒/𝑠
Area square meter 𝑚2
Volume cubic meter 𝑚3
Density kilogram per cubic meter 𝑘𝑔 ⋅ 𝑚−3
Velocity meter per second 𝑚 ⋅ 𝑠 −1
Angular radian per second 𝑟𝑎𝑑 ⋅ 𝑠 −1
velocity
Acceleration meter per second squared 𝑚 ⋅ 𝑠 −2
Pressure newton per square meter, pascal 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚−20 , 𝑃𝑎
Specific heat joule per (kilogram ⋅ kelvin) 𝐽 ⋅ 𝑘𝑔−1 ⋅ 𝐾 −1

Alternative units
Physical quantity Allowable unit Symbol for units*
Time minute 𝑚𝑖𝑛
hour ℎ
day 𝑑
year 𝑎

ChE 211 – Topic 1 Introduction to Engineering Calculations 7

 Temperature degree Celsius ℃
Volume litre, liter (𝑑𝑚3 ) 𝐿
Mass tonne, ton (𝑚𝑔) 𝑡
gram 𝑔
Pressure bar (105 𝑃𝑎) 𝑏𝑎𝑟
*Symbols for units do not take a plural form, but plural forms are used for the unabbreviated
names.
In the cgs system the unit of force is defined as the dyne; hence if 𝐶 is selected to be
𝐶 = 1 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒/(𝑔)(𝑐𝑚)/𝑠 2 , then when 1 g is accelerated at 1𝑐𝑚/𝑠2
1 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒 1 𝑔 1 𝑐𝑚
𝐹= | | | 2 | = 1 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒
(𝑔)(𝑐𝑚) 𝑠
𝑠2
Similarly, in the SI system in which the unit of force is defined to be newton (𝑁), if 𝐶 =
1 𝑁/(𝑘𝑔)(𝑚)/𝑠2 , then when 1 kg is accelerated at 1 𝑚/𝑠2 ,
1𝑁 1 𝑘𝑔 1 𝑚
𝐹= | || 2 | = 1 𝑁
(𝑘𝑔)(𝑚) 𝑠
𝑠2
However, in the American engineering system we ask that the numerical value of the
force and the mass be essentially the same at the earth’s surface. Hence, if a mass of 𝑙𝑏𝑚 is
𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡
accelerated at 𝑔 , where 𝑔 is the acceleration of gravity (about 32.2 depending on the
𝑠2 𝑠2

location of the mass), we can make the force be 1 𝑙𝑏𝑓 by choosing the proper numerical value
and units of 𝐶:
1 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑔 𝑓𝑡
𝐹 = (𝐶) | 2 | = 1 𝑙𝑏𝑓 (1.2)
𝑠
Observe that for Eq. (1.2) to hold, the units of 𝐶 have to be
𝑙𝑏𝑓
𝐶=
𝑓𝑡
𝑙𝑏𝑚 ( 2 )
𝑠
A numerical value of 1/32.174 has been chosen for the constant because 32.174 is the
numerical value of the average acceleration of gravity (𝑔) at sea level at 45° latitude when 𝑔 is
𝑓𝑡
expressed in . The acceleration of gravity, you may recall, varies a few tenths of 1% from
𝑠2

place to place on the surface of the earth and changes considerably as you rise up from the
surface as in a rocket. With this selection of units and with the number 32.174 employed in the
denominator of the conversion factor,

ChE 211 – Topic 1 Introduction to Engineering Calculations 8

 1(𝑙𝑏𝑓 )(𝑠2 ) 1 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑔 𝑓𝑡
𝐹=( )( | 2 | = 1 𝑙𝑏𝑓
32.174(𝑙𝑏𝑚 )(𝑓𝑡) 𝑠
The inverse of 𝐶 is given the special symbol 𝑔𝑐 :
(𝑓𝑡)(𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝑔𝑐 = 32.174 (1.3)
(𝑠2 )(𝑙𝑏𝑓 )
Division by 𝑔𝑐 achieves exactly the same result as multiplication by 𝐶 in Newton’s law.
You can see, therefore, that in the American engineering system we have the convenience that
the numerical value of a pound mass is also that of a pound force if the numerical value of the
ratio 𝑔/𝑔𝑐 is equal to 1, as it is approximately in most cases. A nonstandard usage sometimes
encountered analogous to 𝑙𝑏𝑓 and 𝑙𝑏𝑚 is 𝑘𝑔𝑓 and 𝑘𝑔𝑚 ; a conversion factor not equal to unity is
involved in the transformation by equation similar to Eq. (1.2).
Furthermore, a one-pound mass is said to weigh one pound if the mass is in static
equilibrium on the surface of earth. We can define weight as the opposed force required to
support a mass. For the concept of weight for masses that are not stationary at earth’s surface,
or are affected by the earth’s rotation ( a factor of only 0.002 times the force exerted by gravity),
or are located away from the earth’s surface as in rocket or satellite, consult your physics text.
To sum up always keep in mind that the two quantities 𝑔 and 𝑔𝑐 , are not the same. Also,
never forget that the pound (mass) and pound (force) are not the same units in the
American engineering system even though we speak of pounds to express force, weight, or
mass. Nearly all teachers and writers in physics, engineering, and related fields in technical
communications are careful to use the terms “mass,”, “force,” and weight” properly. On the other
hand, in ordinary language most people, including scientists and engineers, omit the
designation of “force” or “mass” associated with the pound or kilogram but pick up the meaning
from the context of the statement. No one gets confused by the fact that a man is 6 feet tall but
has only two feet. Similarly, you should interpret the statement that a bottle “weighs” 5 kg as
meaning that the bottle has a mass of 5 kg and is attracted to the earth’s surface with a force
equal to
𝑚 𝑚
(5 𝑘𝑔) (9.80 ) = 49(𝑘𝑔)(𝑚)(𝑠−2 ) 𝑖𝑓 𝑔 = 9.80
𝑠2 𝑠2
Perhaps one of these days people will speak of “massing” instead of “weighing” and
“mass-minding” instead of “weight-watching,” but probably not soon. In this book, we will not
subscript the symbol lb with m (for mass) or f (for force) unless it becomes essential to do
so to avoid confusion. We will always mean by the unit lb without a subscript the quantity
pound mass.

ChE 211 – Topic 1 Introduction to Engineering Calculations 9

Example 1.1-4 Use of 𝒈𝒄
One hundred pounds of water is flowing through a pipe at the rate of 10.0 𝑓𝑡/𝑠. What is the
kinetic energy of this in (𝑓𝑡)(𝑙𝑏𝑓 )?
Assume that the 100 𝑙𝑏 of water means the mass of the water.

1 100 𝑙𝑏𝑚 10 𝑓𝑡 2
𝐾= | | |( ) || | = 155 (𝑓𝑡)( 𝑙𝑏𝑓 )
2 𝑠 (𝑓𝑡)( 𝑙𝑏𝑚 )
32.174 2
(𝑠 )( 𝑙𝑏𝑓 )
Example 1.1-5 Use of 𝒈𝒄
What is the potential energy in (𝑓𝑡) ( 𝑙𝑏𝑓 ) of a 100 − 𝑙𝑏 drum hanging 10 𝑓𝑡 above the surface
of the earth with reference to the surface of the earth?
Solution:
𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑃 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
Assume that the 100 𝑙𝑏 means 100 𝑙𝑏 mass; 𝑔 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 32.2 𝑓𝑡/𝑠2
100 𝑙𝑏𝑚 32.2 𝑓𝑡 10 𝑓𝑡
𝑃= | || | = 1001(𝑓𝑡)(𝑙𝑏𝑓 )
𝑠2 (𝑓𝑡)(𝑙𝑏𝑚 )
32.174
(𝑠2 )(𝑙𝑏𝑓 )
𝑔 (𝑓𝑡)(𝑙𝑏 )
Notice that in the ratio of , or 32.2 𝑓𝑡/𝑠2 divided by 32.174 (𝑠 2 )(𝑙𝑏𝑚 , the numerical values are
𝑔𝑐 𝑓)

almost equal. A good many people would solve the problem by saying that 100 𝑙𝑏 𝑥 10 𝑓𝑡 =
𝑔
1000 (𝑓𝑡)(𝑙𝑏) without realizing that in effect they are cancelling out the numbers in the , ratio.
𝑔𝑐

Example 1.1-6 Weight

What is the difference in the weights in newtons of a 100-kg rocket at height of 10 km above
𝑚
the surface of the earth, where 𝑔 = 9.76 , as opposed to its weight on the surface of the earth,
𝑠2
𝑚
where 𝑔 = 9.80 ?
𝑠2

Solution:
The weight in newtons can be computed in each case from Eq. (1.1) with 𝑎 = 𝑔 if we ignore the
tiny effect of centripetal acceleration resulting from the rotation of the earth (less than 0.3%):

100 𝑘𝑔 (9.80 − 9.76)𝑚 1𝑁

𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = | || | = 4.00 𝑁
𝑠 2 (𝑘𝑔)(𝑚)
𝑠2
Note that the concept of weight is not particularly useful in treating the dynamics of long-range
ballistic missiles or of earth satellites because the earth is both round and rotating.
You should develop some facility in converting units from the SI system into the
American engineering system, and vice versa, since these are the two sets of units in this text.
ChE 211 – Topic 1 Introduction to Engineering Calculations 10
 Certainly you are familiar with the common conversions in both the American engineering and
the SI systems. If you have forgotten, Table 1.3 lists a short selection of essential conversions
factors. Memorize them. Common abbreviations and symbols also appear in this table.
Table 1.1-3 Basic Conversion Factors*
Dimension American engineering SI Conversion: American
engineering to SI
Length 12 𝑖𝑛. = 1 𝑓𝑡 10 𝑚𝑚 = 1 𝑐𝑚 1 𝑖𝑛. = 2.54 𝑐𝑚
3 𝑓𝑡 = 1 𝑦𝑑 100 𝑐𝑚 = 1 𝑚 3.28 𝑓𝑡 = 1 𝑚
5280 𝑓𝑡 = 1 𝑚𝑖
Volume 1 𝑓𝑡 3 = 7.48 𝑔𝑎𝑙 1000 𝑐𝑚3 = 1 𝐿 35.31 𝑓𝑡 3 = 1.00 𝑚3
Density 1 𝑓𝑡 3 𝐻2 𝑜 = 62.4 𝑙𝑏𝑚 1 𝑐𝑚3 𝐻2 𝑂 = 1 𝑔 _
1 𝑚3 𝐻2 𝑂 = 1000 𝑘𝑔
Mass 1 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑚 = 2000 𝑙𝑏𝑚 1000 𝑔 = 1 𝑘𝑔 1 𝑙𝑏 = 0.454 𝑘𝑔
Time 1 min = 60 𝑠 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 60 𝑠 _
1 ℎ𝑟 = 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛 1 ℎ = 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛
*Some conversion factors in this table are approximate but have sufficient precision for
engineering calculations.
2000 𝑙𝑏𝑚 is the “short ton”; 2240 𝑙𝑏𝑚 is the “long ton”; 1000 𝑘𝑔 = 2204.6 𝑙𝑏𝑚 is the “metric ton”.
The distinction between uppercase and lowercase letters should be followed, even if the
symbol appears in applications where the other lettering is in uppercase style. Unit
abbreviations have the same form for both singular and plural, and they are not followed by
period (except in the case of inches).
Table 1.1-4 SI Prefixes
Factor Prefix Symbol Factor Prefix Symbol
𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟖 exa E 10−1 deci* d
𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 penta P 10−2 centi* c
𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟐 tera T 10−3 milli m
𝟏𝟎𝟗 giga G 10−6 micro 𝜇
𝟏𝟎𝟔 mega M 10−9 nano n
𝟏𝟎𝟑 kilo k 10−12 pico p
𝟏𝟎𝟐 hecto* h 10−15 femto f
𝟏𝟎𝟏 deka* da 10−18 atto a
*Avoid except for areas and volumes

ChE 211 – Topic 1 Introduction to Engineering Calculations 11

 One of the best features of the SI system is that (except for time) units and their multiples
and submultiples are related by standard factors designated by the prefixes indicated in Table
1.4. Prefixes are not preferred for use in denominators (except for kg). Do not use double
prefixes; that is, use nanometer, not millimicrometer. The strict use of these prefixes leads to
some amusing combinations of noneuphonious sounds, such as nanonewton, nembujoule, and
so forth. Also some confusion is certain to arise because the prefix M can be confused with m
as well as with 𝑀 = 1000 derived from the Roman numerical. When a compound unit is formed
by multiplication of two or more other units, its symbol consists of the symbols for the separate
units joined by a centered dot (e.g., N⋅m for newton meter). The dot may be omitted in the case
of familiar units such as watthour (symbol Wh) if no confusion will result, or if the symbols are
separated by exponents, as in 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚2 ⋅ 𝑘𝑔−2 . Hyphens should not be used in symbols for
compound units. Positive and negative exponents may be used with the symbols for units. If a
compound unit is formed by division of one unit by another, its symbol consists of the symbols
for the separate units either separated by a solidus or multiplied by using negative powers (e.g.,
𝑚/𝑠 or 𝑚 ⋅ 𝑠 −1 for meters per second). We do not use the center dot for multiplication in
this text. A dot can easily get confused with a period or missed entirely in handwritten
calculations. Instead, we will use parentheses or vertical rules, whichever is more convenient,
for multiplication. Also, the SI convention of leaving a space between groups of numbers such
as 12 650 instead of inserting a comma, as in 12,650, will be ignored to avoid confusion in
handwritten numbers.
Note that in the SI system the symbols are not abbreviations. A symbol such as dm has
to be taken as a whole. When prefixes are used with symbols raised to a power, the prefix is
also raised to the same power. You should interpret 𝑐𝑚3 as (10−2 ⋅ 𝑚)3 = 10−6 (𝑚3 ), not as
10−2 (𝑚3 ).
Also watch out for ambiguities such as:
𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚(𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑥 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟) 𝑣𝑠. 𝑚𝑁 (𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛)
𝑚 ⋅ 𝑠(𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑) 𝑣𝑠. 𝑚𝑠 (𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑)
And the use of symbols for units jointly with mathematical symbols leading to such
unusual formula as
𝑁 = 625 𝑁 (𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑁 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒)
𝐹 = 𝑚(32 𝑚 ⋅ 𝑠 −2 ) (𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠)
Dimensional Consistency
Now that we have reviewed some background material concerning units and
dimensions, we can immediately make use of this information in a very practical and important

ChE 211 – Topic 1 Introduction to Engineering Calculations 12

application. A basic principle exists that equations must be dimensionally consistent.
What the principle requires is that each term in an equation must have the same net dimensions
and units as every other term to which it is added or subtracted or equated. Consequently,
dimensional considerations can be used to help identify the dimensions and units of terms or
quantities in terms in an equation.
The concept of dimensional consistency can be illustrated by an equation that
represents gas behaviour and is known as the van der Waals equation.
𝑎
(𝑝 + 2 ) (𝑉 − 𝑏) = 𝑅𝑇
𝑣
Inspection of the equation shows that the constant 𝑎 must have the units of
[(𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒)(𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒)2 ] in order for the expression in the first set of parentheses to be consistent
throughout. If the units of pressure are atm and those of volume are 𝑐𝑚3 , 𝑎 will have the units
specifically of [(𝑎𝑡𝑚)(𝑐𝑚)6 ]. Similarly, 𝑏 must have the same units as 𝑉, or in this particular
case the units of 𝑐𝑚3 . All equations must exhibit dimensional consistency.

Example 1.1-7 Dimensional Consistency

Your handbook shows that microchip etching roughly follows the relation
𝑑 = 16.2 − 16.2𝑒 −0.021𝑡 𝑡 < 200
Where 𝑑 is the depth of the etch in microns (micrometers; 𝜇𝑚) and 𝑡 is the time of the etch in
seconds. What are the units associated with the numbers 16.2 and 0.021? Convert the relation
so that 𝑑 becomes expressed in inches and 𝑡 can be used in minutes.
Solution:
Both values of 16.2 must have the units of microns. The exponential must be dimensionless so
that 0.021 must have the units of 1/seconds.
16.2 𝜇𝑚 1 𝑚 39.37 𝑖𝑛 0.021 60 𝑠 𝑡,𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑑𝑖𝑛 = | | = 1 − 𝑒 𝑠 |1 𝑚𝑖𝑛|
6
10 𝜇𝑚 1 𝑚
= 6.38𝑥10−4 (1 − 𝑒 −1.26𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 )
Group of symbols may be put together, either by theory or experiment that have no net
units. Such collections of variables or parameters are called dimensionless or
nondimensional group. One example is the Reynolds number (group) arising in fluid
mechanics.
𝐷𝑣𝑝
𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = = 𝑁𝑅𝑒
𝜇
Where 𝐷 is the pipe diameter, say in 𝑐𝑚; 𝑣 is the fluid velocity, say in 𝑐𝑚/𝑠; 𝑝 is the fluid
density, say in 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 ; and 𝜇 is the viscosity, say in centipoise, units that can be converted to

ChE 211 – Topic 1 Introduction to Engineering Calculations 13

 𝐷𝑣𝑝
𝑔/(𝑐𝑚)(𝑠) . Introducing the consistent set of units for 𝐷 , 𝑣, 𝑝, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜇 into , we find, as
𝜇

expected, that all the units cancel out.

𝑐𝑚 𝑐𝑚 𝑔 (𝑐𝑚)(𝑠)
| | 3| |
𝑠 𝑐𝑚 𝑔
Before proceeding to the next section in this chapter, we need to mention briefly some
aspects of significant figures, accuracy, and precision of numbers. Measurements collected by
process instruments can be expected to exhibit some random error and may also be biased.
Resolution of the proper values to use in making material and energy balances falls into the
province of statistics, and is not treated here.
The significant figures in a number can be formally established by using scientific
notation; that is, the rule that the first digit of all numbers is followed by a decimal point and
multiplied by a power of 10 (except for 100 ). Thus
4.61 𝑥 103
By this convention, the number of significant figures is one (for the first digit) plus the
number of digits following the decimal point. Some examples are

Number Number of Significant Figures

𝟒. 1
𝟒. 𝟎 2
𝟒. 𝟎𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟐 2
𝟒. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟐 4
𝟑. 𝟏𝟒𝟎𝟗𝟔𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟐 6

We also need to mention something about the accuracy and precision of numbers as used in
practice. Accuracy refers to how close a measured value is to its true value; precision refers to
the degree of dispersion (or deviations) of measurements from their true values.

ChE 211 – Topic 1 Introduction to Engineering Calculations 14

Quiz 1
𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑚3 𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑁
1. Convert 20 𝑡𝑜 ; 50 2 𝑡𝑜
ℎ𝑟 𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑚2
𝑓𝑡
2. On Phobos, the inner moon of Mars, the acceleration of gravity is 3. 𝟕𝟖 . Suppose
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2

that an astronaut were walking around Phobos, and this person plus space suit and
equipment had an earth weight of 252 𝑙𝑏𝑓 .
a. What is the mass in 𝑙𝑏𝑚 of the astronaut plus suit and equipment?
b. How much would the space-suited astronaut weigh in pounds in Phobos?
3. Prepare a table in which the rows are length, area, volume, mass and time. Make two
columns, one for SI and the other for the American engineering systems of units. Fill in
each row with the name of the unit, and in a third column, show the numerical
equivalency (i.e., 1 𝑓𝑡 = 0.3048 𝑚).
4. An orifice meter is used to measure flow rate in pipes. The flow rate is related to the
pressure drop by an equation of the form

∆𝑝
𝑢 = 𝑐√
𝑝

Where 𝑢 = 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

∆𝑝 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝
𝑝 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦

5. What are the value and units of 𝑐 in the SI system of units?

6. In the SI system of units, the weight of a 180-lb man standing on the surface of the
earth is approximately:
a. 801 N
b. 81.7 kg
c. Neither of these
d. Both of these
7. The thermal conductivity 𝑘 of a liquid metal is predicted via the empirical equation 𝑘 =
𝐴 (𝐵/𝑇), where 𝑘 is in 𝐽/(𝑠)(𝑚)(𝐾) and 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 are constants. What are the units of
𝐴? Of 𝐵?

ChE 211 – Topic 1 Introduction to Engineering Calculations 15

1.3 Processes and Process Variables

A process is any operation or series of operations by which a particular objective

is accomplished. Those mentioned operations are involving a physical or chemical
change in a substance or mixture of substances. The material that enters a process
is referred to as the input or feed, and that which leaves is the output or product.
Therefore, several process variables are associated through input or output of a
process stream.

Process

A process is any operation or series of operations that cause a physical or chemical

change in a substance or mixture of substances. Figure 1.3-1. shows a process
stream with several examples of process variables of input and output. Meanwhile,
the details about process variables are stated in table 1.3-1.

Figure 1.3-1: Process streams with various process variables.

ChE 211 – Topic 1 Introduction to Engineering Calculations 16

 Table 1.3-1: Process variables

Mass and Volume

The density of a substance is the mass per unit volume of the substance (kg/m 3,
g/m3, lb/ft3, etc). The specific volume of a substance is the volume occupied by a
unit mass of the substance; it is the inverse of density. Densities of pure solids and
liquids are essentially independent of pressure and vary relatively slightly with
temperature. Densities of many pure compounds, solutions and mixtures can be
found in standard references. The density of a substance can be used as a
conversion factor to relate the mass and the volume of a quantity of the substance.

Example 1.3-1

The density of carbon tetrachloride is 1.595 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 , the mass 𝑜𝑓 35 𝑐𝑚3 of 𝐶𝐶𝑙4 is
therefore,

35 cm3 1.595 g = 55.825 g

cm3

ChE 211 – Topic 1 Introduction to Engineering Calculations 17

and the volume of 9.3 lbm of CCl4 is

9.3 lbm 454 g cm3

= 2647.47 cm3
1 lbm
1.595
g
The specific gravity of a substance is the ratio of the density ρ of the substance to the
density ρref of a reference substance at a specific condition:

𝜌
𝑆𝐺 = (1.1)
𝜌𝑟𝑒𝑓

The reference most commonly used for solids and liquids is water at 4 oC, which has
the following density:

ρH2O (4 °C) = 1 g/cm3

= 1000 kg/m3
= 62.43 lbm/ft3

If you are given the specific gravity of a substance, multiply it by the reference
density in any units to get the density of a substance in the same units. Special
density units called degrees Baumé (°Bé), degrees API (°API) and degrees
Twaddell (°Tw).

Example 1.3-2

Calculate the density of mercury in lb/ft3 from a tabulated specific gravity, and
calculate the volume in ft3 occupied by 215 kg of mercury.
(Given that the specific gravity of mercury at 20℃ as 13.546)

Solution:
ρHg =SG. ×ρref

=13.546 × 62.43 lb/ft3

= 845.67 lb/ft3

ChE 211 – Topic 1 Introduction to Engineering Calculations 18

 Volume = 215 kg 1 lbm 1 ft3

0.454 kg 845.67 lb

= 0.56 ft3

Exercise 1.1

A liquid has a specific gravity of 0.5.

i. What is its density in g/cm3? (Answer: 0.5 g/cm3)
ii. What is its specific volume in cm3/g? (Answer: 2 cm3/g)
iii. What is its density in lb/ft3? (Answer:0.032 lb/ft3)
iv. What is the mass of 3 cm3 of this liquid? (Answer: 1.5 g)
v. What volume is occupied by 18 g? (Answer: 36 cm3)

Flow rate

Most processes involve the movement of material from one point to another. The
rate at which a material is transported through a process line is the flow rate of
that material. The flow rate of a process stream can be expressed as a mass flow
rate (mass/time) or as a volumetric flow rate (volume/time) as show in figure 1.3-
2 as below.

Figure 1.3-2: Flow rate

Example 1.3-3

The volumetric flow rate of CCl4 in a 1.0-cm-diameter pipe is 100 cm3/min.

(Given that the molecular weight of CCl4 = 153.838 and density of ρ CCl4 = 1.595 g/cm3.)

ChE 211 – Topic 1 Introduction to Engineering Calculations 19

 i. What is the mass flow rate?

𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑉̇ = 1.595 g/cm3 x 100 cm3/min = 159.5 g/min

ii. What is the molar flow rate?

= 159.5 g-CCl4/min x g mol-CCl4/153.838 g-CCl4

= 1.034 g mol-CCl4/min

iii. What is the linear velocity of CCl4?

𝑉̇ 𝑚̇ 159.5 g /min
𝑢= = =
𝐴 𝜌𝐴 (1.595 g ) π(0.5 cm)2
cm3
𝑐𝑚
= 127.32
𝑚𝑖𝑛

Exercise 1.2

The mass flow rate of n-hexane (ρ=0.659 g/cm3) in a pipe is 6.59 g/s.

(a) What is the volumetric flow rate of the hexane?

(b) What is the linear velocity of hexane in the pipe with internal diameter of 5
cm?

(Answer: (a) 10 cm3/s; (b) 0.509 cm/s)

Chemical Composition

Most materials encountered in nature and in chemical process systems are

mixtures of various species. The physical properties of a mixture depend strongly
on the mixture composition. In this section we will review different ways to express
mixture compositions and also outline the methods of estimating physical
properties of a mixture from the properties of the pure components.

Moles and Molecular Weight

The atomic weight of an element is the mass of an atom on a scale that assigns.
The atomic weights of all the elements in their naturally isotopic proportions are
listed in the table given. The molecular weight of a compound is the sum of the
atomic weights of the atoms that constitute a molecule of the compound: For

ChE 211 – Topic 1 Introduction to Engineering Calculations 20

example atomic oxygen (O) has an atomic weight of approximately 16 and
therefore molecular oxygen (O2) has a molecular weight of approximately 32. A
gram-mole (g-mole or mol in SI units) of a species is the amount of that species
whose mass in grams is numerically equal to its molecular weight. Hence, one g-
mole of any species contains approximately 6.02x1023 (Avogadro’s number)
molecules of that species.

Moreover, there are other types of moles such as kg-moles, lb-moles, and ton-
moles. For example: Carbon monoxide (CO) has a molecular weight of 28; 1 mol
of CO therefore contains 28g, 1 lb-mole contains 28 lbm, 1 ton-mole contains 28
tons and so on. Besides, the same factors used to convert masses from a unit to
another can also be used to convert the equivalent molar units: there is 454 g/lb
for example, and therefore there is 454 mol/lb-mole, regardless of the substance
involved.

Example 1.3-4

How many of each of the following are contained in 100𝑔 of CO2 (𝑀 =

44.01)?
i. mol CO2
ii. lb-mole CO2
iii. mol C
iv. mol O
v. mol O2
vi. gO
vii. g O2
viii. molecules of CO2

Solution:

i. mol 𝐶𝑂2

100 𝑔 𝐶𝑂2 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2

| | = 2.272 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2
44.01 𝑔 𝐶𝑂2
ii. lb-mol 𝐶𝑂2
2.272 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2 1 𝑙𝑏 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2
| | = 5.009𝑥10−3 𝑙𝑏 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2
453.6 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2

ChE 211 – Topic 1 Introduction to Engineering Calculations 21

 Each molecules of CO2 contains one atom of C, one molecule of O2 or two atoms of
O. Therefore, each 6.02x1023 molecules of CO2 (1mol) contains 1 mol C, 1 mol O2,
or 2 mol O. Thus,
iii. mol C

2.272 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶

| | = 2.272 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2
iv. mol O

2.272 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂

| | = 4.544 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2
v. mol 𝑂2

2.272 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂2

| | = 2.272 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂2
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2
vi. gO

4.544 𝑔 𝑂 16 𝑔 𝑂
| | = 72.704 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂
vii. g 𝑂2

2.272 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂2 32 𝑔 𝑂2
| | = 72.704 𝑔 𝑂2
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂2

viii. molecules 𝐶𝑂2

2.272 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2 6.02 𝑥 1023 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠

| | = 1.37 𝑥 1024 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2

Part vii could be done by observing from the molecular formula that each
44.01 g 𝐶𝑂2 contains 32 g of𝑂2 or O, so that
100 𝑔 𝐶𝑂2 32 𝑔 𝑂2
| | = 72.71 𝑔 𝑂2
44 𝑔 𝐶𝑂2

ChE 211 – Topic 1 Introduction to Engineering Calculations 22

Mass and Mole Fractions

Process streams occasionally contain one substance, but more often

they consist of mixtures of liquids or gases, or solution s of one or more
solutes in a liquid solvent. The following terms can be used to define
the composition of a mixture of substances, including a species A.

Example 1.3-5

A solution contains 15% A by mass (xA = 0.15) and 20 mole % B (yB =

0.20)

a) Calculate the mass of A in 175 kg of the solution.

175 kg solution 0.15 kg A = 26.25 kg A

kg solution

b) Calculate the mass flow rate of A in a stream of solution flowing at

a rate of 53 lb/h.

53 lb 0.15 lb A = 7.95 lb A/ h
h lb

c) Calculate the molar flow rate of B in a stream flowing at a rate of

1000 mol/min.

ChE 211 – Topic 1 Introduction to Engineering Calculations 23

 1000 mol 0.2 mol B = 200 mol B/min
min mol

d) Calculate the total solution flow rate that corresponds to a molar

flow rate of 28 kmol B/s.

28 k mol B 1 k mol solution = 140 kmol solution/s

s 0.2 k mol B

e) Calculate the mass of the solution that contains 300 lb of A.

300 lb A 1 lb solution = 2000 lb solution

0.15 lb A
Concentration

The mass concentration of a component of a mixture or solution is the

mass of this component per unit volume of the mixture.

The molar concentration of a component is the number of moles of the

component per unit volume of the mixture.

The molarity of a solution is the value of the molar concentration of the

solute expressed in g-moles solute / liter solution.

Example 1.3-6

A 0.5 molar aqueous solution of sulfuric acid flows into a process unit
at a rate of 1.25 m3/min. The specific gravity of the solution is 1.03 and
molecular weight of sulfuric acid is 98.08. Calculate:

a) The mass concentration of H2SO4 in kg/m3

ChE 211 – Topic 1 Introduction to Engineering Calculations 24

 𝑘𝑔 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 0.50 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 98 𝑔 1 𝑘𝑔 1000 𝐿 𝑘𝑔 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4
𝐶𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 ( ) = | | | | = 49
𝑚3 𝐿 𝑚𝑜𝑙 1000 𝑔 1 𝑚3 𝑚3

b) The mass flow rate of H2SO4 in kg/s

𝑘𝑔 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 1.25 𝑚3 49 𝑘𝑔 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4

𝑚̇𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 ( 3
) = | 3
| = 1.02
𝑚 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚 60 𝑠 𝑠

c) The mass fraction of H2SO4

The mass fraction of H2SO4 equals the ratio of the mass flow rate of
H2SO4 to the total mass flow rate, which can be calculated from the
total volumetric flow rate and the solution density.

𝑘𝑔 1.03 1000 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ( )= | | = 1030
𝑠 𝑚3 𝑚3

𝑘𝑔 1.25 𝑚3 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1030 𝑘𝑔 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔

𝑚̇𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ( ) = | 3 | = 21.46
𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 60 𝑠 𝑠

𝑚̇𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 1 𝑘𝑔 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 /𝑠 𝑘𝑔 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4

𝑥𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 = | | = 0.048
𝑚̇𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 21.46 𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛/𝑠 𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Pressure

A pressure is the ratio of a force to the area on which the force acts.
Pressure units are force units divided by area units such as N/m 2 or
Pascal (Pa), dynes/cm2, and lbf/in2 or psi.

Hydrostatic pressure = pressure at the base of a fluid column

ChE 211 – Topic 1 Introduction to Engineering Calculations 25

 Figure 1.3-3

𝑃 = 𝑃0 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ
𝑃 − 𝑃0 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ

If 𝑷𝟎 is atmospheric pressure, then 𝑷 − 𝑷𝟎 = 𝝆𝒈𝒉 is called the gauge

pressure, and 𝑷𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 = 𝑷𝒈𝒂𝒖𝒈𝒆 + 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 is the absolute pressure.

Fluid Pressure Measurement

Most common pressure measuring devices are stated in Figure 1.3-4.

Bourdon gauge manometers can show measurement nearly perfect
vacuums to about 700 atm. Meanwhile, manometers only can measure
pressures below about 3 atm.

ChE 211 – Topic 1 Introduction to Engineering Calculations 26

 Figure 1.3-4: Pressure measurement device.

Manometer principle is showing in figure 1.3-5. The fluid pressure must

be the same at any two points at the same height in a continuous fluid.

Figure 1.3-5: Manometer principle

General manometer equation:

P1 + ρ1gd1 = P2 + ρ2gd2 + ρfgh

Differential manometer equation:

P1 – P2 = (ρf –ρ) gh, since ρ1 = ρ2

ChE 211 – Topic 1 Introduction to Engineering Calculations 27

 Temperature

Temperature is a measurement of the average kinetic energy possessed by the

substance molecules. It must be determined indirectly by measuring some
temperature-dependent physical properties of another substance. The temperature
measuring devices are:

a) Resistance thermometer (by means of electrical resistance of a conductor)

b) Thermocouple (by voltage at the junction of two dissimilar metals)
c) Pyrometer (by spectra of emitted radiation)
d) Thermometer (by volume of a fixed mass of fluid)

The temperature conversions are:

T(K) = T(0C) + 273.15; T(0R) = T(0F) + 459.67;

T(0R) = 1.8 T (K); T(0F) = 1.8 T(0C) + 32

Activity Worksheet 1

1. The specific gravity of a fuel oil is 0.82. What is the density of oil in lb/ft3?
2. The density of a liquid is 1500 kg/m3 at 20 °C.
a. What is the specific gravity 20°C/4°C of this material?
b. What volume (ft3) does 140 lbm of this material occupy at 20°C?

3. Calcium carbonate is a naturally occurring white solid used in the manufacture of

lime and cement. Calculate the number of lb mol of calcium carbonate in:
a. 50 g mol of CaCO3.
b. 150 kg of CaCO3.
c. 100 lb of CaCO3.
(Answer: (a) 0.11 lb mol; (b) 3.3 lb mol; (c) 1 lb mol)

4. Silver nitrate (lunar caustic) is a white crystalline salt, used in marking inks, medicine
and chemical analysis. How many kilograms of silver nitrate (AgNO3) are there in:
a. 13.0 lb mol AgNO3
b. 55.0 g mol AgNO3

5. Complete the table below with the proper equivalent temperatures

°C ° F K °R
- 40.0
77.0

ChE 211 – Topic 1 Introduction to Engineering Calculations 28

 698
69.8

References:
1. Elementary Principles of Chemical Processes (3rd Edition) by RM Felder and RW
Rousseau
2. Basic Principles and Calculations in Chemical Engineering (7th Edition) by DM
Himmelblau and JB Riggs
3. https://nptel.ac.in/courses/103/103/103103165/

ChE 211 – Topic 1 Introduction to Engineering Calculations 29