1 - 03 - Lights and Signalling

Theory
Lights and signalling
Content
1 Lights and signalling systems ................................... 5
2 Relays .......................................................................... 7
3 Wiring diagrams for lights and signalling systems . 13
4 Lamps .......................................................................... 35
5 How headlamps and reflectors work ....................... 41

5.1 Reflector ................................................................ 41
5.2 Asymmetric lighting............................................... 42
5.3 Headlamp glass .................................................... 42
6 Types of headlamp ..................................................... 45

6.1 Bifocus .................................................................. 45
6.2 Homofocal reflector .............................................. 45
6.3 DE lighting ............................................................. 45
6.4 FF reflector ............................................................ 46
7 Lights: legal requirements ......................................... 49
8 Adjusters for headlamps ........................................... 55
9 Lights and signals in the workshop .......................... 59

9.1 Adjusting headlamps............................................. 59
9.2 Diagnosing light systems ...................................... 64
9.3 Connecting trailer lights ........................................ 72
Content Introduction Questions
Used symbols
1
Theory
Edition: 2007
© 2007 INNOVAM Publishing, Nieuwegein

The Netherlands
ISBN 90 405 0791 0
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van 20 juni 1974, St.b. 351, zoals gewijzigd bij Besluit van 23 augustus 1985, St.b. 471 en artikel 17 Auteurswet 1912,
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2
Theory
Introduction
A good light system is important for safety on the road. Only if a light
system is working well and is adjusted correctly can the driver see as well
as possible, without dazzling oncoming vehicles. Signalling systems are
necessary in order to give signals to other road users, for example if a driver
wants to change direction or if the car is braking.
It is important that a car mechanic is able to read the wiring diagrams
for light and signalling systems. Only then can he put right faults in a
systematic way.
In diagrams the components are indicated with a symbol. The symbols that
are used may vary depending on the make of the car. Numbers are often
used for the connections. For our country it is above all the connection
numbers and symbols according to the DIN standards that are important.
In many headlamps a reflector is used in order to reflect the light of the
bulb. The shape and the structure of the reflector are very important. The
headlamp glass greatly affects the distribution of the light.
There are legal requirements for the lights.
In maintenance work and inspections the adjustment of the headlamps has
to be checked. There are legal requirements for this as well. With many cars
it is possible to change the height adjustment of the headlamps from the
inside. This means that it is simple to adjust the height of the headlamps
to the load of the car. More and more manufacturers are building in an
automatic height adjustment for the headlamps.
3
Theory
4
Theory
1 Lights and signalling systems
Lights are needed in order to be able to see and be seen.

Signalling systems are needed in order to give signals to other road users,
for example when changing direction or giving warning of hazardous
situations.
Lights and signalling systems form part of the electrical installation.

Lights and signalling systems consist of various subsystems (Fig. 1).
1 headlamp 10 licence plate light

2 parking light/sidelight 11 warning lights in the doors
3 fog lamp or high-beam headlamp 12 dashboard box light
4 direction indicator 13 inside light
5 brake light 14 dashboard light
6 reversing light 15 bonnet light
7 rear fog light
8 reflector
9 third brake light
13 4
14 9
15
12
4 11
3 1
2
4
8 5
7 10
11 6
Fig. 1 Lights in a passenger car (Nissan)
Each system has its own function:

– headlamps improve the driver’s sight when driving in the dark, and they
make the vehicle easier to see
– tail lights make it easier to see the vehicle
– brake lights give warning when braking
– direction indicators give warning when changing direction
– the horn is used to give sound signals in hazardous situations.
5
Theory
Questions
1 Name four different sorts of light that are usually fitted in a rear light unit.
1 .................................................................................................................
2 .................................................................................................................
3 .................................................................................................................
4 .................................................................................................................
2 Write down three signalling systems and their function.

1 .................................................................................................................
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2 .................................................................................................................
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3 .................................................................................................................
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3 Write down three sorts of light and their function.

1 .................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
2 .................................................................................................................
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3 .................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
4 What two ‘sorts’ of light are housed in the headlamps?

1 .................................................................................................................
2 .................................................................................................................
5 There are light systems and signalling systems.

Signalling systems are:
A main light and brake lights
B dipped light and direction indicators
C reversing lights and tail lights
D direction indicators and brake lights
6
Theory
2 Relays
To switch on and switch off electrical units, engineering systems in cars

make a great deal of use of relays. With a relay, it is possible to switch on or
switch off a large current using a small current. The small current is called
the control current. The large current is the primary current.
Figure 2 is a schematic drawing of a relay.
85 control, negative side core

86 control, positive side coil
88 primary current, positive side
88a primary current, negative side
plunger
88 88a
86 85
A C B A C B
a contacts open b contacts closed

Fig. 2 Relay: symbol Fig. 3 Relay: principle
A relay consists of a soft iron core with a coil wound around it (Fig. 3).
When no current is flowing through the core, the plunger is in the lowest
position. The plunger pushes open the contacts between A and C. When
the current flows through the coil, a magnetic field is created. The magnetic
field pulls the plunger up. The contacts close (with the help of spring force).
There is a connection between connections A and C.
The current that flows through the coil of the relay is called the control
current. The current that flows through the contacts is the primary current.
In Figure 4 on the next page the lamp is switched by a relay. It works as

follows:
– when switch S1 closes, a control current flows from + via S1, A1,
connection 86, the coil of the relay and connection 85 to earth
– the magnetic field closes the contacts of the relay
– the primary current now flows from the + via the fuse, A2 , connection
88, S2, connection 88a and the lamp to earth.
A small current, the control current, is now flowing through the switch. The
current that turns on the lamp flows through the connections 88 and 88a of
the relay. This current (the primary current) is much greater than the control
current.
7
Theory
30(+)
S1
A1 A2
86 88
S2
85 88a
12V 21W
1
3 (-)
Fig. 4 Lamp: switched by a relay
In Figure 5a a headlamp is connected without using a relay. In Figure 5b a

relay is used.
relay
headlamp headlamp
light switch light switch
+ – + –
battery battery
a connecting a headlamp b connecting a headlamp with a relay

Fig. 5
Relays are used for various reasons:

– the current through the switch is smaller; as a result there is less
sparking and the switch has a longer life
– the cables to and from the switch can be thinner, because a smaller
current goes through it
– there is less loss of voltage in the primary current circuit, because the
cables can be shorter.
The relays discussed above close the primary current circuit as soon as a
control current flows through the coil. This is why they are also called a yes-
relay or a make relay.
8
Theory
The relay in Figure 6a is closed if there is no current flowing through the

coil. As soon as the control current flows, the primary current circuit is
interrupted. Relays like this are called a no-relay or a break relay.
85 control, negative side

85 control, negative side 86 control, positive side
86 control, positive side 87 primary current, positive side
87 primary current, positive side 87a primary current, negative side (break contact)
87a primary current, negative side (break contact side) 88a primary current, negative side (make contact)
fixed
fixed
87a
87 87a
87 88a
86 85
moving 86 85
fixed
a break relay b alternating relay

Fig. 6
Figure 6b is the symbol for an alternating relay.
If no current flows through the coil, there is no magnetic field. There is

a connection between connections 87 and 87a. There is a voltage on
connection 87a.
When the relay is activated, the magnetic field attracts the contact strip. The
connection between connections 87 and 87a is broken. The contact strip
now connects connections 87 and 88a to each other. There is a voltage on
connection 88a.
Questions
1 What is the function of a relay?
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2 What current flows through the coil of a relay?

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3 What connection numbers are on the coil of a relay, and what do these
numbers mean?
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9
Theory
4 Colour in Figure 7:
– the control current (green)
– the primary current (red).
30(+)
S1
A1 A2
S2
12V 21W
1
3 (-)
Fig. 7
5 In Figure 7 put the correct connection numbers next to the connections
in the relay.
6 What type of relay is being used in Figure 8?

...................................................................................................................
30(+)
S1
A1 A2
S2
L1 L2
12V 21W 12V 21W
1
3 (-)
Fig. 8
10
Theory

in the relay.
8 Complete the diagram in Figure 8. L1 and L2 are switched in parallel.

They are operated by the relay. The control current is switched by S1.
L1 and L2 are each fused separately.

...................................................................................................................
30(+)
L1 L2
12V 21W 12V 21W
31(-)
Fig. 9 Fig. 10

in the relay.
11 Complete the diagram in Figure 9. L1 and L2 are switched in parallel. The

lamps have to go out when switch S is closed. The lamps are operated
by the relay.
The lamps L1 and L2 are each fused separately.

...................................................................................................................

in the relay.
11
Theory
14 Headlamps are often switched by a relay. The main reason for using a
relay is:
A to protect the headlamps against too great a current
B to protect the headlamps against too great a voltage
C to limit loss of voltage
D to make it possible to switch more quickly from main light to dipped
light
15 Connection 85 of a relay means:

A control, negative side
B control, positive side
C primary current, positive side
D primary current, negative side
16 The relay in Figure 11 is a:

A current or earth-switching alternating relay
B current-switching make relay
C earth-switching break relay
D current-switching break relay
87a
87 88a
86 85
Fig. 11
12
Theory
3 Wiring diagrams for lights and

signalling systems
Wiring diagrams show how the current flows in an electrical system.

Reading diagrams is extremely important for a car mechanic. Diagrams
provide an understanding of how a system works. In order to be able to
rectify faults quickly and efficiently, the car mechanic must have a good
understanding of how the system works.
Diagrams of the electrical installation look complicated. This is because a

number of electrical systems are shown in one diagram. Electrical diagrams
are usually of the waterfall diagram type (Fig. 12).
30 30
15 15
0
1
F1 2
56 56 56a
56b
58
30 S19
S18
F2 F3 F4...F7
56a 56b
56a 56b
E11...14 H12 E15 E16

31 31
Fig. 12 Waterfall diagram

In waterfall diagrams the current always travels from top to bottom, from
positive to negative. Hence the name waterfall diagram. This enables the
whole of the installation of the car to be shown in a clear way and it can be
extended.
At the top of the diagram (Fig. 12) there are two lines. The topmost line is
directly connected to the positive of the battery. The line directly beneath
it connected to the positive of the battery via the ignition switch. The line
at the bottom of the diagram is connected to the negative of the battery
(earth).
The lines have a code:

30 positive battery
15 positive after the ignition switch
31 earth
13
Theory
All the circuits are shown next to each other. The connections are shown
as horizontal and vertical lines. On the left next to a waterfall diagram the
power sources (battery, dynamo) and the ignition switch can be shown. In
the diagrams the fuses are included for each circuit. This is why the fusebox
is not often found in a waterfall diagram.
A waterfall diagram gives a clear picture of how the circuits and parts that
are shown are switched with each other. The circuits are not the same way
in the car.
A sufficient knowledge of electrical symbols is needed in order to be able to

‘read’ diagrams. Figure 13 shows some commonly used symbols.
In electrical diagrams the components are indicated with a certain letter.

For example:
S = switch
F = cut-out (fuse)
E = lamps for lights and signals
H = control bulbs on the dashboard
K = relay
14
Theory
line
branch
fixed connection
removable connection
make switch
break switch
switch with
automatic return
(manually operated)
(operated by a cam)
(operated by a bimetallic strip)
battery brake light switch
30
83
ignition switch
fog lamp switch
57a 15 15x 50
83a 83b 31
15 30
warning light switch
49 49a
H4 G
49 30b L R 31 flash unit
49a
49a 31
flashing light switch
L R horn
30 15
light switch adjustable resistance
58 58R 58L 56 30 85
56 relay
dipped headlamp switch
87 86
56a 56b 58 56b 56a
signal light switch headlamp

56a 30 31
57a
parking light switch lamp
57L 57R
cut-out (fuse)
Fig. 13 Symbols in a light system
15
Theory
Figure 14 shows a diagram.
30
30
S2
57a 15 15x 50
F1...F13
30 15
S 18
58 58R 58L 56
57a 30 85 83 15 30 30 85
56
56a 30
57L 57R
S 19 K5 H 13 S 14 H4 K3
56a 56b S 20 S 23
S 22 87 86 49 30b L 49a R 31 87 86
83a 83b 31
H12
H5
49 49a
49a
G
L R
S 16 K4
31 S 15 S 12
R4
58 56b 56a 56a 56b 58

H7 58 H 10 E9 E 17 58 H9 B3
E 11 E 15
E 16 E 13
E 12 31 E 14 31
31 31
H6 E 11 E 10 E 18 E 19 H8
31
Fig. 14 Diagram of a light system
Numbers are often put next to connections (connection numbers). Table 1

gives some connection numbers that occur frequently.
16
Theory
Table 1 Connection numbers

15 switched positive (current only when ignition is switched on)
30 constant current (positive battery)
31 earth (negative battery)
49 inlet flash light unit
49a outlet flash light unit
C control lamp flash light unit
L flash light, left
R flash light, right
54 brake light
56 headlamps
56a main light
56b dipped light
58 tail light, licence plate light, sidelight
Questions
1 Suppose: in Figure 15 the main light (56a) is switched on. Using arrows,
show how the current flows.
30 30
15 15
0
1
F1 2
56 56 56a
56b
58
30 S19
S18
F2 F3 F4...F7
56a 56b
56a 56b
E11...14 H12 E15 E16

31 31
Fig. 15 Waterfall diagram
2 In Figure 15 there are fuses.

a How are they switched in relation to the user units (in series or in
parallel)?
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17
Theory
b What is the function of the fuses?

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3 How many fuses are there in Figure 15 in the circuit for the main light?
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4 Can lamps still burn in Figure 15 if the fuse F1 has burnt out? Explain the
answer.
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5 In Figure 15 the main light is switched on. The headlamps each need 4
A. The control bulb for the main light needs 0.2 A. Fill in:
– the current through fuse F4 is ............. A
– the current through fuse F6 is .............A
– the current through the light switch is .............A
6 In Figure 15 the main light is switched on. Fuse F5 becomes hot.

The possible cause is:
A the resistance of the fuse is too low
B loss of power in the fuse
C too much loss of voltage through switch S19
D a poor earth on bulb E15
7 Why are there two supply wires shown at the top of a waterfall diagram?
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8 What makes a waterfall diagram so clear to read?

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18
Theory
30
15
15
Z1
0 1 2
S1
ignition switch 30
L1 L2
31
Fig. 16 Switching with a two-way switch
9 Connect the battery in Figure 16. Then connect the ignition switch S1 so
that there is a current on line 15 when the ignition is switched on.
10 In Figure 16 connect the fuses L1 and L2 to the two-way switch. The

switching must meet the following requirements:
– L1 and L2 must not light at the same time
– L1 or L2 must light only when the ignition has been switched on (S1
in position 1)
– fuse Z1 protects the lamps against the result of a voltage being too
high.
11 Headlamps have a main light and a dipped light. The main light and the
dipped light cannot be on at the same time. What type of switch is used
to switch from main light to dipped light?
12 Connecting the main light and the dipped light.

Figure 17 on the next page is a diagram of the main light and the dipped
light. The headlamps are switched on with the light switch (S1). With the
two-way switch you can switch from main light to dipped light and vice
versa. The control bulb is on when the main light is switched on.
a In Figure 17, insert the connection numbers for main light and dipped
light next to the duplo bulbs, and next to the two-way switch (S2).
19
Theory
30
15
30
S1
0 2 3
56
S2
31
Fig. 17 Headlamps
b Look at the light switch S1. The headlamps are on in:
O position 1 of the light switch
O position 2 of the light switch
O position 1 and 2 of the light switch
c In Figure 17, connect the headlamps. The main light and the dipped
light are each fused separately.
d In Figure 17, connect the control bulb for main light.
13 Connecting tail lights.

For the brake lights and tail lights, often, duplo lamps are used. Tail
lights are switched on with the light switch with which the headlamps are
switched on. In Figure 18, this switch is marked S1. The tail lights are on
in switch positions 1 and 2.
a In Figure 18 put the right code for the tail lights next to the right
connection of switch S1.
b In Figure 18, connect the tail lights. The left and the right tail light are
each fused separately (Z1 and Z2). Connect the tail lights so that they
come on only when the ignition has been switched on.
20
Theory
30
15
15
0 1 2
S2
ignition switch 30
30
S1
0 1 2 Z1 Z2 Z3 Z4
58 58
Fig. 18 Tail lights and parking lights
14 Connecting brake lights.

Brake lights are operated by a pressure switch with an automatic return
(S2 in Figure 18). The switch is operated when the car brakes.
a In Figure 18 insert the connection numbers for the brake lights next to
the duplo lamps.
b In Figure 18 connect the brake lights. The switching must meet the
following requirements:
– the left and the right brake light must each be fused separately (Z3
and Z4)
– the brake lights must also work when the ignition has been
switched off.
15 Connecting fog lights.

The wiring diagram in Figure 19 on the next page is for the fog lamps.
Both fog lamps are switched on via a relay switch. They are operated by
switch S1. The lamps are each fused separately.
a Put the connection numbers next to the fog lamps and next to the
relay.
b Connect the fog lamps in Figure 19.
21
Theory
30
15
1 2 3
ignition switch 30
S1
31
Fig. 19 Fog lamps, connected via a relay
16 Look at Figure 20. Put in the code with which the components below are
shown in the diagram.
Component Code
ignition switch
light switch
flashing light unit
switch for the direction indicators
tail lights
headlamps
direction indicators
17 Component K3 in Figure 20:

A is a break relay; it is to switch earth
B is a make relay; it is to switch current
C is an exchange relay; it is to switch earth
D is a break relay; it is to switch current
22
Theory
30
30
S2
57a 15 15x 50
F1...F13
30 15
S 18
58 58R 58L 56
57a 30 85 83 15 30 30 85
56
56a 30
57L 57R
S 19 K5 H 13 S 14 H4 K3
56a 56b S 20 S 23
S 22 87 86 49 30b L 49a R 31 87 86
83a 83b 31
H12
H5
49 49a
49a
G
L R
S 16 K4
31 S 15 S 12
R4
58 56b 56a 56a 56b 58

H7 58 H 10 E9 E 17 58 H9 B3
E 11 E 15
E 16 E 13
E 12 31 E 14 31
31 31
H6 E 11 E 10 E 18 E 19 H8
31
Fig. 20 Diagram of a light system
23
Theory
18 Colour in Figure 21.

– the filament for the lamps for the main light in blue
– the cut-out for main light in blue
– the supply for the main light in blue (from the dipped light switch)
– the control lamp for the main light in blue
– the filament of the lamps for the dipped light in yellow
– the cut-out for the dipped light in yellow
– the supply for the dipped light in yellow (from the dipped light switch)
– the wires for the earth in green.
19 Look at the diagram in Figure 21. Put a line through what is marked
wrongly.
Both the headlamps are switched in series / in parallel.
20 Look at the diagram in Figure 21. Fill in:

– the current to connection 30 is …………… volts.
– the light switch is marked with ……………. .
– the ignition switch is marked with ……………. .
21 Put a line through the wrong answer (Fig. 21).

– The supply for the light switch is / is not fused.
– The supply for the ignition switch is / is not fused.
– The ignition switch is in position 1. The current to connection 15 is
12 V / 0 V.
– The ignition switch is in position 1. The light switch is in position 1.
The current to connection 56 is 12 V / 0 V.
22 Look at the diagram in Figure 21. Fill in:

if the pressure switch S20 is operated, the …………………………………
is switched on.
23 What is the switch S20 in Figure 21 for?

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24 What is the bulb for that is marked as H12 in Figure 21?

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24
Theory
30
30
p12
S2
57a 15 15x 50
F1...F13
30 15
210
S 18
58 58R 58L 56
57a 56
57R 56a 30
57L
S 19
S 22 56a 56b S 20
H 12
R4
58 56b 56a 56a 56b 58

58 E9 58
E 12 E 11 E 15 E 16 E 13
E7
31 E 14 31
31 31
E 10
31
Fig. 21 Diagram of headlamps
25 The connection 57a of component S22 in Figure 21

A has a current only when the ignition is switched off
B has a current only if the ignition is in position 1
C has a current when the ignition is in position 1 or 2
D has a current whatever the position of the ignition switch
25
Theory
26 The switch S22 in Figure 21 makes it possible:

A to switch on the sidelights at the front at the same time
B to switch on the sidelights and the tail lights at the same time
C to switch on the sidelights and the tail lights on the left or the right
D to switch on both tail lights at the same time
27 Look at Figure 22.

The ignition switch is in position P. Fill in:
the current at connection 15 of the light switch is ………… V.
The ignition switch is in position 1. Fill in:

the current at connection 15 of the light switch is ………… V.
The ignition switch is in position P. Fill in:

the current at connection 57a of switch S22 is ………… V
The ignition switch is in position P. Switch S22 is put at position 57L. Fill
in:
the lamps come on …… and ………..
28 What is the function of switch S22 in Figure 22?

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29 In Figure 22, can the tail lights also be on if the ignition switch is in
position P? Explain the answer.
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30 The light switch (S18) in Figure 22 is switched in position 2. The parking

light switch (S22) is not operated. Fill in
the current at connection 58R is …………... V.
the current at connection 57R is …………... V.
31 What lamps in Figure 22 are on if the light switch is in position 2?

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26
Theory
30
30
p12
S2
57a 15 15x 50
F1...F13
30 15
210
S 18
58 58R 58L 56
57a
57L 57R
S 22
R4
58 56b 56a 56a 56b 58

58 E9 58
E 11 E 15 E 16 E 13
E 12 31 E7
E 14 31
31 31
E 10
31
Fig. 22 Diagram of a tail light, licence plate light and sidelight
27
Theory
30
30 50
0 1 2
15
57
57a 15 15x 50
F1 cut-out
H1 horn
S1 switch
F1
H1
S1
31
Fig. 23 Horn
32 In Figure 32 connect the horn. The switching must meet the following
requirements
– the horn is operated by switch S1, this is earth-switching
– the horn must also be able to work when the ignition has been
switched off
– the circuitry must also have a fuse to protect the horn.
33 The switch S1 in Figure 23:

A is hand-operated and has two fixed positions
B is hand-operated and returns automatically to the resting position
C is a break switch that automatically returns to the resting position
D is a two-way switch
28
Theory
30
30 50
0 1 2
15
57
57a 15 15x 50
S1 switch
R2 relay
F1 cut-out
H1, H2 horn
F1
86 88
R2
85 88a
H1 H2
S1
31
Fig. 24 Two-tone horn
34 In Figure 24, a two-tone horn has to be connected. A two-tone horn

consists of two horns, each with its own pitch. Both the horns have to
be switched on at the same time. In Figure 24, connect the horns. The
circuitry must meet the following requirements:
– the horns are operated by a relay
– the horns are switched in parallel
– the horns must also be able to work when then the ignition has been
switched off
– the circuit for the horns is protected by fuse F1
– the switch S1 is earth-switching.
35 Write down the meaning of the relay connections 85, 86, 88 and 88a
(Fig. 24).
85 ...............................................................................................................
86 ...............................................................................................................
88 ...............................................................................................................
88a..............................................................................................................
29
Theory
36 Suppose: In Figure 24 the fuse is faulty. Does the relay still switch when
S1 is operated? Explain the answer.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
30
30
S2
57a 15 15x 50
F1...F13
15 30
S 14 H4
49 30b L 49aR 31
H5
49 49a 49a
G
L R
K4
S 15
31
H7 H9
H6 H8
31
Fig. 25 Diagram for direction indicators
30
Theory
37 Figure 35 is the diagram for direction indicators. Fill in:

– S15 is the ……………………………
– the control lamp for the direction indicators is marked with
……………….
38 The ignition switch in Figure 25 is switched in position 2.

– the current at connection 15 is …………….V.
– the current at connection 49 is ……………. V.
– code number of the flash unit means: ……………
39 The flash unit K4 in Figure 25 is triggered. On connection 49a there is

now the trigger current for the direction indicators. What is the function
of connection 49a of the flash unit?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
What is the current at connection 49a?

...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
40 Switch S15 shows turning to the left. Colour in Figure 25:

– the direction indicator lamps that now start to flash in orange
– colour in red the supply current for this situation
– colour in green the wires that provide the earth
– colour the cut-out for this circuit in purple.
The control lamp H5 is on when the flashing lights light up / go out.
41 Figure 26 on the next page is the diagram for direction indicators with an
alarm switch. Fill in:
– S14 is the ……………………………
– the control lamp for the flashing alarm lights is marked with
……………….
31
Theory
30
30
S2
57a 15 15x 50
F1...F13
15 30
S 14 H4
49 30b L 49aR 31
H5
49 49a 49a
G
L R
K4
S 15
31
H7 H9
H6 H8
31
Fig. 26 Direction indicator and alarm circuitry
42 In Figure 26 the ignition switch is in position P.

– the current at connection 15 is therefore …….. V
– the current at connection 30 is therefore …….. V.
32
Theory
43 In Figure 26 the switch S14 is operated. Connection 30 is now

connected to connection ....................
44 The flashing unit K4 is triggered (Fig. 26). At connection 49a there is

now the trigger current for the direction indicators. Connection 49a of
the RAW relay is connected to connection 49a of the alarm flashing light
switch. In this switch, connection 49a is connected to the connections L
and R.
– colour the direction indicator lights that now start to flash in orange
– colour in red the supply current for this situation
– colour in green the wires that provide the earth
– colour the fuse for this circuit in purple.
33
Theory
34
Theory
4 Lamps
Bulbs
The light in a bulb is produced by a current flowing through the spiral
filament (Fig. 27). The spiral filament is a thin tungsten wire in which the
current is subject to a high resistance. As a result, the temperature of the
spiral filament becomes so great that it starts to glow. This causes it to
radiate light and heat.
spiral filament The light output of a bulb depends on the rating of the bulb. The higher the
rating of the bulb, the greater the light output.
The bulb in Figure 27 is a single-pole bulb. A two-pole bulb has two

output separate connections: one for the input and one for the output. Two-pole
bulbs are often found in cars in the form of tube bulbs (Fig. 29).
input
Fig. 27 Bulb Duplo lamps are lamps with two filaments (Fig. 30). Each filament has a
different rating. They can glow separately (main light and dipped light) or at
the same time (combined brake and rear light).
Halogen lamps
Halogen lamps are lamps that are filled with gas. Halogen lamps produce
more light and last longer than ordinary lamps.
There are different types of halogen lamp available – H1, H2, H3 and H4
(Fig. 31). The latest halogen lamp is the H7 lamp. This lamp is being used
more and more. The shape of the foot of the lamp and its use vary for each
type.
Fig. 28 Two-pole lamp foot
Model Name Use Volts Watts
H1 fog lamp 6 55
supplementary 12 55
main light 24 70
H2 main light 6 55
dipped light 12 55
Fig. 29 Tube bulb
in France 24 70
H3 fog lamp 6 55
supplementary 12 55
main light 24 70
H4 main light / 12 60/55

dipped light 24 75/70
Fig. 30 Duplo lamp Fig. 31 Different types of halogen bulb
35
Theory
Gas discharge lamps

In gas discharge lamps (Fig. 32), the light is produced by an electric arc
between two electrodes.
Fig. 32 Gas discharge lamp (Hella)
Compared with other lamps, gas discharge lamps:

– have a greater light output
– have a clearer separation between light and dark
– last longer
– use less energy
Questions
1 Write down three types of light source
1 .................................................................................................................
2 .................................................................................................................
3 .................................................................................................................
2 What type of bulb is used in a combined brake/rear light?

...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
3 Duplo lamps can be mounted in the fitting in only one way. Explain why
this is necessary.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
36
Theory
4 How does the manufacturer prevent a duplo lamp from being mounted
wrongly?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
5 Give two advantages of a halogen bulb compared with a normal bulb.

1 .................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
2 .................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
6 The customer is changing a halogen bulb himself. When doing

so he takes hold of the glass of the lamp. What are the (possible)
consequences?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
7 Write down three places where a single-pole bulb is used.

1 .................................................................................................................
2 .................................................................................................................
3 .................................................................................................................
8 What is the difference between bulbs and gas discharge lamps?

...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
9 Give four advantages of gas discharge lamps compared with halogen

lamps.
1 .................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
2 .................................................................................................................
3 .................................................................................................................
4 .................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
37
Theory
10 For a 12 V / 48 W lamp calculate:

– the current through the lamp (formula: P = U x l)
– the resistance of the filament (formula: U = l x R)
The lamp is connected to a voltage of 12 V.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
11 For a 12 V / 6 W lamp calculate:

– the current through the lamp (formula: P = U x l)
– the resistance of the filament (formula: U = l x R)
The lamp is connected to a voltage of 12 V.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
12 A duplo lamp:
A has two insulated connections, one of which is to earth
B has one insulated connection, which is to earth
C is often used in a combined brake light/rear light
D is a lamp with one filament
13 Different light sources can be used in headlamps.

Energy consumption is lowest with a:
A duplo lamp
B ordinary bulb
C gas discharge lamp
D halogen lamp
14 Two lamps, each of 60 W, are connected to one fuse. The voltage is 12

V. The current through the fuse is:
A 0.2 A
B 5A
C 10 A
D 1A
15 A single-pole lamp:
A has two insulated connections, one of which is to earth
B has one insulated connection, which is to earth
C is often used in a combined brake light/rear light
D is a lamp with one filament
38
Theory
16 Halogen lamps are used for:

A headlamps and high-beam headlights
B direction indicators and rear lights
C headlamps and rear lights
D third brake light and rear fog light
17 Many lamps are fixed with a bayonet connection. To prevent a single-

pole lamp from being fitted in a holder for a duplo lamp:
A the lamp foot of a duplo lamp has a greater diameter
B the lamp foot of a duplo lamp has a smaller diameter
C the fixing pins in a duplo lamp are mounted at different heights
D the fixing pins in a single-pole lamp are mounted at different heights
39
Theory
40
Theory
5 How headlamps and reflectors work
Headlamps can emit two different beams of light: the main light and the
dipped light. It is also possible to use two separate light units for main light
filament
and dipped light.
filament
A way of producing light is by temperature radiation (Fig. 33).
When filaments in a lamp are brought to a high temperature, they emit rays
of light. Light moves very quickly (300,000 km per second).
The main parts of the headlamp are the reflector and the headlamp glass.
5.1 Reflector
The reflector reflects the rays of light. When rays of light shine on a reflector,
they are reflected. When a ray of light strikes a reflecting surface at a certain
angle, it is reflected back at the same angle (Fig. 34). The angle of incidence
Fig. 33 The filaments emit
rays of light
is the same as the angle of reflection (angle α = angle ß).
This principle is used in the headlamps of a car. The rays of light that the
filament of the lamp emits are reflected by the reflector (Fig. 35).
1 2
1 incident ray of light

2 reflecting ray of light
α angle of incidence
ß angle of reflection
Fig. 34 Reflection of rays of light Fig. 35 Rays of light for the main light
The reflector is a reflecting surface that has a certain shape. By placing the
filament at a certain point (the focus), all the rays of light are reflected as a
parallel beam. The main light (main beam) is obtained in this way. The main
light is dazzling to oncoming vehicles.
The dipped light does not dazzle oncoming vehicles. To get the dipped
light, a second filament is put in the lamp. The second filament is placed in
front of the filament for the main light, that is, in front of the focus. Here too
the angle of incidence is the same as the angle of reflection.
41
Theory
The rays of light pointing upwards are reflected downwards by the reflector.
The rays of light that strike the lowermost part of the reflector are reflected
upwards. These rays of light are dazzling for oncoming vehicles. This is why
the bottom edge of the filament wire for the dipped light is screened (Fig. 36).
The screen prevents light from being emitted to the bottom of the reflector
when the lights are dipped.
screen
Fig. 36 Rays of light for

5.2 Asymmetric lighting
dipped light
In order not to dazzle oncoming vehicles but still be able to see as well
as possible, the lights are made to be asymmetric. As a result, the right-
hand part of the side of the road is lit more than the left-hand part. This is
achieved by the shape of the screen that is fitted under the filament for the
dipped light (Fig. 37).
1 filament, main light

2 filament, dipped light
2 screen
Fig. 37 Screen for asymmetric light Fig. 38 Ribs, lenses and prisms spread
the light
The filament is screened on the left bottom edge not 180º but just 165º. As
a result, rays of light strike the left bottom edge of the reflector. These now
move diagonally to the right and leave the reflector higher. As a result, the
right-hand side of the road is lit more than the left.
Asymmetric light gives better vision with dipped lights, and so improves
safety.
5.3 Headlamp glass

The glass of the headlamp plays an important part in spreading the light
and light output. Headlamp glasses are provided with various ribs, lenses
and prisms (Fig. 38).
These spread the light effectively. With asymmetric lights the headlamp
glasses are made in such a way that they help the asymmetric beam of light
(Fig. 39).
Fig. 39 Headlamp glass for asymmetric lighting
42
Theory
Questions
1 How is asymmetric light obtained?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
2 Why do cars have main lights and dipped lights?

...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
3 The filament for the dipped light is positioned in front of / behind the
focus of the parabolic reflector.
4 Draw in Figure 40 the light emitted by the main light.
5 How is it made possible that with the main light the rays of light are
reflected as a parallel beam?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
Afb. 40 ...................................................................................................................
6 Draw in Figure 41 the light emitted by the dipped light.
7 What is the function of the ribs in a headlamp glass?

...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
8 Name two disadvantages of asymmetric lighting in terms of road safety.

1 .................................................................................................................
Afb. 41 ...................................................................................................................
2 .................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
9 A reflector is rusty at the top. Does this affect the dipped light? Explain
the answer.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
43
Theory
10 Look at the headlamp glass in Figure 42. The headlamp glass is intended
for asymmetric light / symmetric light.
11 With the headlamp glass in Figure 42 the right-hand verge is lit most by
A surface 1
B surface 2
C surface 3
D surface 4
2 1
4
5
2
3
3
Fig. 42 Fig. 43 Screen for asymmetric light
12 Figure 43 shows the principle of how a duplo lamp works. In Figure 43:
A filament 4 is for dipped lights and 2 is the earth connection
B filament 5 is for dipped lights and 1 is the earth connection
C filament 4 is for dipped lights and 3 is the earth connection
D filament 4 is for dipped lights and 2 is the earth connection
13 The refracting of rays of light means that:

A the rays of light change direction
B the angle of incidence is smaller than the angle of reflection
C the angle of incidence is greater than the angle of reflection
D the angle of incidence is the same as the angle of reflection
14 When rays of light strike a reflecting surface at an angle:

A they are always reflected in the same direction in which they strike
the surface
B the angle of incidence is smaller than the angle of reflection
C the angle of incidence is greater than the angle of reflection
D the angle of incidence is the same as the angle of reflection
44
Theory
6 Types of headlamp
In headlamps with a parabolic reflector the bottom of the reflector is not
used when the dipped light is on (Fig. 44). This reduces the light output.
Fig. 44 Dipped light with a

6.1 Bifocus
parabolic reflector
By making the reflector as a bifocal reflector, when the lights are dipped the
bottom part of the reflector is also used (Fig. 45).
The bifocal reflector has two reflectors, each with a different focus. The
reflector is made in such a way that the foci coincide. Because of the shape
of the reflector, the bottom part of the reflector is used as well. Lights with a
bifocal reflector are only suitable for lamps with a single filament.
6.2 Homofocal reflector

A homofocal reflector has a main reflector and auxiliary reflectors. The
Afb. 45 Dimlicht bij een main and the auxiliary reflectors each have a different focus. The auxiliary
bifocus reflector reflector is made in such a way that the foci of the main reflector and the
auxiliary reflectors coincide. By using the auxiliary reflector this lights up the
road better directly in front of the car and directly next to the car.
6.3 DE lighting
With DE lighting the reflector is made up of a three-axis ellipsoid (Fig. 46).
Another name for this type of lamp is a PES lamp (Polyellipsoid system).
ellipsoid
focus of reflector joint focus
the reflector
screening plate lens
Fig. 46 Principle of the DE headlamp for dipped light
45
Theory
An ellipsoid headlamp consists of a reflector and a lens. The reflector has

two foci. The filament of the lamp is positioned at one of the foci. The other
focus coincides with the focus of the lens. The light from the filament is
reflected to the lens by the reflector. The light is projected by the lens onto
the road.
A screening cap is placed in the joint focus of the reflector and the lens (Fig.
47). The screening cap provides a sharper distinction between light and
dark. This prevents oncoming vehicles from being dazzled.
screening cap lens
Fig. 47 Ellipsoid reflector
With DE lights, separate headlights are used for the main light and the
dipped light.
With DE lights, halogen lamps or gas discharge lamps are used. The
different types of lamp cannot be interchanged.
Advantages of DE lights are:

– they are smaller but produce the same amount of light
– uniform lighting of the road over a wide area
– less ‘self-dazzling’ from the reflection of light when there is fog, it is
raining, and snowing.
6.4 FF reflector
FF reflectors are ‘free form’ reflectors (Fig. 48). They consist of a large
number of surfaces. Each surface has its own focus. The position and the
shape of the surfaces are calculated by computer.
Other names for FF reflectors are surface-complex reflectors and HNS
reflectors.
Fig. 48 FF reflector
46
Theory
Questions
1 Name two types of headlamp in which separate bulbs have to be used
for main light and dipped light.
1 .................................................................................................................
2 .................................................................................................................
2 Write down the three important parts of a DE headlamp.

1 .................................................................................................................
2 .................................................................................................................
3 .................................................................................................................
3 What is the screening cap for in a DE headlamp?

...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
4 What is a bifocal reflector?

...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
5 How is it that with dipped lights a bifocal reflector produces more light
than a parabolic reflector?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
6 What is a homofocal reflector?

...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
7 What is the characteristic of FF reflectors?

...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
47
Theory
8 A reflector that consists of a main reflector and a number of auxiliary

reflectors is a:
A parabolic reflector
B bifocal reflector
C homofocal reflector
D surface-complex reflector
9 A bifocal reflector is a reflector that consists of:

A a main reflector and auxiliary reflectors: the main and the auxiliary
reflectors each have a different focus
B two reflectors, each of which has a different focus
C two reflectors, whose foci coincide
D a large number of surfaces each with its own focus
10 When the dipped light is on, the bottom part of the reflector is not used
in a:
A parabolic reflector
B bifocal reflector
C homofocal reflector
D surface-complex reflector
48
Theory
7 Lights: legal requirements
Headlamps
Headlamps are compulsory by law. Headlamps must be able to emit a main
light both dipped and undipped. The light must be of one colour: bright
white or bright yellow. The light intensity of the lamps must be the same.
The reflectors must not be weathered.
Vehicles with more than two wheels must have two headlamps. Four
headlamps are allowed only for the main light. Four headlamps means: two
lights on both sides of the front of the car. Headlamps must be fitted at the
same height and asymmetrically on the front of the vehicle. The height and
the distance to the outermost edge of the vehicle are prescribed by law.
A requirement for the adjustment of headlamps is that: over a distance of 10
m the top of the dipped light beam must fall 10 cm.
Sidelights and parking lights

At the front the car must have two white or yellow-coloured sidelights. The
rating of sidelights is 3 to 5 W.
Sidelights or dipped lights may be used at any time. If the sidelight is not
enough to see and be seen, it is however compulsory to use dipped lights.
When the headlamps are on, the sidelights can also be on.
In good weather, sidelights must be clearly visible in the dark up to a
distance of 200 m.
The sidelights can be lamps that are mounted separately. They can also
be housed in the headlamps. The sidelight can also be used as the parking
light. Separate parking lights are also allowed. At the back, the parking
lights (tail lights) are red in colour. Often it is possible to have the parking
lights on only on the left or only on the right.
Tail lights
Cars must be fitted with two tail lights. The colour must be bright red. In
good weather the tail lights must be clearly visible at a distance of 300 m.
Licence plate light

Cars must have a rectangular licence plate at the front and at the back. The
licence plate at the back of the car must be lit when the car’s lights are on.
The licence plate light must be such that the number is clearly visible at a
distance of 20 m from (behind) the vehicle. The light must not emit any light
directly backwards or to the side. For this reason the whole of the lamp-
holder is usually mounted behind the bumper or in separate recesses in the
bodywork.
Brake lights
Cars must have two brake lights. The brake lights must be red or orange
in colour. The light must be strong enough so that they can be seen clearly
when the tail lights are on and are also clearly visible in daylight.
49
Theory
Direction indicators
Direction indicators must:
– be able to emit a white or orange flashing light that is clearly visible to
traffic coming towards the vehicle
– be able to emit a white or orange flashing light that is clearly visible to
traffic following the vehicle.
The light must be bright enough so that the flashing lights are clear in
daylight and when the tail lights are on. The indicator must flash between 60
and 120 times a minute.
Reflectors
At least two red reflectors that reflect well must be fitted on the back of
the vehicle. These reflectors are often built into the tail light unit. Two red
reflecting triangles must be fitted at the back of trailers and semi-trailers.
The front of the vehicle may be fitted with two white, non-triangular
reflectors, but this is not compulsory.
Side reflectors
All vehicles longer than six metres, except for passenger cars, must have
side reflectors. These must be orange and not triangular. They must be
located:
– not higher than 0.9 m (up to 1.5 m if it cannot be otherwise)
– not lower than 0.35 m
– not further than 1 m from the backmost point
– not further than 3 m from the front
– with a maximum distance between them of 3 m.
Extra lights
Fog headlamps
Fog headlamps are also called wide-beam lamps (Fig. 49). Fog headlamps
are mounted as low as possible. This is so that the light shines underneath
the fog. Fog headlamps are not compulsory by law.
fog headlamps
Fog headlamps may only be switched on in thick fog, heavy rain or snow
Fig. 49 that severely impedes visibility. The lamps must be of the same colour and
strength and emit bright white or yellow light to the front. They must point
downwards. The beam must show a sharp horizontal separation between
light and dark.
50
Theory
The lamps must be fitted at the same height and as low as possible (to
a maximum of 1.20 m) above the road. Also, fog lamps must be fitted
symmetrically on both sides of the car. The maximum distance from the
side to inside is 40 cm.
Rear fog lights

It is compulsory for cars that have been registered after 31 December 1995
to have one or two rear fog lights. Other cars may have one or two rear fog
lights.
Rear fog lights should only be switched on in thick fog or when it is
snowing, and if visibility is less than 50 m. The driver must be able to
see from a control light that is on all the time whether the light(s) is (are)
switched on.
If one lamp is used, it must be fitted on the left of the car at the rear (Fig.
50).
The distance to the stopping light on the left must be at least ten
centimetres. The maximum height it can be fitted is 80 cm above the road.
If two lamps are fitted, they must be fitted symmetrically on both sides. The
same dimensions apply for these as for one lamp. The rear fog lights must
have a transparent surface area of 140 cm². They can only emit red light.
Rear fog light

Fig. 50
High-beam headlamps and spotlights

High-beam headlamps are an addition to the main light. They can only
be on when the main light is on as well. High-beam headlamps are not
compulsory.
The purpose of a spotlight is to illuminate the verge more. The spotlight is
not compulsory. The spotlight must not be fitted higher than 1.20 m above
the road. The beam must be pointing clearly downwards and very much
to the right. The spotlight must not be used when driving a short distance
away from the vehicle in front. The colour of the lamp may be yellow or
white. The spotlight can only be used when dipped lights are being used.
Reversing lights
Reversing lights are not compulsory. One or two reversing lights are
allowed. The lights must only be able to be on if the gearbox is put in
reverse. They must not be a hindrance to other road-users. The switch
for the reversing lights is usually in the switching mechanism (in or on the
gearbox).
51
Theory
Contour lights
Lights that show the outline of a truck (contour lights) are allowed, but they
are not compulsory. These are two white lamps at the front and two red
lamps at the back (Fig. 51). These lamps must be positioned as high and as
far apart from each other as possible. They should be on all the time.
Fig. 51 Contour lights
Side lights
Side lights are fitted on the front of a trailer or semi-trailer. They emit white
light to the front and to the side. Side lights are compulsory on trailers and
semi-trailers wider than 1.60 m. Side lights must be fitted at a minimum
height of 0.35 m and a maximum height of 2.25 m. They should not be fitted
more than 0.15 m inwards.
Questions
1 What are the legal requirements for the colour of headlamps?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
2 What are the legal requirements for the light intensity of headlamps?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
3 When should four headlamps be used?

...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
52
Theory
4 Write down three legal requirements for car tail lights.

1 .................................................................................................................
2 .................................................................................................................
3 .................................................................................................................
5 As non-dazzling lights, a car has four headlamps of the same colour.

This is allowed / not allowed.
6 What are the two requirements for the lights for a licence plate?
1 .................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
2 .................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
7 For what vehicles are side reflectors compulsory?

...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
8 Are rear fog lamps compulsory?

...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
9 Can fog lamps be used in combination with dipped lights?

...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
10 When can rear fog lights be on?

...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
11 In combination with what light can high-beam headlamps be used?

...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
12 In combination with what light can a spotlight be used?

...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
53
Theory
13 What are side lights?

...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
14 For the adjustment of the dipped light the legal requirement is that:
A over every metre the beam must drop 10 centimetres
B over every 5 metres the beam must drop 5 centimetres
C over every 10 metres the beam must drop 1 centimetre
D over every 10 metres the beam must drop 5 centimetres
15 There are legal requirements for the frequency with which a direction
indicator flashes. The number of flashes per minute must be between:
A 30 and 90
B 60 and 90
C 90 and 120
D 60 and 120
16 The minimum distance at which the tail lights of a car must be visible is:
A 50 metres
B 150 metres
C 200 metres
D 300 metres
17 The colour of the brake lights on a passenger car must be:

A red
B orange
C red or orange
D red, orange or white
54
Theory
8 Adjusters for headlamps
By law, headlamps must be adjusted such that an oncoming vehicle is not

dazzled by the dipped light. The road and part of the verge must be lit as
well as possible.
Headlamps are adjustable. With an adjuster, the headlamps can be
adjusted vertically and horizontally. Often, the headlamps can also be
adjusted from the inside by the driver
Adjusters
There are different types of adjuster:
1 screw for horizontal – an adjuster on the headlamp
adjustment – an adjuster from inside
2 screw for vertical
adjustment – automatic adjuster.
Adjuster on the headlamp

The headlamp in Figure 52 can be adjusted from the outside.
With screw (1) the width can be adjusted, and with screw (2) the height can
be adjusted.
The headlamp in Figure 53 can be adjusted at the back. It is easier to adjust

the headlamps if the adjusting screw or adjusting bolt is replaced by an
adjustment knob (Fig. 54)
With the adjustment knob the beam can be moved vertically.
Fig. 52 Headlamp adjustable

from the top (Suzuki)
screw for
horizontal
adjustment
adjustment
knob
screw for
vertical
adjustment
Fig. 53 Headlamp adjustable at the back Fig. 54 Adjusting the headlamp with an
adjustment knob
Adjuster from the inside

If the car is heavily laden, there is a danger that the headlamps will no
longer be adjusted properly (the car hangs backwards). This then dazzles
oncoming vehicles (Fig. 55 on the next page).
In many cars the vertical adjustment of the headlamps can be adapted to
the load from inside the car.
55
Theory
Fig. 55 Dazzling light caused by a heavy load
Fig. 56 Mechanical adjuster
With the mechanical adjuster (Fig. 56) the headlamp is adjusted by a cable,
by a lever or by a knob on the dashboard.
With the electric adjuster (Fig. 57), the headlamp is adjusted using an
adjusting motor.
With the hydraulic adjuster (Fig. 58), the headlamp is adjusted by a closed
hydraulic circuit.
adjusting motor
glass
1
2
3
reflector headlamp 4 beam
5
switch
6
Fig. 57 Electric adjuster
1 control knob
2 twin piston
3 adjusting pistons
Fig. 58 Hydraulic adjuster

By turning the control knob (1) to the right, the twin piston (2) displaces
fluid. This fluid pushes the adjusting pistons forwards, against the spring
pressure. This results in the beam being moved vertically.
56
Theory
By turning the knob to the left, the fluid flows back. The spring on the
adjusting piston then pushes the headlamp back again. There are also
systems that work with underpressure via a vacuum connection on the inlet
manifold.
Automatic adjuster
With the automatic adjuster (Fig. 59) the vertical adjustment of the
headlamps is adapted automatically to the load of the vehicle.
1 giver on the rear axle

2 giver on the front axle
3 distributor
4 hydraulic adjusting mechanism
3
Fig. 59 Automatic adjuster
The adjuster consists of three hydraulic circuits: one giver circuit and for
each headlamp a separate circuit. The giver circuit is mechanically linked to
both headlamp circuits via the distributor unit.
It works as follows:
– the distance between the bodywork and the front and rear axle is
identified by the two givers
– when this distance changes, both the givers give the hydraulic energy
needed to the distributor unit
– the distributor unit distributes this energy to both headlamps, which can
be adjusted independently of each other.
Questions
1 Why do headlamps have to be able to be adjusted both horizontally and
vertically?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
57
Theory
2 Why is it necessary that the adjustment of the headlamps is adapted to

the load of the car?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
3 Write down three ways of adapting the adjustment of the headlamps to

the load of the car from the inside.
1 .................................................................................................................
2 .................................................................................................................
3 .................................................................................................................
4 In what direction(s) are the headlamps adjusted using the adjusting units
adjustable from the inside?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
5 What is the device for shown in Figure 60?

...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
Fig. 60
6 What is the name and the function of the parts numbered in Figure 60?
1 .................................................................................................................
2 .................................................................................................................
3 .................................................................................................................
4 .................................................................................................................
58
Theory
9 Lights and signals in the workshop
9.1 Adjusting headlamps

Headlamps must be adjusted correctly. Oncoming vehicles must not be
dazzled and as much as possible of the road and the verge must be lit
(Fig. 61).
In car maintenance the adjustment of the headlamps must be checked. If
necessary, the headlamps have to be adjusted.
Fig. 61 Dipped light: light up the road and the verge,

without dazzling oncoming vehicles
Before adjusting the headlamps it must be checked that:

– the tyre pressure is correct
– the car is standing horizontally
1 – the car is loaded properly
– the headlamp glasses are clean.
Headlamp glasses are made of glass or plastic. A number of things have to

2 be taken into consideration:
– plastic glasses should not be cleaned with a dry cloth (scratches); use a
damp sponge to clean them
3 – plastic glasses should not be cleaned with aggressive cleaning agents
(they damage them).
4 A headlamp adjuster is used (Fig. 62).

5
6 1 viewer
8 2 viewer locking device
3 switch
4 light meter
5 screen
7 6 lens
7 locking device
8 height adjustment
Fig. 62 Headlamp adjuster
59
Theory
A few points to bear in mind when positioning the headlamp adjuster:

– the distance from the lens to the headlamp must be 30 to 70 cm (Fig. 63)
– the middle of the lens must be put at the same height as the middle of
the headlamp
– use the viewer to place the lens perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of
the car (Fig. 64)
– secure the locking device when the headlamp adjuster is in the right
position.
Fig. 63 Position the headlamp adjuster at the right Fig. 64 Position the headlamp adjuster
distance perpendicular to the longitudinal axis
In order to be able to establish whether the headlamps are adjusted

correctly, the screen has a number of lines. What these lines mean
(Fig. 65):
1 Line for adjusting all the headlamps in passenger cars and loaded goods
vehicles
– the beam must on the left exactly touch the horizontal striped line
– on the right the beam must exactly touch the oblique striped line
2 Line for adjusting fog lamps on passenger cars and loaded goods
vehicles
– the beam must exactly touch line 2.
3 Line for adjusting the headlamps on unladen goods vehicles.
4 Line for adjusting the fog lamps on unladen goods vehicles.
1
2
3
4
Fig. 65 The screen on a headlamp adjuster
Light meter
A light meter is used to check
– the light output of the main light
– the dipped light; the dipped light must not be dazzling.
60
Theory
Check the light intensity of the dipped light as follows (Fig. 66):
– switch on the dipped light
– operate the switch for dipped light on the headlamp adjuster
– read the light intensity (green and white area on the light intensity meter)
* the pointer is in the green area: the dipped light is not dazzling
* the pointer is in the white area: the headlamps are dazzling (adjust).
2 32 Lux
1 16 48 64
Fig. 66 Light meter
Checking the light intensity of the main light:

– switch on the main light
– operate the switch for the main light on the headlamp adjuster
– read the light intensity; the following minimum values apply:
* 32 Lux for vehicles with asymmetric headlamps that can go at a
speed of more than 40 km/hr (except for motor bikes)
* 48 Lux when using a halogen main light with H4 bulbs
* 64 Lux when using a halogen main light with H1 or H3 bulbs.
If the light intensity is too low, this may indicate that:

– the lamp is too old
– the headlamp has been adjusted wrongly
– the reflector is poor
– the adjuster has been positioned wrongly.
Control board
With dipped light, for each metre more of distance from the car, the
separation between light and dark must be one centimetre lower than the
middle of the headlamp. So at a distance of 5 metres, the beam must drop
5 centimetres (Fig. 67 on the next page).
This legal requirement is used with the control board method.
61
Theory
A
5 cm
H
a
5m
H = distance from the ground to the centre of the headlamp
Fig. 67 Checking the adjustment of the headlamp with a control board
Questions
1 Are headlamps adjusted to the main light or the dipped light?
...................................................................................................................
2 What light must not be dazzling for the oncoming vehicle?

...................................................................................................................
3 In what directions can the beam of the headlamps be adjusted?

...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
4 Does the load of the vehicle affect the adjustment of the headlamps?
Explain the answer.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
5 Does the condition of the reflector affect the light intensity? Explain the
answer.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
62
Theory
6 The headlamps of a car are made as a normal parabolic reflector. The

bottom of the headlamp reflector is corroded. The light intensity of which
light is affected? Explain the answer.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
7 A passenger car is fitted with H4 headlamps. What does the minimum

light intensity have to be for the main light?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
8 What do you have to look out for when checking headlamps? Write
down three points.
1 .................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
2 .................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
3 .................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
9 Put the numbers in the right place in Figure 68.

1 height adjustment
2 lens
3 viewer
4 switch
5 screen
6 viewer locking device
7 light meter
8 locking device
Fig. 68
63
Theory
10 Write down three points you have to watch for before you can start to
adjust headlamps.
1 .................................................................................................................
2 .................................................................................................................
3 .................................................................................................................
11 The plastic headlamps of a car are cleaned with a dry cloth. What are the
consequences?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
12 What is the advantage of using a headlamp adjuster rather than the

control board method?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
9.2 Diagnosing light systems

Faults in light systems can be broken down into four groups:
– one or more lamps are not working
– one or more lamps are weak
– the lamps keep on burning out
– other faults.
If a lamp is not working, there may be a number of reasons:

– the lamp is broken
– the fuse is burnt out
– faulty switch
– faulty relay
– break in the positive line
– break in the earth line
– bad connections.
A burnt out fuse or a faulty switch is generally not the reason if only one
lamp is not working. If that were the case, other lamps would not be
working (Fig. 69).
When looking for faults start by checking the lamp. If the lamp is in order,
check whether there is any voltage on the lamp (Fig. 70). Then check
whether the lamp has an earth contact (Fig. 71). If the lamp does not have
an earth contact, there is a voltage on the lamp’s earth connection.
64
Theory
E1, E2 duplo lamps (headlights)
E3, E4 sidelights
E5 left tail light
E6 licence plate light B battery
E7 right tail light H control light, main light
E8 instrument lights S1 light switch
F1-F8 cut-outs S2 dipped light switch
30 30
0 1 2
S1 56 58
S2
B
F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8
56b 56b
56a 56a
E1 E2 H E3 E4 E5 E6 E7 E8
31 31
Fig. 69 Light system
30 30
30 30
P1 P1
P 1 2 P 1 2
57a 15 15x 30 57a 15 15x 30
F1..F30 F1..F30
S16 S16
H 10 H 11 H 10 H 11
V
V
31 31
Fig. 70 Check whether there is a Fig. 71 Check whether the lamp has a good
voltage on the lamp earth connection
65
Theory
30
30
Note
P1
There is always a small contact resistance in lines and connections. With
light systems it is generally the case that: if the measured voltage is greater
P 1 2
than 0.5 V, the contact resistance is too great.
57a 15 15x 30
If the fuse has burnt out, it may be due to a short circuit or an overload. If it
is a short circuit, a new fuse will burn out straight away. If it is an overload,
F1..F30 a new fuse will burn out again after a longer period. A short circuit can be
detected with a test lamp (Fig. 72):
– replace the fuse with a test lamp with a rating of 18 or 21 W (note: the
lamp gets hot, make sure the hot lamp does not damage any parts)
– switch on the unit (if the lamp burns fiercely, there is a short circuit; if the
S16
lamp burns weakly or not at all, then there is not a short circuit).
If there is a short circuit, the first plug must be disconnected from the user
unit:
– if the test lamp is still burning, the short circuit is closer to the fuse
H 10 H 11
– remove the previous plug connection and check whether the test lamp is
still burning.
31
Work in this way away from the user unit towards the fuse in order to detect
Fig. 72 Detecting a short
where the short circuit is.
circuit with a test
lamp If there is a fault in the wiring, the connections or a relay, the cause can be
detected by measuring the voltage at different places using a voltmeter
30
30 (Fig. 73). Study the wiring diagram and the manufacturer’s instructions.
P1
The diagram in Figure 73 is for a 12 V system. The light switch is operated:
P 1 2 – the reading for V1 is 12 V.
57a 15 15x 30 – the reading for V2 is 0 V.
The lamps are not on, because there is a break in the wiring at A.
F1..F30
Table 2 lists some faults and their possible causes.
S16
V1 V2
H 10 H 11
31
Fig. 73 Detecting a break with a

voltmeter
66
Theory
Table 2 Faults and their possible causes
Fault Possible cause

one bulb has failed – bulb is burnt out
– bad earth connection
– bad contact / connection has been lost
– break in the power supply wire
one lighting group has failed – bulb is burnt out
– fuse is burnt out
– bad earth connection
– bad contact / connection has been lost
– break in the power supply wire
– faulty switch
fuse keeps on burning out – earth connection
bulb keeps on burning out – vibration

– break in its fixing
– loose fixing bolts
bulb flickers – bad contact with connecting clamps

– bad contact with fuses
one of the headlamps has – bad earth

less light intensity – bad contact with connecting clamps
– bad contact with fuses
light intensity of the – old bulbs

headlamps not enough – reflectors dull
– adjustment wrong
light intensity of the dipped – adjustment wrong

light not enough
only the main light, or only – dipped light switch faulty
the dipped light, is working – earth connection in power supply
67
Theory
Questions
1 Fuse F2 in the light system in Figure 74 is faulty.
Which lamp(s) does/do not work?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
2 Fuse F7 in the light system in Figure 74 is faulty.

Which lamp(s) does/do not work?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
E1, E2 duplo lamps (headlights)

E3, E4 sidelights
E5 left tail light
E6 licence plate light B battery
E7 right tail light H control light, main light
E8 instrument lights S1 light switch
F1-F8 cut-outs S2 dipped light switch
30 30
0 1 2
S1 56 58
S2
B
F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8
56b 56b
56a 56a
E1 E2 H E3 E4 E5 E6 E7 E8
31 31
Fig. 74 Light system
68
Theory
3 The system in Figure 75 is a 12 V system. The lamps are switched on.

What is the reading on the voltmeter if:
– the lamp does not have an earth?
...................................................................................................................
– the lamp has a good connection to earth?
...................................................................................................................
30 30
30 30
P1 P1
P 1 2 P 1 2
57a 15 15x 30 57a 15 15x 30
F1..F30 F1..F30
S16 S16
H 10 H 11 H 10 H 11
V V
31 31
Fig. 75 Fig. 76
30
4 a The voltmeter in Figure 76 shows 5 V. What is the fault?
30
...................................................................................................................
P1
P 1 2
b How does this affect the working of the lamp?
57a 15 15x 30
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
F1..F30
c What value does the voltmeter show if the earth connection is good?
A
...................................................................................................................
S16
5 The diagram in Figure 77 is for a 12 V system. The light switch has been
V1 V2 switched. Fill in:
– the reading of V1 is ………… V
H 10 H 11
– the reading of V2 is ………… V
The lamps are / are not on.

31
Fig. 77
69
Theory
6 Name three places where there can be a contact resistance.

1 .................................................................................................................
2 .................................................................................................................
3 .................................................................................................................
7 What is the result if a contact resistance is too high?

...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
8 The lamps in a car keep on burning out. Give the possible cause.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
9 What checks have to be carried out if one lamp is not on?

...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
10 What can cause a fuse to burn out?

...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
11 What meter is generally used to detect electrical faults?

...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
12 One lamp on a car is burning weakly. What is the obvious cause?

...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
70
Theory
30 30
15 15
V1 12 V
V2 11,5 V F cut-out
H1 H2
H1 left brake light
H2 right brake light
V3 4V S brake light switch,
31 31 operated pneumatically
Fig. 78
13 The brake light H1 in Figure 78 is not working. The voltages measured

are given in Figure 78. What is the cause?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
14 The brake lights H1 and H2 in Figure 79 are not working. The voltages
measured are given in Figure 79.
The cause is
A a bad earth connection
B the battery is faulty
C the fuse is burnt out
D loss of voltage in the supply to the lamps
30 30
15 15
F cut-out
H1 left brake light
V1 12 V
H2 right brake light
S brake light switch,
P operated pneumatically
V2 3V
H1 H2
V3 0,2 V V4 0,3 V
31 31
Fig. 79
71
Theory
9.3 Connecting trailer lights

Tow bars are fitted as accessories. The tow bar must be fitted in
accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.
The light and signal system of the trailer or caravan is branched off from
that of the car. A plug and socket are used (Fig. 80). These are available
with 7 poles and 13 poles (Fig. 81).
Fig. 80 Plug and socket
13 12
1
2 6
8 7 11
3 5
extra contacts
4
9 10
A cam
B recess
A
a 7-pole socket and plug b 13-pole plug
Fig. 81 Connection for a socket and plug (EC standard)
The connections for the plug and the socket are standardised (Table 3).
Some points to bear in mind when connecting the wiring:

– Follow the manufacturer’s instructions for branching off the wiring.
– When wiring, use the universal colour code as much as possible.
– Make sure the cables are connected securely.
– Make sure there are good earth connections.
– Make sure the wiring is fixed securely.
72
Theory
Table 3 Codes for 7-pole and 13-pole plug connections for trailers and caravans
(DIN standard)
Contact number Contact number Circuit Recommended wire
7-pole 13-pole cross-section in mm²
L or 1 1 Left indicator 1.5
54g or 2 2 Rear fog lights 1.5
31 or 3 3 Earth for 1 to 7 2.5
R or 4 4 Right indicator 1.5
58R or 5 5 Tail light(s), right 1.5
54 or 6 6 Brake lights 1.5
58L or 7 7 Tail light(s), left 1.5
8 Reversing lights or 1.5
switching off overrun brake
9 Constant + wire 2.5
10 Charging trailer battery 1.5
11 Blank 1.5
12 Blank 1.5
13 Earth for 8 to 12 2.5
Questions
1 What are the cam A and recess B for in Figure 82?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
Fig. 82 2 What is the code for the earth connection on a 7-pole socket? What is
the recommended wire cross-section?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
73
Theory
3 Why is it that increasingly 13-pole sockets are being used?

...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
4 On which connection of a 13-pole socket is there a constant voltage?

What is the recommended wire cross-section?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
5 For a 13-pole and a 7-pole socket give the code for the brake lights.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
74

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Theory

Lights and signalling

3 Wiring diagrams for lights and signalling systems . 13

5 How headlamps and reflectors work ....................... 41

6 Types of headlamp ..................................................... 45

7 Lights: legal requirements ......................................... 49

8 Adjusters for headlamps ........................................... 55

9 Lights and signals in the workshop .......................... 59

Content Introduction Questions

© 2007 INNOVAM Publishing, Nieuwegein

1 Lights and signalling systems

Lights are needed in order to be able to see and be seen.

Lights and signalling systems form part of the electrical installation.

1 headlamp 10 licence plate light

Each system has its own function:

2 Write down three signalling systems and their function.

3 Write down three sorts of light and their function.

4 What two ‘sorts’ of light are housed in the headlamps?

5 There are light systems and signalling systems.

To switch on and switch off electrical units, engineering systems in cars

Figure 2 is a schematic drawing of a relay.

85 control, negative side core

a contacts open b contacts closed

In Figure 4 on the next page the lamp is switched by a relay. It works as

Fig. 4 Lamp: switched by a relay

In Figure 5a a headlamp is connected without using a relay. In Figure 5b a

a connecting a headlamp b connecting a headlamp with a relay

Relays are used for various reasons:

The relay in Figure 6a is closed if there is no current flowing through the

85 control, negative side

a break relay b alternating relay

Figure 6b is the symbol for an alternating relay.

If no current flows through the coil, there is no magnetic field. There is

2 What current flows through the coil of a relay?

6 What type of relay is being used in Figure 8?

7 In Figure 8 put the correct connection numbers next to the connections

8 Complete the diagram in Figure 8. L1 and L2 are switched in parallel.

9 What type of relay is being used in Figure 9?

12V 21W 12V 21W

10 In Figure 9 put the correct connection numbers next to the connections

11 Complete the diagram in Figure 9. L1 and L2 are switched in parallel. The

12 What type of relay is being used in Figure 10?

13 In Figure 10 put the correct connection numbers next to the connections

15 Connection 85 of a relay means:

16 The relay in Figure 11 is a:

3 Wiring diagrams for lights and

Wiring diagrams show how the current flows in an electrical system.

Diagrams of the electrical installation look complicated. This is because a

E11...14 H12 E15 E16

Fig. 12 Waterfall diagram

The lines have a code:

A sufficient knowledge of electrical symbols is needed in order to be able to

In electrical diagrams the components are indicated with a certain letter.

(operated by a bimetallic strip)

battery brake light switch

fog lamp switch

56a 56b 58 56b 56a

signal light switch headlamp

Fig. 13 Symbols in a light system

Figure 14 shows a diagram.

58 56b 56a 56a 56b 58

Numbers are often put next to connections (connection numbers). Table 1

Table 1 Connection numbers