Circuits - 01

S.M. No.
: SNTI / FLP / SM / 01
Rev. No. : 08
Effective Date : 15-01- 2021
STUDY MATERIAL
ON
INDUSTRIAL HYDRAULICS
LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT

An ISO 9001 : 2015 Certified Organization
STUDY MATERIAL ON Industrial Hydraulics
PREFACE
Hydraulics is a modern trend of power transmission. All automated equipments and systems which
require precise control are normally incorporated with hydraulic system. It has gained popularity because of
its accuracy, response, effective working and maintenance free operation. It has made its approach to any
level from our house hold equipments to very precise and automated system like, aircraft and war field
equipments.
This study material focuses on the subject “Industrial Hydraulics”. Basic principle of hydraulics along with the
construction and function of different hydraulic components have been described in this study material. This
study material will help to know hydraulic system well. Trainees and employees will be certainly benefited by
this study material.
Prepared by Revised by Approved by

R K Mishra A.K Pandey Anand Kumar Singh
Manager (Training) Sr. Instructor Sr. Manager (Training)
Mechanical Fluid Power Mechanical
1 Learning & Development

Shavak Nanavati Technical (SNTI)
Institute
CONTENTS
Sl. No. Topics Page #
01. Introduction and basic principles of Hydraulics 03
02. Hydraulic Fluids 11
03. Strainers and Filters 15
04. Introduction to Pump 23
05. Gear Pump 26
06. Vane Pump 28
07. Piston Pump 31
08. Pressure Relief Valve 35
09. Reducing Valve 38
10. Check Valve 40
11. Direction Control Valve 43
12. Flow Control Valve 47
13. Actuator 51
14. Accumulator 57
15. Hydraulic Symbol 60
16. Hydraulic Circuits 64
17. Practical Exercises 65

18. Questionnaire for self Evaluation 67

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INTRODUCTION AND BASIC PRINCIPLES OF HYDRAULICS

Let us see first what is "HYDRAULICS". By the term "hydraulics" it is understood the transmission and
control of forces and movements by means of fluids. The fluids used to transmit the forces and movements are
generally incompressible fluids, like water or oil. External forces applied on it will increase the pressure of the
fluid, which resist the external forces, but the volume the fluid will remain constant. Practically, the fluids are
compressible at very high pressure by negligible amount, eg. 1/2 % at 1000 PSI, 1 % at 2000 PSI and 1.1 % at
more than 2000 PSI pressure.
There are normally two fields of application of hydraulics, which are completely distinct both in their basic
principles and in their potential application. When a load is moved or hanged by the pressure energy of the
system, as in a hydraulic jack, it is called Hydrostatic power transmission, but, when high velocity of fluid or
very high kinetic energy of the fluid is used to get the high rotation of a water turbine, it is called Hydrodynamic
power transmission.
Industrial Hydraulics basically deals with the hydrostatic power transmission. These are some characteristic
features of hydraulic systems, because of which, they have prevailed over other forms of power transmission.
1. It is a self lubricated system.
2. Simplicity of operation.
3. Sensitive, smoothly variable speed controls.
4. The equipment is economical in space and weight.
5. Simple safe guarding against overloads, by means of a pressure limiting valve.
6. Ease in monitoring and checking the hydraulic system by means of pr. gauge.
7. Ease of transmitting motion and power from prime mover to machine.
8. Like a gear box, it provides positive drive, hence no chances of slippage between driver and drive elements.
The use of hydraulics is, of course, subject to some limitations, which should be monitored here.
1. Friction on various components increases the temperature of the oil.
2. A great deal of care must be taken in the design and manufacture to avoid leakage.
3. High initial cost of the components.
4. Fire hazards as hydraulic system contains oil and rubber connections like hoses, etc.
A pump is driven by a diesel engine or an electric motor. It sucks in oil, and transfers into the system thus
converting the mechanical energy into hydraulic energy. The pressurized oil is delivered through pipes and
control elements to the driven unit, which converts the hydraulic energy back into mechanical energy. Pump
pressurises the oil and transfers it to the loaded driven unit. It flows, therefore, it has velocity. Hydraulic
energy, therefore, comprises pressure energy and Kinetic energy and the combination is called hydraulic
energy.
FORCE : The force can be defined as an external agent which changes the position of rest or of motion of a
body moving with uniform speed in a straight line.
Therefore, Force = Mass x Acceleration

Institute
PRESSURE : The force acting on unit area is called pressure or the intensity of force is called pressure. The
different units of force and pressure are given as:
Therefore, Pressure = Force / Area
FORCE PRESSURE
Poundal Bar
Pound-Weight. P.S.I.
Kg-Weight Kg/cm2
Newton N/m (Pascal)
2
CONVERSION : Pound-wt = 32 Poundal ; Newton = 9.81 Kg. wt.

1 Kg/sq. cm2 = 9.81 x 104 Pascal (Pa) ; 1 Bar = 105 Pascal
1 Bar = 14.5 PSI
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE : This is the pressure, exerted by the weight of air column on unit area. At sea
level, the values of atmospheric pressure are:
(a) 14.7 psi ; (b) 1.01325 Bar ; (c) 1.033 kg/sq. cm ; (d) 760 mm of Hg. (e) 10.3 Metre of water
GAUGE PRESSURE : When a pressure gauge shows zero reading at atmospheric pressure, The pressure
shown by this pressure gauge is known as the gauge pressure. In this type of pressure, the value of
atmospheric pressure is not added.
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE : When gauge pressure is added with atmospheric pressure, it is known as absolute
pressure.
Therefore, Absolute pressure = Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric pressure
VACUUM PRESSURE : It always exists below the atmospheric pressure. This is the difference between the
atmospheric pressure and absolute pressure actually existing in the chamber. When the absolute pressure at
any point is equal to zero, it is called absolute vacuum.
Therefore, Vacuum pressure = Absolute pressure - Actual pressure (abs)
PASCAL's LAW : The hydro-static system is based on PASCAL's LAW. It states, "Pressure applied on
confined fluid is transmitted undiminished in all directions, acts perpendicular to the surfaces and exerts equal
forces on equal areas."
Thus, it can be seen from Pascal's Law that applying a small force of 10 lbs on smaller area like the bottle cork of
1 sq. inch full of liquid, can generate a proportional amount of the force of 200 lbs on the area of 20 sq. inch
where it acts. In this way, pascal's law gives us an idea to multiply the forces.

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BRAMAH'S PRESS : Bramah was the first British mechanic, who applied Pascal's law in making a press,
known as Bramah's press.
Bramah stated "if a small force is applied on confined fluid through a small area, it will create a proportionally
larger force on a larger area, the only limit to the force a machine can exert is the area to which the pressure is
applied.

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It can be seen that a small force (f = 10 lb) applied on smaller area (a = 1 sq. inch), is balancing the larger force
(F = 100 lbs) applied on the bigger area (A = 10 sq inch). Forces or weight which will balance with this
arrangement are proportional to the piston areas.
Here, F/A = f/a ;
or, F/f = A/a = Ratio of piston area square
Piston movement actually depends upon the displacement of a fixed amount of liquid from one cylinder to
other. Thus, the larger piston area (A) moves lesser than the smaller piston area (a).
In this way it follows the law of conservation of energy. Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but, it can
be simply transformed from one form to other. Thus, energy at all the places remains same.
Here, a x l = A x L ; (l & L are the displacement in smaller & bigger area respectively)
or, L = a x l/A;
Also, f x l = F x L
PRESSURE AND FLOW : Pumps used in hydraulic systems are positive displacement type. It means that,
except for changes in efficiency, the pump output is constant regardless of pressure, if the pump RPM is
constant. It has the positively sealing between inlet and outlet, so that whatever fluid is gets in, is forced out the
outlet port except the internal leakage.

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Pump in a hydraulic system simply creates a flow, but pressure is caused by a resistance to flow. Pressure
depends upon the resistance and it varies proportionally. Less resistance causes less pressure, where as a
larger resistance creates larger pressure. Resistances may come in the system by a load on an actuator and
the resistance offered by the pipe.
PARALLEL FLOW PATHS : The liquid always passes through the least resistance path. When two parallel flow paths offer
different resistances, the pressure will increase only to the amount required to take the easier path. Thus, two actuators of
different loads connected parallel to the pump will move one by one and synchronizing motion will not be achieved

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SERIES FLOW PATH : When resistances to flow are connected in series, the pressures are added up. The
pressure at the pump is the sum of the pressure required to open individual valves. Thus, to move a certain
load, pump has to bear more pressure than the actual pressure required for moving the load alone.
PRESSURE DROP THROUGH AN ORIFICE : An orifice is a resistance passage in a hydraulic line or

component, used to control flow or create a pressure difference. To have oil flowing through an orifice, there
must be a pressure difference or pressure drop across the orifice. Also, if there is no difference in pressure
across the orifice, there will be no flow.
PRESSURE INDICATES WORK LOAD : The pump delivery is directed to the cylinder, in which piston is under
load, pressure is generated in the system. Pressure will be directly proportional to the load applied and
inversely proportional to the cross sectional area of the piston. When, there is no other losses like friction, the
pressure will be equal to the load divided by the cross sectional area. There is no other parameter that affects
the amount of pressure in the system. Therefore, Pressure = Load/area.

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FLOW RATE OF A PUMP : The volume of oil delivered by the pump in unit time is called flow rate of a pump.
Normally, it is specified either in gallon per minute (GPM) or litre per minute (LPM).
1 Gallon = 231 Inch ; 1 Litre = 1000 cm ; 1 Gallon (USA) = 3.78 Litres ; 1Gallon (UK) = 4.54 Litres
3 3
The pump flow rate depends upon the pump rpm and its displacement. It also depends upon the pressure on
which it delivers the oil. In general, flow rate of a pump is taken at 1200 RPM at a pressure of 7 Bar or 100 PSI.
SPEED OF AN ACTUATOR : How fast a cylinder moves or a motor rotates, depends on its size and the rate of
oil flow going into it. To relate flow rate to speed, consider the volume that must be filled in the actuator to effect
an given amount of travel. The effect of pressure on actuator speed is none. Therefore, v = Q/A.
The velocity of fluid flowing through the pipe depends directly on the flow rate of the pump and inversely on
cross sectional area of the pipe or the square of the inside diameter. Friction of fluid flowing through the pipe is
proportional to the square of its velocity. Friction creates turbulence in the oil stream and resists the flow,
resulting in an increased pressure drop through the line. Very low velocity is recommended for the pump inlet
line, because very little pressure drop can be tolerated there.

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REGENERATIVE SYSTEM : When pump delivery line is connected with both ports of a differential piston
cylinder, the piston will move in forward direction only. This type of movement is because of the resultant of
the forces acting on both sides of the piston, though having the same pressure. The effect of this type of system
is the increase in speed, as the returned oil coming from rod end side is again entering into the cylinder through
cap end side. But, the pressure requirement to move the load will be higher, as return oil is acting on the system
as back pressure. This is called regenerative system.
POWER : Whenever a force is moved through a distance, work is done. The rate of doing work is called power.
Normally, power is expressed either in HORSE POWER or KILOWATT. When flow rate of the pump and
pressure required to move the load are known, power can be calculated as,
HORSE POWER = PSI x GPM x 0.000583.
KILOWATT = (BAR x LPM )/ 600.
The above expressions can be used only when pump efficiencies is 100%. In case of lower efficiencies, Power
will be higher and can be calculated by dividing them by the efficiencies.
Torque is generated in the hydraulic motor when it is rotated against a load by supplying oil into the system.
Therefore, Torque (Pound-inch) = (63025 x HP)/RPM
and, Torque (N-m) = (9555 x KW)/RPM
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HYDRAULIC FLUID
Hydraulic fluid is essential for the running of any hydraulic system. The transmission of motion and power in
the system is done through the hydraulic fluid. Listed below are the different functions of hydraulic fluids:
(a) POWER TRANSMISSION : It transmits motion and power from prime mover to machine.
(b) LUBRICATION : It lubricates all the moving parts of the system.
(c) SEALING : In many instances, it provides the only seal against pressure inside hydraulic components.
(d) COOLING : It cools the system against generated heat due to various losses in the system.
In addition, there should be some quality requirement of hydraulic fluids:
(a) Prevent rust.
(b) Prevent formation of sludge, gum and varnishes.
(c) Depress foaming.
(d) Maintain its own stability.
(e) Separate out water.
(f) Compatibility with seals and packings.
PROPERTIES OF HYDRAULIC FLUIDS :
VISCOSITY : It is the measure of the fluid resistance to flow, Or, it is the reverse measure of fluidity.
UNITS OF VISCOSITY :
1. Poise/ centi poise.
2. Stoke/ centi stoke.
3. Society of automotive engineers (SAE).
4. Saybolt universal seconds (SUS).
EFFECT OF LOW VISCOSITY :
1. Quick system response.
2. Increased internal leakage from various components.
3. Increased wear of moving parts.
4. Increased fluid temperature.
EFFECT OF HIGH VISCOSITY :
1. Slow response.
2. Increased overall pressure drop.
3. Greater vacuum at pump inlet, causing cavitation.
4. Increased fluid temperature and shorten fluid life.
VISCOSITY INDEX : Viscosity index is an measure of fluid's resistance to change in viscosity due to
change in temperature.
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Institute
POUR POINT : It is the lowest temperature at which the fluid refuses to flow. As a thumb rule the pour point
should be 20 F below the lowest temperature to be encountered in the system.
o
LUBRICITY : Hydraulic fluid must protect all the rubbing surfaces from excessive wear. But, the lower
clearances of the components cause the oil film to be squeezed very thin and there may be metal to metal
contact. To reduce the friction between the surfaces, additives are mixed in the oil to make the oil more slippery
and help them to wet and cling the metallic surfaces. The property of the fluid which gives the clinging and
slipperiness to lubricate the surfaces, is called the lubricity.
RESISTANCE TO OXIDATION : Chemical reaction of the fluid with oxygen, is called oxidation. Oxidation
produces : (i) resins (ii) Acids (iii) Gums (iv) Varnishes (v) Sludges.
The rate of oxidation depends on: (i) Temperature (ii) Amount of air in oil (iii) Amount of contaminants in oil. No
appreciable oxidation takes place below 54 o C.
RESISTANCE TO FOAMING : Fluid may create foam, when mixed with air. The amount of foam can be
reduced by adding some antifoam additives. These additives form unstable foam with larger bubbles which
breaks faster. This reduces the total amount of foam that is formed in the oil.
RESISTANCE TO CORROSION AND PITTING : Corrosion occurs in hydraulic systems due to acid attack
on the metal surface of the system. These acids are formed in the oil by oxidation or by breaking some of their
constituents. Rusting occurs by air bubbles in the system, which oxidizes the metal surfaces in presence of
water. Additives are mixed with the oil to reduce the effect of corrosion and rusting. These additives form a thin
and strong adherent film on metal surfaces and resist the action of water, air and acid.
DEMULSIFICATION : Small amount of water gets into the hydraulic fluid in the form of water vapour that is
carried in with the air that constantly finds its way into the system. When air is suspended in the fluid, the water
vapour also becomes emulsified in the fluid. Water and fluid emulsion may be thin and slurry, thick and pasty or
heavy or gummy depending on the amount of the water and the fluid viscosity. Emulsion promotes the
collection of impurities, which increases friction and wear of in the system. Many fluids use chemicals to
prevent emulsion and promote the breakdown of emulsion, This phenomenon is DEMULSIBILITY.
As the emulsion breakdown, the water separates and settles at the bottom of the reservoir, which can be
drained periodically. Any free water in the fluid decreases its lubricity and causes rusting in the system.
CORROSION AND RUSTING : Corrosion is generally considered to be deterioration of a metallic surface
caused by the chemical action of an acid or alkali. Rusting is the oxidation of the steel surfaces caused by
the oxygen in the air in the presence of moisture. There are several ways of preventing or minimizing rust and
corrosion. The best is to operate the hydraulic system operate at moderate temperature and pressure and in
proper operating condition. In this way, fluid oxidation and acid action can be reduced. Rust and corrosion
preventive additives are also mixed with the oil to minimize rusting and corrosion.
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COMPATIBILITY : The hydraulic fluid must be compatible with the materials and the seals used in the system.
i.e. it should not react unfavorably with any of the metal, plastics, paints or other materials used in the system .
TYPES OF FLUIDS :
The following types of hydraulic fluids are commonly used in industrial hydraulic systems:
PETROLEUM OIL : Petroleum oils are the most commonly used hydraulic fluids. In general, it has excellent
lubricity, higher demulsibility, more oxidation resistance and higher viscosity index. Oil naturally protects
against rust, seals well, dissipates heat easily and easy to keep it clean by filtration or gravity separation of
contaminants. The disadvantage of this fluid is that it is not fire resistant.
WATER OIL EMULSION : These fluids are least expensive fire resistant fluids. In addition to water and oil,
the emulsions contain emulsifiers, stabilizers and other additives to hold the two liquids together.
WATER GLYCOL FLUID : Water glycol fluids are compounded of 35% to 40% water to provide resistance to
burning, a synthetic chemical glycol and a water soluble thickener to improve viscosity. They also contain
additives to improve foaming, rust and corrosion resistance and to improve lubricity.
Some of the disadvantages of these fluids are:
1. It is necessary to continue to measure the water content and make up for vaporization to maintain the
viscosity.
2. Evaporisation may also causes loss of certain additives.
3. Operating temperature must be kept low.
4. The cost is high.
SYNTHETIC FLUID : These are most costly hydraulic fluids being used presently. Synthetic fluids are
laboratory synthesized chemicals. Different types of synthetic fluids are phosphate esters, chlorinate, hydro
carbons, silicons, silicate esters.
Since synthetic fluids do not contain any water or other volatile material, they operate well at high temperature.
These are also suitable for high pressure systems.
Fire resistant synthetic fluids don't operate well at low temperature. Auxiliary heating systems are required in
cold condition.
These fluids have the highest specific gravity, so the pump inlet condition requires special attention. The
viscosity index of synthetic fluids are generally low ranging from 80 to minus 400. So, they should be used
where the temperature is relatively constant. These fluids are not compatible with nitrile and neoprene seals.
So, special seal materials should be used.
FLUID MAINTENANCE :
Hydraulic fluids are expensive. Further, changing the fluid and flushing or cleaning, improperly maintaining the
system is time consuming and costly. Therefore, it is important to take care of the fluid properly.
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STORAGE AND HANDLING :
Here are some simple rules to prevent contamination of the fluid during storage and handling:
1. Store drums on their sides. If possible keep them inside or under a roof.
2. Before opening the drum, clean the top end bung thoroughly so no dirt can get in.
3. Use only clean containers, hose, etc. to transfer the fluid from the drums to the hydraulic reservoir. An oil
transfer pump equipped with 25 micron filter is recommended.
4. Provide a 200 mesh screen in the reservoir filling port.
IN OPERATION CARE : Proper operational care of hydraulic fluid includes:
1. Prevent contamination by keeping the system tight and using proper air and fluid filtration.
2. Establish fluid change intervals so that the fluid will be replaced before it breaks down. Test oil regularly.
3. Keep the system filled with oil properly to take advantage of its neat dissipating characteristics and
prevent moisture from condensing on inside walls.
4. Repair all leaks immediately.
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STRAINERS AND FILTERS

Clean hydraulic fluid is essential for a hydraulic system to function properly. During the operation, the hydraulic
system picks up and generates a lot of contaminants. Strainers and filters are the devices to remove insoluble
contaminants from the fluid.
Presence of undesirable substances in the fluid is known as contaminants. Contaminants may be in the form
of water, grease, dust, carbon, resin, acids, metal wear, welding slags, scales, etc.
There are three different sources through which contaminants may enter into the system:
BUILT-IN : It is because of the improper care in assembly. Care in assembly and system flushing reduces
their numbers, but it can never be eliminated. These are burrs, chips, dirt, dust, fibre, sand, welding slag,
paints, scales, etc.
INGRESSION : Contaminants get into the system during careless transportation, dirty containers used for
handling the fluids, fluid vessels kept open while storing the fluid, missing or damaged filler cap and breather
cap, leak through the joints and seals, dusty and dirty environments, poor grade of the sealing agent, etc.
GENERATION : These are particles generated in the system due to wear of the various components like
pump, valves. actuators, decomposition and the break -up of the fluid due to overheating, and extended use.
These are the following types of failures:
INTERMITTENT : These are the temporary failures caused by the particles lodged in the clearances and the
orifice.
CATASTROPHIC : These are the sudden loss of control or total failure due to the blockage of clearances,
orifices, etc. clogging the narrow passages of the valves.
DEGRADATION : These failures are due to wear, corrosion, rusting, cavitation, which progressively
increases the friction of the moving parts, resulting in heavy power loss, generation of heat, etc.
STRAINERS : Strainer is a metal screen made of the fine wire, capable of separating larger contaminants.
The degree of filtering fineness of the screen is rated by its mesh number. Higher the mesh number finer is the
screen.
Mostly strainers are provided in the suction line of the pump, breather filter, filling ports, screen, etc.
Strainers are generally of two types: (I) Sump strainer (ii) Inlet filter.
In construction, the cartridges of the filtering elements are same, but location of the strainers are different.
Sump strainers are generally kept inside the fluid and at the extreme end of the suction line. It may be fitted in
one, two or more in number to provide a free flow of the oil and to save the strainer from clogging.
Inlet filters are generally mounted above the oil level and hence can be cleaned easily without disturbing the
pipe lines and condition of the oil. Some filters are equipped with indicators to indicate the condition of the
filtering element and to guide the operator or the maintenance personnel to take action in time. The indicator
may be of colour signal or light signal or the buzzer.
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Institute
FILTER : Filter is a fine medium, whose primary function

is the retention of insoluble contaminants from the fluid
by some porous medium. It is rated for filtering fineness
by micron size. A filter normally rated at 10 microns
would trap particles 10 micron in size or larger.
When a filter is specified, it is nominal rating. If a filter is a
10 micron nominal rating, it will trap most of the particles
10 microns in size or larger. But, the particles larger than
10 micron can also pass through the filter element.
Absolute rating is however more accurate and specifies
that the value in microns will be the size of the largest
hard spherical particle which the filter will retain.
The absolute rating, thus, is the size of the largest
opening or porosity in the filter. Absolute rating is an
important factor only when it is mandatory that no
particles above a given size be allowed to circulate the
system.
FILTERING MATERIAL : These are the following types:
(a) Mechanical : These filtering elements are made
of closely woven metal screen or discs. These
are relatively coarse.
(b) Absorbent : These are made of wide range of
porous material, including paper, cotton, sintered
materials, etc.
(c) Adsorbent : Adsorbent or active filters such as charcoal, fuller's earth should be avoided in hydraulic
system, since they remove essential additives from the hydraulic fluids.
LOCATION OF FILTERS : Filters are located at different locations in the hydraulic circuit. If it is fitted in the
pressure line, i.e. just after the pump, it is known as pressure line filter. Now-a-days this type of pressure filters
are in use as it can catch most of the particles coming either from the reservoir or generated by the pump and
stops recirculating of the contaminants.
Filters fitted in return line of the circuit are known as return line filter. This position of the filter is also essential,
as it does not allow the contaminants to go in the reservoir.
Sometimes, a filter is fitted in the separate hydraulic unit and it is known as off line filter. This arrangement of
filtering device is suitable for the higher capacity reservoir. This system need not be run continuously. It may be
operated for an hour or two as per the capacity of the reservoir.
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The following illustration indicates possible contamination sources
Origin / formation of contamination:

Built-in contamination from integrated components (e.g. valves, fluids, cylinders, pumps, tanks, hydraulic
motors, hoses, pipes)
Contamination produced during assembly of the system, by opening the system, during system operation and
during fluid-related system failure.
Contamination entering from outside the system, through:
- tank breathing
- cylinders, seals
Contamination entering the system during maintenance procedures
- system assembly/disassembly
- opening the system
- filling with oil
If these, usually high-value components are damaged by solid contamination in the hydraulic and lubricating
media, system faults, including unplanned shutdowns can occur.
The severity of the component damage depends on the material of the contamination, the operating pressure,
the nature (round or sharp-edged) and size and quantity of particles.
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As a rule of thumb: the harder the particles, the more extensive the component damage and the higher the
operating pressure, the more forcefully the particles become lodged in the lubrication clearance.
It often goes unrecognized that the majority of these solid particles is smaller than 30 μm and therefore they are
not visible to the naked eye. This means an apparently clean fluid can, in fact, be badly contaminated
Classification of the solid particle
contamination
Solid particle contamination in
lubrication and hydraulic fluid is
classified according to ISO
4406/1999.
To determine the cleanliness level
the solid particles present in 100 ml
fluid are counted, sorted according
to size & quantity and classified into
particle ranges.
Depending on the method of
particle counting, there are 2 or 3
ranges:
The ISO Code can be "translated" into a maximum particle quantity for
each particle size range with the aid of the adjacent table.
This code is specified for each size range.
The oil cleanliness level determined by electronic particle counters is
expressed as a combination of three numbers, e.g. 21/18/15.
Suction filters
These filters are installed between the tank and the booster pump to
protect the pump from coarse contamination which can cause a high
level of wear in the pump.
They can be installed inline, at the intake port in the tank or below the tank.
To prevent hazardous operating conditions for the pump, we
recommend using a vacuum gauge between the filter and pump.
Due to the risk of pump cavitation, relatively coarse filter materials with a
filtration rating of > 25 μm are used.
For this reason, suction filters are not suitable for ensuring the
component protection necessary for the economical operation of the
system.
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Pressure filters
This type of filter is defined in the DIN 24550 standard as
an inline filter designed for a specific nominal pressure. It
can be installed before or after the boost pump, but also
in the return line between components and tank.
Wherever the filter is installed, the housing must be
sized in accordance with the system pressure, the
pressure pulsations and the flow rate.
To enhance the reliability of the whole hydraulic and
lubrication system, filter housings are designed to have high fatigue strength. The filter housings are flow-
optimized to be able to achieve a low pressure drop and a compact, space-saving design. They therefore make
a significant contribution to the economy of the whole system. On mobile machines which comply with the
latest regulations, the space-saving housing concept offers considerable advantages. To reduce the risk of
unwanted leaks from the inline filter during operation, these can be integrated into a cost-optimized hydraulic
or lubrication module. To protect particularly sensitive components, such as servo and proportional valves, we
recommend installing this type of filter immediately before the component. However, in particular, the high
dynamics in the control circuits must be taken into account in this case.
Inline filters which are fitted with filter elements where the flow is from out to in, should preferably be installed in
systems which have high pressure pulsations and where the filter housing has no bypass valve.
On systems with a high contamination load, as with cooling lubricants, for which additional effective filtration of
metallic particles is required. OEMs recommend installing filter housings in which the flow through the filter
elements is from in to out.
Depending on where the inline filter is installed in the machine, this type of housing offers advantages for
element change.
Pressure filters must always be fitted with a clogging indicator. Before particularly critical components, only
inline filters without bypass valves should be used. Such filters must be fitted with a filter element which must
itself be able to withstand higher differential pressures, without sustaining any damage
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Return line filters

This type of filter can either be installed inline (in the
hydraulic tank line) or as a tank-mounted filter (on top of
the hydraulic tank).
To prevent dangerous malfunctions in hydraulic
components as a result of excessive back-pressure in
the return line, return line filters are usually fitted with a
bypass valve. For systems which are operated around the clock, the filter housing must be of the change-over
type so that the system does not need to be shut down for filter maintenance. So that the oil flow is not
interrupted during the change-over process, causing undersupply to the lubrication points, the change-over
valve is designed with negative overlap.
When selecting the correct filter size, the maximum
possible flow rate must be taken into account. This
corresponds to the area ratio of piston to piston minus
the rod of hydraulic cylinders and can be greater than
the flow rate generated by the pumps.
In order to prevent possible foaming of the fluid in the
tank, make absolutely sure that the fluid outlet from the
filter is always below the fluid level in all operating
conditions. It may be necessary to fit a pipe or flow rate
diffuser in the filter outlet. It is important that the
distance between the floor of the tank and the end of
the pipe is no less than two to three times the pipe
diameter.
Return line filters can be fitted with breather filters as additional equipment.
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Institute
Offline filters
In hydraulic systems with heavy
loads, additional offline filters are
used increasingly to avoid the
accumulation of fine particles.
In contrast to main filters, only part of
the whole flow in the system is
filtered by offline filters.
Excellent oil cleanliness levels can be achieved through continual filtration, regardless of the operating cycle of
the machine. In addition, the main filters are relieved, meaning that element changing intervals can be
extended.
Offline filter systems should be used in addition to main filters. In this case the main filter should be sized as a
protective filter, i.e. filtering less finely and without a bypass valve
Tank breather filters

Tank breather filters are one of the most important, yet neglected, components in filter design.
As a result of changes in temperature and of using cylinders or accumulators, the oil level in the tanks of
hydraulic and lubrication systems is subject to constant fluctuations.
The resulting pressure differential to the ambient is equalized by an exchange of air which means
contamination can get into the tanks.
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Institute
Breather filters can prevent contamination from entering. Ideally the breathers should be of at least the same
filtration rating as the system filter in the hydraulic circuit. By using breather filters with double check valves,
the air exchange between the tank and the ambient can be significantly reduced, minimizing the amount of
contamination and dust entering the tank and increasing the service life of the breather filter.
Where there are high temperature changes and high humidity, water also enters the tank.
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Institute
INTRODUCTION ON PUMP
A pump is an essential element for any hydraulic system, as it acts as the input device, which takes the power
from the prime mover and expends it to the actuator to do some useful work. The function of a pump is similar to
the function of the heart of a human body. Heart sucks the blood from the artery and sends it to the veins.
Hydraulic pump sucks oil from lower energy level and delivers it to higher energy level. The pump creates the
flow, but pressure comes on the delivery line due to resistance applied on the pump. All pumps have their
individual pressure capabilities. Under this pressure, pumps can deliver enough amount of flow required by the
system at optimum energy consumption. Sometimes, it is called as an energy converter, as it converts
mechanical energy into the pressure energy. In case of pump failure, the entire system collapses.
In general, pumps are of two types:
a) Non-positive displacement type or Hydrodynamic pumps.
b) Positive displacement type or Hydrostatic pumps.
Non-positive displacement pumps are normally not used in the hydraulic system, as pressure increases,
flow rate of the pump decreases, even though pump rpm remains constant. Therefore, the speed of an actuator
never remains constant at variable pressure or load. Centrifugal pump is a common pump under this category.
This type of pump has no positive seal between suction and delivery, therefore, under pressure some part of oil
flows back from delivery to suction and decreases the net flow rate of the pump.
Q
H-Q Curve for non positive displacement pump
P
P-Q Curve for positive displacement pump
Positive displacement pumps are used in hydraulic systems. In this type of pump, The flow rate remains
constant at any pressure, if RPM of the pump remains constant. There is a positive seal between suction and
delivery in this type of the pump, therefore, oil sucked by the pump flows to delivery side only, without returning
to tank. In this way it gives a constant flow rate at any pressure. The constant flow rate keeps the speed of the
actuator constant. Practically, at higher pressure, some oil leaks internally, but, the effect of that leakage is
negligible.
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Institute
Given below are different types of positive displacement pumps:

(a) Gear pump
- External gear pump
- Internal gear pump
(b) Vane pump
- Unbalanced type
- Balanced type
- Intra- vane type or double
vanes pump
(c) Piston pump
- Axial piston pump
- In-line axial piston pump
- Bent axis axial piston pump
- Radial Piston pump
SOME DEFINITIONS :
DISPLACEMENT : It is the volume of oil delivered by the pump in one rotation. It remains fixed at any rpm.
Displacement multiplied by RPM gives the flow rate of the pump.
FLOW RATE : It is the volume of oil delivered by the pump in unit time. Generally, the pump flow rate is
specified at 1200 rpm and 100 PSI or 7 bar pressure. The change either in rpm or pressure will change the flow
rate of the pump.
MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY : It is the ratio of output power to input power. It is generally expressed in
percentage.
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY : It is the ratio of output flow to input flow. It is also expressed in percentage.
OVERALL EFFICIENCY : The overall efficiency of the pump is the multiplication of mechanical efficiency
and volumetric efficiency. It is also expressed in percentage.
SUCTION LIFT : It is the height of the pump from the fluid level. However, as there are number of losses
during oil flow in the pipe, the suction height is kept minimum. A high suction lift may cause cavitation also. As a
thumb rule, it should not be more than 2.5” height of Hg or 3 to 4 feet height of oil.
DELIVERY HEAD : It is the maximum height of liquid from the pump. It depends upon the capability of the
pump to bear the weight of the liquid on the delivery side of the pump.
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Institute
POWER : It is the multiplication of pressure and flow rate, or weight of liquid raised by the pump in unit time
multiplied by the total height raised.
AERATION : If air leaks through the suction side of the pump, is called aeration. It may be either in form of large
bubbles, foam or in various degrees of suspension. It creates noise in the pump. It also causes extreme and
rapid ring wear and produces jerky motion.
CAVITATION : An excess pressure drop or too much vacuum pressure in suction side of the pump creates
cavitation. It affects in the pressure side of the pump as high velocity liquid rushes at very high speed to fill the
cavity. It creates noise, vibration and damaging of the surrounding components.
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Institute
GEAR PUMP
Gear pump is coming under the category of positive displacement pump. It is a very common type of pump
used in hydraulic system. It is robust, less dirt sensitive, simple in construction and capable to take higher
pressure upto 210 bar in modified condition. Otherwise, it is very much suitable upto a pressure of 180 Bar.
3. AND OIL FORCED OUT
OF PRESSURE PORT AS
TEETH GO BACK IN TO
MESH.
DRIVEN GEAR
In external gear pump, two spur gears are running in meshed condition inside a casing. One gear is driving
the other gear. Gears are also surrounded by two pressure or side plates. In the middle of the casing suction
and delivery ports are made. The suction and delivery ports of the pump are determined by the diameter as
suction side has the bigger diameter than the delivery side Theoretically, a gear pump can be installed keeping
any direction of rotation, but, practically it should not be. Manufacturer always provides mark for correct
direction of rotation for suction and delivery ports. If the pump is rotated in wrong direction, the pump will fail
very soon. Normally, suction port is made of bigger diameter than the delivery port to avoid the cavitation. In
case of wrong direction of rotation, the bearing drain line oil will be connected with the delivery side. The shaft
seal will damage.
As the gear teeth unmesh, it increases the volume and creates the partial vacuum in the suction side. The
atmospheric pressure pushes the oil to the suction side to make up the vacuum pressure and thus, suction of
oil is created. The oil which is sucked by the pump is now entrapped between the gear teeth and the casing
and is carried over by the gear teeth to the delivery side. In delivery side, the gear teeth are meshing to each
other, thus it expels the oil from the gear teeth chambers and send it to the system at any pressure. It is
called delivery. Because the low clearances between the mating parts, it requires no priming. Negative
suction is possible, but positive suction is better. Also, to avoid unnecessary cavitation, the suction side is
given low pressure drop by designing suitable suction pipe diameter, less bend, less suction head, etc.
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Institute
The flow rate of a pump generally depends upon the rpm of the pump, as all other parameters are fixed those
are not liable to change. Thus, gear pump is called a fixed displacement pump.
Clearances between the parts of a gear pump are very important. At higher pressure, these small clearances
increase the leakage of the oil and hence reduce the volumetric efficiency of the pump. There are the following
different types of clearances:
a) Radial or tip clearance : It is the clearance between the tip of the gear teeth and casing. It should be
minimum, otherwise, leakage will increase.
b) Axial clearance: It is the gap between the face of the gear and pressure plate. It should be kept
minimum as possible.
c) Bearing clearance: It is also very important, otherwise it will affect the radial clearance and sometimes
allow to rub the tip of the teeth with the casing.
d) Backlash : Minimum backlash should be given between the gears.
A gear pump always behaves like unbalance type by pressure, as high pressure acting on delivery side
cannot be compensated with the low oil pressure acting on suction side. This unbalance force tends to push
the shaft to suction side, creates ovality on bearing and casing. In high pressure pump, such type of effect is
very high. To reduce the effect, a small slot is cut along the periphery of gears which extends the pressure zone
and changes the direction of acting of resultant forces.
For a general gear pump, the maximum pressure can go upto 180 Bar. To take radial load on the bearing, gear
pump always has the bush bearing. Also shaft diameters are made larger to reduce pressure intensity on the
bearing.
A gear pump is very much suitable for low RPM and for contaminated surroundings. But, it creates too much
noise because of mechanical contact of gear teeth and the oil friction. Its direction can not be changed as per
the desire and spares are also not very much available. A worn out gear pump can not be repaired except
replacing the whole pump with the new unit.
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Institute
VANE PUMP
Vane pump is a positive displacement pump. It is used in hydraulic system because of its high efficiency, low
noise level and long life.
In an unbalanced vane pump, a slotted rotor is splined to the drive shaft and revolves inside a cam ring.
Vanes are fitted in the rotor slots and follow the inner surface of the rotor ring, as the rotor turns, it creates
centrifugal force. Generally, a minimum starting speed of 600 rpm will throw the vanes out. Centrifugal force
and pump outlet pressure under the vanes hold them against the ring. Pumping chambers are formed between
the vanes and are enclosed by the rotor, ring and two side plates. With the ring offset from the centre line of the
rotor, the chambers increase in size and take in fluid as they pass the pump inlet port. Then, as they cross over
the centre, the chambers become progressively smaller and fluid is expelled at the pump outlet.
This pump has somewhat limited pressure capability because of its unbalanced hydraulic loading. Its
displacement, however, can be varied or even reduced to zero by moving the ring centre towards the centre of
the rotor.
Balanced vane pumps operate in the same manner like unbalanced vane pump. The difference is only in the
inner contour of the ring, which is an ellipse rather than a circle. This configuration of pump forms two set of
pumping chambers on opposite sides of the rotor, but are interconnected through the passages within the
housing. Forces caused by the pressure build up on one side are cancelled out by equal and opposite forces
on the another side of the rotor. The displacement of a balanced vane pump cannot be adjusted.
Interchangeable rings with different contours and widths are available, making it possible to quickly modify a
pump to increase or decrease its delivery.
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Institute
The direction of rotation can be reversed easily by reversing the position of the cam ring. By doing so, major
diameter of the cam ring will be changed by 90 degree and hence reverses the flow direction.
The intra-vane design provides a means of controlling the outward thrust of the vane against the ring and
maintains the tip loads within reasonable limits. In the intra-vane cartridge, full system pressure is applied only
to the area between the vane and the inner vane. This area is small and thrust is correspondingly light. During
vane travel through delivery areas, full system pressure is applied against the bottom area of the outer vane.
The way of the pressure to and from the bottom area of the outer vane is through holes drilled in the rotor. This
selective application of pressure maintains the vane to a great extent at constant radial hydraulic balance in all
positions. Vane tip wear is compensated automatically. As the vane wears, pressure moves the vane further
out from the rotor slot holding the outer vane against the cam ring.
The flex side plates for both inlet and outlet are symmetrical. Pressure is fed behind each side plate into two
kidney shape cavities which are sealed by special seal packs. The two flex side plates and their associated
kidney shaped cavities function in the following manner. As pressure builds up in the outlet, pressure also
builds up in the cavities. The pressure in the cavities hold the flex side plates in hydrostatic balance against the
rotor and provide optimum running clearances for minimum internal leakage and minimum friction.
The flex side plates also provide passages for feeding under vane pressure to the space between the vane
and the insert. The bronze faces of the flex side plates ride next to the rotor and provide excellent wear and
cold start characteristics.
The inlet and outlet support plates hold the flex side plates in the position and contain passages which allow
fluid to pass from the inlet to the pumping cartridge and from the cartridge to the outlet port.
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Institute
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Institute
PISTON PUMPS
All piston pumps operate on the principle that a piston reciprocating in a bore will draw in fluid as it is retracts
and expel fluid on the forward stroke.
Piston pumps are highly efficient units available in the wide range of capacities from very small to high. Most
are capable of operating in the medium to high pressure range (1500 PSI - 3000 PSI) with others going much
higher.
Being variable and reversible they lend themselves very well to large press applications and hydrostatic
drives.
Because of their closely fitted parts and precisely machined surfaces, cleanliness and good quality fluids are
vital to long service life.
There are two basic designs of the piston pump : Radial and axial. Both are available as fixed and variable
displacement types. A radial pump has the pistons arranged radially in a cylinder block while in the axial piston
pump, the pistons are parallel to each other and to the axis of the cylinder block. The axial piston pump is
further divided into two types; In-line axial piston pump and bent axis axial piston pump.
IN-LINE PISTON PUMP :
In in-line axial piston pump, the cylinder block and drive shaft are on the same centre line and the pistons
reciprocate parallel to the drive shaft. The Simplest type of axial piston pump is swash plate type.
The cylinder block in this pump is turned by the drive shaft. Pistons fitted in bores in the cylinders are
connected through piston shoes and a retainer ring, so that the shoes bear against an angled swash plate. As
the block turns, the piston shoes follow the swash plate, causing the pistons to reciprocate. The ports are
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Institute
arranged in the valve plate so that the pistons pass the inlet as they are being pulled out and pass the outlet as
they are forced in.
In these pumps, the displacement is also determined by the size and number of pistons as well as their stroke
length, the latter being a function of the swash plate angle.
In variable displacement models of the in-line pump, the swash plate is installed in a movable yoke "pivoting".
The yoke on pintles changes the swash plate angle to increase or decrease the piston stroke, The yoke may be
positioned manually, with a servo control, with a compensator control, or by any of several other means. The
maximum angle of the unit is limited to seventeen and half degree by construction.
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Institute
BENT AXIS AXIAL PISTON PUMP :

In a bent axis axial piston pump, the cylinder blocks rotates with the drive shaft, but at an offset angle. The
piston rods are attached to the drive shaft flange by ball joints, and are forced in and out of their bores as the
distance between the drive shaft flange and cylinder block changes. An universal link joins the cylinder block to
the drive shaft to maintain alignment and assure that they turn together. The link does not transmit force except
to accelerate and decelerate the cylinder block and to overcome resistance of the block revolving in the oil
filled housing.
The displacement of this pump varies with the offset angle, the maximum angle being 30 degrees, the
minimum zero.
Fixed displacement models are usually available with 23 degree or 30 degree angles. In the variable
displacement construction a yoke with an external control is used to change the angle. With some controls, the
yoke can be moved over centre to reverse the direction of flow from the pump.
Various models are used to control displacement of variable displacement bent-axis axial piston pumps.
Typical controls are the hand wheel, pressure compensated and servo control.
RADIAL PISTON PUMP :
In a radial piston pump, the cylinder block rotates on a stationary pintle and inside a circular reaction ring or
rotor. As the block rotates centrifugal force, charging pressure or some form of mechanical action causes the
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Institute
pistons to follow the inner surface of the ring which is offset from the centre line of the cylinder block. As the
pistons reciprocate in their bores, porting in the pintle permits them to take in fluid as they move outward and
discharge it as they move in.
The size and number of the pistons and, of course the length of their stroke determines pump displacement. In
some models the displacement can be varied by moving the reaction ring to increase or decrease piston travel.
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Institute
PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE

PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE is found in every hydraulic system which has a fixed displacement type pump. It
is a valve which serves the purpose of a safety valve. It remains normally closed between pressure and tank
lines. Its purpose is to limit the maximum pressure of the system to a preset maximum value by diverting some
or all the flow to tank when the pressure setting is reached. Pressure relief valve is of two types:
(a) Direct operated pressure relief valve
(b) Pilot operated pressure relief valve.
Direct operated pressure relief valve is also known as a simple type or unbalanced type pressure relief
valve. Simple pressure relief valve consists of a ball or poppet, which is held on the seating in the valve body by
a heavy spring. When the pressure at the inlet is insufficient to overcome the force of the spring, the valve
remains closed. When the preset pressure is reached, the ball or poppet is forced off its seat and allows flow
through the outlet to tank and pressure is maintained. An adjusting screw is provided to vary the spring force,
Therefore, the valve can be set to open at any pressure within the specified range. Some of the valves have
cushioning device inside to protect valve seat and poppet from damage.
The pressure at which the valve first begins to divert flow is called the cracking pressure. As flow through the
valve increases, the poppet is forced further off its seat causing increased compression of the spring. When
the valve is bypassing its full rated flow, the pressure can be considerably higher than the cracking pressure.
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Institute
Pressure at the inlet when the valve is bypassing its maximum volume is called as full flow pressure. The
difference between full flow pressure and the cracking pressure is known as the pressure override. This
pressure override can result in considerable loss before its maximum setting is reached. Also, it gives a
fluctuation in piston speed as actual flow rate entering the system decreases. This override pressure of
pressure relief valve makes it an unbalanced type, therefore it is used only for low flow rate of the system.
Pilot operated pressure relief valve is also known as compound type pressure relief valve. It is used for
higher flow rate of the oil with minimum pressure override. It operates in two stages. The pilot stage in the
upper valve body contains the pressure limit valve, a poppet held against a seat by an adjustable spring. The
port connections are made on the lower body. Diversion of the full flow volume of oil is through the balanced
piston in the lower body in second stage. Because of its construction, the balanced piston remains under
hydraulic balance. Pressure of inlet port acting under the piston is also sensed on its top by means of an orifice
drilled through the large land. At any pressure lesser than the valve setting, the piston is held on its seat by a
light spring.
When pressure reaches the setting of the adjustable spring, the poppet is forced off its seat limits the pressure
in the upper chamber. The restricted flow through the orifice into the upper chamber results in an increase in
pressure in the lower chamber. This unbalances the hydraulic forces and tends to raise the piston off its seat.
When the difference in pressure between the upper and lower chambers is sufficient to overcome the force
of the light spring, the large piston unseats, thus permitting flow directly to tank. Increased flow through the
valve causes the piston to lift further off its seat, but since this compresses only the light spring, very little
override is encountered.
Pressure relief is good for any circuit as it takes care of overloading. But it gives too much power loss while
bypassing the oil from pump to tank. Power consumed by the pump is maximum as it delivers full oil at
maximum pressure and entire power is converted into heat, therefore, it increases too much oil temperature.
In pilot operated pressure relief valve, there is a vent line coming out from the upper chamber of second stage,
where balanced piston moves up and down. Normally vent line is kept closed, therefore pressure relief valve
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Institute
works as usual. When vent line is connected to drain, the balanced piston moves up only with a very low
pressure capable of compressing light spring, therefore, oil is diverted to tank at a very low pressure and it
saves power. For moving piston in any direction, vent line is closed and the system pressure goes up to the set
pressure of the system. To open and close vent line, normally a 2/2 way direction control valve is used. This
direction control valve has the position on the top of the pressure relief valve casing and all connection are
made internally. This is known as pump unloading.
Vent line is also used for remote setting of pressure relief valve. A simple pressure relief valve is mounted on the
vent line with usual connection. By changing the setting of this pressure relief valve, pressure of main pressure
relief valve is changed. Because of its construction, Main pressure relief valve is never changed, but system
pressure is changed simply by changing the pressure of simple pressure relief valve. Maximum pressure of the
system is limited again by main pressure relief valve setting.
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Institute
PRESSURE REDUCING VALVE

PRESSURE REDUCING VALVE is used to control the pressure in a particular branch of the hydraulic circuit.
The pressure relief valve cannot replace the use of this valve as the pressure relief valve acts as a safety valve
and limits the maximum pressure of the system. Also, two pressure relief valves adjusted at different pressures
cannot provide two different pressures in the system as the lower pressure PR valve will open and allow oil to
go to the tank at lower pressure only. Pressure reducing valve limits and maintains the reduced pressure in a
particular branch of the system.
Pressure reducing valves are normally open type valves. The valve allows the flow through itself below the
setting pressure of the valve. It also maintains reduced pressure in the actuators. They are pilot operated by
the pressure sensed from outlet pressure of the valve and tends to close the flow as pressure reaches the
valve setting, thus preventing further build up of pressure in outlet port. There are two types of pressure
reducing Valves
(a) Simple or direct operated reducing valve.
(b) Compound or pilot operated reducing valve.
A simple or direct operated pressure reducing valve has a valve body with two pipe connections and a spring
loaded spool to control the downstream pressure. If the main supply pressure is below the valve setting, fluid
flows from valve inlet to the outlet port. An internal connection from the outlet passage transmits the outlet
pressure to the spool end opposite to the spring and it is used as a pilot pressure. Valve pressure is adjusted
with the help of a spring adjusting screw with a knob.
When outlet port pressure rises to the valve setting, the spool moves to partly block the outlet port. Oil flow is
interrupted. Outlet port is blocked in such a way that it maintains the preset pressure with partial flow. If the
valve closes completely, leakage from the spool could cause pressure to build up in the branch circuit.
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Institute
Continuous bleed to tank via spring chamber is permitted to keep the valve slightly in open condition and
prevents downstream pressure from rising above the valve setting. A separate drain passage is provided to
tank.
It has the unbalancing nature similar to a simple type pressure relief valve. To avoid the effect of higher
pressure override, this valve is also used for lower flow rate of the oil. In case of higher flow rate, compound
type pressure reducing valve is used.
Compound type or pilot operated pressure reducing valve has a wider range of adjustment and generally
provides more accurate control. The operating pressure is set by an adjustable spring in the pilot stage in the
upper body. The valve spool in the lower body functions essentially in the same manner as the direct acting
pressure reducing valve.
It is also an open type of valve. In case of lower pressure, the spool is hydraulically balanced through an orifice
and the light spring holds it in the wide open position. When pressure reaches the valve setting, the pilot valve
opens and diverts the flow to the drain passage limiting pressure above the spool. Flow through the orifice in
the spool creates a pressure difference that moves the spool up against the spring force. The spool partially
closes the outlet port to create a pressure drop from the supply to the branch system.
Again the outlet port is never entirely closed. When no flow is called for, in the branch system, there is still a
continuous flow through the spool orifice and pilot valve to drain. Both types of valves reverse the flow only if
the system pressure is less than the valve setting. If the reverse flow is higher, a bypass check valve is
required. This may be an integral part of the valve.
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Institute
CHECK VALVES
A check valve can function as a direction control valve or as a pressure relief valve. In a simplest form, it is a
2/2 way direction control valve, which has two connections and unidirection flow. It does not allow flow in
reverse direction. The check valve can be used:
(a) To isolate pumps from a running pump, when number of pumps are connected in parallel as stand by to
provide flow in the same line.
(b) To stop a vertical load to fall down.
(c) To bypass a flow control valve.
(d) To bypass pressure control valves.
(e) To raise the pilot pressure in the system.
(f) To bypass a filter in case of jamming of the cartridge of the filter.
There are three types of check valves :
1. In-line check valve.
2. Right angle check valve.
3. Pilot operated check valve.
In-line check valves: In-line check valves are so named because they are connected into the line and the oil
allows to flows straight through the line. The valve body is threaded for a pipe or a tubing connector, and is
machined inside to form a seat for a poppet or ball. A light spring holds the poppet seated in the normal closed
position permitting the flow to be passed only in one direction.
In the free flow direction, the spring force is
overcome by the acting pressure of the oil on the
poppet and the valve cracks open at cracking
pressure of the spring. These cracking pressures
of the spring are changing as per the
requirement. The springs are not adjustable. In
reverse direction of flow, spring and the pressure
of the oil hold the poppet closed in its position to
stop the reverse flow.
This type of check valve is suitable for small flow
rate of the oil, as higher flow rate will face more
resistance in its line because of spring and
poppet situated in the same line.
Right angle check valve:A right angle check valve has a steel poppet along with a light spring and hardened
seat pressed into the iron body. It gets its name from the angle between the flow passage to the poppet and the
passage away from the poppet. These valves are built in threaded or flanged connection. It is heavy duty valve
and suitable for very high flow rate of the pump.
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In the free flow direction, again the spring force of the valve is overcome by the acting pressure of the oil on the
poppet and the valve cracks open to allow the flow. In reverse direction of the flow, spring force along with the
oil pressure hold the poppet again on its seat to stop the reverse flow.
Check valves are suitable to hold the vertical loads as there is no internal leakage through the valves. To
provide a rigid position of the load normally check valves are fitted between direction control valve and the
cylinder. A simple check valve however cannot solve this problem as it does allow the flow in reverse direction
when it is needed .
Pilot operated check valves: To overcome this problem pilot operated check valves are used in the same
position as conventional check valves. The pilot operated check valve is working in the same way as a simple
check valve, but it can allow the reverse flow also when it is needed by the operator.
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In construction, the top half of the valve just looks like a right angle check valve and works in the same way
also. The bottom half of the valve has a piston and piston rod arrangement in the same body which moves with
the pilot pressure at the bottom of the piston. The other end of the piston rod rests on the poppet of the valve
and thus when piston moves up it moves the poppet also by opening the valve and allowing the reverse flow.
The pilot pressure required to open the valve is normally 40% of the applied pressure in reverse direction.
Pilot operated valves are of internal and external drain type. While reversing, if the flow is unrestricted, internal
drain type check valves are used. But, if the return flow is restricted, external drain type check valves are used.
An internal drain type check valve may not provide positive sealing and also may give tremendous shock and
generate noise in the system.
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Institute
DIRECTION CONTROL VALVE

The basic function of a direction control valve is to direct inlet flow to either of two outlet ports. The flow to the
"P" port (pump port) of the valve can be directed to either port "A" and "B" (cylinder ports). In the four way valve,
the alternate port is open to tank port permitting return flow to the reservoir. In two way valves the alternate port
is blocked and the tank port serves only to drain leakage oil within the valve.
Most of these valves are of sliding spool type. They are built in two position and three position versions. The
three position valve has a centre position. Methods of actuation include manual levers, mechanical cams and
linkages, springs, solenoids, pilot pressure and others.
In a 2/2 way spool type direction control valve, a cylindrical spool moves back and forth in a machined bore in
the valve body. It may be spring off or detend type. In one position, the flow is permitted from "P" to "A" and in
other position, the flow is blocked. It may be of opposite flow direction type also. Machined passages from the
port connections in the body are interconnected through annular grooves in the spool or blocked by the spool
lands.
In a 3/2 way spool type direction control valve has the same construction as 2/2 way direction control valve,
except that it has one more port connection for the tank. In one position, the flow is permitted from "P" to "A"
and in other it is from "A" to "T". The flow may be of opposite type also. It may be again spring offset or detend.
In a 4/2 way direction control valve, there is one more port connection for cylinder known as "B" port. In one
position flow is permitted from the "P" port to the "A" port and in the other position from "P" port to "B" port. Other
ports and passages are opened to tank. From the construction, it looks like a 5/2 way direction control valve as
it has two tank ports. But these two tank ports are connected inside the valve to be a single tank port. It may be
again spring offset or detend type.
A 2/2 way valve provides flow only in one position, thus it can not be used for the movement of a piston.
However, 3/2 and 4/2 way valves are for the movement of single acting and double acting cylinder
respectively. These two types of valve cannot stop the piston in mid position. The valves may be actuated
either manually, or by electrical or pilot pressure.
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4/3 way spool type direction control valve has one addition to 4/2 way valve as centre position. This centre
position of the valve stops a moving piston at any intermediate position. It is identical to a 4/2 way direction
control valve, except for the machining of the spool lands. The lands are of different widths which make the
valve of different centre positions.
These valves are available with a variety of interchangeable spools. All of these types of valves have identical
flow patterns in the shifted positions, with the different centre conditions. The open centre type interconnects
all ports and pump delivery to tank at low pressure. It provides the unloading of the pump as well as avoiding
the surges. But, it cannot hold the vertical load.
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Institute
The closed centre valve has all ports blocked, so that pump delivery may be used for other operations within
the circuit, otherwise it is forced to tank through pressure relief valve. It is suitable for holding the load, but
cannot provide unloading of the pump.
The tandem type has both cylinder ports blocked in centre position, but the pressure port is open to tank. This
valve provides unloading of the pump and holding the load in centre position.
A float centre has cylinder ports connected with tank and pressure port closed. This valve provides the floating
position of the piston.
Spools of the valves may be held in centre positions by the centering spring, or detends. Spools may be shifted
either by the lever, cams, solenoids or pilot pressure. These valves can be actuated either by a manually
operated levers or knobs, or mechanically operated devices, like cams, springs, rockers, etc. The valves can
45
Institute
be also actuated by the solenoids or the oil pressure known as the pilot pressure. These valves may come in
their original position either by spring offset or detend.
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Institute
FLOW CONTROL VALVE

A flow control valves is used to regulate the actuator speed. The speed of an actuator depends upon the flow
rate of the oil which is pumped into the actuator per unit time. It is possible to regulate the flow by a variable
displacement pump, but in many circuits it is more practical to use a fixed displacement pump and regulate the
flow with a flow control valve.
There are three basic methods of applying flow control valves to control actuator speed. They are :
(a) Meter-in
(b) Meter-out
(c) Bleed-off.
In meter-in operation, the flow control valve is fitted between the pump and the actuator. The flow control
valve regulates the flow which is going into an actuator. The excess flow of the pump is going to tank through
the pressure relief valve. This system controls the flow only in one direction, as the flow control valve has a
check valve in opposite direction and parallel to flow control valve. To control the speed in both directions two
flow control valves are fitted in two lines of the actuator. This method is highly accurate. It is used in
applications where the load continually resists the movement of the actuator.
The meter-out control is used
where the load might tend to run-
away. The flow control valve is
located between cylinder and the
tank. The return oil of the tank is
allowed to pass through the flow
control valve, which resists the
flow and stops the tendency of
the load falling down due to its
own weight. It is also a very
accurate system to control the
speed of an actuator.
In a bleed-off method, the flow control valve is fitted
in a bypass line between pump and tank. The flow
control valve allows a certain amount of oil flow to
tank and rest of the oil to go to the system. It saves a
lot of power, but this type of system does not give
accurate speed. This type of system should not be
used where there is a possibility of an over running
load.
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Institute
The flow control valve can be divided into three types :

(a) Simple or non-pressure compensated type.
(b) Pressure compensated type.
(c) Pressure and temperature compensated type
A simple or non-pressure compensated type flow control valves are as simple as an orifice. The orifice area
can be changed by rotating the screw against the poppet and spring, thus, making it a small orifice. The back
pressure of the oil along with the spring keeps the orifice constant while oil flows from inlet to outlet. As the
direction of the flow reverses, The check valve opens, allowing all the oil to pass without metering and
controlling of speed.
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Institute
It is called as non-pressure compensated, as

the speed of the actuator changes as the
pressure of the system changes. The speed
does not remain constant at any pressure of the
system.
In a pressure compensated flow control valve,
the speed of the piston remains constant at any
working pressure as there is the provision to
keep the pressure difference constant across
the orifice at any working pressure. it is done by
using a compensator inside the valve, which
floats as per the requirement and positions to
keep the pressure drop constant. The floating
position of the compensator varies the size of
the orifice and controls the flow accurately. The
return flow through the valve is through a check
valve mounted in parallel condition to the flow
control valve.
The pressure and temperature compensated
type flow control valve controls the flow rate of
the oil in case of temperature changes. High
temperature, increases the fluidity of the oil and
increases the flow rate. A thermostat is mounted inside a temperature compensated flow control valve, which
controls the flow rate in case of temperature variation by varying the orifice of the valve.
Check Valve
49
Institute
In Out
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Institute
ACTUATORS
Actuators are the output device, which are used to deliver power to the machine. This is the unit, which remains
connected with the machine. It converts pressure energy of the fluid into the mechanical energy and drives
either a cylinder or hydraulic motor.
Actuators are of two types : (a) Linear and (b) Rotary.
Linear actuators is the cylinders. Its output is in a straight line motion along with the force. Cylinders are
classified as single or double acting and as differential or non-differential. Single acting also may be spring
return or load return.
Ram type cylinder is also a single acting cylinder with load return. It has one fluid chamber and exerts force
only in one direction. Most are mounted vertically and retract by the force of gravity on the load. Ram type
cylinders are used in elevators, jacks and automobile hoists.
A telescopic cylinder is used where the collapsed length must be shorter than could be obtained with a
standard cylinder. Up to 4 and 5 sleeves can be used, while most are single acting, double acting units are also
available.
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A double acting cylinder is so named because it is operated by hydraulic fluid in both directions. This means it is
capable of a power stroke either way. The standard double acting cylinder is classed as a differential cylinder
because there are unequal areas exposed to pressure during the forward and return movements. The
difference being a function of the cross sectional area of the rod. The expanding stroke is slower, but capable
of exerting a greater force than can be obtained when the piston and the rod are retracted.
Double rod cylinders are used where it is advantageous to couple a load to each end, or where equal
displacement is needed on each end. They too are double acting cylinders but are classified as non-
differential. With identical areas on either sides of the piston, they can provide equal speeds and equal forces
in either direction. Any double acting cylinder may be used as a single acting unit by draining the inactive end to
tank.
The essential parts of a cylinder are a barrel, a piston and rod, end caps and suitable seals. Barrels are usually
seamless steel tubings, honed to fine finish on the inside. The piston, usually cast iron or steel, incorporate
seals to reduce leakage between it and the cylinder barrel. Step cut automotive type steel rings are used where
some leakage can be tolerated. For supporting load or very low feed rate, a T-ring or O-ring with two heavy duty
back up rings is often used. The ports of the cylinders are in the end caps, which may be attached directly to
each end of the barrel, or secured by the bolts. The rod packing is a cartridge type including both the seals and
wipers for easy replacement.
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Institute
Various cylinder mountings provide flexibility in anchoring the cylinder. Rod ends are usually threaded for
attachment directly to the load or to accept a clevis, yoke or similar coupling device.
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Institute
The rating of a cylinder includes its size and pressure capability. Cylinder size is piston diameter and stroke
length. The speed of the cylinder, the output force available and the pressure required for a given load depend
on the piston area. The area of the piston rod must be subtracted when the piston is being retracted. The speed
of a piston is equal to the flow rate, divided by the cross section area of the piston.
The output force is equal to the pressure applied on the piston area, multiplied by the cross sectional area of
the piston.
Cylinder cushionings are often installed at either or both

ends of a cylinder to slow it down near the end of the stroke
and prevent the piston from hammering against the end
caps.
A stop tube is a spacer placed on the cylinder rod next to the

piston on cylinders with a long stroke. The stop tube, by
increasing the minimum distance from the piston to the rod
bushings, provide more support for side loading on the rod,
thus minimizing chances of rod bearing failures.
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Institute
HYDRAULIC MOTORS
Hydraulic motors are the rotary actuators. The basic function of hydraulic motor is to rotate a component at
some desired speed and torque. It receives high pressure oil from the pump and converts it to mechanical
energy.
The hydraulic motors are of the following types :
(a) Gear motor
(b) Vane motor
(c) Piston motor
In construction, there is very little difference in a gear pump and the motor. Gear motor has both the ports of
equal diameters. It has a third line coming from the bearing chamber, known as the drain line. The meshing
area of gear teeth are made in such a way that pressurized oil cannot be intrapped in it.
Vane pump and vane motor are similar in appearance, but they have the differences in construction. All vanes
are projected towards the cam ring through the springs. The spring may be a simple or of rocker arm type.
Rocker arm type has the provision to load on two vane mounted perpendicularly to each other. It has a shuttle
valve arrangement through which pressurized oil can be delivered under side of each vane to bring it out at any
RPM. It also has a separate drain line.
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Institute
Piston motors are made similar to the piston pumps. Only metering notches are cut on both sides of kidney
shape ports made in the valve plate.
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Institute
ACCUMULATOR
An accumulator is a mechanical device that stores the energy of fluid under pressure. The stored energy is
readily available as a quick source of power.
An accumulator can perform various functions:
(a) As a pressure reserve : In hydraulic systems where the operating cycle requires large flow to be
available for short period. Here the accumulator helps to avoid the necessity of using a large pump
requiring a high drive power capacity to suit the intermittent large flow requirement. The pump is required
to be large enough to recharge the accumulator during idling.
(b) As emergency unit : That is, as an energy source during brief pump failure, so that a work cycle already
commenced can be completed, or to implement a safety cycle.
(c) As leakage oil reserve : For the maintenance of pressure to compensate losses due to leakage and to
maintain pressure over a long period, e.g. for clamping and holding operations.
(d) As anti-vibration device : Either for prevention of pressure knocks, unpleasant operating noise
resulting from system vibrations, or to calm pulsating flow from a pump.
(e) To cushion pressure surges : During operating cycle, e.g. when using pressure switches or measuring
instruments.
(f) As fluid energy source : For independent operation of auxiliary or pilot circuits when pump flow is
required to perform the main operating movements.
The hydraulic fluid is compressible. So, we can not store hydraulic energy by simply filling up a container by
fluid under pressure. The construction of an accumulator is different. When fluid under pressure enters the
accumulator chamber, it does one of three things: it compresses a spring, or it compresses the gas, or raises a
weight. Any tendency for pressure to drop at the inlet causes the element to react and forces the fluid back out.
TYPES OF ACCUMULATOR : Basically, there are three types of accumulators:
(a) Weight-loaded accumulator
(b) Spring loaded accumulator
(c) Gas charged accumulator
Weight loaded accumulator consists of a vertical piston or ram which has the
provision for adding or removing weights to vary the pressure. Pressure is
always equal to the weight imposed divided by the piston or ram area exposed
to the hydraulic fluid. This is the only type of accumulator where pressure
remains constant throughout its stroke length. This type of accumulator is
heavy and bulky and is used for heavy presses where constant pressure is
required or in applications where large volume is necessary.
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Institute
Spring loaded accumulator consists of a spring loaded

piston in a cylinder. Energy is stored as the spring is
compressed by fluid flowing into the accumulator. In this
type the pressure will not remain constant, because
pressure depends on spring force.
The most common type of accumulator is the gas
charged accumulator. In this type one side of the
accumulator is charged with some inert gas like Nitrogen
and the other side is charged with the hydraulic fluid. A
separator, which may be a piston, diaphragm or bag
separates the gas from the fluid.
Oxygen should never be used because of its tendency to
burn or explode under pressure. Air is also not
recommended for the same reason. A gas charged accumulator should be pre-charged before sending oil
inside the accumulator. Accumulator pressure varies in proportion to the compression of the gas, increasing as
fluid is pumped in and decreasing as it expelled out.
There are various types of gas charged accumulator. These are :
(a) Piston type
(b) Diaphragm type
(c) Bladder type
The piston type accumulator has a pressure barrel with piston to separate gas and oil chambers. Nitrogen is
pre-charged through the gas valve up to pre-charge pressure. Oil is charged from the other side of the
accumulator. As oil enters inside the accumulator, gas or oil pressure increases. This pressure goes up to the
setting of the pressure relief valve of the system. If pressure comes down at the inlet of the oil, the charged oil
comes out.
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Piston type accumulator has a larger capacity to store the oil, but there is variation in pressure while charging
and discharging. Also, because of friction between seals and cylinder wall, the response becomes slower.
Damaged seal may drop the pressure of the gas.
Diaphragm type accumulator is also a gas charged accumulator. A rubber diaphragm separates the
chambers. This type is normally used to take the shock load. Its capacity is very low, but its gas pre-charged
pressure remains higher than the other type.
Bladder type accumulator is a common type of gas charged accumulator. Inside the accumulator shell there
remains a rubber bladder which separates the two chambers. Gas is pre-charged first before using the
accumulator. Oil is charged against the gas, which in turn increases the pressure of the hydraulic fluid. The
bladder used inside the accumulator is of replacable type. To avoid the extrusion of the bladder, an anti-
extrusion valve is fitted in the oil line.
Gas pre-charged pressure varies as per the application and on the type of accumulators. Normally, 100% of
minimum working pressure is kept as a pre-charge pressure in case of piston type accumulator. For a
diaphragm type, it is almost 80% of the maximum working pressure. A bladder type has pre-charged pressure
either 90% of the minimum or 25% of the maximum.
It has been seen that the efficiency of an accumulator also depends upon isothermal and adiabatic charging
and discharging of the oil. Isothermal changes are better as it can hold or discharge more oil if the temperature
is kept constant during charging or discharging. Adiabatic process is not recommended. Since a perfect
isothermal process is not possible, it is done by polytropic process.
The size of an accumulator depends on how much oil is required for the system. It can be possible either using
a smaller capacity accumulator or a larger capacity accumulator. In a smaller size accumulator, there will be a
large variation in pressure, therefore it is required to get a larger size of accumulator. Again there may be some
other problems in having a larger sized accumulator and thus, for selecting proper size of accumulator,
accumulator curves should be referred.
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Institute
HYDRAULIC SYMBOL
Pressurized
Vented Reservoir
Reservoir
Strainer / Filter Cooler
Heater Pump
Variable Pressure
Displacement type Compensated
Pump type Pump
L
Uni-direction Bi-directional
Hydraulic Motor Hydraulic Motor
L L
Variable
Displacement type Flow Divider
Hydraulic motor L
L
Single Acting Double Acting

Cylinder Cylinder
A A B
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Institute
Double Acting Double Acting

Cylinder (Single Cylinder (Both
A B
ended cushion) ended cushion)
A B
Telescopic . Semi-Actuator
Cylinder
A
Pressure Relief Pressure

valve Reducing Valve
L L
Counter
Sequence Valve
Balance Valve
Brake Valve Unloading

X
Valve
X
Pilot Operated
Check Valve
Check Valve
Pilot Operated Non-Pressure

Check Valve Compensated
(External Type Flow
Drain Type) Control Valve
Pressure Pressure & Temp
Compensated Compensated
Type Flow Type Flow Control
Control Valve Valve
DC Valve DC Valve
2 Position & Spring Offset &
3 Position Spring Centred
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Institute
DC Valve
DC Valve
Push Button &
Detent Type
Lever Operated
DC Valve
DC Valve
Solenoid
Solenoid
Controlled &
Operated
Pilot Operated
DC Valve Normally DC Valve Normally
Closed & Normally Closed & Normally
Open Type Open Type
DC Valve
DC Valve
Normally P to A
Close Centre
& Normally P to B
DC Valve DC Valve
Open Centre Tandem Centre
Proportional
DC Valve
Valve
Float Centre
with LVDC
Proportional
Proportional Valve
Pressure Relief
without LVDC
Valve with LVDT
Pilot Operated
Proportional
Proportional
Flow Control
Pressure Relief
Valve with LVDT
Valve
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Institute
Servo Valve Air Bleed Valve
Slip-in Cartridge Shut-off Valve

Valve (Open)
Shut-off Valve
Plugged Line
(Closed)
Solid Pipe Flexible Hose
External Pilot External Drain
Non-connected
Enclosure
pipe lines
Connected Pipe
Lines
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Institute
HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
A hydraulic circuit can be defined as an assembly of various suitable hydraulic components in a systematic
manner to make a system as per our desire. All hydraulic components are shown in graphical form. The
hydraulic circuit gives us an idea about the application and the function of different components used in the
system. It does not show the sizes, flow rate, speed and pressure of the system. It also helps us to analyze and
rectify the problems occurring in the system.
Any hydraulic circuit may consists of mainly three units known as Input unit, Output unit and Controlling unit.
INPUT UNIT : It is also known as the pumping unit. This is the unit, which takes power / energy from the prime
mover and expends it for the system to do some useful work. It is an energy converter, which converts the
mechanical energy into the hydraulic energy. As an output, it provides the flow and the pressure. The reservoir
along with the suction, return and drain line, the pump and the prime movers are the essential components for
an input unit.
OUTPUT UNIT : It is also known as the working unit. It takes the power/energy from the input unit and expend
it for the machine. It is also an energy converter, which converts the hydraulic energy into the mechanical
energy. It provides torque and rpm as output. The out put may be in the form of linear motion or rotary motion.
Cylinders and hydraulic motors are used as output units and are commonly known as actuators.
CONTROLLING UNIT : An input unit can be connected directly with the output unit to get some work, but the
system will not work as per the requirement. The system will work systematically only after using the
controlling unit. This unit controls the pressure, direction of motion and the speed. Pressure control valves,
Direction control valves, Flow control valves are the components used for the controlling unit. These
components are having their specific positions in the system.
Along with the above said units, there is an AUXILIARY UNIT which assists the system for its better
performance. This unit controls and monitors various parameter viz. pressure, temperature, contaminations
as well as provides the facility to interface with electrical and electronics. Pressure gauge, thermometer,
cooler, filter, strainer, limit switches, pressure switches, accumulators are some examples of components
used as auxiliary components.
Input unit, output unit and controlling units have their specific positions in the circuit. Input unit is at the bottom,
where as controlling and output units are kept at the middle and the top respectively. Auxiliary units are placed
at different positions. Components are connected by straight lines which constitute piping and tubes. All the
lines are drawn orthogonally. Pipe connections are shown by a dot. Ports are indicated by the designated
letters or words. All the arrows shown in the circuit should be filled up.
Some practical exercises are given in the next page.
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PRACTICAL EXERCISES
EXERCISE NO : 01 - Draw a hydraulic circuit for a single acting cylinder, vertically placed. Piston should
move up when the lever of a D.C.valve is operated. Piston should come down with its own load. Adjust the
pressure of the system to 30 bar.
EXERCISE NO : 02 - For the above circuit, make the arrangement for the pump unloading in normal position
of the valve. Suggest all possible methods.
EXERCISE NO : 03 - Draw a hydraulic circuit for a double acting cylinder, vertically placed with the following
conditions:
(a) Piston should move up and down only, after actuating the direction control valve either by a knob or a
lever or a solenoid.
(b) In normal position of the valve, the piston should be in retracted condition.
(c) In case of power failure of the pump, the piston should not come down, if the load is moving up.
(d) In idle condition of the system, the pump should be unloaded.
(e) The pressure of the system should not be more than 30 bar.
EXERCISE NO : 04 - Draw a hydraulic circuit for a double acting cylinder, horizontal placed with the following
conditions:
(a) Piston should move in either direction and stop at any desired position by actuating the lever of a
valve.
(b) While starting and stopping the movement of the piston, there should not be pressure surges in the
system.
(c) In idle condition of the system, the pump should be unloaded.
(d) The pressure of the system should not be more than 30 bar.
EXERCISE NO : 05 - Draw a hydraulic circuit for a double acting cylinder, vertically placed with the following
conditions:
(a) Piston should move up and down and stop at any desired position by actuating the lever of a valve or a
solenoid.
(b) In centre position of the valve the pump should be unloaded.
(c) The piston should be locked at its position.
conditions:
(a) Piston should move in either direction and stop at any desired position by actuating a D.C.Valve.
(b) The D.C.Valve used should be a solenoid controlled and pilot operated.
(c) In centre position of the valve, the pump should be unloaded.
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Institute
conditions:
(a) Piston should move in either direction and stop at any desired position by actuating the lever of a valve.
(b) The piston should move forward in regenerative condition.
(c) In centre position of the valve, the pump should be unloaded.
conditions:
(a) Piston should move in either direction and stop at any desired position by actuating the solenoids.
(b) The pressure of the system should not be more than 30 bar.
(c) Piston should move in either direction with control speed.
(d) The flow control valve should be fitted in meter-in or meter-out condition.
conditions:
(a) Piston should move in either direction and stop at any desired position by actuating the solenoids.
(b) The pressure of the system should not be more than 30 bar.
(c) Piston should move in forward direction with higher speed up to the middle, then its speed slows down.
(d) The backward speed should be fast.
EXERCISE NO : 10 - Draw a hydraulic circuit for a double acting cylinder horizontally placed with the following
conditions:
(a) The system should have three pressures 20 bar, 30 bar and 40 bar and can be changed with operating the
solenoids.
(b) The pump should be unloaded in centre position of the valve.
(c) The piston should move to and fro and should stop at any desired position.
(d) The pressure gauge should be connected with isolating valve.
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QUESTIONNAIR FOR SELF EVALUATION

1. What do you mean by Hydraulics? What are the different advantages and limitations of Hydraulics?
2. What do you mean by force and pressure? What are the different units of pressure used in the system?
3. What is Pascal's Law? How is it a force multiplier?
4. What is meant by conservation of Energy? How can be explained in terms of Hydraulics?
5. What is the function of pump in Hydraulic system?
6. How pressure is created in the system? Is there any effect of flow rate on pressure?
7. Define flow rate. What are the various units of flow rate normally used in Hydraulic system?
8. What determines the speed of an actuator? Is there any effect on speed due to pressure?
9. Define relationship between fluid velocity and pipe friction.
10. Define work and power. Write down formula to calculate HP and KW.
11. What are the primary function of hydraulic fluid?
12. Define viscosity. What are the different units of viscosity?
13. What are the effects of low and high viscosity of oil in hydraulic system?
14. What is viscosity index? How does it effect the system?
15. What are the various properties of oil? How are rust and corrosion prevented?
16. What is demulsibility?
17. What are the different types of hydraulic fluids?
18. What step will you take to keep fluid in better condition?
19. What do you mean by contaminants? What are the different types and their sources?
20. What are the effects of contaminants?
21. What are the different types of strainers and where are they used?
22. How a strainer cartridge can be cleaned safely and effectively?
23. What are the different types of filters?
24. What do you mean by nominal and absolute filter rating?
25. What is the function of bypass check valve fitted along with a filter?
26. Explain the following :
(a) Full flow filter
(b) Partial filter
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Institute
(c) Surface filter

(d) Depth filter
(e) Beta ratio of a filter
(f) Efficiency of a filter
27. Why filters are not used in suction line of a pump?
28. Draw graphical symbol of strainer and filter?
29. Define a pump. What are the different types of pump?
30. Why centrifugal pumps are not used in hydraulic system
31. What makes a pump a positive displacement type?
32. Differentiate between positive and non-positive displacement type pump.
33. What are external and internal leakage of a pump? On which factors leakage of a pump depends.
34. What are the different types of positive displacement type pump?
35. Explain the following :
(a) Displacement
(b) Flow rate
(c) Aeration
(d) Cavitation
(e) Power
(f) Mechanical efficiency
(g) Volumetric efficiency
(h) Overall efficiency
(i) Balanced type pump
(j) Unbalanced type pump
(k) Fixed displacement type pump
(l) Variable displacement type pump
36. Draw graphical symbol of a fixed and variable displacement type pump.
37. Why a gear pump is called as a positive displacement type pump?
38. Explain the construction and working of an external gear pump.
39. How a gear pump has become an unbalanced type pump?
40. Explain the term, radial clearance, side clearance and backlash of a gear pump. How do they affect
the efficiency of a gear pump?
41. Why not a gear pump can be rotated in reversed direction?
42. Draw graphical symbol of a gear pump.
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43. What are the different advantages of vane pump? What are the different types of vane pump?
44. Why vane pump is called a positive displacement type pump?
45. What makes a vane pump balanced type?
46. Explain the construction and working of a balanced and unbalanced type vane pump.
47. What do you mean by pressure compensated type vane pump?
48. How flow rate of a vane pup is calculated?
49. Explain the construction of an intra-vane pump?
50. What are the advantages of intra-vane pump over a balanced type pump?
51. Draw graphical symbol of a vane pump.
52. What are the different types of piston pump?
53. Explain the construction of an in-line axial piston pump. Why odd number of pistons are incorporated in
any piston pump?
54. What makes a piston pump positive displacement type?
55. Explain the working principle of a variable type piston pump.
56. How flow rate of a piston pump can be calculated?
57. What are the functions of external drain in a piston pump?
58. Why not a piston pump can be rotated in reversed direction?
59. Why drain line of a piston pump is kept high from pump level?
60. What do you mean by pressure compensated and constant power pump?
61. Draw graphical symbol of a piston pump.
62. What are the functions of a pressure relief valve? Where is the position of a pressure relief valve in
the system?
63. What are the different types of pressure relief valve?
64. Explain the construction and function of a directly and compound type pressure relief valve?
65. What do you mean by a cracking pressure, full flow pressure and pressure override?
66. How pressure in a pressure relief valve is adjusted?
67. What is the function of a pressure reducing valve in the circuit?
68. What are the different types of pressure reducing valve? Where are they used?
69. What is the function of a bypass check valve fitted along with a reducing valve?
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Institute
70. Can a pressure relief valve work as a pressure reducing valve?

71. What is the function of external drain fitted with a reducing valve?
72. Draw graphical symbol of a pressure reducing valve.
73. What are the different function of check valves in a hydraulic system?
74. What are the different types of check valve?
75. Explain the construction and working of a check valve.
76. What do you mean by a pilot operated check valve? Where are these valves used?
77. What are the different types of pilot operated check valve?
78. What are the limitations of a pilot operated check valve?
79. Draw the graphical symbol of conventional and pilot operated check valve.
80. Define a direction control valve. How direction control valve is designated?
81. What do you mean by a 4/3 way direction control valve?
82. What are the different centres used in a 4/3 way direction control valve?
83. What are the different functions of different centers of a DC valve?
84. What do you mean by a pilot operated direction control valve?
85. Draw graphical symbol of different types of direction control valves.
86. What is the function of a flow control valve?
87. Explain the working principle of a flow control valve.
88. What is meter-in, meter-out and bleed-off connection of flow control valve?
89. What the limitations of flow control valve?
90. Explain the construction and function of a simple type flow control valve.
91. Why a simple flow control valve is called as a non-pressure compensated type flow control valve?
92. What is a pressure compensated type flow control valve?
93. What is the function of bypass check valve fitted along with a flow control valve?
94. Explain the function of a temperature compensated type flow control valve.
95. Draw graphical symbols of all different types of flow control valves.
96. Define actuator. What are the different types of actuator?
97. Explain the construction of a double acting cylinder.
98. What do you mean by cylinder cushioning?
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Institute
99. What is the function of stop tube?
100. What are the different mountings used along with an actuator?
101. Draw graphical symbol of a double acting cylinder both ends cushioning.
102. What is an accumulator? What are the different functions of an accumulator?
103. What are the different types of accumulator?
104. Why only inert gas is pre-charged in a gas charged accumulator?
105. What do you mean by maximum, minimum and pre-charged pressure?
106. How an accumulator can be pre-charged?
107. What is the use of safety block?
71
Institute
(0-250 bar)
(0-250 bar) (0-250 bar) (0-25 bar)
72
STUDY MATERIAL ON
NW40
ND16
NW40
ND16
LARSEN & TOUBRO LIMITED

ECC Division - EDRC
JAMSHEDPUR
B OSCH REXROTH 0
Learning & Development (SNTI)

Shavak Nanavati Technical Institute
SCPPL (44498)
N-Road, Bistupur, Jamshedpur – 831 001

Tel 91 657 6643853 2320243 Fax 91 657 2320243
Email: snti.office@tatasteel.com

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S.M. No.

LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT

Prepared by Revised by Approved by

1 Learning & Development

17. Practical Exercises 65

2 Learning & Development

INTRODUCTION AND BASIC PRINCIPLES OF HYDRAULICS

33 Learning & Development

CONVERSION : Pound-wt = 32 Poundal ; Newton = 9.81 Kg. wt.

44 Learning & Development

55 Learning & Development

66 Learning & Development

77 Learning & Development

PRESSURE DROP THROUGH AN ORIFICE : An orifice is a resistance passage in a hydraulic line or

88 Learning & Development

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STRAINERS AND FILTERS

FILTER : Filter is a fine medium, whose primary function

Origin / formation of contamination:

Return line filters

Tank breather filters

Given below are different types of positive displacement pumps:

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BENT AXIS AXIAL PISTON PUMP :

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PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE

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PRESSURE REDUCING VALVE

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DIRECTION CONTROL VALVE

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FLOW CONTROL VALVE

The flow control valve can be divided into three types :

It is called as non-pressure compensated, as

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Cylinder cushionings are often installed at either or both

A stop tube is a spacer placed on the cylinder rod next to the

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Spring loaded accumulator consists of a spring loaded

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Strainer / Filter Cooler

Single Acting Double Acting

Double Acting Double Acting

Pressure Relief Pressure

Brake Valve Unloading

Pilot Operated Non-Pressure

Servo Valve Air Bleed Valve

Slip-in Cartridge Shut-off Valve

Solid Pipe Flexible Hose

External Pilot External Drain

Some practical exercises are given in the next page.

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QUESTIONNAIR FOR SELF EVALUATION

(c) Surface filter

70. Can a pressure relief valve work as a pressure reducing valve?

(0-250 bar) (0-250 bar) (0-25 bar)

LARSEN & TOUBRO LIMITED

Learning & Development (SNTI)

N-Road, Bistupur, Jamshedpur – 831 001