Ch-4 Analyticgeometry

CC130: Mathematics for Natural Sciences
Chapter 4: Analytic Geometry
January 10, 2024
CC130 (Chapter 4) January 10, 2024 1 / 132

Chapter 4: Analytic Geometry
In this chapter the following topics will be considered:
4.1. Distance Formula and Equation 4.3.1. Definition of parabola

of Lines 4.3.2. Equation of parabolas
4.1.1. Distance between two points 4.4. Ellipse
and division of segments 4.4.1. Definition of ellipse
4.1.2. Equations of lines
4.4.2. Equation of ellipse
4.1.3. Distance between a point and
a line 4.5. Hyperbola
4.2. Circles 4.5.1. Definition of a hyperbola
4.5.2. Equation of a hyperbola
4.2.1. Definition of a circle
4.2.2. Equation of a circle 4.6. The general second degree
4.2.3. Intersection of a circle with a equation
line and tangent line to a cir- 4.6.1. Rotation of coordinate axes
cle 4.6.2. Analysis of the general second
4.3. Parabolas degree equations
Distance Formula
Notations: Given two points P and Q on the coordinate plane,
PQ represents the line segment joining P and Q ;
|PQ| or d(P, Q) represents the distance between P and Q or the length of
PQ.
Note: The distance between two points corresponding to two numbers a and b
on the number line is |a − b| or |b − a|. Thus, the distance between two points
P(x1 , y1 ) and R(x2 , y1 ) on a horizontal line is |x2 − x1 | and the distance between
Q(x2 , y2 ) and R(x2 , y1 ) on a vertical line is |y2 − y1 |. (See the Figure below).

Distance Formula
To find the distance |PQ| between any two points P(x1 , y1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 ),
note that △PRQ (triangle PRQ) in the Figure above is a right triangle,
and thus by Pythagorean Theorem we get:
q
2 2 2
|PQ| = |x2 − x1 | + |y2 − y1 | =⇒ |PQ| = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 .
Therefore, we have the following result.
Theorem ( Distance Formula)
The distance between two points P(x1 , y1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 ) is
q
|PQ| = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 .
Corollary
The distance between the origin O(0, 0) and a point P(x, y ) is
q p
|PQ| = (x − 0)2 + (y − 0)2 = x 2 + y 2 .
Examples of Distances between two points
Example
1 The distance between O(0, 0) and P(−3, 4) is

Example
q √
|OP| = (−3)2 + 42 = 25 = 5.
2 The distance between A(1, −2) and B(7, 6) is

Example
q √
|OP| = (−3)2 + 42 = 25 = 5.

q √
|AB| = (7 − 1)2 + (6 − (−2))2 = 36 + 64 = 10.
3 The distance between P(1, 1) and Q(−2, 1) is

Example
q √
|OP| = (−3)2 + 42 = 25 = 5.

q √
|AB| = (7 − 1)2 + (6 − (−2))2 = 36 + 64 = 10.

q
|PQ| = (−2 − 1)2 + 02 = 3.

Example
q √
|OP| = (−3)2 + 42 = 25 = 5.

q √
|AB| = (7 − 1)2 + (6 − (−2))2 = 36 + 64 = 10.

q
|PQ| = (−2 − 1)2 + 02 = 3.

q
|AB| = (1 − 1)2 + (7 − (−2))2 = 9.
Division Point of a Line Segment
Given two distinct points P(x1 , y1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 ) in the coordinate plane,
we may need to find a point R(x0 , y0 ) that lies on the segment PQ and
divides the segment in the ratio r1 to r2 ; that is, |PR| : |RQ| = r1 : r2 ,
which means
|PR| r1
=
|RQ| r2
where r1 and r2 are given positive numbers. (See the Figure below).

Division Point of a Line Segment...
To determine (x0 , y0 ), we take two points S(x0 , y1 ) and T (x2 , y1 ) and
construct two right triangles △PSR and △PTQ as in the Figure.
Note that |PR| = r1 , |PQ| = r1 + r2 , |PS| = x0 − x1 , |PT | = x2 − x1 ,
|SR| = y0 − y1 , and |TQ| = y2 − y1 . Also, observe that △PSR and
△PTQ are similar triangles.Therefore,

To determine (x0 , y0 ), we take two points S(x0 , y1 ) and T (x2 , y1 ) and
construct two right triangles △PSR and △PTQ as in the Figure.
Note that |PR| = r1 , |PQ| = r1 + r2 , |PS| = x0 − x1 , |PT | = x2 − x1 ,
|SR| = y0 − y1 , and |TQ| = y2 − y1 . Also, observe that △PSR and
△PTQ are similar triangles.Therefore,
|PS| |SR| |PR| |PR| r1

= = ( But = .)
|PT | |TQ| |PQ| |PQ| r1 + r2
|PS| r1 |SR| r1
⇒ = and =
|PT | r1 + r2 |TQ| r1 + r2
x0 − x1 r1 y0 − y1 r1
⇒ = and =
x2 − x1 r1 + r2 y2 − y1 r1 + r2
r1 r1
⇒x0 = x1 + (x2 − x1 ) and y0 = y1 + (y2 − y1 )
r1 + r2 r1 + r2
These simplify to
x1 r2 + x2 r1 y1 r2 + y2 r1
x0 = and y0 = .
r1 + r2 r1 + r2
Note that if R(x0 , y0 ) is the midpoint of PQ, then |PR| = |RQ| or
|PR| : |RQ| = 1 : 1.
Theorem
Let P(x1 , y1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 ) be distinct points in the coordinate plane. If
R(x0 , y0 ) is a point on the line segment PQ that divides the segment in the
ratio |PR| : |RQ| = r1 : r2 , then the coordinates of R is given by
x r + x r y r + y r
1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1
(x0 , y0 ) = , .
r1 + r2 r1 + r2
2 y1 +y2
In particular, the coordinates of the midpoint of PQ are x1 +x

2 , 2 .

Example
Given P(−3, 3) and Q(7, 8),
(i) find the coordinates of the point R on the line segment PQ such that
|PR| : |RQ| = 3 : 2.
(ii) find the coordinates of the midpoint of PQ.

Example
Given P(−3, 3) and Q(7, 8),
(i) find the coordinates of the point R on the line segment PQ such that
|PR| : |RQ| = 3 : 2.
(ii) find the coordinates of the midpoint of PQ.
Solution:
(i) The point R(x0 , y0 ) is given by

−3(2) + 7(3) 3(2) + 8(3) 15 30
(x0 , y0 ) = , = , = (3, 6).
3+2 3+2 5 5
(ii) The coordinates of the midpoint of PQ is

−3 + 7 3 + 8 11
, = 2, .
2 2 2
Equation of Lines
Definition (Slope of a Line )

The slope of a non-vertical line that passes through the points P(x1 , y1 ) and
Q(x2 , y2 ) is given by
△y y2 − y1
m= = .
△x x2 − x1
The slope of a vertical line is not defined and the slope of horizontal line is 0.
∆y
Figure: Slope, m = ∆x
Slope of a Line ...
Remark
If the angle of inclination θ of a line passing through the points P(x1 , y1 )
and Q(x2 , y2 ) is the angle between x-axis and the line (measured counter-
clockwise from the direction of positive x-axis to the line), then
y2 − y1 △y
tan θ = = =m
x2 − x1 △x
Thus, if θ is the angle of inclination of a line, then its slope is m = tan θ.

Slope of a Line...
Example (... Continued)

1 The slope of a line passing through A(1, 0) and B(3, 6) is

Slope of a Line...

△y 6−0
m= = = 3.
△x 3−1

Slope of a Line...

△y 6−0
m= = = 3.
△x 3−1
△y 6−2
m= = = −2.
△x 1−3
π
3 If the inclination of a line is θ = , then its slope is
3

Slope of a Line...

△y 6−0
m= = = 3.
△x 3−1
△y 6−2
m= = = −2.
△x 1−3
π
3 If the inclination of a line is θ = , then its slope is
3
π √
m = tan( ) = 3.
3

Slope of a Line...
If P(x, y ) a point on the line with slope m and passing through the point
y − y1
Q(x1 , y1 ), then the slope of the line = m.
x − x1
From this, we get the equation of the line which can be written as
y − y1 = m(x − x1 ) and it is called slope-point form of equation of line.

Slope of a Line...
y − y1
x − x1
Example
Find an equation of the line whose slope is −2 and passing through P(1, 3).

Slope of a Line...
y − y1
x − x1
Example
Solution:Using the slope-point form of equation of the line, we get
y − 3 = −2(x − 1) =⇒ y − 3 = −2x + 2 =⇒ y = −2x + 5.

Slope of a Line...
y − y1
x − x1
Example
Solution:Using the slope-point form of equation of the line, we get
y − 3 = −2(x − 1) =⇒ y − 3 = −2x + 2 =⇒ y = −2x + 5.
If two points P(x1 , y1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 ) on a line are given, then using the slope
y2 − y1
of the line m = and the coordinates of P1 (x1 , y1 ) in the slope-point
x2 − x1
y2 − y1
formula, we can write the equation of the line as y − y1 = (x − x1 )
x2 − x1
and this equation is called two-point form of equation of the line.
Equation of a Line...
If x = a is the x-intercept and y = b is the y-intercept of a line (with
ab ̸= 0), then the line passes through the points (a, 0) and (0, b) and
using the two-point form equation, we have
b−0 b
y −0= (x − a) = (x − a).
0−a −a
x y
After rearranging, this equation can be written as + = 1 and this
a b
equation called the intercept form of equation of the line.
Figure: x-intercept x = a, y-intercept y = b

Equation of a Line...
In general, the following table summarizes the forms of equation of
straight lines depending on the given information.
Given Information Equation of the Line
Slope m, y-intercept (0, b) y = mx + b
(Slope-Intercept Form)
Slope m, a point (x1 , y1 ) y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
( Slope-Point Form )
y2 − y1
Two points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) y − y1 = (x − x1 )
x2 − x1
( Two-Point Form )
x y
x-intercept (a, 0), y-intercept (0, b) + =1
a b
(Intercept-Form )
Examples of Equations of Lines
Example
Find an equation of the line L if
(i) the line passes through (3, −2) and its angle of inclination is 135◦ .

Example
(i) the line passes through (3, −2) and its angle of inclination is 135◦ .
Solution:
(i) The slope of L is
m = tan(135◦ ) = −1;
and it passes through point (3, −2).
Thus, using the slope-point form with x1 = 3 and y1 = −2, we obtain
the equation of the line as
y − (−2) = −1(x − 3) =⇒ y = −x + 1.


(ii) the line passes through the points (1, 2) and (4, −2).


(ii) the line passes through the points (1, 2) and (4, −2).
Solution:
Given the line passes through (1, 2) and (4, −2), the slope of the line
is
y2 − y1 −2 − 2 4
m= = =−
x2 − x1 4−1 3
and hence the equation of the line is
4
y − 2 = − (x − 1) =⇒ 3x + 3y = 10.
3


(iii) its x-intercept is x = 2 and y-intercept is y = −3.


(iii) its x-intercept is x = 2 and y-intercept is y = −3.
Solution:
Using the intercept form, the equation of the line is
x y
+ =1
2 −3
=⇒ −3x + 2y = −6.

The general form of equation of a line
The general form of equation of a line is given by
ax + by + c = 0,
where a, b, c are constants such that not both a and b are 0.
If a = 0 the line is a horizontal line given by y = − bc , if b = 0 the
line is a vertical line given by x = − ca , and if both a, b ̸= 0, it is the
oblique line given by y = − ba x − bc with slope m = − ba .

ax + by + c = 0,
Example
Find the slope and intercepts of the line given by
2x + 4y − 8 = 0.

ax + by + c = 0,
Example
Find the slope and intercepts of the line given by
2x + 4y − 8 = 0.
Solution:
2x + 4y − 8 = 0 =⇒ 4y = −2x + 8 =⇒ y = − 21 x + 2.
Hence, its slope is m = − 21 , and y-intercept is (0, 2).
Moreover, when y = 0, we get x = 4. Hence, its x-intercept is (4, 0).
Parallel and Perpendicular lines
Slopes can be used to check whether lines are parallel, perpendicular or

not. Let L1 and L2 be non-vertical lines with slope m1 and m2 ,
respectively. Then,
L1 and L2 are parallel denoted by L1 ∥ L2 , if and only if m1 = m2 .
L1 and L2 are perpendicular, denoted by L1 ⊥L2 if and only if
m1 m2 = −1.
If L1 and L2 are both vertical or both are vertical lines, then they are
parallel.
If one of them is horizontal and the other is vertical, then they are
perpendicular.

Parallel and Perpendicular lines...
Example
Find an equation of the line through the point (2, −3) and parallel to the
line 5x + 2y − 6 = 0.

Example
Find an equation of the line through the point (2, −3) and parallel to the
line 5x + 2y − 6 = 0.
Solution:
5
The given line can be written as y = − x + 3 which is in the slope-
2
intercept form; that is, its slope is − 25 .
So, as parallel lines have the same slope, the required line has slope
m = − 52 ; and it passes through (2, −3) (given).
Therefore, its equation in slope-point form is y − (−3) = − 25 (x − 2).
This can be simplified to 5x + 2y − 4 = 0.

Example
Determine the following pair of lines as parallel, perpendicular, or neither.
(a) L1 : 2x + 3y + 5 = 0; L2 : 3x − 2y − 4 = 0

Example
(a) L1 : 2x + 3y + 5 = 0; L2 : 3x − 2y − 4 = 0
Solution:
The equations of L1 and L2 can be written as
2 5 3
y = − x − and y = x − 2, respectively.
3 3 2
2 3
Thus, the slope of L1 is m1 = − and that of L2 is m2 = .
3 2
2 3
Therefore, m1 m2 = − × = −1
3 2
This implies that the given lines are perpendicular.

Example (continued . . . )
(b) L1 : y = 2x + 1; y- and x- intercepts of L2 are y = −2 and x = 1,
respectively.

respectively.
Solution:
The slope of L1 is m1 = 2; and since (0, −2) and (1, 0) are on L2 ,
0 − (−2)
the slope of L2 is m2 = = 2 =⇒ m1 = m2
1−0
This implies that L1 and L2 are parallel.

respectively.
Solution:
0 − (−2)
1−0
(c) L1 : 3x + y = 1; and L2 passes through (0, 0) and (1, 3).

respectively.
Solution:
0 − (−2)
1−0
(c) L1 : 3x + y = 1; and L2 passes through (0, 0) and (1, 3).
Solution:
Note that the slope of L1 is −3 and slope of L2 is 3.
Thus, L1 and L2 are not parallel as m1 ̸= m2 and not perpendicular
as m1 m2 ̸= −1.

Distance from a Point to a Line
Suppose a line L and a point P(x, y ) not on the line are given.
The distance from P to L, denoted by d(P, L), is defined as the per-
pendicular distance between P and L.
That is, d(P, L) = |PQ|, where Q is the point on L such that PQ⊥L.
Figure: |PQ| = d(P, L)

If P is on L , then by convention d(P, L) = 0.
Distance from a Point to a Line ...
Given a point P(h, k), observe the following:

If the line L is a vertical line x = a, then d(P, L) = |h − a|.
If the line L is a horizontal line y = b, then d(P, L) = |k − b|.
Figure: (a) d(P, L) = 0 (b) d(P, L) = |h − a| (c) d(P, L) = |k − b|

Theorem
The distance between a point P(x0 , y0 ) and a line L : ax + by + c = 0 is
given by
|ax0 + by0 + c|
d(P, L) = √
a2 + b 2
In particular, the distance between the origin O(0, 0) and a line

L : ax + by + c = 0 is given by
|c|
d(O, L) = √ .
a2 + b 2

Example
Show that the origin and the point P(6, 4) are equidistant from the line L
3 13
given by the equation y = − x + .
2 2

Example
Show that the origin and the point P(6, 4) are equidistant from the line L
3 13
given by the equation y = − x + .
2 2
Solution:
By equidistant we mean equal distance. So, we need to show
d(O, L) = d(P, L).
To use the above formula, we first convert the given equation of the line L
into the general form which becomes 3x + 2y − 13 = 0.
Thus, a = 3, b = 2 and c = −13.
|c| | − 13| 13
=⇒ d(O, L) = √ =√ =√
a2 + b 2 9+4 13
|ax0 + by0 + c| |3(6) + 2(4) − 13| 13
and d(P, L) = √ = √ =√ .
2
a +b 2 2
3 +2 2 13
Therefore, d(O, L) = d(P, L) = √1313 .
Thus, O(0, 0) and P(6, 4) are equidistant from the given line L.
Definition of a Circle
Definition
A circle is the locus of points (set of points) in a plane each of which is
equidistant from a fixed point in the plane. The fixed point is called the
center of the circle and the constant distance is called its radius.
The above definition is illustrated by the following Figure. We denote the

center of a circle by C and its radius by r .
Figure: Circle with center C and radius r .

Definition of a circle
Remark
A point P is on a circle with center C and radius r if and only if the distance
between P and C is r , that is |CP| = r .
We also say that a point P is
inside the circle if |CP| < r , (i.e., the distance from C to P is less
than the radius).
outside the circle if |CP| > r , (i.e., the distance from C to P is
greater than the radius).

Definition of a circle
Remark
A point P is on a circle with center C and radius r if and only if the distance
between P and C is r , that is |CP| = r .
We also say that a point P is
inside the circle if |CP| < r , (i.e., the distance from C to P is less
than the radius).
outside the circle if |CP| > r , (i.e., the distance from C to P is
greater than the radius).
Definition
A diameter of a circle is a line segment through its center C with endpoints
on the circle. Consequently, C is the midpoint of a diameter and the length
of a diameter is 2r . For example, AB and QR are diameters of the circle in
the above Figure.
Definition of a circle...
Example
Suppose the center of a circle is C (1, −2) and P(7, 6) is a point on the
circle. What is the radius of the circle?

Example
Solution:
The radius r is the distance between the center C and any point P on
the circle. Therefore, r = |CP|, for C (1, −2) and P(7, 6). Thus, r 2 =
(7 − 1)2 + (6 + 2)2 = 100 ⇒ r = 10.

Example
Solution:
(7 − 1)2 + (6 + 2)2 = 100 ⇒ r = 10.
Example
Suppose A(1, 2) and B(5, −2) are the endpoints of a diameter of a circle.
Find the center and radius of the circle.

Example
Solution:
(7 − 1)2 + (6 + 2)2 = 100 ⇒ r = 10.
Example
Suppose A(1, 2) and B(5, −2) are the endpoints of a diameter of a circle.
Find the center and radius of the circle.
Solution: Let C (h, k) be the center and r be the radius of the circle.
Then, as C (h, k) is the midpoint of the diameter AB , we get (h, k) =
1+5 2+(−2)

2 , 2 = (3, 0). That is, the center is C (3, 0) and the radius,
√ √
r = |CA| ⇒ r = (1 − 3)2 + (2 − 0)2 = 8 ⇒ r = 8 = 2 2.
2

Example
Consider a circle of radius 5 whose center is at C (2, 1). Determine whether
each of the following points is on, inside, or outside the circle.
P1 (5, 5), P2 (4, 5), P3 (−2, 5).

Example
Consider a circle of radius 5 whose center is at C (2, 1). Determine whether
each of the following points is on, inside, or outside the circle.
P1 (5, 5), P2 (4, 5), P3 (−2, 5).
Solution:
The distance between the center C (2, 1) and a given point P(x, y ) is given
p
by |CP| = (x − 2)2 + (y − 1)2 or |CP|2 = (x − 2)2 + (y − 1)2 .
Note that |CP| ≤ r ⇐⇒ |CP|2 ≤ r 2 .
Therefore, P is on the circle iff |CP|2 = 25, inside the circle iff |CP|2 < 25,
and outside the circle if and only if |CP|2 > 25.
Thus, as |CP1 |2 = (5 − 2)2 + (5 − 1)2 = 25, P1 is on the circle,
|CP2 |2 = (4 − 2)2 + (5 − 1)2 < 25 P2 is inside the circle,
and |CP3 |2 = (−2 − 2)2 + (5 − 1)2 > 25, P3 is outside the circle.

Equation of a Circle
Let P(x, y ) be any point on a circle of radius r and center C (h, k) Then,
the definition of a circle requires that
p
|CP| = r =⇒ (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r Or,
(x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r 2
(Standard equation of a circle with center C (h, k) and radius r .)

In particular, the standard equation of the circle with center at the origin,
i.e., (h, k) = (0, 0), is x 2 + y 2 = r 2 .
Figure: Circles: (a) Center C (h, k), (b) center at the origin
Equation of a circle...
Example
Find an equation of the circle with radius 4 and center (2, −3).

Example
Solution:
Putting the given center (h, k) = (2, −3) and radius r = 4 in the standard
equation of a circle, we obtain the equation (x − 2)2 + (y + 3)2 = 16.

Example
Solution:
Example
Find the equation of a circle with endpoints of a diameter at P(−2, 0) and Q(4, 2).

Example
Solution:
Example
Find the equation of a circle with endpoints of a diameter at P(−2, 0) and Q(4, 2).
Solution:
The center of the circle C (h, k) is the mid-point of the diameter. Hence,
(h, k) = ( −2+4 0+2
2 , 2 ) = (1, 1).
Also for its radius, r 2 = |CP|2 = (1 + 2)2 + (1 − 0)2 = 10.
Thus, the equation of the circle is (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r 2 .
That is, (x − 1)2 + (y − 1)2 = 10.
Example
Suppose P(4, −2) and Q(3, 5) are points on a circle whose center is on
y-axis. Find the equation of the circle.

Example
Suppose P(4, −2) and Q(3, 5) are points on a circle whose center is on
y-axis. Find the equation of the circle.
Solution:
To construct an equation of the circle, we need to first obtain its center C
and radius r . As the center is on y-axis, its first coordinate is 0. That is,
the center is C (0, k), for some k.
On the other hand, as both P and Q are on the circle, we have |CP|2 =
|CQ|2 = r 2 . So, from the first equality we get 16 + (k + 2)2 = 9 + (k − 5)2 .
Solving this for k we get k = 1. Hence, the center is C (0, 1) and r 2 =
|CP|2 = 42 + (−2 − 1)2 = 25. Therefore, the equation of the circle is
x 2 + (y − 1)2 = 25.

Next we develop the general form of equation of a circle. To do this,
consider the standard equation of a circle of radius r centered at C (h, k):
(x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r 2 .
If we expand the left member of this equation we get
x 2 − 2hx + h2 + y 2 − 2ky + k 2 = r 2
Rearranging terms, we obtain
x 2 + y 2 − 2hx − 2ky + (h2 + k 2 − r 2 ) = 0 (*)
Since h, k, r are constants, we can let −2h = D, − 2k = E , and
h2 + k 2 − r 2 = F . Using these in Equation (*), we obtain
x 2 + y 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
This equations is called General form of Equation of a circle.

Note: We can always convert the general form of equation of a circle to
the standard form by completing the square on the x-terms and y-terms.
Example
Find the center and radius of the circle 2x 2 + 2y 2 + 6y − 5 = 0.

Example
Find the center and radius of the circle 2x 2 + 2y 2 + 6y − 5 = 0.
Solution:
The given equation, 2x 2 + 2y 2 + 6y − 5 = 0, is in the general form of
equation of a circle except that the coefficients of x 2 and y 2 are 2. We
want these to be 1. Hence divide the equation by 2 to obtain
x 2 + y 2 + 3y = 25 .
Now we change this equation to the standard form. To do this, we add
the square of 3/2 to both sides of the equation and complete the square of
y-terms:
x 2 + (y 2 + 3y + ( 23 )2 ) = 52 + 49
⇒ x 2 + (y + 32 )2 = 19
4
√
Therefore, the center of the circle is C (0, − 23 ) and its radius is r = 1
2 19.
.
Example
Determine whether the given equation represents a circle. If it does, identify
its center, radius and sketch its graph.
(a) x 2 + y 2 + 2x − 6y + 7 = 0

Example
(a) x 2 + y 2 + 2x − 6y + 7 = 0
Solution:
We need to convert each equation into the standard form to identify its
center and radius. We do this by completing the square on the x-terms and
y-terms of the equation as follows:
(a) (x 2 + 2x) + (y 2 − 6y ) = −7 (Grouping x-terms and y-terms)
⇐⇒ (x 2 + 2x + 1) + (y 2 − 6y + 32 ) = −7 + 1 + 9
⇐⇒ (x + 1)2 + (y − 3)2 = 3.
This is standard equation of the circle with center C (−1, 3) and radius
√
r = 3. The circle is sketched in the Figure below.


Solution:
Figure: (x + 1)2 + (y − 3)2 = 3

Example
(b) x 2 + y 2 + 2x − 6y + 10 = 0
(c) x 2 + y 2 + 2x − 6y + 11 = 0

Example
(b) x 2 + y 2 + 2x − 6y + 10 = 0
(c) x 2 + y 2 + 2x − 6y + 11 = 0
Solution:
(b) We have that x 2 + y 2 + 2x − 6y + 10 = 0 is equivalent to
(x + 1)2 + (y − 3)2 = 0. This is satisfied by the point (−1, 3) only.
The locus of this equation is considered as a point-circle, circle of zero
radius.
(c) We have that x 2 + y 2 + 2x − 6y + 11 = 0 is equivalent to
(x + 1)2 + (y − 3)2 = −1. There is no point that satisfies this equation
and hence the equation has no locus at all.

Example
Find the value(s) of k for which the equation 2x 2 + 2y 2 + 4x − 12y + k = 0
represents a circle.

Example
Find the value(s) of k for which the equation 2x 2 + 2y 2 + 4x − 12y + k = 0
represents a circle.
Solution:
Let us first change the equation into the standard form using completing the squares
and then choose k for which the radius positive as follows.
k
(x 2 + 2x) + (y 2 − 6y ) = −
2
k
⇐⇒ (x 2 + 2x + 12 ) + (y 2 − 6y + 32 ) = − + 10
2
20 − k
⇐⇒ (x + 1)2 ) + (y − 3)2 = .
2
Now the last equation is the standard equation of a circle with center C (−1, 3)
and positive radius r such that r 2 = 20−k
2 if 20 − k > 0 or k < 20. Therefore,
the given equation represents a circle with center C (−1, 3) and positive radius if k
is any real number such that k < 20.
Remark
Consider an equation of the form
x 2 + y 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0.
Adding ( D2 )2 and ( E2 )2 to both sides and completing the squares, the
equation becomes
2 2
(x + D2 )2 + (y + E2 )2 = D +E4 −4F .
This leads us to the following conclusion.
If D 2 +E 2 −4F > 0, then the equation represents a circle with center
√
C (− D2 , − E2 ) and radius r = 12 D 2 + E 2 − 4F .
If D 2 + E 2 − 4F = 0, then the equation is satisfied by the point
(− D2 , − E2 ) only; and called a point circle (or circle of radius zero).
If D 2 + E 2 − 4F < 0, then the equation has no locus.

Intersection of a circle with a line
The number of intersection points of a given line and a circle is at most two; that
is, either no intersection point, or only one intersection point, or two intersection
points.
In the Figure below, the line L1 has no intersection with the circle, L2 has two
intersection points with the circle, namely, Q1 and Q2 , and L3 has only one
intersection point with the circle, namely, P.
A line which intersects a circle at one and only one point is called a tangent line
to the circle and it is called the point of tangency.
L3 is a tangent line to the circle in the Figure below and P is the point of tangency.
Figure: Intersection of a circle and lines

Given a line L and a circle with center C and radius r , by computing the
distance between C and L we can conclude the following:
If d(C , L) = r , then L is tangent to the circle. The point of tangency
is the point P on L (and on the circle) such that CP⊥L. Consequently,
the product of the slopes of L and CP is −1.
If d(C , L) < r , then the line and the circle have two intersection points.
If d(C , L) < r , then the line does not intersect with the circle.
Figure: Intersection of a circle and lines

Example
Suppose a line L is tangent to the circle (x − 2)2 + (y − 1)2 = 5 at the point
P(1, 3). Find the equation of L.
Solution:
The center of the circle is C (2, 1) and the point of tangency is P(1, 3). The line
in the question and the circle are sketch in the Figure below.

Example
Suppose a line L is tangent to the circle (x − 2)2 + (y − 1)2 = 5 at the point
P(1, 3). Find the equation of L.
Solution:
The center of the circle is C (2, 1) and the point of tangency is P(1, 3). The line
in the question and the circle are sketch in the Figure below.
Let the slope of L be m. As L⊥CP, we determine m from the slope of CP. In

3−1
particular, since the slope of CP is 1−2 = −2, we get m = 21 . Hence, the slope
of L is m = 12 and it passes through P(1, 3) imply that the equation of the line is
y − 3 = 12 (x − 1) or −x + 2y − 5 = 0.
Example
The center of a circle is on the line x − 2y = 0 and the x-axis is tangent to the
circle at (6, 0). Find the equation of the circle.

Example
Solution:
The circle in the question is as in the Figure below.

Example
Solution:
Let C (h, k) be center of the circle. Then, (h, k) is on the line y = 12 x ⇒ k = h2 .

Moreover, the x-axis is tangent to the circle at P(6, 0) =⇒ CP is perpendicular
to the x-axis; that is, C is on the line x = 6 which means h = 6 and, so, k = 3.
Hence, the center of the circle is C (6, 3) and its radius is r = |CP| = 3. Therefore,
the equation of the circle is (x − 6)2 + (y − 3)2 = 9.

Example
Suppose the line y = x is tangent to a circle at point P(2, 2). If the center of the
circle is on the x-axis, then what is the equation of the circle?

Example
Solution:

Example
Solution:
Let the center of the circle be C (h, 0). We need to find h. The slope of the line
L : y = x is 1 and L is perpendicular to CP. Hence, the slope of CP is −1. So,
2−0
the slope of CP is 2−h = −1 ⇒ 2 = −2 + h ⇒ h = 4. Hence, the center is
C (4, 0) and r = |CP|2 = (2 − 4)2 + (2 − 0)2 = 8.
2
Therefore, the equation of the circle is (x − 4)2 + y 2 = r 2 = 8.

Definition of a Parabola
Definition
Let L be a fixed line and F be a fixed point not on the line, both lying on the
coordinate plane. A parabola is a set of points equidistant from L and F ; that is,
{ P(x, y ) | d(P, L) = |PF | }. The line L is called the directrix and the fixed point
F is called the focus of the parabola.
The above Definition is illustrated by the Figure below.
Figure: Parabola: d(P, L) = |PF |

Definition of a Parabola...
Note also the following:
The line through F perpendicular to the direc-

trix is called the axis of the parabola. It is the
line of symmetry for the parabola.
The point halfway between the focus F and di-
rectrix L is on the parabola; it is called the ver-
tex of the parabola, denoted by V. Note that
V is the point at which the parabola intersects
with its axis.
The distance between the vertex and focus,
Figure: Parabola: d(P, L) = |PF |
|VF |, is called the focal length of the parabola.
We denote it by p i.e. p = |VF | = d(V , F ).
The chord BB ′ through F perpendicular to the
axis is called the latus rectum. The length of the latus rectum, |BB ′ |, is
called the focal width of the parabola.
As |VF | = p and the vertex is at the halfway between the focus and
directix, the distance from F to the directrix is 2p. Moreover, as shown by
the following Theorem, |B ′ B| = 4p, that is, the focal width is 4 times the
focal length. The focal width is a useful information for drawing the graph
of a parabola because the larger the focal width is, the wider the opening
of the parabola.

As |VF | = p and the vertex is at the halfway between the focus and
directix, the distance from F to the directrix is 2p. Moreover, as shown by
the following Theorem, |B ′ B| = 4p, that is, the focal width is 4 times the
focal length. The focal width is a useful information for drawing the graph
of a parabola because the larger the focal width is, the wider the opening
of the parabola.
Theorem
The length of the latus rectum (the focal width) of a parabola is 4p and
the focus is the midpoint of the latus rectum.

Example
Suppose the axis of a parabola coincides with the x-axis and its focus is
F (1, 0). If the focal length of the parabola is 2, find the endpoints of its
latus rectum.

Example
Suppose the axis of a parabola coincides with the x-axis and its focus is
F (1, 0). If the focal length of the parabola is 2, find the endpoints of its
latus rectum.
Solution:
Given, p = 2. The latus rectum is a vertical line segment through F (1, 0)
as it is perpendicular to the axis which is the x-axis. So, let B(1, b) be
one endpoint of the latus rectum. Then, B ′ (1, −b) is the other endpoint
since F (1, 0) is the midpoint of BB ′ . So, |BB ′ | = 2b. But, from the above
proposition, |BB ′ | = 4p = 8. Consequently, 2b = 8 =⇒ b = 4. Therefore,
the endpoints of the latus rectum are B(1, 4) and B ′ (1, −4).

Example
Suppose the vertex of a parabola is the origin and its focus is F (0, 1). Then,
(a) What is the focal length of the parabola?
(b) Find the equation of its axis.
(c) Find the endpoints of its latus rectum.
(d) Find the equation of its directrix.
(e) Determine whether each of the following point is on the parabola or
not. (i) (4, 4) (ii) (4, 5) (iii) (−4, 4)

Example
Suppose the vertex of a parabola is the origin and its focus is F (0, 1). Then,
(a) What is the focal length of the parabola?
(b) Find the equation of its axis.
(c) Find the endpoints of its latus rectum.
(d) Find the equation of its directrix.
(e) Determine whether each of the following point is on the parabola or
not. (i) (4, 4) (ii) (4, 5) (iii) (−4, 4)
Solution:
(a) Given vertex V (0, 0) and focus F (0, 1), the focal length is p = |VF | = 1.

Example (... Solution...)
(b) The axis of the parabola is the line through its vertex
V (0, 0) and focus F (0, 1). This is the y-axis.So, the axis
of the parabola is the y-axis with the equation x = 0.

Example (... Solution...)
(b) The axis of the parabola is the line through its vertex
V (0, 0) and focus F (0, 1). This is the y-axis.So, the axis
of the parabola is the y-axis with the equation x = 0.
To visualize the parabola for further informa-
tion, we can now sketch the graph of the
parabola roughly.
Note that a parabola is symmetric with re-
spect to its axis, intersect the axis at its vertex
and open around its focus with focal width of
4p.
So, since the vertex of the given parabola is V (0, 0), focus F (0, 1) and its
axis is the y-axis as, the graph of the parabola is symmetric with y-axis and
opens upward with focal width |B ′ B| = 4p = 4 as sketched in the Figure
above.


Solution:
(c) As the latus rectum B ′ B is perpendicular to the axis with midpoint at
focus F (0, 1), B ′ B is perpendicular to y-axis. So, B ′ B is horizontal
line segment whose midpoint is F (0, 1). Hence, their coordinates are
B(a, 1) and B ′ (−a, 1) ⇒ |B ′ B| = 2a = 4 ⇒ a = 2. Therefore,
the endpoints of the latus rectum are B(2, 1) and B ′ (−2, 1).
(d) As the directrix is perpendicular to the axis and p units away from
the vertex in the opposite side of the focus, the directrix of the given
parabola is a horizontal line intersecting the axis (y-axis) at 1 unit below
the origin. That is, the equation of the directrix is y = −1.
(e) The focus of the parabola is F (0, 1) and its directrix is the line L given
by y = −1. So, a point P(x, y ) is on the parabola if and only if
d(P, L) = |PF |.

Solution: Note that as L is horizontal line, y = −1, the distance between
|ax + by + c| |y − (−1)|
P(x, y ) and L is d(P, L) = √ = √ = |y + 1|
p a2 + b 2 02 + 1 2
Note also that |PF | = x 2 + (y − 1)2 . So we evaluate these and compare
for each of the given points:
P(4, 4).Then


|ax + by + c| |y − (−1)|
P(x, y ) and L is d(P, L) = √ = √ = |y + 1|
p a2 + b 2 02 + 1 2
p
P(4, 4).Then d(P, L) = |4 + 1| = 5 and |PF | = 42 + (4 − 1)2 = 5.
This implies d(P, L) = |PF | and hence the point P is on the parabola.
P(4, 5).Then


|ax + by + c| |y − (−1)|
P(x, y ) and L is d(P, L) = √ = √ = |y + 1|
p a2 + b 2 02 + 1 2
p
P(4, 4).Then d(P, L) = |4 + 1| = 5 and |PF | = 42 + (4 − 1)2 = 5.
p
P(4, 5).Then d(P, L) = |5 + 1| = 6 and hence |PF | = 42 + (5 − 1)2 =
√
32. This implies d(P, L) ̸= |PF | and hence P is not on the parabola.
P(−4, 4).Then


|ax + by + c| |y − (−1)|
P(x, y ) and L is d(P, L) = √ = √ = |y + 1|
p a2 + b 2 02 + 1 2
p
P(4, 4).Then d(P, L) = |4 + 1| = 5 and |PF | = 42 + (4 − 1)2 = 5.
p
P(4, 5).Then d(P, L) = |5 + 1| = 6 and hence |PF | = 42 + (5 − 1)2 =
√
32. This implies d(P, L) ̸= |PF | and hence P is not on the parabola.
p
P(−4, 4).Then d(P, L) = |4 + 1| = 5 and |PF | = (−4)2 + (4 − 1)2 = 5.
This implies d(P, L) = |PF |. Therefore, P is on the parabola.

Equation of Parabolas
A parabola is said to be in standard position if its vertex is the origin
and its axis is either the x-axis or the y-axis.
I: Equation of parabolas in standard position:
A parabola in standard position can be vertical or horizontal.
(A) Equation of a vertical parabolas in standard position:
A vertical parabola in standard position, with vertex at the origin, is
opening upward if its focus is above the origin and opening downward if its
focus is below the origin as in Figure (a) and (b) below, respectively.

A vertical parabola in standard position which is opening upward has
focus at F (0, p) and its directrix is the horizontal line L given by the
equation y = −p.
A point P(x, y ) is on this parabola if and only if |PF | = d(P, L)
p
⇐⇒ (y − p)2 + x 2 = y + p (Square both sides of this)
⇐⇒ (y − p)2 + x 2 = (y + p)2
⇐⇒ y 2 − 2py + p 2 + x 2 = y 2 + 2py + p 2
This equation becomes
x 2 = 4py .
For a vertical parabola in standard position that opens downward with
focus below the origin at F (0, −p) and directrix the line y = p, then
the same procedure gives the equation
x 2 = −4py
Equation of Parabolas...
Example
Find the focus and directrix of the parabola y = x 2 .

Example
Solution:
The given equation, x 2 = y , is an equation of the parabola in standard
position with 4p = 1 =⇒ its focal length p = 14 =⇒ its focus is F (0, 41 )
and directrix y = − 41 .

Example
Solution:
Example
Find the focus and directrix of the parabola with equation x 2 + 10y = 0.

Example
Solution:
Example
Find the focus and directrix of the parabola with equation x 2 + 10y = 0.
Solution:
x 2 + 10y = 0 ⇐⇒ x 2 = −10y and this is an equation of a vertical parabola
in standard position that opens downward such that −10 = −4p =⇒ p =
5/2. Hence, its focus is F (0, −5/2) and directrix is y = 5/2.

(B) Equation of a horizontal parabolas in standard position:
A horizontal parabola in standard position has its vertex at the origin
and its axis is the x-axis.
The focus of the parabola is F (p, 0) and its directrix is the line x = −p,
which is opening to the right as in Figure (a) or its focus is F (−p, 0)
with the directrix the line x = p which is opening to the left as in
Figure (b).
Figure: Horizontal parabolas in standard position

The equation of a horizontal parabola in standard position can be ob-

tained by interchanging the roles of x and y in the above equations of
the vertical parabolas in standard position.
We get the following Equations of horizontal parabolas in standard
position vertex (0, 0):
y 2 = 4px. Focus F (p, 0), directrix x = −p (open to the right)
2
y = −4px. Focus F (−p, 0), directrix x = p (open to the left)
Example
Find the focus and directrix of the following parabola with equation y 2 + 8x = 0.

The equation of a horizontal parabola in standard position can be ob-

tained by interchanging the roles of x and y in the above equations of
the vertical parabolas in standard position.
We get the following Equations of horizontal parabolas in standard
position vertex (0, 0):
y 2 = 4px. Focus F (p, 0), directrix x = −p (open to the right)
2
y = −4px. Focus F (−p, 0), directrix x = p (open to the left)
Example
Find the focus and directrix of the following parabola with equation y 2 + 8x = 0.
Solution:
The equation is y 2 = −8x = −4px where 4p = 8 =⇒ p = 2 and this
is an equation of a horizontal parabola in standard position opening to the
left with focus F (−2, 0) and directrix the line x = 2.

Example
Suppose a horizontal parabola in standard position passes through point
P(3, 6). Find the focal length, focus, directrix, and equation of the parabola.
Sketch also its graph.

Example
Suppose a horizontal parabola in standard position passes through point
P(3, 6). Find the focal length, focus, directrix, and equation of the parabola.
Sketch also its graph.
Solution:
The standard equation of the parabola is
y 2 = 4px. Since P(3, 6) is on the parabola,
its first and second coordinates, i.e., x = 3
and y = 6 satisfy the equation. That is,
62 = 4p(3) =⇒ 36 = 12p =⇒ p = 3 > 0
Therefore, the focal length is p = 3, focus is
F (3, 0), directrix is x = −3, and, as 4p = 12,
the equation of the parabola is y 2 = 12x.

II: Equation of the shifted Parabolas:
A horizontal or vertical parabola may not be in standard position; that
is, its vertex may not be at the origin but at some other point V (h, k).
First consider a horizontal parabola (whose axis is parallel to the x-axis)
with vertex at some point (h, k) in the coordinate plane.
We can obtain the equations of such parabolas from the equations of
those in standard position by considering translation of the xy-axes in
such a way that the origin is translated to the point V (h, k).
The translation yields a new x′ y′ - coordinate system whose vertex O ′ is
at V (h, k) so that the parabola is at standard position relative to the
x′ y′ -system.
Figure: (a) Parabola open to the right (b) Open to the left
Consequently, the equation of the horizontal parabola relative to the new

x′ y′ coordinate system with (x ′ , y ′ ) coordinate points are:
y ′2 = 4px ′ ; (*) Focus F ′ (p, 0), directrix x ′ = −p (open to the right)
and
y ′2 = −4px ′ ; (**) Focus F ′ (−p, 0), directrix x ′ = p (open to the left).
Since the origin of the xy-coordinate system is translated to (h, k) to form
the new x′ y′ - coordinate system, we have that
(x, y ) = (x ′ , y ′ ) + (h, k) = (x ′ + h, y ′ + k) Or x ′ = x − h and y ′ = y − k.
Substituting these for x ′ and y ′ in equations (*) and (**) and also
expressing the coordinates of F ′ and the equation of directrix relative to
the xy-coordinate system, we obtain the following equations, called
standard equations of horizontal parabolas.

Equations of horizontal parabolas with vertex V (h, k), axis y = k :

(y − k)2 = 4p(x − h). Focus F (h + p, k), (open to the right)
directrix x = h − p
(y − k)2 = −4p(x − h). Focus F (h − p, k), (open to the left)
directrix x = h + p
The same procedure can yield also the following equations, called
standard equations of vertical parabolas.
Equations of vertical parabolas with vertex V (h, k), axis x = h :
(x − h)2 = 4p(y − k). Focus F (h, k + p), (open upward)
directrix y = k − p
(x − h)2 = −4p(y − k). Focus F (h, k − p), (open downward)
directrix y = k + p

Example
If V (1, 2) is the vertex of a parabola and F (3, 2) is its focus, then find
(a) the axis, (b) the focal length, (c) the directrix, and
(d) the equation of the parabola.

Example
Solution:
(a) The axis is the line through V (1, 2) and F (3, 2) implies it is given by y = 2.
So, it is a horizontal parabola; and the parabola is opening to the right as
F (3, 2) is to the right of V (1, 2).

Example
Solution:
(b) The focal length of the parabola is p = |VF | = |3 − 1| = 2.

Example
Solution:
(c) Since it is a horizontal parabola with vertex V (h, k) = (1, 2) and opens to
the right, its directrix is a vertical line p units to the left of V . That is, the
directrix is x = h − p = 1 − 2 = −1

Example
Solution:
(c) Since it is a horizontal parabola with vertex V (h, k) = (1, 2) and opens to
the right, its directrix is a vertical line p units to the left of V . That is, the
directrix is x = h − p = 1 − 2 = −1
(d) The vertex of the parabola is V (h, k) = V (1, 2), and we have found that its
focal length is p = 2 and it is opening to the right. The standard equation of
this parabola is (y − 2)2 = 8(x − 1).
Example
If a parabola is opening up and the endpoints of its latus rectum are
B ′ (−4, 1) and B(2, 1), then find the equation of the parabola and its direc-
trix.

Example
If a parabola is opening up and the endpoints of its latus rectum are
B ′ (−4, 1) and B(2, 1), then find the equation of the parabola and its direc-
trix.
Solution:
Since the focus F is the midpoint of B ′ B, we have
F = ( −4+2 1+1
2 , 2 ) = (−1, 1); and
4p = |B ′ B| = 2 − (−4) = 6 ⇒ p = 23 .
Moreover, as the parabola opens upward its vertex is p units below its focus.
That is, V (h, k) = (−1, 1 − 23 ) = (−1, − 12 ).
Therefore, the standard equation of this parabola, which is (x + h)2 =
4p(y + k), becomes
1
(x + 1)2 = 6(y + ).
2
Remark
If we expand the squares in the standard equation of the vertical and
horizontal parabolas, we obtain equation of the form x 2 +Dx +Ey +F =
0 and y 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0, respectively.
In general, a quadratic equation of the form
Ax 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0, where A ̸= 0,
or Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0, where C ̸= 0,
represents a vertical or horizontal parabola, respectively.
The exact features of such parabolas, such as its vertex, focal length
and focus can be identified after converting the equation into one of
the standard forms by completing the square.

Example
Find the focus and directrix of the parabola
y 2 + 4y + 8x − 4 = 0.

Example
Find the focus and directrix of the parabola
y 2 + 4y + 8x − 4 = 0.
Solution:
The equation is y 2 + 4y = −8x + 4.
⇒ y 2 + 4y + 22 = −8x + 4 + 4
⇒ (y + 2)2 = −8(x − 1).
This is equation of a parabola with vertex at (h, k) = (1, −2), and
4p = 8 ⇒ p = 2, . Note that it is opening to the left.
Therefore, its focus is F = (h − p, k) = (−1, −2), and
directrix x = h + p = 3.

Definition of an Ellipse
Definition
Let F and F ′ be two fixed points in the plane. An ellipse is the locus or
set of all points in the plane such that the sum of the distances from each
point to F and F ′ is constant. That is, a point P is on the ellipse if and
only if |PF | + |PF ′ | = k, where k is a positive constant. (See the Figure
below). The two fixed points, F and F ′ , are called foci (singular- focus) of
the ellipse.
Figure: Ellipse: |PF | + |PF ′ | = constant

Definition of an Ellipse...
Note also the following terminologies and relationships about ellipse.

• The midpoint of the foci F ′ and F is called
the center of the ellipse and denoted by C .
• The longest diameter (longest chord) V ′ V
through F ′ and F is called the major axis
and the chord BB ′ through C perpendicular
to V ′ V is called the minor axisof the ellipse. Figure: Ellipse:|PF | + |PF | = constant
′
• The endpoints of the major axis, V ′ and V , are called the vertices of
the ellipse.
• The endpoints of the minor axis, B ′ and B, are called the co-vertices of
the ellipse.

• Notation:
Let a = |CV |, b = |CB|, and c = |CF |.
We will see in the following Theorem that
|V ′ V | = 2a, |B ′ B| = 2b and a2 = b 2 + c 2 .
Note that: a ≥ b. If a = b, the ellipse
would be a circle with radius r = a = b. Figure: Ellipse:|PF | + |PF ′ | = constant
• The ratio of the distance between the foci to the length of the major
axis is called the eccentricity of the ellipse, denoted by e. That is,
|F ′ F | c
e= ′ = . (0 < e < 1, as 0 < c < a )
|V V | a

Theorem
(i) C is the midpoint of V ′ V ; i.e., the length of the major axis is 2a.
(ii) C is the midpoint of B ′ B; i.e., the length of the minor axis is 2b.
(iii) A point P is on the ellipse if and only |PF | + |PF ′ | = 2a; (where 2a is
the length of the major axis or a = |CV |.)
(iv) a2 = b 2 + c 2 .

Theorem
(i) C is the midpoint of V ′ V ; i.e., the length of the major axis is 2a.
(ii) C is the midpoint of B ′ B; i.e., the length of the minor axis is 2b.
(iii) A point P is on the ellipse if and only |PF | + |PF ′ | = 2a; (where 2a is
the length of the major axis or a = |CV |.)
(iv) a2 = b 2 + c 2 .
Example
Suppose P(4, 9/5) is on the ellipse whose foci are F ′ (−4, 0) and F (4, 0) .
Find each of the following.
(a) The center of the ellipse.
(b) The length of its major axis.
(c) The length of its minor axis.
(d) The eccentricity of the ellipse.
Definition of an Ellipse...
Example (...Solution:)
Given that the foci are F ′ (−4, 0), F (4, 0) and a point P(4, 9/5) on the ellipse:
(a) The center C is the midpoint of F ′ F , that is, C = ( −4+4 0+0
2 , 2 ) = (0, 0).
(b) The length of the major axis

r r
′ 9 9 41 9
2a = |PF | + |PF | = (4 + 4)2 + ( )2 + 02 + ( )2 = + = 10.
5 5 5 5
Therefore, the length of the major axis is 10.
(c) Since the length of the minor axis is 2b, we need to find b. In (a) we have
got 2a = 10 =⇒ a = 5 and 2c = |F ′ F | = 8 =⇒ c = 4.
Now, since a2 = b 2 + c 2 , we obtain b 2 = a2 − c 2 = 25 − 16 = 9 =⇒ b = 3.
Therefore, the length of the minor axis = 2b = 6.
c 4
(d) The eccentricity of the ellipse is e= = = 0.8.
a 5
Equation of an Ellipse
I. Equation of the ellipses in standard position:

There are two possible situations, namely, when the major axis lies on
x-axis( horizontal ellipse) and when the major axis lies on y-axis (vertical
ellipse). We first consider a horizontal ellipse in standard position as in the
Figure below.
Figure: Horizontal ellipse at standard position

Equation of an Ellipse ...
Suppose the center of the ellipse is the origin, C (0, 0), its foci are
F ′ (−c, 0), F (c, 0), and vertices are V ′ (−a, 0), V (a, 0).
Then, a point P(x, y ) is on the ellipse if and only if |PF ′ | + |PF | = 2a.
p p
That is, (x + c)2 + y 2 + (x − c)2 + y 2 = 2a.
This is simplified and gives a2 (x 2 + 2cx + c 2 + y 2 ) = a4 + 2a2 cx + c 2 x 2 ;
which becomes (a2 − c 2 )x 2 + a2 y 2 = a2 (a2 − c 2 ).
As b 2 = a2 − c 2 , dividing both sides by a2 b 2 gives us
x2 y2
+ 2 = 1.
a2 b
which is the Standard equation of horizontal ellipse in standard position,
vertices (±a, 0), co-vertices (0, ±b), foci (±c, 0) where c 2 = a2 − b 2 .

Following the same procedure as above, the equation for a vertical
ellipse in standard position is:
x2 y2
+ 2 =1
b2 a
which is the standard equation of vertical ellipse in standard position,
vertices (0, ±a), co-vertices (±b, 0), foci (0, ±c) where c 2 = a2 − b 2 .
Observe that, a2 is under x 2 for horizontal ellipse and under y 2 for
vertical ellipse.
Example
x2 y2
Consider an ellipse with equation 9 + 5 = 1. Describe the ellipse.

Following the same procedure as above, the equation for a vertical
ellipse in standard position is:
x2 y2
+ 2 =1
b2 a
which is the standard equation of vertical ellipse in standard position,
vertices (0, ±a), co-vertices (±b, 0), foci (0, ±c) where c 2 = a2 − b 2 .
Observe that, a2 is under x 2 for horizontal ellipse and under y 2 for
vertical ellipse.
Example
2 2
Consider an ellipse with equation x9 + y5 = 1. Describe the ellipse.
Solution:
2 2
The given equation is equivalent to x32 + (√y5)2 = 1 and this is an equation
√
of a horizontal ellipse in standard position with a = 3 and b = 5. Hence,
√
its center is C (0, 0), vertices are (±3, 0) and co-vertices are (0, ± 5).
√ √ √
Moreover, its foci are (±2, 0) where c = a2 − b 2 = 9 − 5 = 4 = 2.
Example
Find the vertices and foci of the ellipse with equation
16x 2 + 9y 2 = 144.

Example
Find the vertices and foci of the ellipse with equation
16x 2 + 9y 2 = 144.
Solution:
Dividing both sides of the equation by 144, we get:
x2 y2 x2 y2
+ =1 or + 2 =1
9 16 32 4
This is equation of a vertical ellipse in standard position with a = 4 and
b = 3. So, its vertices are V (0, 4) and V ′ (0, −4), and its co-vertices
are B(3, 0) and B ′ (−3, 0).
√
Moreover, c 2 = a2 − b 2 = 16 − 9 = 7 =⇒ c = 7.
√ √
Therefore, the foci are F (0, 7) and F ′ (0, − 7).
II. Equation of shifted ellipses :
When an ellipse is not at standard position with center at C (h, k), then
we can obtain its equation by considering translation of the xy-axes in
such a way that its origin translated to the point C (h, k).
This result in a new x′ y′ - coordinate system whose origin O ′ is at
C (h, k) so that the ellipse is in standard position relative to the x′ y′ -
system( see, the Figure below).
Figure: (a) horizontal ellipse, (b) vertical ellipse, center C (h, k)

The equation of the horizontal and vertical ellipses relative to the new x′ y′ -
coordinate system with (x ′ , y ′ ) coordinate points are
x ′2 y ′2 x ′2 y ′2
+ = 1 or + 2 = 1, respectively.
a2 b2 b2 a
As the translation is (x, y ) = (x ′ , y ′ ) + (h, k), we have
x ′ = x − h, y ′ = y − k. Thus, in the original xy-coordinate system the
equations of the horizontal and vertical ellipses with center C (h, k), length
of major axis = 2a, length of minor axis = 2b are given by the equations,
(x − h)2 (y − k)2
+ = 1.
a2 b2
Standard equation of horizontal ellipse, vertices (h ± a, k), co-vertices
(h, k ± b), foci (h ± c, k) where c 2 = a2 − b 2 .
Standard equation of vertical ellipse with center C (h, k), vertices
(h, k ± a), co-vertices (h ± b, k), Foci (k, k ± c), where c 2 = a2 − b 2 is
(x − h)2 (y − k)2
+ = 1.
b2 a2
Example
If the endpoints of the major axis of an ellipse are at (−3, 4) and (7, 4) and
its eccentricity is 0.6, find the equation of the ellipse and its foci.

Example
If the endpoints of the major axis of an ellipse are at (−3, 4) and (7, 4) and
its eccentricity is 0.6, find the equation of the ellipse and its foci.
Solution:
The given vertices are V ′ (−3, 4) and V (7, 4) and 2a = |V ′ V | = 10.
This implies a = 5;
The center C (h, k) of the ellipse is the midpoint of V ′ V =⇒ (h, k) =
(2, 4).
Eccentricity = ca = 0.6 ⇒ c = a(0.6) = 5 × 0.6 = 3 and hence,
b 2 = a2 − c 2 = 25 − 9 = 16. .
Observe that the major axis V ′ V is horizontal, and hence with
C (h, k) = (2, 4), a = 5 and b = 4, the equation of the ellipse be-
comes (x − 2)2 (y − 4)2
+ = 1.
25 16
As the center (h, k) = (2, 4) and c = 3, the foci are (h ± c, k) =
(2 ± 3, 4).
Remark
Consider the equation: Ax 2 + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0, when A and C have
the same sign (with A > 0 and C > 0).
By completing the squares we can show that this equation is equivalent
to
D 2 E 2 D 2 C + E 2 A − 4ACF
A x+ +C y + = .
2A 2A 4AC
From this we can conclude that the given equation represents:-
D E
an ellipse with center C (− 2A , − 2A ) if D 2 C + E 2 A − 4ACF > 0
If D 2 C + E 2 A − 4ACF = 0, the equation is satisfied by the point
D E
(− 2A , − 2A ) only (it a point-ellipse (or degenerate ellipse)).
If D 2 C + E 2 A − 4ACF < 0, the equation represents no locus.

Definition of a Hyperbola
Definition
Let F and F ′ be two fixed points in the plane. A hyperbola is the set of all
points in the plane such that the difference of the distance of each point
from F and F ′ is constant, denote the constant by 2a, for some a > 0.
That is, a point P is on the hyperbola if and only if |PF ′ | − |PF | = 2a (or
|PF | − |PF ′ | = 2a, whichever is positive). The two fixed points F and F ′
are called the foci of the hyperbola.
Figure: Hyperbola
Definition of a hyperbola ...
Refer to the Figure for the following discussion.

• The line through the two
foci F ′ and F is called the principal
axis of the hyperbola and it is
the line of symmetry of the hyperbola.
• The midpoint of F ′ F , is called
the center of the hyperbola, denoted
by C . We denote the distance between
the center and a focus by c, that is, Figure: Hyperbola
|CF | = c = |CF ′ |. Hence, |F ′ F | = 2c.
• The points V ′ and V of the hyperbola where the hyperbola crosses the
principal axis are called vertices of the hyperbola. We will show that C is
the midpoint of also V ′ V and |CV | = a so that |V ′ V | = 2a and
2a < 2c =⇒ a < c.
The line segment V ′ V , which lies on the principal axis and joining the
two vertices, is called the transverse axis of the hyperbola.
Note that, as V ′ and V are on the hyperbola, the definition requires
that |V ′ F | − |V ′ F ′ | = |VF ′ | − |VF |. From this, you can obtain that
|V ′ F ′ | = |VF |. Consequently,
(i) C is the midpoint of also V ′ V ; that is, |CV ′ | = |CV |.
(ii) |V ′ V | = |V ′ F | − |VF | = |V ′ F | − |V ′ F ′ | = 2a.
Thus, the length of the transverse axis is 2a or CV = a.
The eccentricity e of a hyperbola is defined to be the ratio of the
distance between its foci to the length of its transverse axis. That is,
similar to the definition of eccentricity of an ellipse, the eccentricity of
a hyperbola is
|F ′ F | c
e= ′
= ( Here e > 1 because c > a.)
|V V | a
Example
Consider a hyperbola whose foci are (±2, 0) and containing the point
P(2, 3).
(a) Find the center of the hyperbola.
(b) Determine the principal axis of the hyperbola.
(c) Find the length of the transverse axis of the hyperbola.
(d) Find the vertices of the hyperbola.
(e) Determine whether each of the following points is on the hyperbola or
not.
(i) (−2, 3) (ii) (3, 4) (iii) (−2, −3).

Example
Solution: Given the foci F ′ (−2, 0) and F (2, 0), and the point P(2, 3) on
the hyperbola.
(a) As the center C is the midpoint point of the foci, its coordinates are
( −2+2
2 , 0) = (0, 0).
(b) The principal axis is the line through F ′ (−2, 0) and F (2, 0). This is
given by y = 0 . That is, the principal axis coincides with the x-axis.
(c) The length of the transverse axis is 2a where |PF ′ | − |PF | = 2a, for
any point P on the hyperbola. So, using the given point P(2, 3), we
get |PF ′ | − |PF | = 5 − 3 = 2. This implies 2a = 2. That is, the length
of the transverse axis is 2.

Example ( ... Solution)

(d) The vertices V ′ and V are the endpoints of the transverse axis. So,
|V ′ V | = 2 and V ′ V | is on the x-axis (principal axis). Moreover, the
center C (0, 0) is the midpoint of V ′ V , i.e., |CV | = 1 = CV ′ . Hence,
the vertices ((0 ± 1, 0) or V ′ (−1, 0) and V (1, 0).
(e) A point P(x, y ) is on the hyperbola if and only if |PF ′ | − |PF | = ±2a.
We have already obtained in (c) that 2a = 2. Thus, we need to check
whether |PF ′ | − |PF | = ±2 or not.
For P(−2, 3), |PF ′ | − |PF | = 5 − 3 = 2 ⇒ P(−2, 3) is on the
hyperbola.
√ √
For P(3, 4), |PF ′ | − |PF | = 41 − 17 ̸= ±2 ⇒ P(3, 4) is not on
the hyperbola.
For P(−2, −3), |PF ′ | − |PF | = 3 − 5 = −2 ⇒ P(−2, −3) is on the
hyperbola.

Equation of a hyperbola
I. Equation of hyperbolas in standard position:

Let us consider a horizontal hyperbola in standard position, that is, with
center C (0, 0), vertices V ′ (−a, 0), V (a, 0) and foci F ′ (−c, 0), F (c, 0),
as in the Figure below.
Figure: Horizontal hyperbola in standard position

Equation of a hyperbola...
• Note that c 2 > a2 as c > a.

• Hence, we can put b 2 = c 2 − a2
for some positive b.
• That is, c 2 = b 2 + a2 so that
a, b, c are sides of a right triangle
(see, the Figure).
• The line segment B ′ B whose length
is 2b, midpoint C and perpendicular
Figure: Horizontal hyperbola in standard position
to the transverse axis is called
the conjugate axis of the hyperbola.
Hence, the endpoints of the conjugate axis of a horizontal hyperbola in
standard position are B ′ (0, −b) and B(0, b).
• The value b has important role in equation of a hyperbola and for
drawing the graph of a hyperbola.
A point P(x, y ) is on the hyperbola if and only if |PF ′ | − |PF | = 2a.
p p
That is, (x + c)2 + y 2 − (x − c)2 + y 2 = 2a.
p p
Or (x + c)2 + y 2 = 2a + (x − c)2 + y 2 .
p
Squaring both sides and simplifying it gives a (x − c)2 + y 2 = cx −a2 .
Again squaring both sides and rearranging, we get
(c 2 − a2 )x 2 − a2 y 2 = a2 (c 2 − a2 ).
Recalling that b 2 = c 2 − a2 and dividing both sides of the equation by

a2 b 2 , the equation becomes
x2 y2
− 2 =1
a2 b
which is equation of horizontal hyperbola in standard position vertices
(±a, 0), foci (±c, 0) where c 2 = a2 + b 2 .
The hyperbola has no y-intercept because if x = 0, then −y 2 = b 2
which is not possible.
The hyperbola is symmetric with respect to both x-and y- axes since
replacing x by −x or y by −y does not make any change on the
equation.
from this equation observe that,
x2 y2 √ √
2 2 2 ≥
= 1 + ≥ 1 =⇒ x ≥ a =⇒ |x| = x a2 = a.
a2 b2
Therefore, we have x ≥ a or x ≤ −a and this means that the hyperbola
consists of two parts, called its branches.
If we solve for y from the equation, we get
bp 2 b
y =± x − a2 =⇒ ± x as x −→ ±∞.
a a
This means the hyperbola will approach (but never reaches) the line
y = ± ba x as x gets larger and larger (positively or negatively).
That is, the lines y = ± ba x are the asymptotes of the hyperbola.
A vertical hyperbola in standard position has center at origin and its
transverse axis lies on y-axis as in the Figure below.
In this case, by reversing the role of x and y in the equation of a horizon-
y2 x2
tal hyperbola, we obtain the following equation. 2 − 2 = 1 Equation
a b
of a vertical hyperbola in standard position, with center C(0,0) vertices
(0, ±a), foci (0, ±c) where c 2 = a2 + b 2 , and asymptotes y = ± ba x.
Figure: Vertical hyperbola centered at origin

Remark
Notice the different signs for x 2 and y 2 in the equations of hyperbolas.
For a horizontal hyperbola x 2 has positive coefficient and for a vertical
hyperbola y 2 has positive coefficient.
a2 is always under the positive term (that is, a2 is the denominator
of x 2 for horizontal hyperbola, while it is the denominator of y 2 for
horizontal parabola).
The asymptotes intersects at the center of the hyperbola.

Remark
Notice the different signs for x 2 and y 2 in the equations of hyperbolas.
For a horizontal hyperbola x 2 has positive coefficient and for a vertical
hyperbola y 2 has positive coefficient.
a2 is always under the positive term (that is, a2 is the denominator
of x 2 for horizontal hyperbola, while it is the denominator of y 2 for
horizontal parabola).
The asymptotes intersects at the center of the hyperbola.
Example
Find the foci and equation of the hyperbola with vertices (0, ±1) and an
asymptote y = 2x.

Example (Solution:)
Since the vertices V ′ (0, −1) and V (0, 1) are on the y-axis with midpoint
(the center) C (0, 0), it is a vertical hyperbola in standard position - so,
2 2
the foci are (0, ±c) and its equation is of the form ya2 − xb2 = 1. So,
we need to find a, b and c.
Here, a = |CV | = 1 and as an asymptote of such vertical hyperbola is
y = ba x and the slope of the given asymptote is 2, we have
a 1 1
= 2 =⇒ = 2 =⇒ b = .
b b 2
√
Hence, c 2 = a2 + b 2 = 1 + 14 = 45 =⇒ c = 21 5.
√
Therefore, the foci are (0, ± 12 5) and the equation of the hyperbola
is y 2 − 4x 2 = 1.

II. Equation of shifted hyperbolas:
If the center of the hyperbola is C (h, k) as shown in the Figure below,
the equation of the vertical and horizontal hyperbolas can be obtained
by applying the translation of the equations of the corresponding hy-
perbolas in standard position.
That is, we apply the translation of the xy-coordinate system that shifts
the origin to the point C (h, k) as in the cases of circles and ellipses,
the effect of this translation is just replacing x by x − h and y by y − k
in the equation of the desired hyperbola and its asymptotes.
Figure: (a) Horizontal hyperbola, (b) Vertical hyperbola, center C (h, k)

Thus, we obtain the following standard equation of a horizontal hyper-
bola with center C (h, k), length of transverse axis 2a, and length of
conjugate axis 2b is given by
(x − h)2 (y − k)2
− = 1,
a2 b2
with vertices (h ± a, k), foci (h ± c, k) where c 2 = a2 + b 2 , asymptotes
y − k = ± ba (x − h).
and the Standard equation of a vertical hyperbola with center C (h, k),
length of transverse axis =2a, and length of conjugate axis =2b is
given by
(y − k)2 (x − h)2
− = 1,
a2 b2
with vertices (h, k ± a), foci (h, k ± c) where c 2 = a2 + b 2 , asymptotes
y − k = ± ba (x − h).
Example
For a hyperbola with vertices V ′ (0, 2) and V (6, 2), foci F ′ (−2, 2) and
F (8, 2).
(a) Find the center of the hyperbola.

(b) What is the equation of the principal axis of the hyperbola.
(c) How long are the transverse and conjugate axes of the parabola?
(d) Find an equation of the hyperbola and the equations of its asymptotes.

Example (... Solution)

Given: vertices V ′ (0, 2), V (6, 2) and Foci F ′ (−2, 2), F (8, 2)
(a) The center C (h, k) is the midpoint of the vertices =⇒ C (h, k) = (3, 2).
(b) As the principal axis is the line through V ′ (0, 2) and V (6, 2),
it is a horizontal line given by y = 2,
so it is a horizontal hyperbola.
(c) Length of transverse axis = 2a = |V ′ V | = |6 − 0| = 6.
(This also gives us a = 3.) The length of conjugate axis = 2b where
b 2 = c 2 − a2 . Note that c = |CF | = |8 − 3| = 5.
Hence, b 2 = c 2 − a2 = 52 − 32 = 16 =⇒ b = 4.
So, the length of the conjugate axis = 2b = 8.

Example (... Solution)

(d) The hyperbola is horizontal with center C (h, k) = C (3, 2),
a = 3 and b = 4.
Thus, putting these in the standard equation of horizontal hyperbola
we obtain
(x − 3)2 (y − 2)2
− = 1.
9 16
Moreover, the equation of its asymptotes are
b 4
y − k = ± (x − h) =⇒ y − 2 = ± (x − 3).
a 3
Simplifying these, the equations of the asymptotes
4 4
are y = x − 2 and y = − x + 6.
3 3

Remark
Consider the equation Ax 2 + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 when AC < 0
(i.e., A and C have opposite sign).
By completing the squares, this becomes
D 2 E 2 D 2 C + E 2 A − 4ACF
A x+ +C y + =
2A 2C AC
Let ∆ = D 2 C + E 2 A − 4ACF , we conclude the following:
If ∆ ̸= 0, the equation represents a hyperbola with center at −D −E

2A , 2C .
q
E
= ± | CA | x + 2AD

If ∆ = 0, the equation becomes y + 2c which
−D −E

are two lines intersecting at 2A , 2C .
In this case, it is called degenerate hyperbola.

Summary: We now summarize what we have discussed so far about conic
sections. We have seen that a conic section whose line of symmetry is
parallel to either of the coordinate axes is represented by a second degree
(quadratic) equation of the form
Ax 2 + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 (∗)
where A, C , D, E , and F are constants such that at least one of A and C is

nonzero. Except in degenerate cases, the type of the curve represented by
Equation (*) are summarized in the table below depending on the
coefficients of the quadratic terms, A and C .
Coefficients (at least A or C not 0) Equation (*) represents
AC = 0 (A = 0 or C = 0) Parabola
AC > 0 (have the same sign ) Ellipse
AC < 0 (have opposite signs ) Hyperbola
Exercise
Identify the type of conic section (geomretic figure) represented by each of
the following equations assuming that it is non-degenerate and find their
equations, with all the necessary information.
(a) 3x 2 + 4y 2 − 6x + y = 0
(b) −3x 2 + 6x − 4y + 1 = 0
(c) −3x 2 + 4y 2 − 6x + 4y + 5 = 0
(d) −2x 2 − 2y 2 + 6x + 4y + 5 = 0

Solution
(a) 3x 2 + 4y 2 − 6x + y = 0

Solution
(a) 3x 2 + 4y 2 − 6x + y = 0
A = 3 > 0 and C = 4 > 0 they have the same sign hence it is an
equation of an ellipse. OR
⇔ 3x 2 − 6x + 4y 2 + y = 0
 !2 
( 14 )

1 1
3 x 2 − 2x + 1 + 4 y 2 + y +

⇔ =4 + 3(1)
4 2 64
1 49
⇔ 3(x − 1)2 + 4(y + )2 =
8 16
(x − 1)2 (y + 81 )2
⇔ 49
+ 49
=1
48 64
it is equation of an ellipse
Solution
(b) −3x 2 + 6x − 4y + 1 = 0

Solution
(b) −3x 2 + 6x − 4y + 1 = 0
A = −3 < 0 and C = 0 hence it is equation of parabola.
OR
⇔ −3x 2 + 6x − 4y + 1 = 0
−3 x 2 − 2x + 1 = 4y − 1 − 3

⇔
⇔ −3(x − 1)2 = 4(y − 1)
−4
⇔ (x − 1)2 = (y − 1)
3
Hence it is equation of a parabola

Solution
(c) −3x 2 + 4y 2 − 6x + 4y + 5 = 0

Solution
(c) −3x 2 + 4y 2 − 6x + 4y + 5 = 0
A = −3 < 0 and C = 4 > 0 have opposite signs hence it is equation
of a hyperbola
OR
⇔ −3x 2 + 4y 2 − 6x + 4y + 5 = 0
2 !
2
2 1 1
⇔ −3 x + 2x + 1 + 4 y + y + =4 − 3(1)
2 4
1
⇔ −3(x + 1)2 + 4(y + )2 = −2
2
2 1 2
(x + 1) (y + 2 )
⇔ 2
− 1
=1
3 2
Hence it is the equation of a hyperbola

Solution
(d) −2x 2 − 2y 2 + 6x + 4y + 5 = 0

Solution
(d) −2x 2 − 2y 2 + 6x + 4y + 5 = 0
A = −2 < 0 and C = −2 < 0 have same signs hence it is equation of
an ellipse
OR
⇔ −2x 2 − 2y 2 + 6x + 4y + 6 = 0
 !2 
−3
( )
−2 x 2 − 3x + 2  − 2 y 2 − 2y + 1 = −6 − 2 9 − 2(1)

⇔
2 4
−3 2 25
⇔ −2(x + ) − 2(y − 1)2 = −
2 2
(x − 23 )2 (y − 1)2 3 4
⇔ 25 + 25 = 1 ⇔ (x − )2 + (y − 1)2 =
4 4
2 25
it is equation of an ellipse. But since the length of the major axis is
equal to the length of minor axis we have a circle.
The General Second Degree Equation
In the previous discussions we have seen that, except in degenerate

cases, the graph of the equation
Ax 2 + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 (1)
is a circle, parabola, ellipse or hyperbola whose line of symmetry is

parallel to one of the coordinate axes.
In this discussions we would like to analyze the graph of the general
second degree (quadratic) equation in x and y which is of the form
Ax 2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 (2)
where B ̸= 0.
We will see that this equation represents a conic section whose axis of
symmetry is neither horizontal nor vertical.
The General Second Degree Equation...
In order to apply the results of the previous sections in the desired

analysis, we will use a suitable x ′ y ′ -coordinate system in which Equation
(2) reduces to the form
A′ x ′2 + C ′ y ′2 + D ′ x ′ + E ′ y ′ + F ′ = 0.
This equation has the same form as Equation (1) which has already
been analyzed thoroughly.
The desired new x ′ y ′ -coordinate system is obtained by rotating the xy -
coordinate system by a suitable angle through the origin so as either
the x ′ -axis or y ′ -axis is parallel to the line of symmetry of the given
conic section.

Rotation of Coordinate Axes
A rotation of the x and y coordinate axes by an angle θ about the

origin O(0, 0) creates a new x ′ y ′ -coordinate system whose x ′ -axis is
the line obtained by rotating the x-axis by angle θ about O and y’-axis
is the line obtained by rotating the y-axis in the same way.
This makes a point P to have two sets of coordinates denoted by
(x, y ) and (x ′ , y ′ ) relative to the xy - and x ′ y ′ -coordinate axes, respec-
tively.(See the Figure below).

Rotation of Coordinate Axes
• The angle θ considered in the above

discussion is called the angle of rotation.
• Our aim is to find the relationships
between the coordinates (x, y ) and the
coordinates (x ′ , y ′ ) of the point P.
• To find this relationships,
let P(x, y ) be any point in xy -plane,
θ be an angle of rotation (i.e., θ is angle
between x and x ′ axes ) and ϕ be the angle Figure: Rotation of the xy-
between OP and x ′ -axis (See the Figure). plane by θ

Rotation of Coordinate Axes...
So, letting |OP| = r observe that
x ′ = r cos ϕ, y ′ = r sin ϕ (3)

and x = r cos(θ + ϕ), y = r sin(θ + ϕ) (4)
Then, using the trigonometric identities
cos(θ + ϕ) = cos θ cos ϕ − sin θ sin ϕ

sin(θ + ϕ) = sin θ cos ϕ + cos θ sin ϕ
and (3), the equations in (4) become
x = x ′ cos θ − y ′ sin θ
y = x ′ sin θ + y ′ cos θ (5)
These equations can be solved for x ′ and y ′ in terms of x and y to

obtain
x ′ = x cos θ + y sin θ
y ′ = −x sin θ + y cos θ (6)
The Equations (5) and (6) are called rotation formulas.

It follows that if the angle of rotation θ is given, then Equation (5) can
be used to determine the x and y coordinates of a point P if we know
its x ′ and y ′ coordinates.
Similarly, Equation (6) can be used to determine the x ′ and y ′ coordi-
nates of P if we know its x and y coordinates.

Example
π
Suppose the x and y coordinate axes are rotated by 4 about the origin.
(a) Find the coordinates of P(1, 2) relative to the new x ′ and y ′ axes.
(b) Find the equation of the curve xy = 1 relative to the new x ′ y ′ -
coordinate system and sketch its graph.
Solution:
The given information about P and the curve are relative to the xy -
coordinate system and we need to express them in terms of x ′ and y ′
coordinates relative to the new x ′ y ′ -coordinate system obtained under
the rotation of the original axes by θ = π4 rad about the origin.
√
2
Thus, we use cos π4 = sin π4 = 2 in the relevant rotation formula to
obtain the following.

Example (...Solution)
a) Since P(1, 2) has the coordinates x = 1 and y = 2, its x ′ and y ′
coordinates are, using rotation formula (6)
√ √ √
′ 2 2 3 2
x = (1) + (2) =
2√ 2√ 2√
2 2 2
y′ = − (1) + (2) =
2 2 2
′ ′
√ √ the coordinates of P relative to the new x y −plane are
Therefore,
3 2 2
2 , 2 .
b) We need to express x and y in the equation xy = 1 in terms of x ′ and √
y ′ using the rotation formula (5). So, again since cos π4 = sin π4 = 22
, we obtain
√
from
√
formula (5) √ √
x = 2 x − 2 y and y = 22 x ′ + 22 y ′ .
2 ′ 2 ′

Therefore,
√ √ ! √ √ !
2 ′ 2 ′ 2 ′ 2 ′
xy = 1 =⇒ x − y x + y =1
2 2 2 2
√ !2 √ !2
2 ′ 2 ′
=⇒ x − y =1
2 2
x ′2 y ′2
=⇒ − =1
2 2
Note that this is an equation of a hyperbola with center at origin ver-
√ √
tices (− 2, 0) and ( 2, 0) in the x ′ y ′ -coordinate system with principal
axis on x ′ -axis.

Since the x and y - axes were rotated though an angle of π4 to obtain x ′
and y ′ -axes, the hyperbola can be sketched as in the Figure below. (You
√
may use the rotation formula (5) to show that the vertices (− 2, 0)
√
and ( 2, 0) are (−1, −1) and (1, 1), respectively, relative to the x and
y-axes).

Example
Find an equation of the ellipse whose center is the origin, vertices are
(−4, −3) and (4, 3), and length of minor axis is 6.
Solution:
The position of the ellipse is as shown in the Figure below.

To apply the standard equation of ellipse, we use the x ′ y ′ -system such
that the x ′ -axis coincide with the major axis of the ellipse. Hence, the
equation of the ellipse relative to the x ′ y ′ system is
x ′2 y ′2
+ 2 = 1.
a2 b
Moreover, from the given information, a2 = |OV |2 = 32 + 42 = 25;
and length of minor axis = 2b = 6 ⇒ b = 3. So, b 2 = 9.
Hence, the equation of the ellipse relative to the x ′ y ′ -coordinate system
is
x ′2 y ′2
+ =1 or 9x ′2 + 25y ′2 = 225 (7)
25 9
Now we use the rotation formula to express the equation relative to
our xy -coordinate system.

Example (...Solution cont...)
• So, let θ the angle between x-axis and x ′ -axis.
4 3
Then, observe that cos θ = 5 and sin θ = 5.
• Thus, using rotation formula (6) we get:
4 3
x ′ = x cos θ + y sin θ = x + y
5 5
3 4
y ′ = −x sin θ + y cos θ = − x + y
5 5
• Now we substitute these for x ′ and y ′ in
(7) to obtain
2 2
4 3 3 4
9 x+ y + 25 − x + y = 225
5 5 5 5
And simplifying this, we get 369x 2 − 384xy + 481y 2 − 5625 = 0 which is

the equation of the ellipse in the xy - coordinate system.

Conics of the General Second Degree Equations
In the previous sections we have seen that the equation of the form
Ax 2 + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0, (8)
represents a conic section (a parabola, ellipse or hyperbola) whose axis
of symmetry is parallel to one of the coordinate axes except in degen-
erate cases.
We have also seen some examples of conic sections whose equations
involve xy term when their lines of symmetry are not parallel to either
of the axes.
Now we would like to analyze the graph of any quadratic (second de-
gree) equation in x and y of the form
Ax 2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 where B ̸= 0. (9)
In order to analyze graph of Equation (9), we usually need to convert
it into equation of type (8) in certain suitable reference system.
To this end, we first prove the following Theorem.
Theorem
Consider a general second degree equation of the form (9), where B ̸= 0.
Then, there is a rotation angle θ ∈ (0, π2 ) through which the xy -coordinate
system rotates to a new x ′ y ′ -coordinate system in which the equation (
Equation (9) ) reduces to the form
A′ x ′2 + C ′ y ′2 + D ′ x ′ + E ′ y ′ + F ′ = 0, (10)
Proof.
Let the xy -coordinate system rotated by an angle θ about the origin to
form a new x ′ y ′ -coordinate system.
Then, from rotation formula (5), we have
x = x ′ cos θ − y ′ sin θ and y = x ′ sin θ + y ′ cos θ.
Conics of the General Second Degree Equations...
Proof.
We can now substitute these for x and y in Equation (9) so that
A(x ′ cos θ − y ′ sin θ)2 + B(x ′ cos θ − y ′ sin θ)(x ′ sin θ + y ′ cos θ) +
C (x ′ sin θ + y ′ cos θ)2 + D(x ′ cos θ − y ′ sin θ) +
E (x ′ sin θ + y ′ cos θ) + F = 0
After some calculations, combining like terms (those involving x ′2 , x ′ y ′ , y ′2 ,
and so on ), we get equation of the form
A′ x ′2 + B ′ x ′ y ′ + C ′ y ′2 + D ′ x ′ + E ′ y ′ + F ′ = 0, (11)
where B ′ = 2(C − A) sin θ cos θ + B(cos2 θ − sin2 θ).

Here the exact expressions for A′ , C ′ , D ′ , E ′ and F ′ are omitted as they are
irrelevant. What we need is to get the angle of rotation θ for which Equation
(11) has no x ′ y ′ term, that is, B ′ = 0. This means that,
2(C − A) sin θ cos θ + B(cos2 θ − sin2 θ) = 0.

Proof.
Since 2 sin θ cos θ = sin 2θ and cos2 θ − sin2 θ = cos 2θ, this equation is equiv-
alent to
cos 2θ A−C
(C − A) sin 2θ + B cos 2θ = 0, or = , ( as B ̸= 0),
sin 2θ B
or
A−C
cot 2θ = (12)
B
That is, if we choose the angle of rotation θ satisfying (12), then B ′ = 0 in
Equation (11) so that the resulting equation in x′ y′ -coordinate system is in
the form of Equation (10).
Moreover, we can always find an angle that satisfies cot 2θ = A−C B for any
A, C , B ∈ R, B ̸= 0 since the range of the cotangent function is R.
Note also that, as 2θ ∈ (0, π), the angel of rotation θ can always be chosen
so that 0 < θ < π2 .

Remark
A−C π
If A = C , then cot 2θ = B = 0 ⇒ 2θ = 2 ⇒ θ = π4 .
Therefore, we can rewrite the result of the above Theorem as follows:
The rotation of the xy -coordinate system by angle θ creates an x ′ y ′ -
coordinate system in which a general second degree equation
Ax 2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0, B ̸= 0,
is converted to an equation
A′ x ′2 + C ′ y ′2 + D ′ x ′ + E ′ y ′ + F ′ = 0,
(with no x ′ y ′ term) if we choose θ ∈ (0, π2 ) such that

B π
tan 2θ = , if A ̸= C and θ = , if A = C
A−C 4
Example
Use rotation of axes to eliminate the xy term in each of the following
equations, describe the locus (type of conic section) and sketch the graph
of the equation
√ √
a) x 2 + 2xy + y 2 − 8 2x + 8 2y − 32 = 0
b) 73x 2 − 72xy + 52y 2 + 30x + 40y − 75 = 0
Solution:
√ √
(a) Given: x 2 + 2xy + y 2 − 8 2x + 8 2y − 32 = 0 ⇒ A = C = 1. So,
π
from the above Remark, the rotation angle is θ =
4
1 x′ − y′ x′ + y′
⇒ cos θ = sin θ = √ ⇒ x = √ and y = √ .
2 2 2
Now we substitute these for x and y in the given equation:

x ′√
−y ′
2
x ′√
−y ′

x ′√
+y ′

x ′√
+y ′
2 √ ′ ′ √ x ′ +y ′
2
+2 2 2
+ 2
− 8 2 x √−y
2
+ 8 2 √2 − 32 = 0

Example (Solution)
Expanding the squared expressions, combining like terms and simpli-
fying, we obtain x ′2 + 8y ′ − 16 = 0 or x ′2 = −8(y ′ − 2). This is
an equation of a parabola. Its vertex is (h′ , k ′ ) = (0, 2) relative to the
x ′ y ′ -system, principal axis is on y ′ -axis and open towards
negative
y′
direction. (You can show that its vertex is (h, k) = − √22 , √22 relative
to the xy -system). The graph of the equation is sketched in the Figure
below.
.
(b) Given: 73x 2 − 72xy + 52y 2 + 30x + 40y − 75 = 0
B 72 24
⇒ A = 73, B = −72 and C = 52. Hence, tan 2θ = =− =− .
A−C 21 7
This implies the terminal side of 2θ is through (−7, 24) as 0 < 2θ < π.
−7 π
Hence, cos 2θ = . Now since 0 < θ < , both cos θ and sin θ are
25 2
positive. Therefore,
r
7
r
1 + cos 2θ 1 − 25 3
cos θ = = = , and
2 2 5
r
7
r
1 − cos 2θ 1 + 25 4
sin θ = = = .
2 2 5
This implies the x ′ -axis is through the coordinate point (3, 4), that is, the

4
line y = x. Therefore, using the rotation formula (5), we get
3
3x ′ − 4y ′ 4x ′ + 3y ′
x= and y = .
5 5

Now, we substitute these for x and y in the given equation to obtain
73 ′ ′ 2 72 ′ ′ ′ ′ 52 ′ ′ 2 30 ′ ′
25 (3x − 4y ) − 25 (3x − 4y )(4x + 3y ) + 25 (4x + 3y ) + 5 (3x − 4y )
40 ′ ′
+ 5 (4x + 3y ) − 75 = 0
Expanding the squared expressions, combining like terms and simplifying,
we obtain
25x ′2 + 100y ′2 + 50x ′ − 75 = 0
Completing the square for x ′ terms and divide by 100 to get
(x ′ + 1)2
+ y ′2 = 1
4
which is an ellipse with center at (h′ , k ′ ) = (−1, 0) relative to the x ′ y ′ -
system, major axis on x ′ -axis (which is the line y = ( 43 )x ), length of major
axis = 4 and length of minor axis = 2.


We can show that the center is (h, k) = (− 35 , − 45 ) relative to the xy -system
The graph of the equation is sketched in Figure 63.

Invariance of the Discriminant B 2 − 4AC
Definition
B 2 − 4AC is called the discriminant of a second degree equation
Ax 2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0.
Theorem
The discriminant B 2 − 4AC is invariant under rotation of the axes. That is, if
in a rotation of the axes, the equation Ax 2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 is
transformed into the equation
A′ x ′2 + B ′ x ′ y ′ + C ′ y ′2 + D ′ x ′ + E ′ y ′ + F ′ = 0
then, B 2 − 4AC = B ′2 − 4A′ C ′ .
The importance of this theorem is that, under the rotation of axes that reduces
the general equation to A′ x ′2 + C ′ y ′2 + D ′ x ′ + E ′ y ′ + F ′ = 0 we have B ′ = 0, so
that
B 2 − 4AC = −4A′ C ′ . (13)
Invariance of the Discriminant B 2 − 4AC ...
Consequently, B 2 − 4AC can help us to distinguish the type of conic

section represented by the equation because the sign of A′ C ′ determines
the type of conic sections involved as discussed in the previous section. In
particular, from Equation (13),
B 2 − 4AC = 0 ⇔ A′ C ′ = 0. This means,the conic is a parabola (or its
degenerate).
B 2 − 4AC < 0 ⇔ A′ C ′ > 0. This means, the conic is an ellipse (or its
degenerate).
B 2 − 4AC > 0 ⇔ A′ C ′ < 0. This means, the conic is a hyperbola (or
its degenerate).

This leads us to the following conclusion called the Discriminant test.
Discriminant Test: If the graph of
Ax 2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
is not degenerate, then it is
• a parabola if B 2 − 4AC = 0.
• an ellipse if B 2 − 4AC < 0.
• a hyperbola if B 2 − 4AC > 0.

Example
Identify the type of conic section represented by each of the following.
a) 3x 2 + 5xy + 2y 2 + x + 4y = 1

Example
a) 3x 2 + 5xy + 2y 2 + x + 4y = 1
Solution: A = 3, B = 1, C = −1 ⇒ B 2 − 4AC > 0.
Hence, it represents a hyperbola (or its degenerate).
b) x 2 − 2xy + y 2 − 5y = 0

Example
a) 3x 2 + 5xy + 2y 2 + x + 4y = 1
Solution: A = 3, B = 1, C = −1 ⇒ B 2 − 4AC > 0.
b) x 2 − 2xy + y 2 − 5y = 0
Solution: A = 1, B = −2, C = 1 ⇒ B 2 − 4AC = 0.
Hence, it represents a parabola (or its degenerate).
c) 3x 2 + xy = 0

Example
a) 3x 2 + 5xy + 2y 2 + x + 4y = 1
Solution: A = 3, B = 1, C = −1 ⇒ B 2 − 4AC > 0.
b) x 2 − 2xy + y 2 − 5y = 0
Solution: A = 1, B = −2, C = 1 ⇒ B 2 − 4AC = 0.
c) 3x 2 + xy = 0
Solution: A = 3, B = 1, C = 0 ⇒ B 2 − 4AC > 0.
d) 2x 2 + xy + 3y 2 + x + y = 4

Example
a) 3x 2 + 5xy + 2y 2 + x + 4y = 1
Solution: A = 3, B = 1, C = −1 ⇒ B 2 − 4AC > 0.
b) x 2 − 2xy + y 2 − 5y = 0
Solution: A = 1, B = −2, C = 1 ⇒ B 2 − 4AC = 0.
c) 3x 2 + xy = 0
Solution: A = 3, B = 1, C = 0 ⇒ B 2 − 4AC > 0.
d) 2x 2 + xy + 3y 2 + x + y = 4
Solution: A = 3, B = 1, C = 2 ⇒ B 2 − 4AC < 0.
Hence, it represents an ellipse (or its degenerate).

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CC130: Mathematics for Natural Sciences

Chapter 4: Analytic Geometry

January 10, 2024

CC130 (Chapter 4) January 10, 2024 1 / 132

4.1. Distance Formula and Equation 4.3.1. Definition of parabola

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2 The distance between A(1, −2) and B(7, 6) is

CC130 (Chapter 4) January 10, 2024 5 / 132

2 The distance between A(1, −2) and B(7, 6) is

3 The distance between P(1, 1) and Q(−2, 1) is

CC130 (Chapter 4) January 10, 2024 5 / 132

2 The distance between A(1, −2) and B(7, 6) is

3 The distance between P(1, 1) and Q(−2, 1) is

4 The distance between A(1, −2) and B(1, 7) is

CC130 (Chapter 4) January 10, 2024 5 / 132

2 The distance between A(1, −2) and B(7, 6) is

3 The distance between P(1, 1) and Q(−2, 1) is

4 The distance between A(1, −2) and B(1, 7) is

CC130 (Chapter 4) January 10, 2024 6 / 132

CC130 (Chapter 4) January 10, 2024 7 / 132

|PS| |SR| |PR| |PR| r1

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CC130 (Chapter 4) January 10, 2024 9 / 132

(ii) The coordinates of the midpoint of PQ is

Definition (Slope of a Line )

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Example (... Continued)

CC130 (Chapter 4) January 10, 2024 12 / 132

Example (... Continued)

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Example (... Continued)

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Example (... Continued)

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Figure: x-intercept x = a, y-intercept y = b

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Example (... Continued)

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Example (... Continued)

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Example (... Continued)

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Example (... Continued)

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Slopes can be used to check whether lines are parallel, perpendicular or

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CC130 (Chapter 4) January 10, 2024 23 / 132

Figure: |PQ| = d(P, L)

Given a point P(h, k), observe the following: