TOD M I Design II Evolution

Theory of Design
Spring Semester 2023-24 | PA 3912
Lecture:
Tuesdays 3:15 – 4:10 pm
Thursdays 2:15 – 3:10 pm
Fridays 1:15 – 2:10 pm
Tutorial:
Wednesdays 8:00– 8:55 am
Course Coordinator: Deepanjan Saha, Ph.D. Dept. of Planning and Architecture, NIT Rourkela
Lecture slides from Module I & II
What is Theory?
noun: an idea or set of ideas that tries to explain something
Deepanjan Saha | Dept. of PA | NIT Rourkela 2

What is Design? (Dictionary definition)


What’s Theory of Design?
1. What is Theory? What is Design?

2. Does Designing require any Theory?
3. Why do we theorize? Why do we design?
4. How do we design? Is there any process? Any method?
1. What is the Design Process? Which are the Design Methods?

Syllabus 3-1-0 | 3 credits

Syllabus
we design?
Where does design fit in?

Human Centred Design: Aids of Discoverability

Reading List

Module – I
What is Designing?
Lecture 1

What is Designing?
• A problem-solving exercise.

What is Designing?
• A problem-solving exercise + problem-finding
• Incorporating practices increasing the efficiency of a system (e.g., railways, CPU,
etc.)
• User-centric approach to any issue.
• Making beautiful and aesthetic products / solutions / spaces / system.
• Integration of art and science to increase QoL. (APPLICATION)

What is designing? What is to design? What is design?
Add your responses here:
• Daksh: process of problem solving targeted to tangible / intangible objects / services
• Agamya: to visualize objects, lay out a step-by-step PLAN / to strategize
• Anwesh: to empathizing with target audience and coming up with a feasible SOLUTION
• Abhineet: to make THINGS/OBJECTS more BEAUTIFUL (looks good) and USER-FRIENDLY
(easy to use)
• Pavani: connecting DOTS between IMAGINATION and REALITY
• Waseem: Making plans for construction
• Ashirwad: to make / assembling any tangible OBJECT (building, gadget)
• Neelansh: solving PROBLEMS
• Varun: to make life easier
PROBLEM SOLVING
• Riya: to meet daily needs / luxury through DESIGN
PRIOR-VISUALIZING
Objects / things
Design steps / strategy

What is Design?
Definitions from course-participants (Dec 15, 2020):
• Sai Swarup: Process of solving the user’s pain points / problems.
• Soutrik: Thought process focussed on solving problem(s) within the constraint of time and
resources.
• Ramakrushna: Problem solving process – business goals, technical constraints, and aesthetics.
• Abhipsa: Iterative process / step-by-step approach – redefining the problem --- set of solutions.
• Soumyajeet: Problem solving process from user’s perspective; sensory expressions
• Shreyas: Making life easy, pleasing, (convenience), use of ease
• Definitions from the web:

• Engg. Design: Construction of an object, implementation of activity and process, result of the plan / specifications in
the form of prototypes, application of scientific knowledge, efficiency.
• Artist’s definition of design: Design as an expression of creativity, catering to emotional needs.
• Art and action of conceiving a plan / drawing before it’s made.

What is designing | Participants Speak
• INDUSTRIAL DESIGN
• Understanding design and its impact upon the emotions of customers
• Customizing
• Managing efforts / skill-sets / cost / duration
• Mass-manufacturing
• Emotional design
• ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN
• Space optimization – utility of space
• Enhancing user experience
• Responding to the context and client’s requirements
• Everyday objects / physical products / …. / user interfaces / communication /

services
• User Experience



What is Design?
• Problem-solving process
• Creating experiences
• Creative process through which both functional and aesthetic requirements are met
• Meets a purpose with efficiency / efficacy
• …
A goal-directed problem-solving activity (Archer, 1965).
Relating product with situation to give satisfaction (Gregory, 1966).
Engineering design is the use of scientific principles, technical information, and imagination in the definition
of a mechanical structure, machine, or system to perform prespecified functions with the maximum
economy and efficiency (Fielden, 1963).

Goal-intended?!

What is Design?
Design describes both the process of making things (designing) and the product of this
process (a design). … The activity of designing is a user-centred, problem-solving process.
—Kathryn Best, author of Design Management: Managing Design Strategy, Process and Implementation
Design is the creative process in which:

• we use our intuition and analytical ability to understand the opportunities and constraints,
business goals, competitive markets, customer needs, and technologies present
• then envision, communicate, and realize practical solutions that meet customer needs and
create business value.
(Gabriel-Petit)
Theory of Design | Deepanjan Saha | NIT Rourkela 02-02-2024 21

What is Design?
Charles Owen (2004)
Page (1966)
Harold Nelson & Erik Stolterman (2002)

What is Design?
Bryan Lawson & Kees Dorst (2009) Page (1966)
Ashimow (1962)
What is Design?
Herbert Simon (1969)
John Christopher Jones (1970)
Doblin (1987)
Designing is to initiate change in man-made things (Jones, 1970).

Why do we design?
What are the Designer’s Objectives?
What the challenges of designing?

Lecture 2
Recap : What is Designing?
• Multifaceted design needs → multiple definitions
• To be understood from the particular background / context
• Similarities + differences between design fields
• “To initiate CHANGE in man-made things”
What are the objectives of the Designer?

- To predict the ultimate effects of the proposed design (PREDICTION)
- To specify the actions needed to realize these effects (SPECIFICATION)

Why do we Design?
Nelson & Stolterman (2002)

Product

Designing as the making of interrelated predictions and
specifications
Sponsor’s Instructions, or output specifications
Material Design Distribution Sales Performance System Evolutionary
Spec Spec Spec Spec Spec Spec Spec
System
Sponsors Suppliers Producers Distributors Purchasers Users Operators
Society
Design Design
Brief Proposal
Designers’ models of future behaviour of the above
Designers Designers Designers Designers Designers Designers Designers Designers
Designers’ predictions of the outputs from each stage of the process
Deepanjan Saha | Dept. of PA | NIT Rourkela Adapted from Jones (1970), fig. 1.1, p. 7 33
Questions about the product Sources of answers
Queries of the
Design team
Source: Jones (1970), fig. 1.2, p. 8

Challenges in Design
Lawson & Dorst (2009)
Jones (1970)

Effects of Design
Jones (1970)

Effects of Design
Nelson & Stolterman (2002)
Can you think of any designed product / service and any of its UNINTENDED EFFECT?
(unintended) effects of Design
need for
socially
responsible
design
Goal-intended?!

Tutorial 2 : Effects of Design
• As discussed, design has a series of impacts / effects over time (immediate effect /
mid-term effect / long-term effect), over realms (physical, socio-cultural, economic,
behavioural, etc.). Some of these impacts are intended by the designer, and some
not.
• Extending upon this understanding, discuss the short / mid / long term impacts of
any designed product / service / action of your choice on the subjects - both at the
individual and community levels. If applicable, highlight if any of these impacts
were not intended by the designer at the design phase.
• Submit the tutorial as a PDF.

RECAP
• What is designing?
• [Ambiguity in definitions]
• Design is a goal-intended problem-solving process.
• To design is to initiate changes in man-made things (Jones, 1970).
• To change existing situations into preferred ones (Simon, 1969).
• What are the objectives of a designer?
• To meet the needs of multiple stakeholders related to the life-cycle of the designed product /
output.
• To make interrelated predictions and specifications over the product’s life-cycle / stages in the
process.
• What the challenges of designing?
• Limited to use current information to predict a future state (Jones, 1970)
• Multifaceted nature of design – as there is no single way of looking at design (Lawson & Dorst,
2009)
• Designers have to conceive and plan what does not yet exist, which makes designing difficult
(Buchanan, 1992)
• Every design problem is fundamentally indeterminate: Design as ‘wicked’ problems (to be discussed
later)

Why is designing difficult? Hierarchy of design process expanded
Community
Level City Later
additions
Systems
Level Housing Traffic
Product
Level House Site Vehicle Road traditional
scope of
designing
Components Indoor Outdoor Right to Land
Body Engine Surfaces Networks
Level spaces spaces property parcel
Adapted from Jones, 1970, p. 31

Passenger Bike Sharing in Cities
COMMUNITY LEVEL
• Citizens cycling instead of taking out of motorized vehicles
• Reduced carbon footprint
• Cycling as a physical exercise → healthy citizenry
• Cycling remains no more a taboo → more inclusive cities
SYSTEMS LEVEL
• Design of a city-wide Passenger Bike Sharing SYSTEM
• Planning of docking stations across the city
• Design of bicycle lanes across the city
• Financial planning of the expenses (revenue collection model)
• Reduced pressure on motorized vehicular traffic systems
PRODUCT LEVEL
• Design of a bicycle which may be secured at a docking station
• Design of an identification system
• Design of a mobile application

Low Income / Affordable housing with incremental
layout
COMMUNITY LEVEL
• Dignified living for all in the city, particularly the urban poor
• Eradication of slums
SYSTEMS LEVEL
• Low-income settlement system in cities
PRODUCT LEVEL
• Affordable house with incremental layout → increases capacity to own a house
• Allows form-variation → avoidance of monotonous housing development

Why is designing difficult? New technologies

Why is designing difficult?
Parametric Design
Biomimicry
Who are
Designers?

Who are
Designers?
49
Designers
• Interaction Designer
• User experience researcher
• Product Designer
• Usability Testing Analyst
• Web Designer
• Visual Designer / Graphics
• Motion Graphics
• Architects
• Urban and Regional Planners
• Interior Designers
• Landscape Designers /
Architects
• Restoration / Conservation
Architects
• Design simulators

We have a huge family!
Deepanjan Saha | Dept. of PA | NIT Rourkela Source: Wikipedia 51
What are we designing?

Design as a profession
Designing profession may be
further split into multiple
sub-specializations

Classification of Designers / Areas of Design Thinking
Symbolic & Visual Activities & Complex systems &
Material Objects
Communications Organized services Environments
• Graphic design • Everyday objects • Logistics • Architecture
(typography, • Apparel • Decision making / • Urban planning
advertising, • Home appliances strategic planning • Systems
publishing, • Network design engineering
• Machinery
illustration)
• Automobile • Functional
• Photography, film analysis
& TV • Other products
• Web interfaces
Buchanan, R. (1992) Wicked problems in design thinking. Design Issues. Vol. 8, No. 2, pp.9-10)
Classification of Designers / Areas of Design Thinking
Visual Industrial Graphic Research
• Images which • Functional • Where • experiments

communicate objects printed word
appears
Munari, B (1966) Design as Art. Penguin Classics (2008 reprint)

Conceptual Repositioning of Design Problems
• Graphic designers: those ‘decorating messages’ → communicators of corporate messages
• Industrial designers: those making functional / material objects →
• Making objects communicative (visual communication)
• Making objects in the context of experience and action (user experience)
• Making material objects as part of larger systems, cycles, and environments (interaction / interface)
• Architects & Planners: those making buildings and cities → designing habitat
Symbolic Visual Material

Communication Objects Signs Things
Activities & Complex

Organized systems or Actions Thoughts
services Environments
Recap
• What are the objectives involved in designing?
• Whose objectives? Designer’s? Client’s? Users’?
• What makes designing difficult?
• Multifaceted problem solving activity
• Multiple stakeholders involved
• Predicting a future state based on currently available information
• Who are the designers?
• Spectrum of designers
• Classified by the end-product, instead of the process involved

Is Design an Art, Science, or
Mathematics?

Domain of Knowledge
Where does DESIGN fit?

Classification
Timing Science: present state, phenomena
Arts: present state, intuitive
Mathematics: timeless, abstract relationships
Jones, J.C. (1970) Design methods: Seeds of human futures. Wiley. pp. 10-12
Design is a HYBRID activity.
Differences w.r.t. Timing : Attitude : Tools : Criteria

Is design a science?
Design – a liberal art of technological culture (Buchanan, 1992)
Liberal art:
a discipline of thinking that may be shared to some degree by all men and women in their daily lives; mastered by a few who practise
the discipline with distinctive insight and advance it to new areas of innovative application (p. 8)
Technology:
• Conventional meaning: how to make and use artefacts
• Art of experimental thinking (John Dewey, The Quest for Certainty)
Is design a practical demonstration of the scientific principles in the subject matter in sciences?
Is design an ____ ?
• applied natural science
• applied social science
• applied fine art
Design as an INTEGRATIVE DISCIPLINE (Buchanan, 1992)

• Design problems are fundamentally indeterminate
• Scientific problems are either undetermined or under determined
• no defined subject matter in design
• No science of the ‘particular’

Is design an art or science?
Value-driven / biased unbiased

Source: Slide Shares by Bas Leurs (2014)

Is design an art, or science?

Design Art
Engineering

Design & Science

Module-II
Evolution of Design Methods

What is a METHOD?
• A procedure, or process for attaining an object as:
• Systematic procedure, technique, or mode of inquiry employed by a particular discipline
• Systematic plan followed in presenting material for instruction
• A way, technique, or process of, or for doing something

• A body of skills, or techniques
• A discipline that deals with the principles and techniques of scientific inquiry
• An orderly arrangement, development, or classification

• Habitual practice of orderliness and regularity
What is a METHODOLOGY?
• a body of general principles
What is a THEORY?
• a set of propositions which provides principles of analysis or explanation of a subject matter (Mautner)
Design methods movement
Design as a young discipline in the industrialize and post-industrialized world
Generations of design methods proposed by Horst Rittel (1973):

First Generation: 1960s
• Influenced by the growth of scientific underpinnings in many types of design in
the first half of the 20th century (e.g. material science, engineering science,
building science, behavioural science, etc.)
• Reflected in rising application of systematic, rational, scientific methods (e.g.
operations research, decision making, etc.) to find optimal solutions to design
problems
• Why have a focus on scientific methods? Since modern, industrial design was
identified to be too complex to be merely solved by intuitive methods of pre-
industrial design only
• Disseminated through a series of conferences held across Europe and the USA in
the 1960s and 70s; and publications by noted scholars, namely M. Asimow,
Christopher Alexander, J. C. Jones, and others London, 1962

Publications
Morris Asimow, 1962 J.C. Jones, 1970 Since 1989
• Asimow, M. (1962), Introduction to Design. Englewood Cliffs, NJ., Prentice-Hall

• Archer, L. B. (1965), Systematic Method for Designers. London, The Design Council
• Alexander, C. (1964), Notes on the Synthesis of Form. Cambridge, Ma., Harvard University Press
• Jones, J. C. (1970), Design Methods. Chichester, UK, John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
• Broadbent, G. (1979), "The Development of Design Methods." Design Methods and Theories 13(1): 41-45.
Design methods movement
Generations of design methods proposed by Rittel (1973):
First Generation: 1960s
Second Generation: early 1970s
• Rejection of design methodology by early pioneers, namely, Christopher Alexander and J. C. Jones
• Influenced by the socio-cultural context of the late 1960s: campus revolutions, and rejection of previous values
• Design problems identified as ‘wicked problems’ by Rittel and Webber (1973), thus differentiating design problems from ‘tame’
problems found in engineering; highlighting the lack of success in the application of scientific methods to design
• Shift from the focus on optimal solution to satisfactory solutions to design problems [the concept of ‘satisficing’ as satisfying +
sufficing – introduced by Herbert Simon in 1969]
• Initiated argumentative, participatory processes between designers and users / clients (i.e. those who pose the design problem) –
more suitable to architectural design and planning, not to engineering → International conferences on Engineering Design
Methodology held in Europe (particularly, Germany), Japan, and later, in the USA in the 1980s (marked a split in the design evolution in
architecture and planning as opposed to engineering design)
Third Generation: 1980s and further

• Renewal of interest in design automation, intelligent electronic design assistants, Artificial Intelligence (AI)

Design as Science + Craft
Design requires (Friedman, 1999):
• Object-specific methodologies – requires grounded conceptualization
• Performance patterns, and skills – requires tacit knowledge, situated behaviour
Design as a SCIENCE:
• Based on object-specific methodologies
• Could be systematically organized as a body of knowledge, developed into a theory – an applicable one
• Identification of generalizable / universal behaviours – exhibited by people across places and times
• PREDICTABILITY – one would find desirable results
• Understanding ‘things: how they are, how they work’
Designing is to devise courses of action aimed at changing existing situations into preferred ones (Simon)
Design as a CRAFT:
• based on performance patterns and skills (tacit knowledge)
• relies on inter-generational skill transfer as heredity
• INTUTIVE actions – process to find desirable actions can’t be traced back

Design Methodology & Science
Science is analytic, Design is constructive (Gregory, 1966)
Methods may be vital to science, but NOT to design (Cross, 1991)
Scientific Design
Design Science
Science of Design

Scientific Design
Modern industrialized design based on scientific knowledge.
• utilizing both intuitive and non-intuitive design methods; thereby, distinct from pre-industrialized / traditional arts and
crafts
• e.g., search for theoretical and/or scientific underpinnings in design disciplines and consequent development of disciplines
named as sciences; e.g. building science, environmental science (which were previously the forte of designers)
Design Science
• Considered design as a scientific activity much more than mere use of scientific knowledge in design of artifacts;
• Aim of design science as being to 'recognize laws of design and its activities, and develop rules’ (Hansen, 1974)
• design as an explicitly organized, rational, systematic approach to design.
Constituents of design science (Hubka and Eder, 1987)

1. applied knowledge from natural and human sciences
2. theory of technical systems
3. theory of design processes
4. design methodology

Design Science
Design science:
… comprises a collection (a system) of logically connected knowledge in the area of design, and
… contains concepts of technical information and of design methodology
... addresses the problem of determining and categorizing all regular phenomena of the systems to be designed, and
of the design process
… concerned with deriving from the applied knowledge of the natural sciences appropriate information in a form
suitable for the designer's use.
(Hubka and Eder, 1987)
Science of Design
Body of work which attempts to improve our understanding of design through 'scientific' (i.e., systematic, reliable)
methods of investigation (Cross, 1991)

Design problems are ‘Wicked’
Why is Designing difficult?

What are wicked problems?
A class of social system problems:
• which are ill-formulated,
• where the information is confusing,
• where there are many clients and decision makers
with conflicting values,
• where the ramifications in the whole system is
thoroughly confusing

Horst Rittel, 1960s

Ten properties of Wicked Problems
Rittel and Webber's 1973 formulation of wicked problems in social policy planning specified ten
characteristics:
1. There is no definitive formulation of a wicked problem.
2. Wicked problems have no stopping rule.
3. Solutions to wicked problems are not true-or-false, only good or bad.
4. There is no immediate and no ultimate test of a solution to a wicked problem.
5. Every solution to a wicked problem is a "one-shot operation"; because there is no opportunity to learn
by trial and error, every attempt counts significantly.
6. Wicked problems do not have an enumerable (or an exhaustively describable) set of potential
solutions, nor is there a well-described set of permissible operations that may be incorporated
into the plan.
7. Every wicked problem is essentially unique.
8. Every wicked problem can be considered to be a symptom of another problem.
9. The existence of a discrepancy representing a wicked problem can be explained in numerous ways.
The choice of explanation determines the nature of the problem's resolution.
10. The social planner has no right to be wrong (i.e., planners are liable for the consequences of the actions
they generate).

1. There is no definitive formulation of a wicked
problem
• Need to develop an exhaustive inventory of all conceivable solutions ahead of time
– in order to describe the problem.
• Being able to describe a desirable space, one has identified the possible solutions.
• Formulation of the wicked problem is the problem!
• Example: poverty

2. Wicked problems have no stopping rule.
• The process of solving the problem is identical with
the process of understanding its nature.

3. Solutions to wicked problems are not true-or-false, only good or
bad.
• Assessment: satisfactory (or not), better or worse
4. There is no immediate and no ultimate test of a solution to a wicked problem.

• Full consequences cannot be appraised until the consequences are witnessed.
5. Every solution to a wicked problem is a "one-shot operation"

• because there is no opportunity to learn by trial and error, every attempt counts
significantly.
• Example: failure of several transit projects, satellite townships.

6. Do not have an enumerable (or an exhaustively describable) set of
potential solutions
• nor is there a well-described set of permissible operations that may be incorporated into the plan
• Ill-defined problem → ill-definable solutions
• Set of feasible solutions relies on realistic judgement
7. Every wicked problem is essentially unique.

• No classes of wicked problems → ‘one shoes fits all’ approach negated
• Contextual response
8. Every wicked problem can be considered to be a symptom of another problem.

• Cannot afford to look at the ‘parts’ alone; needs integrated / holistic approach
• Marginal improvement does not guarantee overall improvement

9. The existence of a discrepancy representing a wicked problem can be explained in
numerous ways. The choice of explanation determines the nature of the problem's
resolution.
• Modes of reasoning are richer compared to scientific investigation
10. The planner has no right to be wrong

• No tolerance with the consequences of actions
• The aim is not to find the truth, but to improve some characteristics of the world where people live.

Entrapment

Why are Design Problems ‘wicked’?
Scientific inquiry:
• Types of problems – so as to classify / categorize
• Patterns of reasoning employed – so that effective patterns may be emulated/ adapted
Subject matters in Design:

• General level
• Particular level
Indeterminate vs. undetermined

Bibliography
• Buchanan, R. (1992). Wicked problems in design thinking. Design issues, 8(2), 5-21.
• Cross, N. (1993). A history of design methodology. In Design methodology and relationships with science (pp.
15-27). Springer, Dordrecht.
• Jones, J.C. (1972). Design methods: seeds of human futures. Wiley.
• Lawson, B. (2006). How designers think: The design process demystified. Routledge.
• Rittel, H. W., & Webber, M. M. (1973). 2.3 planning problems are wicked. Polity, 4(155), e169.

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Theory of Design

Spring Semester 2023-24 | PA 3912

Deepanjan Saha | Dept. of PA | NIT Rourkela 2

Deepanjan Saha | Dept. of PA | NIT Rourkela 3

Deepanjan Saha | Dept. of PA | NIT Rourkela 4

1. What is Theory? What is Design?

Deepanjan Saha | Dept. of PA | NIT Rourkela 5

Deepanjan Saha | Dept. of PA | NIT Rourkela 6

Where does design fit in?

Deepanjan Saha | Dept. of PA | NIT Rourkela 9

Deepanjan Saha | Dept. of PA | NIT Rourkela 10

Deepanjan Saha | Dept. of PA | NIT Rourkela 11

Deepanjan Saha | Dept. of PA | NIT Rourkela 12

Deepanjan Saha | Dept. of PA | NIT Rourkela 13

Deepanjan Saha | Dept. of PA | NIT Rourkela 14

• Definitions from the web:

Deepanjan Saha | Dept. of PA | NIT Rourkela 15

• Everyday objects / physical products / …. / user interfaces / communication /

Deepanjan Saha | Dept. of PA | NIT Rourkela 16

Deepanjan Saha | Dept. of PA | NIT Rourkela 17

Deepanjan Saha | Dept. of PA | NIT Rourkela 18

A goal-directed problem-solving activity (Archer, 1965).

Relating product with situation to give satisfaction (Gregory, 1966).

Deepanjan Saha | Dept. of PA | NIT Rourkela 19

Deepanjan Saha | Dept. of PA | NIT Rourkela 20

Design is the creative process in which:

Theory of Design | Deepanjan Saha | NIT Rourkela 02-02-2024 21

Charles Owen (2004)

Harold Nelson & Erik Stolterman (2002)

Bryan Lawson & Kees Dorst (2009) Page (1966)

Herbert Simon (1969)

John Christopher Jones (1970)

Deepanjan Saha | Dept. of PA | NIT Rourkela 25

What the challenges of designing?

What are the objectives of the Designer?

Deepanjan Saha | Dept. of PA | NIT Rourkela 28

Nelson & Stolterman (2002)

Deepanjan Saha | Dept. of PA | NIT Rourkela 29

Deepanjan Saha | Dept. of PA | NIT Rourkela 31

Designers Designers Designers Designers Designers Designers Designers Designers

Designers’ predictions of the outputs from each stage of the process

Source: Jones (1970), fig. 1.2, p. 8

Lawson & Dorst (2009)

Deepanjan Saha | Dept. of PA | NIT Rourkela 35

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Nelson & Stolterman (2002)

Deepanjan Saha | Dept. of PA | NIT Rourkela 40

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Deepanjan Saha | Dept. of PA | NIT Rourkela 42

Adapted from Jones, 1970, p. 31

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Visual Industrial Graphic Research

• Images which • Functional • Where • experiments

Munari, B (1966) Design as Art. Penguin Classics (2008 reprint)

Symbolic Visual Material

Activities & Complex