Optical Communication Systems

and Networks

Optical Communication Systems

Ray model
 Lecture 1: Introduction to Optical Communication Systems 8/ 52

Optical Communication Systems

Optical Communications

Physic Optics + Quantum Electronics + Communication Theory

(1970, Procedings IEEE)

Physics of Materials + Quantum Physics + Information Theory + Nonlinear Optics

+ Interaction of Radiation with Matter

CHANNEL
Optical signal Receiver
Transmitter
Guided Communication → optical fiber
Non-guided communication → free space

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

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Optical propagation fundamentals

The optical fiber is a dielectric waveguide whose cylindrical geometry guiding and
propagation characteristics can be explained:
guiado, emisión y detección
Tema 2: Fundamentos de

▪ accurately by electromagnetic theory (Maxwell Equations)

▪ easily and descriptive through Geometrical Optics

▪ It does not take into account the nature of the wave (frequency, phase, power, ...)
▪ Describes the trajectory of light (optical signal) through rays (Fermat Principles and
Huygens)
▪ This consideration is only valid if the light wavelengthcan be assumed much smaller
than the size of the objects passing through (apertures, lenses etc. ..)
▪ It assumes the Maxwell equations approximation when → 0
Theory description restricted guided in multimode fibers
(Core diameter >> Wavelength)

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

Elements of a Fiber Optic Link
Optical Fiber
• Optical fibers are circular dielectric wave-
guides that can transport optical energy
and information.
• They have a central core surrounded by a
concentric cladding with slightly lower (by ≈
1%) refractive index.
 Lecture 1: Introduction to Optical Communication Systems 17/ 52

Guiding in optical fibers. Fundamentals

n2

n1

Each guided ray with a different reflecting angle is called MODE

Guiding condition: n1 (core) > n2 (cladding)

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

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Guiding in optical fibers. Fundamentals

n1
n1
n2 n2

According to the geometry of the According to the refractive index

dielectric structure profile
Cilindrical Cartesian Steep Continuous
Planar dielectric
structure Homogeneous or Inhomogeneous or
Optical Fiber Rectangular dielectric step index graded index
structure

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

 Lecture 1: Introduction to Optical Communication Systems 20/ 52

Cross section of an optical fiber

Introducción a la fibra óptica

Buffer cladding core 2a 2b 2d

(outer jacket)

Typical dimensional specifications:

• Core diameter:
– Single-mode fiber: 2a = 9 m (modal field diameter)
– Multimode fiber: 2a = 50, 62.5 m (100 m)
• Cladding diameter: 2b = 125 m (140 m)
• Buffer diameter: 2d = 250 m

Typical values of the refractive index in silica fibers:

• Core: n1 ~ 1.48 Core dopping to achieve n1>n2 
• Cladding: n2~ 1.475 total internal reflection  light propagation

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

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Type of Optical fiber depending on

the refractive index profile…

core
Refractive index profile
cladding

Step index 
n ra
fiber optic n(r) = n1 r a
 2

n(r) −Law
n(0)=n1
   1/ 2 
Graded index n2
r   r 

fiber optic n1 (r) = n1 1 − 2 a   n1 1 −  a  r  a
  
 n (1− 2)1/ 2  n (1− ) = n ra
 1 1 2

 = (n1 − n2 ) / 2n1
2 2 2
Index relative difference

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

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Geometric Optics Aproximation

Principle of propagation in step-index optical fibers

n0 n2 2
Refracted ray Snell Law
incident ray
1 r n1·sin1 = n2·sin2
Reflected ray
n1 n1 > n2  1 < 2

Total internal reflection

n0 n2 2= /2
Critical angle: c  2= /2
r
n  (1= c = r)
1= c
 c= arcsin  2 
 n1  n1

If 1> c  There is no transmission towards medium 2

Ray is completely reflected in medium 1  guiding funamentals in optical fibers

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

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Geometric Optics Aproximation

n cladding
air 2
n0=1
1=/2-
 
 Fiber axis
n1 core

 Air-core Interface  Core-cladding Interface

n0 sin = n1 sin = n1 cos 1 n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2
2 = /2
 n2
2
n1sinc = n2
cos  c = 1−  1= c
 n1 

Maximum value of  is given by 1= c

n0 sin m = n1 cos c = n12 − n22 = NA

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

 Lecture 1: Introduction to Optical Communication Systems 24/ 52

Numerical Aperture meaning…

Acceptance Lost ray

cone
cladding
1 c  < c
guided ray
Acceptance core
cone m
rad

Air or jacket or Partially lost ray

overcladding

m = arcsin
n1 − n2 = arcsin (NA)
2 2
n1 , n2 : core and cladding refractive index
NA = n − n
2 2

c: Critical angle

1 2

 n21 −n 22 

m: maximum acceptance angle
= 2
 2n 1 
NA: Numerical aperture
(generally, <<1)
n − n2 : refractive index relative difference
= 1 NA  n1 2
n1
If n1 n 2 , =(n 1-n 2)/n 1 → valid approx.

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

 Lecture smetsyS noitacinummoC lacitpO ot noitcudortnI :1

Numerical Aperture meaning…

I( ) = I0cos
(Lambertian source) This behaviour is related to the energy
acceptance by the optical fiber


LED
Multimode fiber

Source with Emission surface

isotropic emission

Power emitted by the optical source: Laser Single-mode fiber

/2

P0 =  I ( ) 2 sin d = I 0

Fraction of the emitted power which is injected into the optical fiber:
m
P0 NA2
P=  I ( ) 2 sind =  I sin ( ) =
2
o m
Power Fraction coupled into
0
no2 an optical fiber  NA2

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

PHASE-FRONT (WAVE-FRONT) BASED STUDY OF TIR
• since ‘m’ can take only discrete integral values, the value of angle θ is also
discrete
• The acceptance cone can no longer be assumed as a solid cone of rays,
launched at all possible angles (smaller than acceptance angle), but has to be
viewed as composed of discrete annular conical rings of rays which are
launched at the tip of the fiber core at angles which satisfy equation.
• Thus light can only be launched at certain discrete angles within the N.A. cone
leading to a further decrease in the light gathering efficiency of the optical fiber
•
• This discretization in the values of launching angles lead to the formation of
what are called as modes in an optical fiber.
• Modes are nothing but different patterns of light intensity distribution
around the axis of the core.
 Lecture 1: Introduction to Optical Communication Systems 27/ 52

Ligth propagation in optical fibers

Step index Multimode Fiber

n1

n2

Graded index Multimode Fiber

Refractive index
profile
n1

n2

Step-index Singlemode Fiber

n1

n2

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

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Ligth propagation in Step-index Multimode Fiber:

Introducción a la Fibra Óptica Dispersion effect (intermodal)

Pulse
Pulse received
transmitted

Step-index Multimode Fiber

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

Dispersion Calculation

The pulse along the axis of the optical fiber

takes less time to travel the distance L

the distance traveled by the extreme ray is

➢The amount of broadening is measured in terms of the increase in the pulse time
width and is denoted by ΔT. the value of ΔT is given by:

L n1 (n1 − n2 )
T = (2.6)
c n2
Where, ΔT= Pulse Broadening; c = velocity of light in free space; n1 = refractive
index of core and n2 = refractive index of the cladding.
The quantity L is the horizontal distance travelled before suffering the first total
internal reflection by the refracted ray OB which corresponds to the incident ray
AO, incident at the acceptance angle as shown in the figure.
➢The amount of pulse broadening is effectively the difference in time of travel
between the ray travelling along the axis and the extreme ray.
➢This pulse broadening effect signifies that if a second pulse is now launched into
the fiber within the time interval T+ΔT, the two pulses will overlap and no
identifiable data would be obtained on the output.
➢Thus for a given length L, there would be a corresponding value of ΔT (from
equation 2.6) which would limit the rate at which light pulses can be launched into
the optical fiber.
This indirectly limits the bandwidth available on the fiber. Thus we can say that
more the pulse broadening lower the bandwidth. That is:
1
Bandwidth( BW ) = (2.7)
T
➢In equation 2.6, we see that the value of ΔT is dependent on the value of L, the
difference (n1 – n2) as well as the value of n1/n2.
➢But reducing the value of L would signify the reduction in the length of the optical fiber,
which is not desirable.
➢As 1<n2<n1, the ratio, n1 / n2 is very close to 1.
➢Thus for low ΔT values, the only option available with us is to decrease the value (n1–
n2) or in other words, to increase the refractive index of the cladding n2.
➢One can now notice that a contradictory situation has been generated as to whether
the cladding should be removed for high NA or to use a cladding of large refractive index
value for higher bandwidth? The answer to this query is purely application specific.
➢That means if an optical fiber is used as a sensor (say), where lowest possible light
has to be accepted, we use fiber with low n2 values.
➢When the optical fiber is used for data communication, fibers with high values of n2
are used. For practical communication purposes the value of (n1 – n2) is made of the
order of about 10-3 to 10-4. If the cladding is removed, the value of n2 becomes 1 and
the value of the above difference becomes about 0.5. The bandwidth corresponding to
this value of n1-n2 is of the order of few Kilohertz, which is far worse than that of a
normal twisted pair of wires.
GRADED INDEX FIBER

If we taper the profile optimally, we get the dispersion reduction

compared to that for a step index fiber, even by a factor of
thousand. The data rate of a typical graded index fiber is typically
10 to 100 times higher compared to a step index fiber