Suppose Math, Sequences

Real Analysis for PPSC Session
Sequences
Akhtar Abbas
University of Jhang
February 11, 2024
Akhtar Abbas (University of Jhang) Real Analysis for PPSC Session Sequences February 11, 2024 1 / 19
Sequences
Definition
A sequence of real numbers is a function from N to R.
We denote the image of n by xn .

Example
{xn } with xn = (−1)n is the sequence −1, 1, −1, 1, ...
1 √ 1
{xn } with xn = n n is 1, 2 ≈ 1.414214, (3) 3 ≈ 1.442250,...
Definition
For a sequence {xn }, limn→∞ xn = a if, for every ϵ > 0, there exist no ∈ N
such that |xn − a| < ϵ, ∀n ≥ no .
Here a is called limit of the sequence.
A nonconvergent sequence is called divergent.
Example
1 The sequence {xn } defined by xn = 3n+4 3
2n converges to 2 .
2
(For ϵ > 0, choose no an integer greater than ϵ ).
√
2 The sequence {xn } defined by xn = 3n−7n
n
converges to 3.
(For ϵ > 0, choose no an integer greater than 49
ϵ2
).
3 The sequence {xn } defined by xn = 1+2n 1
3+4n converges to 2 .
1
(For ϵ > 0, choose no an integer greater than 8ϵ ).
4 Suppose 0 < |c| < 1The sequence {xn } defined by xn = c n converges
to 0.
(For ϵ > 0, choose no an integer greater than lnln|c|
ϵ
).
5 The sequence {xn } defined by xn = (−1)n diverges.
Limit Theorems
Theorem
The limit of a convergent sequence is unique.
Definition
A sequence {xn } is said to be
bounded if there exists a constant M such that |xn | ≤ M, for all
n ∈ N. i.e., the set of terms is bounded.
unbounded if the sequence is not bounded: that is, for every constant
M, there exists an n ∈ N such that |xn | > M.
Example
1 {sin n} is bounded by 1.
2 {2 sin n − 3 cos n} is bounded by 5.
3 {2n } is unbounded.
Theorem
A convergent sequence is bounded.
Theorem
Suppose that limn→∞ xn = a and limn→inf yn = b. Then
the sequence {xn + yn } is convergent and limn→∞ (xn + yn ) = a + b,
the sequence {xn − yn } is convergent and limn→∞ (xn − yn ) = a − b,
the sequence {xn yn } is convergent and limn→∞ (xn yn ) = ab,
if b ̸= 0 and yn ̸= 0, for all n ∈ N, then the sequence { xynn } converges
and limn→∞ xynn = ba .
Theorem
limn→∞ xn = a and limn→∞ yn = b and xn ≤ yn for all n ∈ N. Then
a ≤ b.
If limn→∞ = c and a ≤ xn ≤ b, for all n ∈ N. Then a ≤ c ≤ b.
Squeeze Theorem
Theorem
Suppose limn→∞ xn = a, limn→∞ zn = a and xn ≤ yn ≤ zn , for all n ∈ N.
Then limn→∞ yn = a.
Example
1
1 For any integer p ≥ 2, limn→∞ np = 0.
(0 ≤ n1p ≤ n1 ).
2 limn→∞ sin n+cos
n
n
= 0.
−2 sinn+cos n 2
(n ≤ n ≤ n ).
[ n2 ]
3 limn→∞ n = 12 .
n
−1 [ n2 ] n
( 2
n ≤ n ≤ n ).
2
Monotonic Sequences
Definition
A sequence {xn } is called
1 increasing if xn+1 ≥ xn , for all n ∈ N,
2 strictly increasing if xn+1 > xn , for all n ∈ N,
3 decreasing if xn+1 ≤ xn , for all n ∈ N,
4 strictly decreasing if xn+1 < xn , for all n ∈ N,
5 monotonic if it is either increasing or decreasing.
Example
Pn 1
1 { nπ
2 } and { k=1 k } are increasing sequences.
π
} and { nk=1 −1
P
2 { 2n k } are decreasing sequences.
n (−1)k
{sin( nπ
P
2 )} and { k=1 k } are neither decreasing nor increasing.
3
4 { π2 } is both decreasing and increasing sequence.

Theorem
A bounded monotonic sequence converges.
Example
1 Consider the sequence {xn }, where xn is the finite decimal expansion
consisting of n ones after the decimal. Thus
x1 = 0.1, x2 = 0.11, x3 = 0.111, and so on. This sequence is
increasing and bounded (by 0.2). Hence it converges. Suppose
limn→∞ xn = a. Then limn→∞ xn+1 = a also, and we have
10xn+1 − xn = 1. Thus
10a − a = lim (10xn+1 − xn ) = 1.

n→∞
Thus a = 91 .
Subsequences
Definition
If {nk }∞
k=1 is a strictly increasing sequence of positive integers, then the
sequence {xnk }∞k=1 , written simply as {xnk }, is called a subsequence of the
sequence {xn }.
Example
The sequence
nπ
{xn }∞
n=1 = {sin( )} = {1, 0, −1, 0, 1, o − 1, 0, 1, ...}
2
has subsequences
{x2k }∞
k=1 = {0, 0, 0, 0, 0, ...},
{x2k−1 }∞
k=1 = {1, −1, 1, −1, 1, ...},
{x4k+1 }∞
k=1 = {1, 1, 1, 1, 1, ...}.
Example
√
1 Some subsequences of the sequence {xn } = { n}∞
n=1 are
√ √ √ √ √ √
{x5k+1 }∞
k=1 = { 6, 11, 16, 21, 26, 31, 6, ...}
{xk 2 }∞
k=0 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ...}
2 Let {xn } = {(−1)n }∞
n=1 . Then
{xk+[k/2] }∞
k=1 = {−1, −1, 1, 1, −1, −1, 1, 1, ...}
and
{xk+[k/3] }∞
k=1 = {−1, 1, 1, −1, 1, 1, −1, 1, 1, ...}
are subsequences, but {xk−[k/4] }∞

k=1 is not a subsequence, because
∞
the sequence {k − [k/4]}k=1 is not strictly increasing.
√
Question: Construct a subsequence of {xn }∞ ∞
n=1 = {sin(π n/2)}n=1 with
all terms equal to 1.
Theorem
A sequence {xn } converges to the value a, if and only if every subsequence
of this sequence converges to a.
How to show that a sequence is divergent?

To show that a sequence {xn } is divergent:
1 show that {xn } has two convergent subsequences with different limits
OR
2 show that {xn } has a subsequence which tends to ∞ or −∞.
Note: A divergent sequence can have convergent subsequences.

Example
The subsequences {−1, −1, −1, ...} and {1, 1, 1, ...} are convergent
subsequences of a divergent sequence {−1, 1, −1, 1, −1, ...}.
The sequence {n} has no convergent subsequence.
Theorem
Every sequence has a monotonic subsequence.
Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem
Every bounded sequence of real numbers has a convergent subsequence.
There are ways of creating monotonic sequences out of any sequence, and
in this fashion we get the so-called limit superior and limit inferior.
Definition
Let {xn } be a bounded sequence. Define the sequences {an } and {bn } by
an = sup{xk : k ≥ n} = sup{xn , xn+1 , xn+2 , ...},
bn = inf{xk : k ≥ n} = inf{xn , xn+1 , xn+2 , ...}.

We define limit superior and limit inferior as
lim sup xn = lim an , lim inf xn = lim bn .

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
Theorem
Let {xn } be a bounded sequence. Define the sequences {an } and {bn } by
an = sup{xk : k ≥ n} = sup{xn , xn+1 , xn+2 , ...},
bn = inf{xk : k ≥ n} = inf{xn , xn+1 , xn+2 , ...}.

Then
1 limn→∞ sup xn = inf{an : n ∈ N}, limn→∞ inf xn = sup{bn : n ∈ N}.
2 limn→∞ inf xn ≤ lim→∞ sup xn .
3 there exists a subsequence {xnk }∞
k=1 such that
limn→∞ xnk = lim→∞ sup xn .
4 there exists a subsequence {xnk }∞
k=1 such that
limn→∞ xnk = lim→∞ inf xn .
5 {xn } converges to a if and only if
lim inf xn = lim sup xn = lim xn .

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
Theorem
Suppose that {xn } is a bounded sequence and {xnk } is a subsequence.
Then
lim inf xn ≤ lim inf xnk ≤ lim sup xnk ≤ lim sup xn .
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
Definition
For any sequence {xn }, we say that a ∈ R is a cluster point (limit point)
of {xn } if there is a subsequence of {xn } converging to a.
Example
1 The sequence {xn } = {(−1)n } has cluster points 1 and −1.
2 The sequence {xn } = {sin(nπ/4)} has cluster points 0, √12 , − √12 , 1
and −1.
3 The unbounded sequence {xn } = {(−1)n n} has no cluster points.
Remark
1 A convergent sequence has a unique cluster point, its limit. The
converse, however is false.
2 By Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem, every bounded sequence must have
at least one cluster point.
3 The set of cluster points of a bounded sequence is bounded.
The alternative definitions of limit superior and limit inferior are as follows:
Definition
Let {xn } be a bounded sequence and T be the set of cluster points of
{xn }. Then
lim inf xn = inf(T )
n→∞
and
lim sup xn = sup(T ).
n→∞
Cauchy Sequences
Definition
A sequence {xn } is said to be Cauchy if, for every ϵ > 0, there exists an
no ∈ N such that |xn − xm | < ϵ, for all m, n ≥ no .
Example
n+1
1 The sequence {xn } defined by xn = n is Cauchy.
Theorem
A sequence in R is convergent if and only if it is Cauchy.
Example
Suppose the sequence {1 + 12 + 13 + ... + n1 }∞
n=1 is convergent. Then it is
Cauchy. So for ϵ = 1/2, there exists some no ∈ N such that
|xm − xn | < 1/2, ∀ m > n ≥ no .
Taking m = 2n, we now see that

1 1 1 1 1
+ + ... + >n· = .
n+1 n+2 2n 2n 2
We arrive at a contradiction. Hence the given sequence diverges.
Some More Results
Cauchy’s first theorem on limits

If the sequence {xn } has limit a, then
x1 + x2 + ... + xn
lim = a.
n→∞ n
Theorem
Let {xn } be a sequence of positive terms with limit a, then
lim (x1 x2 ...xn )1/n = a.

n→∞
Example
1 1 1 1
1+2 2 +3 3 +...+n n
Since limn→∞ n n = 1, we have limn→∞ n = 1.
Example
1 1+ 12 + 31 +...+ n1
Since limn→∞ n = 0, we have limn→∞ n = 0.
Cauchy’s second theorem on limits

xn+1
Let {xn } be a sequence of positive terms and if limn→∞ xn exists, then
1
n
limx→∞ xn also exists and
xn+1 1
lim = lim xnn .
n→∞ xn x→∞
Exercise
Evaluate
1
limn→∞ n1 (n!) n .
1
limn→∞ n1 {(m + 1)(m + 2)...(m + n)} n .
1
2n! n
limn→∞ ( (n!) 2) .

Suppose Math, Sequences

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Real Analysis for PPSC Session

February 11, 2024

We denote the image of n by xn .

4 { π2 } is both decreasing and increasing sequence.

10a − a = lim (10xn+1 − xn ) = 1.

are subsequences, but {xk−[k/4] }∞

How to show that a sequence is divergent?

Note: A divergent sequence can have convergent subsequences.

an = sup{xk : k ≥ n} = sup{xn , xn+1 , xn+2 , ...},

bn = inf{xk : k ≥ n} = inf{xn , xn+1 , xn+2 , ...}.

lim sup xn = lim an , lim inf xn = lim bn .

an = sup{xk : k ≥ n} = sup{xn , xn+1 , xn+2 , ...},

bn = inf{xk : k ≥ n} = inf{xn , xn+1 , xn+2 , ...}.

lim inf xn = lim sup xn = lim xn .

|xm − xn | < 1/2, ∀ m > n ≥ no .

Taking m = 2n, we now see that

Cauchy’s first theorem on limits

lim (x1 x2 ...xn )1/n = a.

Cauchy’s second theorem on limits

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