Formulae and Definitions

Formulae and Definitions in Engineering Mathematics
1) Trigonometric Formulae
a) Trigonometric Formulae
1) sin 2
A +cos 2
A = 1
2) sec A 2
= 1+ tan A 2
3) cosec A 2
= l + cot A 2
4) • sin ( A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B
5) c o s ( A ± B ) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B

c\ i y i , n\ tan A ± tan B
6) tan(A±B) = — - :
v
' 1+ tan A - t a n B
7) sinC+sinD = 2 sin—-—cos—-—
^ . . C+D . C - D
o) smC-smD = 2 cos—^—sin—-—
Q
q\ „ „, „ C+D C-D
9) c o s C + c o s D = 2 c o s — — " c o s - -----
. CH D . C - D
10) cos C - cos D = - 2 sin — - — sin —
2 _
11) 2 sin A. cos B = sinf A + B H sinC A - B )
12) 2 sin A sin B = cos ( A - B ) - cos( A + B)
13) 2 cos A cos B = cos ( A - B ) + c o s ( A + B) -

oo^ryyi Cos )
o • A A 2 tan A
14) sin 2A =
2 sin A cos A = —
1 + tan A 2
„ . , A 1- t a n A 2
15) cos 2A = cos A - s i nz 2

A = 2 cos A 2
sm • A =
• z. -----
1 + tan A2
2 tan A
16) tan 2A =
r-TanÂ COS 2 0 = X- 2S/n -@ ?
17) sin 3 A = 3 sin A - 4 sin A 3
18) cos 3 A = 4 cos 3

A - 3 cos A
3 tan A - tan 3
A
19) tan 3 A =
l-3tan A 2
(1)
Engineering Mathematics 2 Formulae & Definitions in Mathematics
1 -cos2x
20) sin' x
-
21) COS^ X = 1 + cos 2x
2
22) s i n * ' x +cos" n/2
23) tan-'x + c o r ' x TI/2
24) cosec~ x + s e c x
! -1
n/2
Allied A n g l e s F o r m u l a e
Angle -e JI/2-8 TI/2 + 0 7t-e n+ 8 2n-Q • 2n jt+9
sin -sine cos 8 cos 9 sin 8 - sin 8 - sin 9 sin 8
cos cos 0 sin 0 - sin 9 - cos 0 - cos 8 cos G cos 6
tan - tan 9 cot e - cot 8 - tan 0 tan 8 - tan 9 tan 0
c) Sine Formulae
l) 2R
sin A sin B sin C
d>) Cosine Formulae

b +c - a
2 2 2
1) cos A = 2 be
c 2
+a -b
2 2
2) cos B = 2 ca
->
a 2
+b - 2
3) cos C -- 2ab
e) Projection Formulae
If a, b, c are sides of triangle and A , B, C are angles
1) a = b cos C + c cos B
2) b c cos A + a cos C
3) c = a cos B + b cos A
2 } Logarithm
1) If a * = N then l o g a N =x
2) log, a = 1 log 1 = 0 loge = 1

3) log (mn) = log m + log n

o r ff- e 'c% ^
4) log m - log n
1
5) i) log,-, b
logb a 4 '
loge a
ii) logb a
log b e V
6) log e ( 3 " in ,umber
) = any number
3) Differential Calculus
a) Limits
sin 0 tanG
2) lim
1) lim - 5 - = 1
x" - a n
3) ' lim = na 1
4) l i m —^7— = log a
x -> i) x- a -> 0 x
l/'x
5) lim - - = 1 6) lim (1 + x)
x-» 0 x x -> 0
7) lim ^ 0 (p > 0)
b) Derivatives
d d
1) 2) — cos X sin x
dx sm x = cos x dx
_d
-r- tan x = sec- x 4) — cot x = - cosec x 2
dx dx
,-1
d_
5) ~r- sec x = sec x tan x 6) cosec x = - cosec x cot x
dx
dx" dx
d
, _d_
7) S) nx'
d l °Z
[ X
dx
9) -j- e x
e N
10) _d_ a x
log a
dx dx
d
11) ^[ftx)]" = n[f(x)J"-'-f'(x) 12) -jûv = u ^ + v ^
dx
du . dv
_d_ u dx dx dw dv du
13) 14) (UVW) = UV—: + LIW —: h VW-r-
dx v dx dx dx
v
' dx ~"
A
15) _d_ u = ^ i - ^ i (Chain Rule)

dx ds dx
c) Derivatives of Inverse Functions

1
1) --r- s i n x 2)
dx cos"
_ 1
1
X
dx Vl^x 2
_d_ 1
3) ^-tan-' x = - L ^ 4) cot" 1
X =
dx 1+ x 2
dx 1+x 2
« d
| 1 _d_ 1
6) cosec x -1
5) -r-sec 1
x = — — dx xVx -l 2
d x
xVx ^! 1
4} Integration Formulae
a) Integration Formulae
I) | x" dx = + c ( n * -1) 2) - d x = log x + c

x °
3) J e* dx = e x
4) a x
dx
log a
5) J log x dx = x log x - x 6) sin x dx = - cos x
7) | cos* x dx = s i n x " 8) tan x dx = log sec x
9) J" cot x dx = log sin x 10) sec x dx = tan x

2
II) j c o s e c x d x = - cot x
2
12) sec x tan x d x = sec x
13) | cosec x cot x dx = - cosec x 14) sec x dx - log (sec x + tan x)

v
15) | cosec x dx = log (cosec x - cot x) 16) , dx = s i n

V^ 2
-x 2
dx
17) J -jr~-- dx = l o g ( x W x 2
-a" )2
18) = log^x + V x 2
+a ^
2
4 x- + a '
19) f d x 1 log a + x 20) ^ dx =. log x - a

a- -x' 2a a -x 2a x+a
21) f , dx = 1 tan"
•' a 2
+x- a
22) J Va" - x 2 2
dx = | + — sin" 1
—
23) J Vx -a ~dx 2 2
= | V x ^ a ^ — l o g f x + Vxâ^]
24) ( V ^ T a " " d x = >- V x + a

2 2 2
+^ log [x + V x + a ] 2 2
Engineering Mathematics Formulae & Definitions in Mathematics
25) J e* [f(x) + f'(x)]dx = e* f(x)

26) Y t{XT d x = l 0 g f ( x )
in+1
, 27) j, i g d x = 2jT(xl- 28) j [f(x)]- f (x) dx =
n
/f(x)
29) J e < >f'(x)dx = e< x)

f x f
30) e' ,x
cosbxdx = —=——z- (a cosbx + b sin bx)
J
/ a, + b 2 2
31) e i 1 x
sinbx-dx = — ^ (a sin b x - b cos bx)
J
a + b 2 2
32) | u-v-dx = uJ v d x r j v d x dx
I
33) J u v dx = UVi-u'V2+u" v 3 ...
b) Definite Integrals
b '
1) j" f(x)dx .= J f(t)dt 2) J f(x)dx = -J f(x)dx
3) J f(x)dx = J f(a-x)dx' 4) J f(x) dx = J f(x)dx + | f(x) dx, a < c < b
2J f(x) dx if f(x) is even"

5) | f ( x ) d x = J [f(x) + f ( 2 a - x ) ] d x 6) J f(x) dx
if f(x) is o d d
5) Pascal's Triangle
Pascal's triangle gives the coefficients of the terms in the expansion of ( a + b ) '
(a+b) 1
: 11
(a+b) 2
: 1 2 1
(a+b) 3
:' 1 3 3 1
(a +b) 4
: - 1 4 6 4 1
• 0
Engineering Mathematics 6 Formulae & Definitions In Mathematics
6) a) Complex Numbers
a) •
A number of the form z ='x + iy, w h e r e ' x and y are real numbers and l=-f-^ is
called complex number.
If z = x + i y is a complex number then x is called real part of z a n d is denoted b y
Re (z) and y is called imaginary part of z and is denoted by I m (z).
If Re (z) = 0 then 2 = i y is called^ purely imaginary number. •^
If Im (z) = 0 then z = x is called purely real number.
b) Demoivre's Theorem
(cos&+i sinO) n
= cosn0+isinn&
e) Euler's Formulae
1) e' x
= cos x + i sin x
2) e"'* = cos x - i sin x
3) cos x
2
4) sin x
2i
d) Logarithms of C o m p l e x Numbers
1) log(x + i y ) = log x + y v
? 2 2
+ i| 2 nn+ t a n " - j
1
y
2) log(x-fiy) = iogvx' + y 2
+ i tan " ' ~
e) Hyperbolic F u n c t i o n s - -
e — e"v N
e* — e
1) cosh x = —— 2) sinh x =
2
3) sin (ix) = i sinh x 4) sinh (ix) = I s i n x
5) cos (ix) = cosh x 6) cosh (ix) = cos x
7) ' tan (ix) = i tanh x 8) tanh (ix) ' = i tan x ,
9) cot (ix) ="-~r-coth x 10) coth (ix) = - i cot x
11) sec (ix) sech x 12) sech (ix) = sec x
13) cosec (ix) = - i cosech x 14) cosec (ix) = - i cosec x
•f) O s b o r n ' s Rule , ?.

This rule is useful for finding hyperbolic formulae'by using trigonometric formulae.
In any trigonometric formula, replace the trigonometric function b y hyperbolic function
and change the sign of the term involving product of tvô sines.
1) cosh x - s i n h x
2 2
2) I - tanh x 2
3) cosh 2x
4) • s i n h 2x 2 sinh x cosh x
5) sinh (x ± y )
6) cosh(x ± y )
g) Inverse H y p e r b o l i c Function
1) sinh x = _ 1
log(x + V x + l ) 2
2) cosh~ ' x = log ( x + v'x - 1 ^ 2
1 +x
3) tanh ~ x 1
1 -x
h) Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions
!) - i — sinh x = cosh x 2) —j— cosh x = sinh x

dx dx
3") ~r- tanh x _d_ coth x = - c o s e c h x

sech x//>
2
4) 2
dx dx
_d_
sech x - sec hx tanh x 6) cosech x = - cosech x coth x
dx dx"
7) Successive Differentiation
a) S u c c e s s i v e Differentiation
d"
1) — [a*] = a * (log c a)"
dx
dn
2) T ~ [*** ] =
Tdx 11 1 J
a " e"
3) y = (ax + b ) , m
where m is any real number
d 11
>" ~i
—•»• ^ c i x + b ) J = m ( m - l ) . . . ( m - n + 1) a
n, 11
(ax + b ) r
4) y = ( ax + b) m
, where m' is positive
d" ( - l ) " (m + l)(m'+2)...(m + n - l ) a "

dx 11
(ax + b)" ~ , (ax b ) » +
m +
. ,
Special Cases
d" r ml m !a" (aj^b) r
Case I : If m is positive integer and m > n (ax + b) = — r - . —

t &
dx" L ' J
v
^(m -n)!
An * ' •
Case II : m = n —-'[(ax +b)"] = n ! a"
dx
d"
Case III : — [(ax,+ b ) ] ' = 0 If in is positive integer and fn < n
m
dx
d" (-1)' n ! a " 1
Case I V :
dx" ax + b (ax + b)
n+1
d n
r T (-!>""' ( n - l ) ! a "
(ax + b) 11
d n
- ' (" ' n 7i
2) — - [ s i n ( b x + c)] = b " sin) bx + c + —
dx
d 11 1171
3) — [cos(bx + c)] = b 11
cos|bx + c +
' dx T
d"
4) — - [ e - " s i n ( b x + c)] = r n
e - sin(bx + c + n8)
av
d 11
5) — — [ e c o s ( b x + c)] = v"- e
,,x a x
cos(bx + c + n6)
where r = Va +b 2 2
, & - tan ~ — 1
b) Leibnitz's Theorem
(UV) n = "C„ U„ V + '"'Cj U _ , n Vi + n
CjUn-2 V : + ... + " C r U ,.
r r V , + ... + " C n U V ,
8).Expansions of Functions
a) Taylor's Theorem
1) f ( x + h j =• f w + h f ' M + t i f"(x) + ^ - r ( x ) +
3!
2) f(x + h ) = f ( h ) + x f ' ( h ) + | j f"(h) + ^ f'"(h)-

3) " f(x) =' f(h) ( x - h ) f ' ( h ) ^ 2 T - ' f " ( h ) . . .

+ + +
b) Maclaurin's T h e o r e m
f(x) = f ( p ) + x f ( 0 ) + ^ - r ( o ) + ...^j-f»(0)+-.?.r
c) Indeterminate F o r m s
There are seven Indeterminate fqfms v i z . ^ , — ,. Ox oo, <x>-«p , 0 ° , oo°, \ "

0 oo
0 oo
L'Hosprtal's rule : 7: , —
0 oo ^ ,
if J i m f(x) = 0 or oo a n d l i m g(x) = 0 or oo
x -> n x —» a
Then l i m -4-1 - l i m }, \
x ^ g(x) x -> a g (X)
d) Standard Expansions
" X 2
X 3
X 4
•1) ! 4 X
" ;:: 1
3 > " "4! +
'
x x 2 3
x- s
2) e- x
=
' 1
; x +
-2T--3! +
4! +
X 3
X 3
X 7
3) sin x . •=
, X 2
X X
4 6
4) cos x =
- +
-4T--6f +
-
x 3
2x 3
17 ,
5) tan x = = X +
T +
T 5 - +
315 X
' +
-
C ?
6) sinh x = x x- X'
, x \2 4
x b
7) cosh x =
- !
• 21 • 41 ' 6! '
x 3
. 2 , 17 7
8) • tanh x - = X
- T +
15 ' " 3 l 5X X
•-
X 2
X 3
'X A
X 5
.9) ]Og (1 + X) =
= X
" T +
T - T +
T - -
11) (l+~x) n
- i + nx + ^ r ^ x 2 + ...
12) — L = 1-x + x - x ' + -

2 3
1+x , ,
13) —— = l + x+x +x 2 3
+...
1 -x
14) Binomial expansion
(x + a ) n
= % x M - " Q x " - ' a + "0i x " - a + " ( i , x - a
n 2 2 n 3 3
+ C
n
r x " " a + .... +"c„ a
r r n
n !
where n
c r ! (rt -TF) !
rt(n-f-l)
15) l + 2+3...+ n
16)l 2
+2 2
+3 2
...+ n 2
=-i £
o
n(rt + l ) 2
17) 1 + 2 3 3
+ ... + n 3
=
•9) Sequences
A function whose d o m a i n is the set of natural numbers and range a set d'f real
numbers is called a real sequence, i.e a order set of numbers a i , a 2 , . . . a n ' s
called a
sequence and is denoted by {a,,} or ( a „ ) if the number of terms are infinite it is called
infinite sequence.
a) B o u n d s of a S e q u e n c e
a) B o u n d e d above sequences
A sequence {a „ } is said to be bounded above if the'ire exists a real number k such that
S n < K for all n e N
b L B o u n d e d b e l o w sequences
A sequence {a „ } is said to be bounded below if there exists a real number k such that
S„ > k for all n e N
c) B o u n d e d sequences
A sequence is said to be bounded if it is both b o u n d e d below and botsnde-d above. •

b) Limits of a S e q u e n c e
Definition
A sequence [a,,} is said have a limit T if for each e>0, there exists a positive integer
N (depending on e) such that ] a -1|,< n e, for all > N .i.e. the term approach the value 1 as
n becomes larger and larger. *•
i.e. a „ . -> 1 as n —> oo or lim a n = 1
c) Definition : C o n v e r g e n t Sequence
*A sequence, w h i c h teAds to finite lirmt rS said to converge a n d is caTled convergent
sequence. • '
Note .
1) A limit of a sequence if it exists is unique.
2) Every convergent sequence is bounded.
3) Every bounded sequence need not be convergent. (-1)' 1
is not convergent sequence
but it is bounded.
d) Definition : M o n o t o n i c Sequence
1) A sequence {a n } is said to be monotonically increasing if a,-, < a | for all n. 11f
2) A sequence [a„ } is said to be monotonically decreasing if a„ > a , 1+1 for all n.

A sequence w h i c h is either monotonic increasing or monotonic decreasing is called
mono tonic sequence.
Note ' '
1) A monotonic increasing sequence, and bounded above, is convergent.
2) A monotonic decreasing sequence, and bounded below, is convergent.
3) A monotonic increasing sequence, and not bounded above, diverges to x>.
4) A monotonic decreasing sequence, and not bounded below, diverges to -co.
e) Limits of s o m e Standard Sequences

i
1) lim n n = 1
C x y 1
1+— = e x
for all x "
n
J
'0 if -1 <r<l
3) lim r n
It —> x- oo if r>l
Note
If {a „ } and {b„ | are two convergent sequences such that

lim a n - A and' l i m b„ = B • • .
Then - - -
1) {a n +b }n is convergent a n d converges to A + B.
2) Sequences {a (1 • b } is convergent and converges to A . B .

n • *•
3) Sequence I S
convergent and converges to ^ (provided B *• 0).
Infinite Series '

If {a n } be'a sequence of real numbers, then a^ +&z + .... a n is called a n i n f i n i t e series.
It is denoted by ^ a n or s i m p l y b y Y | a . n
n= 1
A sequence {S„}, where S „ , denote the s u m of first n-terms of the series i.e.
S„ = ai + a 2 + a 3 + .... a n for all n .
The sequence {S„ } is called sequence of partial sums.
• S| = a i • S2 = a i + a 2 ,S3 = a i + a 2 + a 3
The series ^ a n is said to be convergent if the sequence of partial s u m s {S n } is

n= l
convergent.
1) If l i m S„ = finite, then V. a „ is said to be. convergent.
2) If lim S„ —> ± co, then ~S\ a n is said to be divergent and diverges to t -o.
n -> •/.
3) If lim S„ is not unique as n - » o c , then V a „ is said to be. oscillatory or

non-convergent.
Before discussing the details of convergence or divergence of an infinite series, the
following properties should ne noted.
1) Convergence and divergence of an infinite series remains unaffected by the
addition or rernoval of finite number of terms from the series.
2) If a series in which a l l the terms are positive is convergent the series remains
convergent when some or all of its terms are changed to negative.
3) If ^ a n is convergent or divergent series then ^ k a „ will remain respectively

n- I n= T
convergent or divergent.
Note •
Test for divergence
If l i m a n * 0, then ]T a „ is divergent.
Tests for C o n v e r g e n c e
a) C a u c h y ' s R o o t . T e s t , • ' , • •
If Y ] a n is a positive series such.that lim ( a ) " n = L , then the series

i i n - * oo .
i) Converges if L < 1
ii) Diverges if L > 1
iii) The test fails if L = 1.

b) C o m p a r i s o n T e s t
1) If two positive term series YJ u n and Y J v n such that
i) Y J v n converges
-ii) u „ < v n for all values of n then u n also converges.
2) If two positive term series YJ u n and Y J v n be such that
i) Y j v n diverges
ii) u „ > v n for all n then YJ u n also diverges
.3) L i m i t for.m
If two positive term series Y u n and V v n be such that l i m —— = finite quantity

n'-l n-1 n ^ c o V n
(VQ). • /
Then YJ u n a n d YJ v n converge or diverge together.
•i.-e.-If YJ u n is a series which is convergent then YJ v n is convergent and-vice a versa.
Also if YJ u„ is divergent then YJ v n is divergent and vice a versa.
If l i m ^ = 0, test fails.
n —> co V n
W o r k i n g rule to find the auxiliary s e r i e s YJ v n
n= 1
1) F i n d u a n d note that u contains the power of n only w h i c h may be positive or

n n
negative, integral or fractional.

nP 1
2) If u,i is i n the form of a fraction then we take v n = — = where p and q are
respectively the highest indices of n i n the numerator a n d denominator of u . n
3) If u can be expanded in ascending powers of 1/n then to • get. v , we s h o u l d

n n
retain only the lowest power of 1/n.

Ewg^neering Mathematics 14 Formulae & Definitions in Mathematics
e$ Ratio Test D ' A l e m b e r f s Ratio Test

v. • • L i -
ft Y* u is a series, of positive terms then it is convergent
n if lim — ^ >• 1 and
, « -» > n+l
1 - -
rx u
n=
dwesgent if l i m — < 1. **
n -> x U a + i
fcf lim u
" = 1, the test fails and a further investigation w i l l be required.
5
n -> a> U n + i
d| b a b e ' s * Test
Let Y^ a b e a series of positive terms a n d if K i n n^J*" - l j = L.
Then, i) YJ a„ converges i f L > 1

ii) YJ a n diverges if L. < 1.
' A n d test fails if L = 1.
Note
Raabe's test is stronger than ratio test. Normally this test is used.if ratio test fails.
e) Cauchy's C o n d e n s a t i o n Tesst
If the function f(n) is positive for all positive integral values of n and continuously
decreases as n- increases, then the series V f(n) is convergent or divergent according as

*n = i .' •
]T a " f ( a ) is convergent or divergent, "a" being a positive integer greater than unity.
n
A- i
Note : This test is applied w h e n the series involves logarithmic expressions,
ff. G a u s s ' s Test

Let Y u n be a series of positive terms and suppose that can be expressed in the
,>T| ''' ' 1
form - - - - - = 1+ + —•- where p > 1 and b„ is bounded as n —> x- then Y u n converges
if / > 1 and diverges if /<1.
g# De Morgan's Bertra nd's Test
The series YJ u„ of positive terms is convergent or divergent according as
lim j n f - ^ i - -1 1-11 log n > 1 or < 1.
, Note : This test is to be a p p l i e d when both D-'AlembgrJ's ratio test a n d Raabe's test fail.
• 0 0
Alternative f o r m : The series u n is convergent or divergent according as

n = i
Hm n log — 1 log n > 1 or < 1.

' u i ) ' b
11 —> x n +
h) C a u c h y ' s Integral Test
Let YJ u„ = YJ f(n) be a positive terms where f(n) decreases as n increases and let
n=V n = I
I = J f(x) dx-then • • .
i
i) If I is finite then . YJ u „ is convergent.

n = I
oc
ii) If I = co then Y^ u „ is divergent.
n = 1
i) Logarithmic T e s t
•K
The" series YJ u n of positive terms is convergent or divergent according as
n = ]
lim n log ——— > 1 or < 1.
Note : This test is an alternative to Raabe's test and is a p p l i e d w h e n D'Alc-mbert's ratifi-

test fails and w h e n either
l) n occurs as an exponent in or
ii) T a k i n g logarithm of " U

makes the evaluation of limits easier.
u n +1
j) Alternating Series
A n infinite series in which the terms are alternately positive a n d negative is called an
alternating series.
I l l x
1
e.g. 1 - — + + =
YJ (- 1)" _
— is an alternating series.
~ ii = I
k) Leibnitz T e s t (Alternating Series Test)

CO
A n infinite series
Y^ ( " l ) " " n i n w h i c h the terms are alternately positive and
1 u
n = i
negative is convergent if each term of the series is numerically less than the preceding
term and l i m u„ = 0.
f| jftbsolute C o n v e r g e n c e
The series u n w h i c h contains both the-positive a n d negative terms is said to be
afeoltttely convergent if the series ]|T | u '| is convergent. n
»='
e.g. u n = 1 + ~^r~^j * + s a n
absolutely convergent series.
m$ Conditional C o n v e r g e n c e ' *•
If the alternating series ti„ is convergent but the series | u | is divergent, then
n
n = 1 . , . . ' , n = 1
tfe series YJ u n is said to be conditionally convergent.

n = 1
^ i 1 1 1
e
-g- Z_ u
" = 1
~2 +
3. _
4 +
"' ? s
convergent
and | u | = 1 + i + . . . + -?-+... is divergent.

n
Given series is conditionally convergent.
11) Matrices
a|' Definition of Matrix

ft is the arrangement of numbers in rows and columns. .
It is denoted as A ( m x n) i.e. A matrix w i t h m rows a n d n columns.
Note - We can calculate the value-of a determinant but not of-a matrix.
» } Definition of Elementary Transformations

1) R i j , Q j : i.e. interchange of the elements of ith row (or column) with ail the
elements of jth row (or column). - -
2) K R j , K C j : i.e. multiplication by a scalar to every element of any row or column.
3) R i + K R j , Cj +.KCj : i.e. addition to the elements of ith row (or column) b y the
equimultiples of the elements of any other r o w (or column).
Definition of Rank of a Matrix

A number r greater than zero (r > 0) is said to be the rank of matrix A if
i) there exists at least one non-zero minor of order r,
ii) Every minor of order r + 1 is zero.
Vatic! .'I Engineering Mathematics 17 Formulae & Definitions in Mathematics
d) Minor of a Matrix
It js the determinant of,a submatrix of .a matrix.
to be
e) Sub Matrix , ,
It is the matrix obtained by deleting any rows and/or columns f r o m the o r i g i n a l
matrix.
f) Definition of Normal F o r m
By performing elementary transformations on a*matrix we can reduce it to orie of the
following forms k n o w n as the normal form.
, then
V Ir 0"
'Pr] , Pr, 0],
0 0 0
where, T ' is the unit matrix of order r, V is the rank of matrix.

r
g) Definition of Inverse
If A is a nonsingular square matrix then their exists a non singular matrix B such that
A B = B A = I then B =. A " 1
B is called as inverse of A . . -
12) Fourier Series

D e f i n i t i o n : If f(x) is a periodic function with period 2K, defined i n the interval
c < x < c 4 2n and satisfies the Dirichlet's conditions then f(x) c a n - b e represented by a
series ';
f(x) = +(a i cos x + b| sin x) + (a 2 cos 2x + b 2 sin 2x)+ :..
a
i.e. f(x) = -y- + ( n cosnx + b
a
n sin nx)
.1 the This representation of f(x) is called.Fourier series and a „ , a n / b n are called the Fourier
coefficients.
vn. Note 1 : s i n " 'x cannot have a Fourier series expansion in any interval, since it is not a
y the single valued function.
Note 2 : tan x cannot have a Fourier series expansion in (0, 2TI), since it becomes
infinite at x = n/ 2.
Dirichlet's conditions
i) f(x) and its integrals are finite and 'e valued.

ii) f(x) has at most finite number of fini.v.' discontinuities.
iii) f(x) has at most finite number of maxima and minima.

tering Mathematics 18 Formulae & Definitions, in Mathematics
D e f i n i t i o n : Let f(xj be defined i n (- c, c). '•

1) if f (- x) = f(x), for all x i n (- c, c) then f(x) is even function.
2) If f (- x) = - f(x), for a l l x in (- c, c) then f(x) is an o d d function.

' Mote 1 : If f(x) is even, then its' graph is symmetrical about Y axis. t ,
Mote 2 : If f(x) is o d d , then its graph is symmetrical about opposite quadrants.
c c
Mole 3 : J f(x) d x =2J f(x)dx if f(x) is an even function of x.
- C • 0 . , •
= 0 if f(x) is an o d d function of x.
Note 4 : sin x and tan x are always o d d functions, cos x is always even function.
Note 5 : check the function f(x) for evenness or oddness only if it is defined i n (-a,7t)
OB f- /, /).
Mote : If n is any positive integer then,
1) cos n it = ( - 1 ) " , sin n 7t = 0,
2) c o s ( 2 n ± 1) re = - 1 , sin(2n± l)ir= 0 .
3-) cos 2 n 7t = 1 > sin 2 n n = 0
4) (-1)" .'. cos(n +1)7i = cos(n

= (r )""
1
n n nn
5) depends on n.
cos — , sin —
Name of the Fourier constants Expression for the Fourier series

; series and
j interval
i Faurier series 1 2 k
f( )x
~ -j- + Tj ( n
a c o s n x
+ n
b
sin nx)
i a < x < 2 7i a 0 = - f >;x) dx n= 1
TT
0
a = — f f(x) cos nx dx
n
7t '
0
1 " 2
b = - f f(x) sin nx dx
n
71 1
I Courier series 1 "

ao = - I* f(x) dx f(x) = -y + (a cos nx + b sin nx)
n n
1 - A < X < 7t 7t ' ^ n=1

- Ti
i a =-
n
n
\ f(x) cos nx dx
-n
b = — J f(x) sin nx dx
-*
]
Fourier series 2 ? ;
,
a =- f(x) dx ' f(x') •= -y- + Z ( n cos nx)
a
' > 5
-
- Tt < x < n even
0
71 J
0
function
" 2 "
Half range cosine a
n = - f f(x) cos nx dx
71 *
'series 0
0 < X < 7t :, b =0 n
^Fourier series a =0
f(x) r sin nx)
0
Z (b n
-n< X.<TI odd a =0 n

n= 1
. function 2 *
•>
Half range sine *b n = - J f(x) sin nx dx
series U 0
0 < X < 71.

^ c+2n
Fourier series
a =- f f(x) dx f(x) = -?r + X ( n cos nx + b sin nx)
a
general formula
n
0
TT.
c
1
^ n= 1
c < x < c + 2n
a =- n f f(x) cos nx dx
jr. '
c
b n =— f f(x) sin nx dx
7[ * '
c
Fourier series 1 2 1 a i a T fnTt x^ . f nn

() Y + L â c o s ^ - j — j + b n S i n ^ - j — J j
0
f x =
n
0 < x< 2 L a
o = j- } f(x) dx
o :
a = rj n } f(x) cos f ^ j ^ l dx
0 .•>
°n = r; {o M f s i n
(^fj~l
\ J
d x
Fourier series r, * a 0 v> (' fnTt x\ , . f'nn x M

a = j- j f(x) dx
- L< x <L 0
f
(x) = y - + L j " 3 c o s
^ — I + b
" s i n
[ir) j
-L
a n = r; J f(x) c o s ^ ^ - * j dx
Fourier series 2 L . . a 0 f • i'n7t xV]

- L< x<L ao = j - } f(xj dx AX) = y + L |â C O S ^ - j - r - j J
n
0
even function
a = £ j . f ( x ) c o s f c ^ J dx
Half range cosine n
series
0 < x<L bn = 0
Fourier series . a 0 = 0 "i

' - L < x.< L odd a„ = 0
, taction '
b = j- J
n f(x) s i n
(-r-j d x
Hatf range sine

• series t«
1
0 < x <L
af important Formulae for Fourier Series

•I) cos nn = (-1)" t
2) sin nrc = 0
, .f-cosnx^ ... ,7 - sin nx")

3) | x sin nx dx
. K - H - ^ l - n H .
4) | x cos nx dx cos nx
cos nx ^ , „ J - s i n n x ^ i ^ f c o s n x
5) j x 2
sin nx dx -(2x)| ^ — |+ 2 1
sin nx -(2x) cosnx^ f-sinnx\

6) | x cos nx dx
2
+ 2
n 2
)
7) j e' M
sin nx dx [a sin nx - n cos nx]
8) | e ,lx
cos nx dx [a cos nx + n sin nx]
a +n
2 2
- cos nx
9) | sin nx dx
n
sin nx
10) J cos nx dx
n
11) | sin x sin nx dx c o s ( l - n ) x - c o s ( l - f n ) x dx
12) | c o s x c o s n x d x = i J c o s ( l - n ) x + cos(l + n ) x dx
T3) | sin x cos nx dx = ^ J s i n ( l + n ) x + s i n ( l - n ) x dx
14) | c o s x s i n n x d x = i j s i n ( n +1) x + s i n ( n - 1 ) x dx
Engineering Mathematics .21 Formulae & Definitions in.Mathematics
b) Important Integrals for Fourier Series
2 n. n
Integral
, I . • I
J
0 -n
| x sin nx dx -2TC
-(-')"»
n n
n
j x. C Q S nx dx .0 (-1)^1 . 0
»
n 2 Ok
| x sin nx dx
2 -4 K 2
0
n
| x cos nx dx
2 4 71 47t(-1) n
2<-1) n
n 2
n
n 2 2
J e 3X
sin nx dx , [1 e
2
n 2 a
*l
n
1 _ e " . ( - 1) l
n - n ( - 1)" [ e an
-e- 3 , 1
]
a +n2 2 L J
a +n
2 2
(a +n )'
2 2
f e ax
cos nx dx ,
, |e "
a 2a
1]
a
e « (- 1)" - l]
a a(- ^[e " -e- "]
3 a
a +n2 2 L J
a +n2 2
(a + n )
2 2
j sin nx dx 0 0
n .». .
J cos nx dx 0 0 0
j sin x sin nx dx '•. 0 0 0

If n * 1
n *1
J cos x cos nx dx 0 0 0
n
* 1
f sin x cos nx dx 0 0
n *1 1-n 2
f cos x sin nx dx 0 0
' > ( - ' ) " ]
n *1 n -1 2
•
13} Error Functions
i) erf(x) = ~ .[ e- 1,2
du
2) erf (x) =
c [ e- » du 2
3) erf(0) = 0 , erf (oo) = 1 -
4) erf(x) + erf (x) = 1

c
Beta and Gamma Functions
i) = | e~* x"-' dx(n >0)
2) n +1 = n | n = n ! (if n integer)
3) 4' = V n
4) j P 11 - P if 0 < p < 1
sin p n r
l
5) P(m,n) j x'n-i(l-x) ~ n 1
dx m > 0 n
rj/2
6) | sin^Q cos^G d9
2*1 2 ' '2
o
in—1
7) B(m,n) dx
v
0 0 •••M nv
1 m I n
8) P(m,n)
m + n
!5) D.U.I.S.
1) if a and b are constmts.
.1 n
2) If a = f, ( a ) , b - f (a)2
^ / f(x,a)dx - J'^f(x,a)dx+ * x f(b,a)-^x-f(a,a)
16) Reduction Formulae

"i 2 n/ 2
r [(n-1) subtract 2... 2 or l l (n . \ r
1) cos xdx =
n
sin"xdx = i ^ x - i f n is even
:
J . ' \ gn) subtract 2...2 or 1] U )
"r 2
[ ( m - l ) . : . 2 p f l l f ( n - l ) . . . 2qt 1] (% , - V *
, x — if m , n both even
2) J sin c o s " x d x '=ni
—I " J L V
- x | - if m , n both even |
[ ( m + n ) subtract 2...2 or 1], ^2 j
o
it/2
3) 'f s i n x cos x d x m
m +1
o
Tt/2
4) f c o s x sin x dx =
m
J m +1
o
17) Conversion Formulae

n/2
2TI
4 j" sin x cos x dx m 11
if m , n both even
1) | sin x cos"x dxn ,
• o
otherwise
n/2
2 | s i n x c o s x dx
m n
if n even for any m
2) | s i n x cos"x dx
m
o
o 0 if n odd for any m
18) Rectification
i-) y = f(x) ds =
2) x = f(y) ds = H + l * | dy
3) ' x = ft (t)
y = + (0
ds' =
mm dt
4) r = f(9) ds = j r 2 . + |Î| de
Engineer mm RAathematics 24 Fofmutee & nfeftmti©tts irt Mathematics
5) r = f (G) dr
ajfe Ama / M a s s / Verfwm©

I). A = || dx d y 2} Mass = j j p d x d y
** . 3Jf M x* = r cos 0 y = r s i n & fchtrt dx dy = r effeS®
A = r ck dO
4} Vol = )|| dx dy dz
fe| C . G . a* A r c
I x dm | y dm
ilTl int
x = v =
| dm. I dm
For arc d m = p d s
| x p ds | y p ds
. | p ds j • P ds
e) C.G-. of Area (Lam

[ x dm | y dm
int
x =
| dm | dm
For. area d m = p dx d y
f| x p dx d y Jj ypdxdy
p dx d y || p dx d y
G..G-. of V o l u m e
| x dm | y dm
ml
x -
| dm ' | dm
irvl
I z dm
2 = in* . • -
I d m
For volume d m = p dx d y dz ,„
JJJ xp dx dy d z
x =
JJJ p dx dy d z
_ Jlj ypdxdydz
^ JJJ p d x dy d z
Jjl zp dx dy d z
JJJ p dx dy d z
e) Moment of Inertia
M.I. = J p p dm 2
int "
Where p is the _L distance of (x, y) from the axis of M . I . and p is the density at (x, y).
1) M.I. of-arc- K:.I. = J p p ds 2
2) M.I. of area (lamina) M . I . = JJ p p dx dy

2
"3) M.I. of volume M.I. = Jj p p dx dy dz 2
f) Radius of Gyration
T
VM
Parallel axes theorem : If Ic is M.I. of a body about an axis through the centroid G of
the body and I the M.I. of the body about any parallel axis through any point A , then
A /
I A = Ic; + M d where M is mass of the body and d is the distance between the parallel
2
axis.
Perpendicular axes theorem : In case of a plane lamina i n the X O Y plane Iz - I x +1 Y
where I x and I Y are M . I . about O X and G Y and l z , M . I . about z axis. •
Note : This theorem is applicable to plane lamina and not to three dimensional solids.
g) Spherical Polar Co-ordinates

i) For sphere x 2
+y 2
+z 2
=a 2
x = r sin 9 cos (j)

26 Formulae & B*0nl8aw*s ta S c h e m a t i c s
y - r s'm 6 sin $
dxdyd;-. = r 3
s i n O d r dt|>dG
it a
I)- F'os sphere x + y + z2 2 2
= a 2
j J J ... dr d ^ d &
0 0 0
n/2 2n a
2} For hemisphere * J J | ... Ard(|>d»

0 0 0
• t n/2 n/2 <i
0 0 0
3> For octant of sphere j | | ... drdduiG
V
For Ellipsoid: 2
= !
b 2
x = - a r sin 6 cos $ •
y = b r sin 8 sin $
z = c r cos 0
.-. , _ dxdydz = abc r 2

sin 6. dr d<J>d0
r. 2r. t
}) For full ellipsoid j j j ...drdtjide
0- 0 0
n/2 2 it 1
2} For henii ellipsoid | | | ... drd<j>d0
o o o
«/2 re/2 1
For octant j J j ... drd<j>d0
» o o
Mean V a l u e s and R . M . S . Values
j f(x) d>
. 1) M.V. = i-
} dx
|| f ( x y ) d x d y
2\ M.V. =
|| d x d y
f [f'M] Six 2
n
3) R.M.S.
b
•J dx
ff [f(xy)] dxdy 2
4) R.M.S.
JL d x d
y.
1
20) Co-ordinate System, Plane, Straight Line-
a) Distance Formula
P. Q i V( 2-X.l) +(y- -yi)

x
2
2
2
+ ( Z 2 - Z ! ) 2
b) Section Formula
1) Internal division
mx2 + nxi my 2 + n y i m z 2 + nzi

.m + n m+_n. m+ n
X X2 + X[ kyz +yi A. Z 2 + Z]
..X.+ 1
x+\ X+l •
2) External division
mx - n x i
2 my 2 - n y i mz -nzi 2
x =
m -n m -n m-n
A, X 2 - X ] >^y2 -yi
x = A-l y = x-i z =
c) Direction C o s i n e s .
Let the line O P be inclined at angles a , p , y with X Y Z axis respectively. T h e n cos a ,
cosp, cosy are called direction cosines (d.c's) of the line O P and are denoted b y /, m, n
respectively. Then,
I +m +n
2 2 2
= 1
i) Direction Ratios
A n y three numbers a, b, c that a r e . proportional to the direction cosines /, m , n

respectively are called direction ratios.
Ei«$tneer»ng Mathematics 28. Formulae .& Definitions in Mathematics,
Hence if a, b, c be the d.r.'s. of a given line, then the actual d.c.'s. are
, a b c
/a - + b2 2
+c 2
Ja 2
+ lb + c 2 2
A /a +b 2 2
+c 2
Amgle between T w o Lines ««
M (/1, m i , n i ) and (/ ,irt2, n ) are the direction cosines of the two lines. T h e n
2 2
cos0 = t\ + n i j H>3 + n i n 2
U direction ratios of two-lines are given as a i , b i , C ] and a , b , c - Then 2 2 2
a 1 32 + b-v b + c i c 2 2
COS0
.Jaf+'bJ + c 2
Ja\ + b\ + c
Conditions for perpendicularity and parallelism

1) W h e n given lines are perpendicular (, / + m i m + ni. 112 = 0
2 2 or
2) W h e n given lines are parallel a 1 a + bi b + c\ c
2 2 2 = 0
h _ mj_ _ £M_ _ j ai bi c t
£2 • m •n ' a2 ' t>2 . c •

-
2 2 2
e) Projection of a S e g m e n t of a Line
P'Q' = P Q cos 0
P'Q' = / ( x - x i )•+
2 m(y -yi)+n(z -z,)
2 2
21} The Plane

1) General f o r m : ax + by + cz + d' = 0
2) Equation of plane passing through ( x i , y i , Z | ) w i t h a, b, c as dr's of the n o r m a l to

*b.? plane is given by
a:(x-X|) +b(y-y,) +c(z-z,) = 0

x y z
3) Intercept f o r m : — + •£- + - = 1
a b c
4) N o r m a l (perpendicular) f o r m : ix + my + nz = p
5) Three points form : The equation of the plane passing through three points
| x i y i , z i ) , ' ( x , y , Z 2 ) and ( x
r 2 2 3 / y3,z ) 3 is
.x .y z 1
x, y, zi 1
x 2 y 2 z 2 1
X3 y3 z 3 l
mattes
1
a) A n g l e b e t w e e n ' T w o Planes
a i x + bi y + Ci z + di = 0
a 2 x+b 2 y + C2 z + d 2 = 0
a\ a2 +bi4>2 +ci c
COS0 = 2
Ja 2
+b 2
+c 2
â\ + b\+c\
If the planes are perpendicular then,
aia +bib +cic

2 2 2 = 0
If the planes are parallel then,
f l = ^ L = £L
'. a 2 b2 C2 ' .. ' . . * ' '
b) Length of the Perpendicular

The length of the perpendicular from the point P(xi,yi,Zi) on the plane
ax + by + cz + d = 0 is,
axi +byj +czi + d

Va 2
+b -+c 2 2
22) The Line
a) Symmetrical F o r m t t
If the line passes through a fixed point (XT , y ,'z\ ) and*has d.r.' s (a, b, c) its equation x
x-X| _ y-yi Z - Z T
lal to
b) Two Point F o r m u l a
The straight line w h i c h passes through two fixed points ( x | , y i , Z | ) a n d ( x 2 / y , z ) is
2 2
x -xi y - y i _ z - z i
x -x,
2 y -yi2 z -z,
2
c) Coplanarity of Lines
oints x-x, = y-yi = z-Z] a n d x-x 2 ^y-yi _z-z 2
h Hi l2 m 2 n 2
Are coplanar if
x-xi y-y., z-z-i

I] m, m
/ 2 m 2 n 2
23) Sphere
1) Center and Radius F o r m : ( x - a ) + ( y - b ) + ( z - c ) 2 2 2

=r 2
2) Standard F o r m : x + y 2 2
+z 2
=r 2
3) General F o r m : x + y 2 2
+ z + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0
2
Its center is (- u , - v, - w ) a n d radius is given by r = v u + v + w 2 2 2

-d
4) Intercept F o r m : The equation, of the sphere,,which cuts off, intercepts a, 'b, c from
ox, oy, oz axis is given by, • '
x +y2 2
+z -ax-by-cz
2
=0
5) Diameter F o r m : E q u a t i o n of sphere having ( x i , y y ; z i ) and (x2/y ,z )
2 2 as
extoernities of its diameter is given b y
(x-xi)(x-x ) 2 +(y-yi)(y-y ) +(z-zi)(z-z )= 0 2 2
Touching Spheres
1) T w o spheres touch externally if the distance between their centers is equal to the
s u m of their radii, i.e. d = ri + r>
2) T w o spheres touch i n t e r n a l l y if the distance between their centers is equal to the
difference of their radii, d = | rj - r j 2
c) Tangent Plane of the S p h e r e __

. x x i + y y i + ZZ| + u ( x + x i ) + v ( y " + y ^ + w (z +,zi) + d =;'0'
Circle
If S = 0 is the equation of a sphere and U = 0 that of a plane, the equations S = 0 and
IcJ = 0 together represents a circle.
Also circle can be expres-^d as intersection of two spheres. Thus if Si = 0, S 2 = 0 are
equations of spheres, the equations
ST = 0 and S 2 = 0
together represent a circle.
Sphere T h r o u g h a Circle
S + A . U = 0 and S + XSx 2 = 0
£| Orthogonal Spheres—
T w o spheres are said to be orthogonal if the tangent planes to the two spheres at the
point of intersection are at right angles.
2uiu 2 -:-2v]V + 2w]W2 2 = dj+d 2

g) Length of the Tangent

AT 2
• = x + y\ + Z] + 2 u ! xi + 2v] y\ + 2w i z\ + d i
2 2
h) Radical P l a n e ' ,
s, -s 2 = o • v '
Note : The radical plane of two spheres is perpendicular to the line joining their
centers.
24) a) Cone
a) •
A cone is a surface generated b y a straight line w h i c h passes through a fixed point
and satisfies one more condition e.g. it intersects a given curve or touches a given surface.
The fixed point is called the vertex and the given curve (or surface) the g u i d i n g curve
of the cone. A n y straight line l y i n g o n the surface of the cone is called its gerterator.
Note : The-equation of a cone whose vertex is at the o r i g i n is a homogeneous equation
in x, y> z ' a n d conversely. ' •
x y z
Corollary : If the line — = — =— is a generator of the cone (whose vertex is at the
I m n °
origin) a x + b y + c z + 2fyz + 2gzx + 2hxy = 0, then direction cosines (or direction ratios) /,
2 2 2
m, n satisfy the equation of the cone.

.\a/ +bm + c n + 2fmh + 2gn/+ 2Wm = 0 and conversely.
2 2 2
b) Quadratic C o n e T h r o u g h the Axes

The general equation of a cone of second degree passing through the three co-ordinate
axes is fyz + gzx + hxy = 0
Condition for the general equation of second degree to represent a cone and to find
the co-ordinates of the vertex :
Let F(x, y, z) = a x + b y + c z + 2fyz + 2gzx + 2hxy + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0

2 2 2
... (i)
a h g u
h b f v
The above equation represents a cone if = 0
g f c w
u v w d
Let (a,f3,y) be its vertex

To find co-ordinates of vertex, make the Equation of cone homogeneous b y multiplying
with proper p o w e r of variable t, then the equation becomes
F ( x , y , z , t ) = a x + b y + c z +2fyz + 2gzx + 2hxy + 2urt + 2vyt + 2 w z t + d t

2 2 2 2
- 0
Engineering Mathematics Formulae & Definitions in Mathematics
Differentiating the above equation partially with respect to x, y, •v,, \ a n d then put t = 1.,
we get,
SF 0F ' 5F 'SF. _
-5-= 0, - 5 - = 0, -r- = 0 and — = 0
dx dy dz dt
Solving these equations w e get co-ordinates of vertex.
c) Right Circular Cone

A right circular cone is a surface generated by a straight line w h i c h passes t h r o u g h , a
fixed point and makes a constant angle with«a fixed straight Kne through the vertex.
The fixed p o i n t is called vertex, the fixed line the Axis of the cone and the angle is
k n o w n as the semi-vertical angle of.the cone. , . .' ,
Note : The section of right circular cone by any plane perpendicular to its axis is circle.
ds)S Enveloping Cone

The locus of the tangent lines from a given point to a given surface is a cone and is
called the enveloping cone of the surface with the given point at its vertex.
Equation of the Enveloping Cone
The equation of the e n v e l o p i n g cone of the sphere x + y + z 2 2 2

=a 2
w i t h vertex at the
point ( a , P , y )
S = x +y 2 2
+z 2
-a 2
Si s a 2
+p 2
+y - a2 2
;.; -
T = ax + py + yz - a 2
or
SS, = T 2
Note : If the given sphere is S = x + y 2 2

+z 2
+2ux + 2 v y + 2 w z + d = 0, then e n v e l o p i n g
cone w i l l still be found to be
SSi = T 2
ST s a + P + y + 2 u a + 2vp+2wy + d
2 2 2
T = x a + y P + z y + u(x + a ) + v(y+p) + w ( z + y ) + d
25)a) Cylinder
A cylinder is a surface generated by a straight line w h i c h is always parallel to a fixed

straight line and satisfies one more condition e.g. it intersects a given curve or touches a
given surface.
b) Right Circular Cylinder

A right circular cylinder is a surface generated by a straight line, which intersects a
fixed circle (guiding curve) and is perpendicular to the plane of the circle.
The normal to the plahe of the guiding circle through its center is called the axis of the
cylinder and radius of the circle the radius of the cylinder. **
. Section of a right circular cylinder by plane perpendicular to the axis is called n o r m a l
section; which is a circle.
Note : The length of the perpendicular from any point on right circular c y l i n d e r tqjts
4
axis is equal to the radius of the cylinder.
c) Enveloping Cylinder » -
The locus of the tangent lines to a given surface and parallel to a given l i n e is a
cylinder and is called the enveloping cylinder of the surface.
26) a) Differential Equations

a)
A n equation involving derivatives is k n o w n as a differential equation.

Order : The order of a differential equation is the order of the highest derivative that
appears i n the equation. . / ' . .
Degree : The degree of a differential equation is the degree of the highest order
differential coefficient or derivative, when the differential coefficients are free from radicals
and fractions.
General S o l u t i o n : A relation w h i c h satisfies a given differential equation and which
involves arbitrary constants equal i n number to the order of the differential equation is
called the general solution (G.S.) or complete integral.
Particular S o l u t i o n : The solution obtained by assigning particular values to the
arbitrary constants i n G.S. of a differential equation is called a particular solution or
particular integral. -
Ordinary Differential Equations of the First Order and First

Degree
b) Type I : Variable Separable

Eatg/neefing Mathematics 34 Formulae & Bretfrntions in Mathematics
c|Tspe B : Reducible to V . S . F o r m
dx = +
ky +
c
) P * ax + by + c = v
u
8% "F$$e NI: Homogeneous D.E.
General Form : ^ = ^ ' ^ 1

, t ^
dx f (x,y) 2
The differential equation of the above form is said to be homogeneous if f| ( x , y ) and

h fx. y ) are homogeneous functions i n x and y of the same degree.
These equations are reducible to V S . form by the substitution
dy dv
V = vx .\ -j^- = v+ X -r—
dx dx
e) Tyfjse- W : N o n - h o m o g e n e o u s D.E.
General form ^ = — - — — ••- (1)

dx a x + b2y + C2
2
Case (i.)
If — = T ^ - put the common factor = v

•a 2 b . 2 , ,
C a s e (ii)
If a
i
a2 b 2
in this case to reduce equation (1) to homogeneous form we substitute x = X + h,

y - Y + h where h and k are constants to be determined.
Also dx = d X , dy = dY
dy dY _ . . L
• = -T^7 Equation (Ij becomes,
dX CIA
dY _ a|X-f b|Y + ( a i h + b | k + C | )
" _
dX a X + b Y + (a h + b k + c )
2 2 2 2 2
Choose h and k such that equation will become homogeneous i n X a n d Y i.e.
tifh + b)k+C| = 0 ar.d . i h + b k + c 2 2 2 = 0

• dY a,X + biY
vVe get - T T T = — - r z — r — v
" dX a X +b ^ 7 2
Which is a homogenous equation in X and Y

Engineering Mathematics 35 .Formulae & Definitions in Mathematics
f) Type V : E x a c t Differential Equations

General f o r m : M ( x , y) dx + N(x, y) dy = 0
If there exists a function u (x, y) such that M dx + N dy = d u then the differential
equation is called as an exact differential equation.
C o n d i t i o n of exactness -^r— = -r-^ its general solution is

dy dx °
| M dx +1 [terms of N not containing x] dy = c

* v - conitlaiit t & «. ^
OR ' " 1
J N d y + J [terms of M not containing y ] d x = c • •

x - constant
g) Type VI : E q u a t i o n s Reducible to Exact Integrating F a c t o r

A n equation, w h i c h is not exact, can be made exact by m u l t i p l y i n g it b y a suitable
factor called as the integrating factor (I.F.).
Rule 1 : If the given differential equation is homogeneous, then
1
I.F. =
Mx + Nv
Rule 2 : If the given D.E. has the form, y f i (xy) dx + xf"2(xy)dy = 0 then,
•1
I.F.
'Mx-Nv
dM dN
Rule 3 : If ° y g X
= f(x) (say) Then I.F. = e- < ) ( f x d x
dN 3M
Rule 4 : If -°* ^ =tfy) (say) Then, I.F. = e ' * ( y )

1 dv
Rule 5 : If the equation M dx + N dy = 0 then I.F. can be written as i.F. = x a

y |!
h) Type VII : Linear Differential Equation

A differential equation is said to be linear "if the differential equation is of first degree..
dy
General form ^r^ + Py '= Q P/ Q a v e

functions of x- then general solution is
y . e
[ P d x
= | Q-ef P d
* dx + C
General form ^ +P x = Q P, Q are functions of y then general solution is
dy
• el > =| Qef Pd Pd
>dy+ C
Engineer
Engineering Mathematics 36 Formulae & Definitions m Mathematics
i) Type VIH : Equation Reducible to Linear Form

1) Bernoulli's differential equation :
_ dy
General form -i- + P- v = Q - v n
• dx • 3 v 3
Divide by y 11
and put y , _ n
=v to get linear equation.
2.) Similarly G . F . ^ + P • x = Q- x 11
Divide by x 11
and put x " =v to get linear êquation.
l _
3) Equations of the form

dy
General form f'(y) - p + P f (y) = Q p u t f (y) - v -to get linear equation. •
$ Polar Differential Equation

• if the equation contains the factors xdx + y d y and xdy - y d x then put
Type 1
x = r cos 6, y = r sin 6,
If X :
r 2
= x +.y
2 2
tan 0 = ^
x 1)
r d r = xdx + y d y
r d0 = xdy-ydx
2 2)
27) Higher Order Differential Equations 3)
a) Linear Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients 4)

If f (D) y = X y = C F + PI is the complete solution of the differential equation.
i); M e t h o d s for f i n d i n g C F .
5)
To find C F , find the roors ot A u x i l i a r y Equation (A.E.), f (D) = 0
1) Real and distinct
If m i , m 2 .... are the roots then,
C F = Cie > + C e ?-
m x
2
m X
...
2) Real and repeated
1) If m i , m i are the roots then,
C F = (c, + c x ) e ' 2
m x
2) If m i , m i , m i are the roots then, 3)
C F = (ci + c x + c x ) e
2 3
2 m , x : 4)
3) C o m p l e x
If a ± if3 are the roots then,
CF'= e a x
(cicosPx>c sinpx) 2 .? •
' . • -.
4) Complex repeated
If a ± ip, a ± ip are the roots then,
C F = e°""[(ci +c x) cosPx+(c 2 3 +c x)sinPx]
4
Note :
1) If bracket square is present then the root is repeated.
2) For the cubic equation apply the synthetic division.
3) For the fourth power equation we m a y get alt complex roots. Therefore fdt the
fourth p o w e r equation adjust the perfect square. •
Particular Integral : P.I. = " ^ | ^ x

• •
1)^X =J Xdx
Type 1
If X = e «
1) ^ e « - ^ e « f(a)*0
1 x r
2) (D-a) r
e'"' = ^-j-e™
x
r !
1 1 x'
3)' ' : e a* = _ e 3
•' 'i|>(D)(D-a) <t>() r a r !
4) K = constant = K e nx
5) -a - e'°P'
x vV
= e °R x, a
1
* 1
f ( D )•a* = —-
f ( l g )â 0 a
x
Note :
1) Here take the factors of f (D) for finding P.I.
2) Replace D by ' a ' only i n the non-zero factor. For he zero factor use the formula
x . •
r
• •
- _ ' e where V is the power of the zero factor.
a x
3) If X = constant then replace D by zero.

4) If X = a " then, replace D by Tog a'.
Type 2 ; •
X = sin ax or cos ax
I sin =j -. sin
^ / cos V / COS
2) (ax + b ) ^ — — ax + b + —
(D +a V 2 2
' l J 2 a r !
- A 2j
v
/ COS
Note :
1) In this type replace D 2
by - a , D 2 3
by - a D and D
2 4
b y a . D o n ' t replace D by
4
• •
2) If the factor D remains i n the denominator then rationalize to get D 2

i n the
denominator.
3) Here don't take the factors of f (D) for finding P.I. Take the factors o n l y if the
denominator becomes zero after the replacement of D b y - a . 2 2
4) If there is a combination of zero and nonzero factor then operate the nonzero
factor first.
5) If D is a factor of f (D) then operate ^ first.
Type 3
If X = x" where n is a positive integer then use the binomial series
• !)(.-. x r , l , n z , % i ) ^ . . .
'2) ~ - = l - z ' + z . . . 2
1+z
3) - ^ - = l + z + z . . . 2
1 -z
T
Note :
1) Don't take the factors of f'(D) for finding P.I.
2) Take the least power term outside with its sign, then f (D) w i l l take the form
(1 + z) or (1 - z ) then use the binomial series
3) If D is factor of f (D) then don't, operate first as it w i l l increase the power of x.

D
Type 4
Type 5
1 f'(D)l 1
f(D) X V
= i -fWlf(D)
X V
Note': ' '

- »«
1) Here v is any function of x a n d p o w e r of x must be 1.

2) If v is sin ax or cos ax and f (D) involves a factor D + a , then don't use this type. 2 2
Then apply type 6.
* Type. 6
D by
1 1
f ( D ) x»sinax=.Img—x-e*
n the
^^x"cosax = Real-^x e n i n x
if the
Note :
nzero 1) e il)
= cos 9+ i sinG
• " • • • - • • ' •
3) (a + ib)(c+ id) = ( a c - b d ) + i ( a d + bc)
Type 7
If X involves tan, sec, cosec, cot, log, e * s i n e " , c o s e * , — - — , L

— — functions then use
:'l -t e x
1.e
_L_ x = e ax
f e~ ax
Xd
D-a j
_l_x = e" ax
f e ax
X dx
D+ a J
b) Method of Variation of Parameter for Finding Particular Integral

1) If Differential Equation of Order 2 then its Complementary Function will be
form
C F . = c,y, + c y 2 2
where y i and y 2 are function of ' x '

>f x.
In this method, replace the arbitrary constant C| and c 2 by two functions u and v and
assume
P.I. = uy i + v y 2
yi y 2
0 y 2
Au
yi yi X y' 2
ErigJCTeering Mathematics 4G Formulae & Definitions in Mathematics
yi o Au
Av ='
yi x
Av
r av
2^1BJ IMfeential Equation of Order 3 then its Complementary Function will be
€..¥. = C|_yi + c y +C3y3 assume P.I. = uy + v y +wy3

2 2 t 2
yi y 2 y3 0 y 2 y 3
A = yi y'2 y'3 0 y' 2 y' 3
yi' y'2 y'3 X y" y- 2 3
yi 0 y 3 yi y - 0 2
yi 0 y' 3 A W = yi y' 2 0
yi' X y" 3 yi y? x
Au Av
v = J "A
~A~
Aw
w - f. ~A~
c) Legendre's Differential E q u a t i o n
vd y . . .->d y 3
dy 2
. W a x + bV —~ + a , (ax + b) — L + a ( a x + b)-/- + a 3V = X -1
2
dx dx 3
dx 2
Put ax + b = e z
or log(ax + b)= 2
dy d
.'. (ax+ b ) - r - = a D y where D = -r-
dx dz J
(ax + b)' a D(D-l)y

2
dx 2
-1 d y 3
(ax + ' ^ - j - i - = a D ( D - l ) ( D - ' 2 ) y 3
df C a u c h y s D . E . ( H o m o g e n e o u s D.E.)
.3 ^ y : ! d y
2
dy
dx 2
dx
Pirtr x = e* or l o g (x) = 2
. . ( x ) ^ - ' = D y where D =
7
^ ' dx J
di
^0=D(D-l)y
W 3
0 = D
( -i)(D-2)y
D
yi 0 Au
Av
yi X T
r Av
v
: J T-
2) If Differential Equation of Order 3 then its Complementary Function will*be
C F = C|yi + c y 2 2 + c y 3 assume P.I. = uyj + v y +wy3

3 2
yi y 2 y3 0 y 2 y 3
*A = yi y'i A\, = 0 y' «/'•}

z
II II . II
yi y2 y3 y\ y3
yi o y 3 yi y 2 o
A v = yi o y' 3 Aw = yi y'2 o
if -\/ II
y? y 2 x
yl X y 3
Av
Jf AA-u
r AW
w J ~A~
c) Legendre's Differential Equation

3 d -v • •> d y 3
dy 2
a u (ax-i- b)' — + a i ( a x + b ) ' — - + a (ax + b)-f- + a y J

2 3 X
dx dx dx
3 2
Put ax + b = e ' or log(ax + b) = z
.'. (nx + b)4^- = a D y where D =

d.\ dz J
(ax + b ) 2
= a D(D-l)y 2
(aX+, > ) 3
S = a3D(D_1)(D_2)y
d) C a u c h y s D . E . (Homogeneous D.E.)
, ^ d y 3
, 2 d y 2
, dy
Put x - e z
or log (x) = z
.-.(x)-^ - = D y where D =
7
dx .
J
dz J
2 d y 2
(x) = D(D-l)y
dx 2
3 d^y
= D(D-l)(D-2)y
dx 3
igngineeririg Mathematics 41 Formulae & Definitions in Matlrematies
28) Laplace Transforms '

i) Definition '. • * '
•x
Lf(t) = J e" st
f(t)dt
s i s real/complex parameter
L f(t) = 4>(s)
1
Luuluue Transforms of Standard Functions *•
J
) (
L t n
) = = ^ T <~, if n i s
integer.
2)L(1)=I 3)L(e*) 1
s > (s-a)
4) L ( s i n at) = 2 , 3
5) L(cos at) = - s
s +a z 2
' K
' s +a. 2 2
s
6) L ( s i n h at) = - y ^ - y 7) L ( c o s h at)
iii) Properties of Laplace
I) First shifting property :
' i f , L[f(t)] ^ 4>(s) then, L e a t

[f(t)] = * ( s - a )
£1) Second shifting property":
Laplace transform of displaced function.

If, L f (t) = <}>(s) and the function
0 t<a
S ( t )
' > f (t-a) t>a
Then, L g (t) = e " <Ks) ns
III) Change of scale property :
If L f (t) = ct>(s) then
Lf(at) = I*(i
IV) Effect of multiplication by t :
If L f (t) - <|>(s) then
Lf(t) = -((.'(s)
Lt f(s)
2
= (-l) f(s) 2
•Engineering Mathematies- 42 Formulae & Definitions in Mathematics
L t » f (t) = (-1)" <j>" (s)
V) Effect of division by t :
• ]f, L f (t) = <|i(s) then
= ( *(s) ds
t
VI) Laplace transform of derivative :
If, L f(t) = 4>(s) then
Lf'(t) = - f ( 0 ) + s ^ ( s )
Lf"(t) = -f'(0)-sf(0)+s (!)(s)

2
VII) L a p l a c e transforms of integral :
If, L f (t) = (|>(s) then
-Lj f(t)dt = 14>(s)
IX) Laplace transforms of periodic functions :
If, f (t) = f (t + a) then,
1
Lf(t) = — — J er«f(t)dt
b) Unit Step Function : (Heaviside unit step function)

(0 t < a fO t < a
U ( t - a ) or H ( t - a ) = { if a = 0, U (t) = I
' K
' [1 t > a . [1 t > a
.1) L H (t - a) =
s
2) L H (0 = — = - = L{l)
s s
3) L f ( t - a ) U ( t - a ) = e"'* <
|
> (s)
4) I f ( t ) U ( t - a ) = e-' w
L f (t + a)
it'
i PSatnematics 43 Formulae & Definitions in Mathematics
EMra® Pteite/Unit Impulse F u n c t i o n

Consider the function,
0 t <a
1
l i f t - a) a <t <a + e - a ) = l i m U (t-a)
c-»0
f >a + e
1) I *<*>&(t-a)dt = J (a)
o
2) L<Ht-a> = j e " 8 ( f - a ) eft = e"

st
3) L f (.{'}& ft - a) = e " J S
f (a)
o% imtsese L a p l a c e T r a n s f o r m s
*(s) L ' P (s>= f(t)

1
1)
2) 1
s-a
3) _ L _ 1 -, (n = integer).
FnTt n
4) 1sin at
5) - sinh at
a
6) cos at
7) cosh at•
3) 6(t)
•'(s-a) e sl
t (t)= e al
L-'.ij. (s)
10) f(s) •tf(t)

11)
I • (s) ds l
12)
j *'(0dt
.Engineering Mathematics 44 Formulae & Definitions in Mathematics
13) ~ - sin at
(s + a )
2 3 2
2n
14)
•^(sin at+ at.cos at)
(s= + 2 ) A
2
15) 1 . *.
—r-(sin at - at cos at)
(s + a )2 2
2a i
16) e" <

|
> (s)as
f(t-a)U(t-a)
17) f (a) e-w f(t)8(t-a)
II) To find L" of inverse trigonometric function and log functions

1
L-'<|>(s) = ^L-H'(s)
III) Convolution theorem
L - <()i ( s ) * (s) = j f, ( u ) f ( t - u ) d u
1
2 2
0 -
t ' • • .
= { f ( t - u ) f (u)du
r 2
e) Sine and C o s i n e Integrals and Exponential Integral

1) Sine integral is defined, as
Si (t) = [ ™ ± d u
J u
0
L(S|(t)) = itan-'i
2) Cosine integral is defined as
c, (t) = 7 d u .
J u
LQ (t) = J-l g(s +l)

0
2
e-ii
3) Exponential integral is defined
d uas
L E i (t) •=. - l o g ( s + l )
45 Formulae & DefmstRuts in Mathematics,
29) Vectors •
Lei a = aî + a a l + a a k
where i> j , k are unit vectors i n direction of X , Y. Z respectively.
»i/ a 3 are live components of a i n direction of X , Y , Z axis respectively.
a =
b$ Dot p r o d u c t of two vectors

a- b = ab cos 9
where a = | aj> b = j b j and 9 -> angle between 2 vectors a a n d
Since cos 0 = 1 a n d cos 90 = 0 we have
1) .'. i i = j - j = k k = 1
2) i j = j - k = k i = 0
3) .'. a - b = a ; b i + a b 2 + a 3b3
2
4) a b = b a C o m m u t a t i v e
5) Dot product of 2 vectors is scalar.
e) C r o s s Protfuct of Two Vectors

A x B = ab sin G fi
Where fi -» u n i t vector perpendicular to the plane of a a n d b a n d
ax b r k
I ax b
1) i x I'= j x j = k x k = 0
"5
2) i x j = k, j x k = i , k x T = j
A
i j k
3) a x b - a i a .
2 as
bi b2 b 3
Of b "
4) ( a x bj: = - ^ b x a ) <- not commutativ<^ ?
^ \ ^
7^)
5) Cross p r o d u c t of 2 vectors is a vector. \ •
• -V M j )
„_xL
ngineering Mathematics 46 Formulae & Definitions in Mathematics
Note : ' , I. , ;
1) g b is not allowed i.e. pure multiplication of 2 vectors is i n v a l i d there irmst either
• be dot or cross.
2) From .formula of dot product the angle between 2 vectors "a and b is given as
ab
cos0
ab
3) If two vectors are perpendicular then a • b = 0

4) Ifktwo vectors are parallel ttien<axb = 0
d) Scalar Triple P r o d u c t (S.T.P.)

a, a. 2 a 3
(bxc) a bc = bi b2 b^
Q c 2 c 3
1) S.T.P. gives the v o l u m e of parallelopiped

2) | a be | = 0 then a, b, c a r e c o p l a n a r
3) In S.T.P cyclic changes are allowed i.e. j a b c j = | b c a | = j c a b j
4) In S.T.P dot and cross are interchangeable

i.e. a - ^ b x c ) = ^ a x b ) - c '
e) Vector Triple P r o d u c t (V.T.P) -; —-y • ~ \ ,

ax(b*c) = (a • c ) b - ( a • b ) c a y. 'q j
lx(2x3) = (1-3)2-(1-2) 3
OA"*
\f a r h>
f) Vector Q u a d r u p l e P r o d u c t
a •c a-d
i) (ax-b)-(cxd)
be b-d
2) (axb)(cxd) = [a b d]c-[a b c]l\
g) Vector Differentiation (j^,

"I I'
If r = xi + yj + z k then, fa o c- Jl
, . dr- dx - d y - dz .-
velocity vector = -r- = -r- I + - r - I + -T- k
G
' dt dt dt ' dt
- . . d r d x, d y,
2
d z 2 2 2
f
acceleration vector = —— = - — l + —— i + -—r-k r
dt dt dt ' dt
2 2 2 2
Engineering Mathematics 47 Formulae & Definitions in Mathematics,
xi) Standard results

d du dv-
1) -7— ( u i v ) = —~-+ —j—
dt ;
dt dt
d ,_ v du ds'
2 )
di ( u ) =
dsdt
. d , • _d$ , du
3 )
d7< > dt *dt .
u < t , = u +
d . . du _ _ dv
4}-^(u-v)= —dtI 7 - - V + U - dt
c vd _ du _ _ dv
d7(
5 )
> dF* u x v
4F= v + u x
du _ _• _ dv _ ' dw
6
) dflj:' v w
]= dt V W U
dt W u V
„ d _ du dv _ (_ d w
7 ) ^ ux(vxw)= - x ( v x w ) + u x ^ _ x w J + u x ^ v x _
5 r
Component of a vector a i n the direction of u is given b y a • u i.e.a - u
h): Tangential and normal components of acceleration of a particle describing a

plane curve in parametric co-ordinates.
Let a j = Tangential component of acceleration a n d a ^- = N o r m a l component of

acceleration.
a•v
a T
TvT
a xv
t) Radial and transverse components of velocity and acceleration of a particle

describing a plane curve in polar co-ordinates.
Radial velocity = r
Radial acceleration = f - r 0 2
Transverse velocity = r0
Transverse acceleration = r9 + 2r0 "
j) Law of Central Orbits (Orbital Motion)
Let a particle describes the curve r = f(9) under the action of force which-is a l w a y s
Td u 2
directed towards a fixed center o then, F = h u -d^9 - + u gives the,law' of acceleration i.e.
2 2
2
the law of force towards the pole where f represents the acceleration h is a constant and
u=j/r
ngineering Mathematics 46 Formulae & Definitions in Mathematics
Note : ' .' , .!•. , 1

1) j) b is not allowed i.e. pure multiplication of 2 vectors is invalid there must either
• be dot or cross. -•. -. _ ...
2) From .formula of dot product the angle between 2 vectors 'a and b is given as
a-b
cos 0
ab
3) If two vectors are perpendicular then a • b = 0

4) If»two vectors are parallel t h e n ^ x b = 0
d) Scalar Triple Product (S.T.P.)

.... «-
a! a 2 a 3
( 6tX P >
a(bxc) = |abc bi b 2 b^
ci c 2 c 3
1) S.T.P. gives the volume of parallelopiped

2) | a be | = 0 then a, b, c a r e c o p l a n a r
3) In S.T.P cyclic changes are allowed i.e. | a b c | = | b c a | = | c a b j
4) In S.T.P dot and cross are interchangeable

i.e. a - ( b x c ) - ^ a x b)-"c
e) Vector Triple P r o d u c t (V.T.P) •; € .a )' •(^> b ) CI

a:<(bxc) = (a • c) b - ( a • b) c
Ix(2x3) = (1-3) 2•-('1-2)3

r r.. a/z~ €
\f a, "
f) Vector Quadruple P r o d u c t
„r on,
a -c a d
1) (Sx-b)-(cxd)
be b-d
fa. h-c
2) (axb)-(cxd) = [a b d]c-[a b c] d ,
•iA.
g) Vector Differentiation
If r = xi + yj + zk then, f a b :
c j
, . dr- d x , d y - dz .-
velocity vector = -=- = - 5 - 1 + - r - 1 + -7- k
fS
}
dt dt dt ' dt
Engineering Mathematics 47 Formulae & Definitions in Mathematics.
XB) Standard results
d du dv-
1) -j-(u +v) = __i + _ r - .
' dt 1 ;
dt dt
„, d dm ds'
2 )
dT ds-dt
( u ) =
„. d . _ , . _d$ dli
3 )
dt^ > dt dF .
u<t, =H + ,j,
d . . du _ _ dv
4 v + u
> = dt' . -dF
... d , _ _. du _ _ dv
3/ - J T { U X v> = —j-*
v + u x — —
dt v 7
dt
dt dt
du _ dv _' dw
dt V w U
dF w
U V
~dT
„ d _ ,_ du dv _ (_ dw
7) ux(vx w) = — x(vx w) + ux| - ^ J T X
W |+ux| vx
dt dt dt
Component of a vector a i n the direction of u is given b y a • vi i.e.a- -j ^

u
u
h) Tangential and normal components of acceleration of a particle describing a

plane curve in parametric co-ordinates.
Let ay = Tangential component of acceleration a n d a N - = N o r m a l component of

acceleration.
a •v
a T =
a x vi
t). Radial and transverse components of velocity and acceleration of a particle

describing a plane curve in polar co-ordinates.
Radial velocity = r
Radial acceleration = f - r G 2
Transverse velocity = r9
Transverse acceleration = r£) + 2r0 " .
j) Law of Central Orbits (Orbital Motion)
Let a particle describes the curve r = f(8) under the action of force which-is a l w a y s
rd u 2
directed towards a fixed center o then, F~= h u - r ^: r + u gives the, law" of acceleration i.e.
de
2 2
the law of force towards the pole where f represents the acceleration h is a constant and
u=i/r
k) Tangential and normal components of acceleration of a particle describing any

plane curve .
dv dv 4,. v 2
' dt dt T +
y N
'
v = vT
P = r=
vx a|
t
'Definitions
i) Field : If i n any region of space a. function is defined for every point of the region,
then this region is known as field.
ii) Scalar Point Function : A function <j>(x, y,z) is called a scalar point function if it
associates a scalar w i t h every point of a region. Then the field is called a scalar field.
iii) Vector Point Function : If a function F (x, y, z) defines a vector at every point of a
region, then F (x, y, z) is called a vector point function. Then the field is called a vector
field.
I) Gradient of a S c a l a r Point Function

If<j)(x, y, z) is a scalar point ftmction then,
Grad di = V<b = i ^ + i ^ + k ^ ( b i s a scalar while, V<b is a vector

<?x cy dz
del = V = i 4 - + i -!r- + k-rr-

ox ' ay oz .
i) Geometrical Meaning of Grad <>j
Grad <>J represents a vector outward normal at point P to the level surface <>j -- c
(constant)
ii) Standard results
I) V [ u ± v] = V u ± V v 2) V(uv) = v V u + u V v
( u "\ v v*u - u V v
3
) [ VJ =
V
~2 • 4
> Vf
("> = '( ')
f 1 Vu
5 ) V f (r) = f ' ( r ) I • 6)V(a-r)= a

peering Mathematics 49 Formulae & Definitions in Mathematics
m) Directional Derivatives
If (|>(x, y, z) is a scalar point function then the "component of grad in any direction is
equal to the directional derivative or rate of change of <
|
> in that direction
DD = (V<}>)-up
where u is the given direction and p is the given point.

As component of vector is maximum in direction of vector itself therefore component
of grad <>j is maximum in the direction of grad <fr hence grad <
|
> represents maximum rate of
change of <> j i.e. DD" is maximum'in the direction of V<|> and maximum magnitude of
DD = |V<|>| • • # .
n) Divergence of a Vector Point Function

Let F = F i + F j + F k
1 2 3
dFi <5F 2 9F3

dx dy dz
w h i c h is a S.P.F. called the divergence of F

If V F = 0 then the F is said to be solenoidal.
o) Curl of a Vector Point Function F

i j k
d_ _9_ _3_
Curl F = V x F
dx dy dz
Fi F F3 2
If V x F = 0 then F is said to be irrotational.

In this case there exists a scalar point function <>j such that F = V<{> - <>
j * k n o w n as scalar s
potential of F the formula for scalar potential is given by,
d<j> = F i d x + F d y + F 3 d z
2
i.e. . <b = J . Fjdx-t- J ' F dy>

2 j F dz
3
y, z constant z constant free x free x, y
Note :
1) C u r l F is vector point function.
2) D i v F is scalar point function.
3) When V x F = 0 angular velocity = 0 hence irrotational.
•p$t' f
r
> " ; ; ; ;....
. " • 4) V - v gives rate of outflow per unit volume when F is solenoidal '..resistance is
' maximum.
.'. when V • F = 0 the f l o w is zero hence F is solenoidal.
5) The work done in m o v i n g ' an object from P to Q in a n irrotational field is [<j>]p
where <>
) is scalar potential of F. **
i) Results
. 1) . V a = 0 2) ,7xa=0.
3) V-r = 3 4) Vxr = 0
5) V - r f = (n + 3 ) r
n n
6) Vxr r =0 n
7) V(a-f) = a
p) Vector Identities
1) C u r l grad (b :
VxV<)> = 0
. . g r a d (bis an irrotational vector what ever scalar point function <b m a y be.
2) Divergence (Curl F) :
d.iv ( V x F ) = 0
. . c u r l F is a solenoidal vector what ever vector point function F m a y be.
• • 3) C u r l (Curl F) : •;. ; -
Vx(VxF) = v(V-F)-v' F 2
4) Div (<bF) :
V-((bF) = (b(v •F)+V<|)-F
5) C u r l (ij)F) :
VxckF = (b(V x F ) + V(bx F
6) Div ( A x B ) :
V-(AxB) = B-(Curl A ) - A - ( C u r l B ) .
7) C u r l ( A x B ) :
Vx(AxB) = ( V B ) A - ( A V ) B+(BV) A - ( V A ) B
8) Grad ( A - B ) . :
V(A-B) = A x ( v x B ) + ( A V ) B+ B X ( V x A ) + ( B - V ) A
i), Vector Form of Green's Theorem
U F = M I + N j where M a n d N are the functions of x a n d y then,
F-df = M dx + N dy
. . F r o m equation (1)
J F - d f = fj [(VxF)-k]dxd'y
Note :
x y 2 2
1) For double integral over the ellipse ^ - + 73- =1

a - b~
Put x = ar cos 6 y = br sin 0 ..dxdy = ab r d r d G
limits |" J ab r drd0

0 0
2) For single integral over ellipse

Put x = a cos 0 y = b sin 0 limits of 0' —> 0 to 2n
3) For double integral over the circle x + y = a
2 2 2
Put x = r cos 0 y = r sin 0 dxdy = rdrdG
limits j j r d r d e
0 0
4) For single integral over the circle,

Put x = a cos 0 y = a sin 0 Limits 0 -> 0 to 2n
c) Stroke's Theorem
It is the generalization of vector form of Green's theorem.
Statement Stroke's Theorem
The surface integral of n o r m a l component of curl of F taken over the surface S is equal
to the line integral of tangential component of F around perimeter of curve C b o u n d i n g
open surface S.
J F - d f = J| ( V x F ) - N d s
Note :
1) If the surface is closed then the bounding curve does not exist therefore we cannot
evaluate Stroke's theorem over the closed surface.
2) If F is irrotational then
VxF = 0
J Fdr = 0
c
3) The abbreviation of N ds is ds.
4) If Si and S are 2 surfaces with the same bounding curve ' C then
2
JJ (VxF)dsT = JJ ( V x F ) d s T
5) If the surface is in X - O - Y plane then, N = k, ds = dxdy

V<b
6) If surface is not X - O - Y plane then, N = j — — then use projection formula
l H - v ,
dxdy
ds = p — —
|N-k|
projection of surface element ds on X - O - Y plane.
d) G a u s s ' s Divergence T h e o r e m
The surface integral of the normal component of a vector F taken over a closed surface
and enclosing volume V is equal to the volume integral of divergence of F taken
throughout volume V bounded by surface S.
JJ F - N d s = JJJ (VF)dv
S V
31) Fourier Transforms

Fourier transform of a non periodic function f (t) i n time d o m a i n into a function F(?^)
in frequency d o m a i n .
Definition
Let f (x) be defined in (- c, c).

3) if { (- x) = f (x), for all x i n (- c, c) then f (x) is even function.
4,i If f (- x) = % f (x), for all x i n (- c, c) then f (x) is a n odd function.
Note 1 : If f (x) is even, then its graph is symmetrica! about Y-axis.
Note 2 : If f (x) is odd, then its graph is symmetrical about opposite quadrant * 1
Mote 3 :
v. *;
J f(x)dx = 2 j H f { » ) is an evert function of x.
= 0 if I (x) is aa odii faction of x.
Name of the Expression*forteamfmm Inverse transform

transform and ord(
interval
Fourier transform
- cc < X < oo Mx) = - ^ j F(X)e'>-*dX
\ Fourier transform
(even function) f (x) = ^ j F(X) cos X x dJt
-•30 < X < 00 0
Fourier cosine
transform 0 < x < oo
| Fourier transform
. (odd function) f (k) =
rf— f s
^?' u
du f (x) = ^ j F(X) sinX x dX
0
- oo < X < co
Fourier sine
; transform 0 < x < &o
32| Statistics
ftfean
i ) Mean (ungrouped data). If x j , x 2 * n are n observations.
2) For grouped data
N&tfe : we can write ^ fj = N .
3) Method of step. Deviation, (to shrapikfy the calculations)
X; - A
M
x = A f h xi
= A+h
I Z f i
b) Median
Median divides total set of data into two equal parts.
i) M e d i a n is value of middle term of series when arranged i n ascending or descending

order of magnitude.
n+1 Y h
If n is odd then median = | —^— | observation.
If n is even median - — — - -
2
ii) For group frequency distribution,
M A- ' / (N/2-C)
h
Median = /+—— — j
- -
I = lower l i m i t of median class,
f = frequency of median class,
h = width of median class. •
C = C F . of the class preceding the median class.
N = £ F,
N
Median class is the class where lies,
c) Mode
It is the value of the variant w h k h occurs most frequently i n a set of observations, or
is the value of variant corresponding to m a x i m u m frequency
h(f, - f )
Mode = / +
0
~—7—4-
/ i\ — to - n
I : lower l i m i t of modal class.
h. w i d t h of the modal class.
fi frequency of the modal class.
fo frequency of the class preceding the m o d a l class.
ii frequency of the class succeeding the m o d a l class.
M o d a l class the class w i t h highest frequency.

Engineering Mathematics. , . SS . Formulae & Definitionsin^ 8iila#rematics
d£ Stawdiarifi DevfestiiotT
i) For ungrO£»r>eti data
ii) For grouped data

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Formulae and Definitions in Engineering Mathematics

4) • sin ( A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B

5) c o s ( A ± B ) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B

11) 2 sin A. cos B = sinf A + B H sinC A - B )

12) 2 sin A sin B = cos ( A - B ) - cos( A + B)

13) 2 cos A cos B = cos ( A - B ) + c o s ( A + B) -

15) cos 2A = cos A - s i nz 2

17) sin 3 A = 3 sin A - 4 sin A 3

18) cos 3 A = 4 cos 3

Angle -e JI/2-8 TI/2 + 0 7t-e n+ 8 2n-Q • 2n jt+9

sin -sine cos 8 cos 9 sin 8 - sin 8 - sin 9 sin 8

cos cos 0 sin 0 - sin 9 - cos 0 - cos 8 cos G cos 6

tan - tan 9 cot e - cot 8 - tan 0 tan 8 - tan 9 tan 0

d>) Cosine Formulae

2) log, a = 1 log 1 = 0 loge = 1

3) log (mn) = log m + log n

15) _d_ u = ^ i - ^ i (Chain Rule)

c) Derivatives of Inverse Functions

I) | x" dx = + c ( n * -1) 2) - d x = log x + c

5) J log x dx = x log x - x 6) sin x dx = - cos x

7) | cos* x dx = s i n x " 8) tan x dx = log sec x

9) J" cot x dx = log sin x 10) sec x dx = tan x

13) | cosec x cot x dx = - cosec x 14) sec x dx - log (sec x + tan x)

15) | cosec x dx = log (cosec x - cot x) 16) , dx = s i n

19) f d x 1 log a + x 20) ^ dx =. log x - a

24) ( V ^ T a " " d x = >- V x + a

25) J e* [f(x) + f'(x)]dx = e* f(x)

29) J e < >f'(x)dx = e< x)

33) J u v dx = UVi-u'V2+u" v 3 ...

3) J f(x)dx = J f(a-x)dx' 4) J f(x) dx = J f(x)dx + | f(x) dx, a < c < b

2J f(x) dx if f(x) is even"

If Im (z) = 0 then z = x is called purely real number.

2) e"'* = cos x - i sin x

•f) O s b o r n ' s Rule , ?.

2) cosh~ ' x = log ( x + v'x - 1 ^ 2

h) Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions

!) - i — sinh x = cosh x 2) —j— cosh x = sinh x

3") ~r- tanh x _d_ coth x = - c o s e c h x

d" ( - l ) " (m + l)(m'+2)...(m + n - l ) a "

d" r ml m !a" (aj^b) r

Case I : If m is positive integer and m > n (ax + b) = — r - . —

d" (-1)' n ! a " 1

2) f(x + h ) = f ( h ) + x f ' ( h ) + | j f"(h) + ^ f'"(h)-

3) " f(x) =' f(h) ( x - h ) f ' ( h ) ^ 2 T - ' f " ( h ) . . .

There are seven Indeterminate fqfms v i z . ^ , — ,. Ox oo, <x>-«p , 0 ° , oo°, \ "

12) — L = 1-x + x - x ' + -

14) Binomial expansion

A sequence is said to be bounded if it is both b o u n d e d below and botsnde-d above. •

i.e. a „ . -> 1 as n —> oo or lim a n = 1

2) A sequence [a„ } is said to be monotonically decreasing if a„ > a , 1+1 for all n.

e) Limits of s o m e Standard Sequences

If {a „ } and {b„ | are two convergent sequences such that

2) Sequences {a (1 • b } is convergent and converges to A . B .

Infinite Series '

The sequence {S„ } is called sequence of partial sums.

The series ^ a n is said to be convergent if the sequence of partial s u m s {S n } is

3) If lim S„ is not unique as n - » o c , then V a „ is said to be. oscillatory or

3) If ^ a n is convergent or divergent series then ^ k a „ will remain respectively

Test for divergence

If Y ] a n is a positive series such.that lim ( a ) " n = L , then the series

ii) Diverges if L > 1

iii) The test fails if L = 1.

If two positive term series Y u n and V v n be such that l i m —— = finite quantity

W o r k i n g rule to find the auxiliary s e r i e s YJ v n