Topics on Learning Theories:

1. NOLA PENDER’S HEALTH PROMOTION THEORY

Dr. Pender believed that the purpose of nursing care was to assist patients in achieving
optimal health and well-being. The approach was developed in response to Pender’s
research on health-promoting and preventative behaviors. According to the health
promotion model, each individual’s qualities and life experiences have a direct impact on
their actions and health decisions. Health is defined as a state of well-being rather than
the absence of sickness. Pender’s health promotion model has been altered since its
inception and has had a considerable impact on the work of other theorists.

Dr. Nola Pender created the Health Promotion Model (HPM), which is now utilized
globally in research, education, and practice. The health promotion approach focuses on
assisting people in attaining higher levels of well-being. It urges health providers to
provide positive resources to assist patients in making behavioral changes. The purpose
of the HPM is not just to help patients prevent sickness through their behavior, but also
to look at methods in which a person can pursue better or perfect health.

The process of empowering people to choose healthy lifestyles and inspiring them to
become better self-managers is known as health promotion. Health promotion tactics
should include patient education, counseling, and support systems to achieve this.
Examples of health promotion strategies include educational and counseling initiatives
that support exercise, enhance diet, or lower drug, alcohol, and tobacco use.

The three main components that Pender’s health promotion model focuses on are
individual traits and experiences, cognitions and emotions that are particular to behavior,
and lastly, behavioral outcomes.

1. Individual Characteristics and Experiences

The first category investigates the idea that every person has a unique set of traits and
life experiences that influence how they behave. Pender emphasized that a person’s
propensity to engage in future behaviors that promote health is directly related to their
prior behavior. Health-promoting behaviors can sometimes be hindered by personal
characteristics and habits.
 2. Behaviour-specific Cognitions

The second group includes the cognitions and emotions that are particular to a behavior
and that directly influence the person’s motivation to change. These variables can be
taken into account when designing nursing interventions to help bring about positive
changes. The observed advantages and obstacles to the action, one’s sense of self-
worth, and the outcome of the activity are among the variables.

3. Behavioural Outcomes
The behavioral result falls within the third group. When someone decides to make a
change, the outcome can only begin when they commit to doing so. In order to generate
a positive, health-promoting behavior throughout this phase, the individual must be
supported and impediments must be removed. The health promotion paradigm seeks to
incite a behavioral shift that has a favorable impact on one’s health.

Pender asserts that the HPM relies on the following four premises:

•People make an effort to regulate their own behavior.

•Individuals strive to better both themselves and their surroundings.

•Health professionals, including nurses and doctors, make up the social

environment that affects people’s actions.
•Self-initiated modification of personal and environmental traits is necessary for
behavior modification.

A study’s findings indicated that people’s nutritional practices can be improved and
favourably affected by Pender’s HPM-based training. Therefore, it is advised that dietary
behaviors be altered by raising people’s nutrition knowledge in order to replace improper
nutritional behaviors with acceptable ones. Additionally, it is advised that programs be
created on the impacts of mass media, particularly television, and sociocultural elements
on dietary practices, obesity, and the incidence of chronic illnesses. Given that the
combination of nutritional habits, culture, and public knowledge make up a significant
portion of the nutritional pattern in a community and that nutritional habits and behaviors
vary from community to community, interventions on nutritional behaviors should be
tailored to the cultural context of communities.
 2. BANDURA’S SELF-EFFICACY THEORY

A person’s confidence in their ability to carry out the behaviors required to achieve
particular performance goals is referred to as self-efficacy. According to Albert Bandura,
self-efficacy is “the belief in one’s skills to organize and execute the courses of action
required to manage upcoming problems.” Self-efficacy is a person’s belief in their ability
to succeed in a particular situation. People’s thoughts, actions, and emotions are
influenced by these ideas. Self-efficacy affects a variety of things, including psychological
states, behavior, and motivation, as shown by Bandura and other studies. It determines
our pursuit of goals, how we achieve those goals, and how we evaluate our own
achievement.

Self-efficacy was initially characterized by Bandura as a standalone construct. But

Bandura later incorporated his self-efficacy construct into the social cognitive theory after
concluding that a thorough comprehension of self-efficacy requires an all-encompassing
social framework. The social cognitive theory focuses on how people acquire and sustain
particular behaviors in a social setting that affects their ability to self-regulate their
behavior. In order to change behavior, self-regulation requires the interaction of many
different factors, including self-observation, self-evaluation, and self-reaction, in addition
to self-efficacy.

Self-efficacy differs from self-esteem. People with high self-esteem are satisfied with
themselves, regardless of their abilities. High self-esteem does not always translate to
the ability to solve a crisis. Someone who has high self-esteem may not choose to take
on a challenge because they are fine the way they are. A person with high efficacy will
always jump at the chance, and they will often see solutions that are closed to other
people.

According to Bandura, negative sensations like fear and worry might make us feel less
self-sufficient. Self-efficacy, for instance, might be strong when it comes to mingling and
socializing, but it can fall if you’re very anxious about leaving a good impression at a
particular event. Positive feelings, on the other hand, can result in higher levels of self-
efficacy. Bandura’s idea of self-efficacy has several uses, such as helping people
overcome phobias, improving academic performance, and forming wholesome habits.
There are 4 Sources of Self-Efficacy Beliefs
•Performance Accomplishments

Information on personal assessments that is based on a person’s successes. While

repeated failures diminish expectations for mastery, prior successes raise them.

•Vicarious Experience

Gained from seeing others complete tasks successfully. This is frequently referred to as
modeling, and it can lead to observers expecting to be able to perform better as a result
of what they have learned.

•Social Persuasion
Activities that lead people to believe, by suggestion, that they can handle a particular task
satisfactorily. Social persuasion techniques include coaching and providing performance
evaluations.

•Physiological and Emotional States

Self-efficacy assessments of particular tasks are influenced by a person’s physiological

or emotional states. Emotional reactions to such tasks (e.g., nervousness) might lead to
negative judgements of one’s capacity to execute the tasks.

Self-efficacy theory and research have significantly advanced our knowledge of human
motivation. Researchers have established that self-efficacy is a critical internal
motivational process that may be altered by personal and environmental variables and
which determines motivational consequences of decisions, effort, persistence, and
achievement. Application of self-efficacy concepts to varied circumstances shows several
adjustments needed to the original idea. The functioning of self-efficacy and assessment
techniques will be further investigated by researchers. The goal is to apply self-efficacy
theory to a variety of people and circumstances.
 3. BECKER’S HELATH BELIEF MODEL
According to the Health Belief Model, people’s beliefs affect the actions or behaviors they
take in relation to their health. People are prone to act when they feel threatened or at
risk for something personal, but only if the advantages of doing so outweigh the
disadvantages—real or perceived—of doing. This model states that the outcome of two
evaluations a person makes will determine the likelihood that they will adopt a healthy
behavior: The threat of a health issue. The advantages and disadvantages of acting. The
Health Belief Model is a theoretical framework that can be applied to programs for illness
prevention and health promotion. It is used to anticipate and explain changes in personal
health practices. It is among the most frequently applied models for comprehending
health behaviors.

Scientists employ the Health Belief Model (HBM) as a method to forecast health
behaviors. The 1950s saw its first development, while the 1980s saw an update. The
approach is founded on the idea that a person’s propensity to alter their health-related
activities is largely influenced by their views of their health. This approach proposes that
your personal ideas about health and health issues influence your health-related
activities. Important elements that influence how you view health include:

•Any obstacles you believe may be in the path

•Information exposure that motivates you to act
•How big of a benefit you believe practicing healthy habits will provide.

•How sensitive to disease you believe you are

•What you think the consequences will be of becoming sick

•Your confidence in your ability to succeed

The Health Belief Model’s constituent parts

The Health Belief Model consists of six basic parts. When the idea was initially created,
four of these components served as its cornerstone. In response to research on the
model’s connection to addiction, two were added.

1. Perceived Seriousness
Depending on how significant they perceive the repercussions to be, a person’s
propensity to alter their health-related actions to avoid them. Results in terms of health
might be significantly impacted by the severity of a disease. However, a number of
research have revealed that the least effective predictor of whether or not people would
engage in preventive health activities is the severity of the danger that is perceived.

2. Perceived Susceptibility
Unless they feel at risk, people will not alter their health-related activities. According to
research, perceived susceptibility to disease is a key factor in predicting preventative
health practices.

3. Perceived Benefits
If there is no incentive for them to modify their behavior, it can be challenging to persuade
them. If they don’t also receive anything in exchange, people won’t give up what they find
enjoyable. These alleged advantages are frequently connected to other elements, such
as the alleged efficacy of a behavior. Your perception of the advantages of regular
exercise and a good diet will increase if you think that doing so will help prevent heart
disease.
4. Perceived Barriers

People’s perception that changing their health behaviors will be challenging is one of the
main causes for why they don’t do so. Changing one’s health habits can be difficult,
expensive, and time-consuming. The amount of effort required, risk, discomfort, expense,
annoyance, and social repercussions are all frequently cited as impediments. It has been
demonstrated that the most effective predictor of whether people are willing to engage in
healthy behaviors is their perception of barriers to doing so.
5. Cues to Action

The Health Belief Model’s ability to frame people’s activities accurately is one of its
strongest features. It acknowledges the fact that occasionally only wishing to modify a
person’s health behavior won’t suffice.
6. Self-Efficacy

Only in 1988 did the model include self-efficacy. Self-efficacy examines a person’s self-
confidence in their capacity to change their lifestyle for the better. Although it may seem
insignificant, your actual ability to perform a task is greatly impacted by your level of faith
in your capacity to do so.

Examining the various contexts in which the Health Belief Model can be used can be
useful. Designing initiatives to motivate people to adopt healthy habits is a crucial
component of public health, thus it might be helpful to comprehend the various contexts
in which this model can be used.
 4. GREENE’S PRECEDE-PROCEED MODEL
One of the more thorough methods used for program design in health promotion is the
PRECEDE-PROCEED model. It provides a useful format for analyzing priority health
issues and suggesting elements that should be focused on during an intervention.
Additionally, it provides a thorough framework for identifying and analyzing health needs
in order to develop, carry out, and analyze public health initiatives like health promotion.

In order to include the suggestions and assistance of the community, PRECEDE-

PROCEED is designed as a participatory paradigm. This means that using it will provide
you more information about the issues at hand, information that is more accurate, and a
greater grasp of the issues’ background and social context. Getting the community
involved is another way to increase community ownership of the intervention, which will
increase community support and increase the likelihood of success. It provides a structure
for the process of conceiving, developing, implementing, and evaluating a community
intervention.

The planning and development phases of the model are referred to as PRECEDE, which
stands for Predisposing, Reinforcing, and Enabling Constructs in Ecological Diagnosis
and Evaluation. Predisposing, Reinforcing, and Enabling Constructs in Educational
Diagnosis and Evaluation is abbreviated as PRECEDE. It entails evaluating the following
neighborhood elements:

•Social assessment: Determine the social problems and needs of a given

population and identify desired results.

•Epidemiological assessment: Identify the health factors influencing the problems

you’ve found, then define priorities and objectives.
•Ecological assessment: Identify the environmental and behavioral factors that
predispose, support, and enable the behaviors and lifestyles.

•Identify administrative and policy elements that influence implementation and match
suitable interventions that support desired and expected improvements.

•Implementation of interventions is also included.

In PROCEED model, it stands for Policy, Regulatory, and Organizational Constructs in

Educational and Environmental Development is the abbreviation for this phrase. It entails
determining intended results and carrying out the program:
 •Implementation: Design intervention, assess availability of resources, and
implement program.

•Process Evaluation: Determine if program is reaching the targeted population and

achieving desired goals.

•Impact Evaluation: Evaluate the change in behavior.

•Outcome Evaluation: Identify if there is a decrease in the incidence or prevalence
of the identified negative behavior or an increase in identified positive behavior.

The PRECEDE-PROCEED model emphasises that:

“The determinants of health must be diagnosed before the intervention is designed; if they
are not, the intervention will be based on guesswork and will run a greater risk of being
misdirected and ineffective.” Green and Kreuter 1999.

This approach offers a framework for the design and execution of health promotion or
disease prevention programs. This methodology has been successful in supporting both
short-term initiatives and ongoing activities related to health promotion. Precede-proceed
invites community involvement and has the ability to promote community ownership of
the program, much like the Community Readiness Model. The appropriateness of each
component of the model for the program and the resources available to support
implementation should be taken into account when deciding whether to adopt precede-
proceed as a model for health promotion or disease prevention initiatives. Additionally,
keep in mind that the plan’s elements may be modified as necessary throughout time.

Another fundamental tenet of the paradigm is that improving the quality of life for
individuals and their community is the goal of any proactive sort of community
intervention, and that the two are essentially intertwined. Therefore, even if an
intervention is directed at a more particular target group, it should be community-based
and take the needs of the community into consideration. Despite its emphasis on health
promotion rather than disease treatment, this approach also brings a medical viewpoint
to public health. The concept presupposes that a thorough diagnosis ought to come
before a public health intervention, just as a medical diagnosis comes before treatment.
 5. ASSURE MODEL AS EDUCATION PROCESS PARADIGM

An instructional planning and delivery procedure that incorporates technology and media
into the teaching process is called the ASSURE model. It also refers to a methodical
technique to creating lesson plans that aids teachers in planning out their classroom
activities. It is a framework or instructional system that teachers can use to create lesson
plans that incorporate the use of media and technology. The learner and the overall
results of achieving learning objectives are emphasized by the ASSURE Model. An
improved version of the ADDIE general model is the ASSURE model. ASSURE presents
design phases and has two key characteristics with the ADDIE model, despite having six
steps rather than ADDIE’s five: the initial focus on analysis and the cyclic structure.

Steps of ASSURE Model

This methodology includes the following six crucial steps in the planning of instruction:

• Examine the general traits of the learners

The teacher should assess the characteristics of her students as the first stage in the
procedure. There should be an emphasis on those learner traits which are connected with
the learning outcomes intended. You can make decisions on the next steps in the process
with the aid of the information acquired. Your decision of certain teaching methods and
resources will be influenced by your assessment of the learners’ personalities. This is a
summary of the entire class. This includes details about the number of pupils, their grade
or age, gender, socioeconomic considerations, any special needs, and their cultural,
ethnic, or other background.

• State Objectives

The teacher must state the goals and objectives for the learning module following the
study of the learner qualities. What the students will be able to do as a result of the
instruction is specified in this statement. Statements that outline the actions that the
learner will take after receiving instruction.

• Select Methods, Media, & Materials

Selected strategies, technology, media, and materials are represented by the second “s”
in the acronym. It’s important to choose instructional methodologies, technology, and
media that will achieve your desired results based on your learning objectives. The
instructor will now create a link between the audience and the objectives in this step. You
must choose the approach that you’ll employ most frequently.

• Utilize Methods, Media, & Materials

Making a plan for how you will use the technology, medium, and resources you have
chosen is a phase in the ASSURE process. You must ensure that your plans help you
achieve the goals you have set, just like you do with all other instructional processes.
Make a plan for how you will use your media and materials. Choose the appropriate media
or materials for each learning purpose, and then specify how you plan to use them in your
lesson to assist your students achieve that aim.

• Require Learner Participation

Actually, the preceding steps are where this one belongs. Making strategies for how you
will actively involve your pupils in the content you are teaching will be necessary. This
needs to be determined on both a class- and an individual-level. Describe how you plan
to include each student “actively and individually” in the class.

• Evaluate student performance:

The evaluation of the impact of your teaching on student learning, including an evaluation
of your teaching strategies and the technology, media, and materials that you used, is the
final and most important step in the ASSURE process. The evaluation should match the
objective; some objectives can be adequately assessed with a pen and paper test.

In conclusion, the ASSURE procedure essentially just requires common sense. To

improve your teaching style, it’s wise to adhere to a set of rules. Any competent instructor
is aware that there is always space for growth and that perfecting their skill takes time.
You may be sure that the ASSURE method will help you continually improve your
teaching.
 6. JOHN WATSON’S BEHAVIORISM THEORY

Watson defined behaviorism as the study of observed behavior. For the study of people
or animals, only conduct that could be watched, noted, and measured had any actual
worth. The previous classical training experiments of Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov
with his now-famous dogs had a considerable impact on Watson’s thinking. Because it
was not observable and was up to the psychologist’s subjective interpretation, Watson’s
behaviorism rejected the idea of the unconscious and a person’s interior mental state.
For instance, Freud would ask his patients about their dreams and then interpret them to
determine what the dreams meant for the patient’s life. This emphasis on reflection and
individualized interpretation, according to Watson, is both exceedingly unscientific and
useless for comprehending behavior.

The way that Watson used behaviorism to explain child development is what makes him
most famous. Watson is famous for saying that he could take a “dozen healthy infants
and train any one of them to become any type of specialist he might select—doctor,
lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief.” In other words, he
believed that you could expose the child to certain environmental forces and, over time,
condition th This was radical thinking at the time, as you might expect, and it involved a
form of behavioral control that many people found unsettling.

Watson wrote Psychological Care of Baby and Child in 1928, which included a warning
against overly affectionate parenting and support for treating kids like little people. He
emphasized that people do not receive excessive comfort in adulthood and as a result, it
should not be given to them in childhood. He believed that excessive early attachments
could contribute to a dependent, needy personality in adulthood. He highlighted the need
for parents to be upfront and honest with their children about sexuality and explicitly
cautioned against thumb-sucking, coddling, and undue sentimentality.

While the book sold well in its first year, some found Watson’s unsentimental advice
chilling. Two years after the books publication, Watson’s wife published an article entitled
“I am a Mother of Behaviorist Sons” in Parents magazine that encouraged the displays of
affection that her husband admonished.
Interaction with the environment leads to conditioning. According to behaviorists, how we
react to environmental cues determines how we behave. There are principally two kinds
of conditioning:
1. Using the classical conditioning strategy, a response is associated with a naturally
occurring stimulus in behavioral training. The naturally occurring stimulus is then
combined with an earlier neutral stimulus. Eventually, the formerly neutral stimulus
begins to elicit the reaction even when the naturally occurring stimulus is not there.
The conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response are the two components
in this case.

2. Operant conditioning Operant conditioning, also known as instrumental

conditioning, is a type of learning that involves giving and taking away incentives
based on a person’s actions.

His hypothesis holds that people are born without knowledge. Everyone picks up new
skills through experience, perception, and parental instruction.

A much more self-critical, reflective, and differentiated approach to instruction developed

through meaningful observations, noticing and recognizing what is important, influencing,
and significant to the child and about the child, and responding in a supportive manner,
could be one solution to providing children with more effective circumstances. A good
beginning would result from this kind of positive interaction between a child’s genes and
the environment in which they develop.

Moreover, chances of positive pathways in life seem to be enhanced by heredity

vulnerabilities and complex behaviors. Therefore, Watson’s behaviorist theory focused
not on the internal emotional and psychological conditions of people, but rather on their
external and outward behaviors. He believed that a person’s physical responses provided
the only insight into internal actions.,
 7. THORNDIKE’S LAW OF EFFECT

Behaviorist E.L. published the law of effect for the first time in the early 20 th century.
Thorndike. Thorndike discovered that a behavior is more likely to be repeated the more
satisfaction one receives from engaging in it. Contrarily, actions that lead to a bad or
unpleasant experience are more unlikely to happen frequently. Although B.F. This idea
was built on Edward Thorndike’s early contributions to the psychology of learning. Skinner
and operant conditioning are known for showing that we learn based on the
consequences of our actions. The Law of Effect, often known as Thorndike’s law of effect,
resulted from tests Thorndike conducted on animals, usually cats.

A cat would be placed in a puzzle box by Thorndike that had a tiny lever on one side. The
only way for the cat to exit was by pulling the lever. The cat would then be lured outside
the box with a piece of meat, and Thorndike would time how long it would take the cat to
get out. The cat would accidentally press the lever on its first attempt. The cat would press
the lever more fast each time the experiment was performed because it was rewarded
with both its freedom and food after each lever press.

The Law of Effect, which Thorndike proposed and later published in his 1911 book Animal
Intelligence, was the result of the findings he made throughout these studies. Two parts
made up the statute.

According to the Law of Effect, among multiple responses given to a given event, those
that are accompanied by or immediately followed by the animal’s satisfaction will, other
things being equal, be more securely connected with the situation, making them more
likely to repeat when it occurs again.

Thorndike noted in his theory’s conclusion that “the stronger or weaker the relationship
[between the response and the situation], the greater the happiness or pain.”

The operant conditioning subfield of behavioral psychology was founded on the findings
and publications of Thorndike on this subject. Behaviorists with a lot of clout, such B.F.
Skinner expanded on the concept of cause and effect to gain a deeper comprehension of
how environmental rewards and punishments affect behavior. According to the Law of
Effect, actions that provide positive results in a given scenario will be taken again in that
situation, but actions that produce negative results in a given situation won’t be taken
again in that environment.

Key Takeaways: The Law of Effect

•Edward Thorndike, a psychologist, first put forward the Law of Impact at the beginning
of the 20th century.

•According to the Law of Impact, behaviors that make people feel satisfied in a certain
scenario are more likely to be repeated when that situation arises, whereas behaviors
that make people feel uncomfortable are less likely to be repeated.
•The psychological strategy B, behaviorism, was greatly influenced by Thorndike. F.
Skinner was a champion because he based his operant conditioning theories on the Law
of Effect.

The early idea of conditioning is known as Thorndike’s Law of Effect. As nothing else
occurred between the stimulus and the response, the model is known as an unmediated
stimulus-response model. In Thorndike’s tests, the cats were given free reign and learned
on their own to associate the box with pulling the lever to release them. Thorndike’s
theories were explored by Skinner, who then carried out tests using lever-equipped
puzzle boxes with animals (which is typically referred to as a Skinner box).

Thorndike’s theory included the idea of reinforcement thanks to Skinner. Positively

reinforced behaviors are more likely to be repeated in operant training, whereas
negatively reinforced behaviors are less likely to be repeated. It is evident that Thorndike
had an impact on both operant conditioning and behaviorism as a whole by drawing a
direct connection between operant conditioning and the Law of Effect.
 8. IVAN PAVLOV’S CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, created classical conditioning, sometimes referred to as

Pavlovian or responder conditioning, which is learning via association. Simply said, two
stimuli are combined to cause a person or animal to learn a new learnt response.
According to John Watson, all facets of human psychology may be explained by the
classical conditioning method, which was developed in response to Pavlov’s studies.
Everything from communication to emotional responses was essentially patterns of
stimulus and response. Watson flatly rejected the notion that there is a mind or
awareness. According to Watson, every individual’s behavioral variations are the result
of unique learning opportunities. Classical conditioning, commonly known as Pavlovian
conditioning, employs a number of terminology to describe the learning procedure.

Unconditioned Stimulus

A stimulus or trigger that causes an instinctive response is known as an unconditioned

stimulus. For example, if a cold breeze causes you to shudder, the cold breeze is an
unconditioned stimulus that results in an automatic reaction (the shivering).
Neutral Stimulus

A neutral stimulus is one that does not immediately cause a reaction. For instance, you
wouldn’t automatically react if you heard a fan but didn’t feel the breeze. As a result, it
would be a neutral stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus
A conditioned stimulus is one that initially was neutral (did not elicit a reaction), but now
elicits one. If a dog bite caused you to stop ignoring them before and make you fearful of
them now, the dog has been converted into a conditioned stimuli.

Unconditioned Response
When an unconditioned stimulus is present, an unconditioned response is an instinctive
or unplanned reaction that takes place. Your mouth may start to moisten when you smell
your favorite food; this is an unconditioned reaction.

Conditioned Response
A conditioned response is one that has been taught or that has been induced where none
previously existed. Returning to the dog bite example, the terror you feel as a result of the
bite is a conditioned reaction.
The three steps of classical conditioning are as follows. The stimuli and responses are
described in specific scientific terminology at each stage:

Stage 1: Before Conditioning:

An organism develops an unconditioned response (UCR) at this phase in response to an
unconditioned stimulus (UCS). This essentially indicates that a stimulus in the
environment led to a behavior or response that was unlearned (i.e., unconditioned) and
was, therefore, a natural response that had not been taught. There hasn’t been any new
behavior discovered in this regard. This stage also includes a stimulation known as the
neutral stimulus, which has no impact on a person (NS). The NS could be a subject, thing,
location, etc. In classical conditioning, the neutral stimulus does not elicit a response until
it is paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

Stage 2: During Conditioning:

At this point, the unconditioned stimulus is linked to a stimulus that elicits no reaction (i.e.,
neutral), at which time it is referred to be the conditioned stimulus (CS). The conditioned
stimulus must come before the unconditioned stimulus, not after it or at the same time,
for classical conditioning to work. The conditioned stimulus serves as a kind of cue or
signal for the unconditioned stimulus as a result. If the NS happens after the UCS,
conditioning may occasionally occur (reverse conditioning), but this typically vanishes
relatively rapidly. The main benefit of a conditioning stimulus is that it makes the organism
more capable of anticipating the arrival of an unconditional stimulus. Often during this
stage, the UCS must be associated with the CS on a number of occasions, or trials, for
learning to take place.

Stage 3: After Conditioning:

Now that the conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (UCS) have been
connected, a new conditioned response has been produced (CR).

Acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination are

important tenets of classical conditioning.
 9. BF SKINNER’S OPERANT CONDITIONING

According to Skinner, who was a behaviorist, examining one’s own ideas and intentions
is not actually important to understand behavior. Instead, he advocated focusing solely
on the observable, outside factors that influence people’s actions. Behaviorism dominated
psychology during the first decade of the 20 th century. Early on, this school of thinking
was dominated by the theories of John B. Watson. With a concentration on classical
conditioning, Watson once famously asserted that he could take any individual,
regardless of background, and mold them into any personality he desired. Associative
learning was a key area of concern for early behaviorists. More than anything else,
Skinner was concerned in how people’s behaviors affected their behavior. Edward
Thorndike, a psychologist, had proposed what he called the law of effect3, which holds
that activities are more likely to be repeated when they result in desired results whereas
actions that result in negative outcomes are less likely to be repeated.

Operant conditioning is based on the relatively straightforward notion that actions that are
reinforced will become stronger and more likely to happen again in the future. If you share
a humorous story in class and everyone laughs, you will probably tell that story more
frequently in the future. One best example for is that you will be more inclined to raise
your hand the following time you have a question or comment if your teacher compliments
you for being respectful when you raise your hand to ask a question. The previous action
is strengthened because it was followed by reinforcement, or a desired result. Actions
that result in repercussions or unpleasant outcomes, on the other hand, will be weakened
and less likely to happen again in the future. If you tell the same joke in another class, but
this time no one laughs, you won’t be as likely to do so in the future. If your teacher
corrects you for shouting out an answer in class, you might be less inclined to disrupt the
class again.
Types of Behaviors
Skinner distinguished between two different types of behaviors

Respondent behaviors
- Are those that happen spontaneously and reflexively, such as yanking your leg
back when the doctor taps on your knee or moving your hand away from a hot
stove. These actions are not necessary for you to learn. Things merely take place
unintentionally and automatically.
Operant behaviors
- Those that we consciously have influence over. The results of these actions then
determine whether or not they recur in the future. Some actions may happen
accidentally, while others are done on purpose. A significant portion of learning
involves our impact on the environment and the results of our actions.

Skinner also created a tool called as a cumulative recorder to monitor replies. Response
rates may be determined by looking at the slope of the line because the gadget recorded
responses as an upward movement of a line. The foundational ideas of operant
conditioning are numerous. The way a person responds and the impact of conditioning
can both be influenced by the sort of reinforcement or punishment utilized. The four forms
of operant conditioning—positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive
punishment, and negative punishment—can all be used to alter behavior. Any occurrence
that strengthens or improves the behavior it leads to is referred to as reinforcement. The
reinforcers come in two varieties. The behavior advances in both of these reinforcement
scenarios.

Positive punishment- It’s also known as punishment by application and involves

presenting a negative event or result in order to make the response that follows weaker.
An illustration of punishment through application is a spanking for misbehaving.
Negative punishment- also known as punishment by removal, is when a good thing
happens or a good thing happens after a behavior happens. Negative punishment, such
as taking away a child’s video game after disobedience, is an example.

Skinner identified several different schedules of reinforcement that impact the operant
conditioning process:
Continuous reinforcement- includes giving a reinforcement each time a reaction takes
place. Although learning usually happens quite rapidly, the response rate is rather low.
Extinction happens also very fast when reinforcing is stopped.

Fixed-ratio schedules- represent one kind of partial reinforcement. Only when a

predetermined number of responses have taken place are responses reinforced. Usually,
this results in a response rate that is fairly consistent.
 10. PIAGET’S COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY

Piaget thought that children actively participate in their education, functioning somewhat
like young scientists as they conduct experiments, record observations, and gain
knowledge of the outside world. Children constantly gain new knowledge, expand upon
current knowledge, and modify long-held beliefs to account for new information as they
interact with the world around them. According to Piaget, intelligence progresses through
various phases as it develops. Children who are older than those who are younger do not
just think faster. Instead, there are distinctions between the thinking of early children and
older children on both a qualitative and quantitative level. He came to the conclusion that
children are not less intellectual than adults; rather, they simply think in different ways.
Piaget’s stage theory, which explains how children’s minds develop, was dubbed “so
simple only a genius could have thought of it” by Albert Einstein. Changes to the cognitive
process and abilities occur during cognitive growth. According to Piaget, early cognitive
development entails action-based processes that subsequently lead to modifications in
mental processes.

The Sensorimotor Stage

Infants and toddlers learn at this formative era of cognitive development through sensory
encounters and handling objects. At the earliest stages of this stage, a child’s whole
experience is mediated by fundamental reflexes, perceptions, and motor responses.
Children go through a period of significant learning and growth throughout the
sensorimotor stage. Kids constantly learn new things about how the world functions as
they engage with it. During this phase, a large lot of growth is involved in the relatively
rapid cognitive development that takes place.

The Preoperational Stage

Although the preoperational stage of development may have established the groundwork
for language development, the emergence of language is one of the key characteristics
of this stage. Children at this age learn through pretend play but still struggle with logic
and considering other people’s perspectives. People frequently have trouble
comprehending the concept of consistency.

The Concrete Operational Stage

At this stage of development, children are still highly literal and concrete in their thinking,
but they become much better at applying logic. Kids get better at considering how other
people might see a situation as they progress through the stages, and the egocentrism
of the earlier stage starts to fade. During the concrete operational state, thinking becomes
considerably more logical, but it can also become highly inflexible. Children at this
developmental stage frequently have trouble understanding hypothetical and abstract
concepts.
The Formal Operational Stage

At this point, adolescents and young adults are able to see multiple potential solutions to
problems and think more scientifically about their surroundings, according to Piaget’s
theory.3 This stage also involves an improvement in logic, the capacity for deductive
reasoning, and an understanding of abstract concepts. The primary characteristic of the
formal operational stage of cognitive development is the capacity to think about abstract
concepts and situations.

Piaget suggested several factors that influence how children learn and grow.

Schemas - A schema summarizes the mental and physical processes necessary for
comprehension and knowledge. Schemas are categories of knowledge that aid in our
interpretation and comprehension of reality. According to Piaget, a schema comprises
both a category of knowledge and the method by which that knowledge is acquired3. As
experiences are had, new information is used to alter, supplement, or replace preexisting
schemas.

Assimilation - Assimilation is the process of incorporating new information into our

preexisting schemas. Because we frequently alter experiences and information to suit
with our preexisting beliefs, the process is partly subjective. Assimilation of the animal
into the child’s dog schema occurs in the aforementioned scenario when the child labels
a dog after witnessing it.

Accommodation - The capacity to modify preexisting schemas in light of new information

is another aspect of adaptation; this procedure is referred to as accommodation. This
method may also result in the creation of new schemas.
Equilibration - Maintaining a balance between using prior knowledge and adapting
behavior to take into account new knowledge is crucial as children advance through the
phases of cognitive development.

According to Piaget, every kid tries to find a happy medium between assimilation and
accommodation through a process he dubbed equilibration. Equilibration explains how
kids can progress from one level of thought to another.
 11. THE GELSTALT COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY PERSPECTIVE

The term “Gestalt,” as defined by Max Wertheimer, means that the whole is greater than
the sum of its parts. For instance, a flower consists of more than just sepals, petals, calyx,
corolla, color, honey, and scent. The sum of the parts does not equal the sum of the parts.
Gestalt view-point is the term for this. The organizing and reorganization of behavior that
results from the interaction between a maturing organism and its environment is
described as learning, in this perspective. The sudden appearance of the solution is a
crucial aspect of insight learning. It is the bringing about through this interaction of new
forms of perception, imagination, motor coordination, and other organic behavior.

Instantaneously, a sudden, unified pattern of solution appears. The person does not
engage in random acts; instead, he views the situation holistically and intuitively achieves
the desired outcome. Understanding the relationship between at least three variables—
an agent, a goal, and any intervening circumstances or roadblocks—is known as insight.
Insight is frequently referred to as the “Aha” moment, the quick flash of knowledge. When
insight strikes, it is often followed by a “I have got it!” feeling. Exclamation: the fingers
twitch, the knit brows unravel, and the eyes light up. The primary characteristic of learning
through insight is an assessment of the entire situation and the arrangement of the
methods in order to achieve the desired outcome. The individual discusses within himself
all ins and outs of it’s before acting upon it.

Gestalt theory of learning focuses on understanding the relative positions of the elements
in the overall perspective or situation in order to solve problems. Problems have a
tendency to upset an organism’s equilibrium because it is an organism that seeks
balance. Actually, German psychologists who were researching the nature of perception
are where the field of Gestalt psychology got its start. By now, everyone is aware that a
“moving picture” is actually a collection of still images

According to the Gestalt Theory, which is commonly known as the Law of Simplicity, every
stimulus is perceived by humans in its “most simple form”. The main focus of the theory
is “grouping” and the entire theory emphasizes on the fact that the whole of anything is
greater than the sum of its parts. Besides, “gestalt” in German means the “shape of an
entity’s complete form”. Thus, the operational principle of the brain is holistic and has a
self-organizing inclination.
The 4 Laws of Organization
The factors that determine the principle of “grouping” –also known as the “laws of
organization”- are the following:
Proximity- Usually, elements are categorized according to how immediate they are.

Similarity- Similar objects are frequently clustered together.

Closure- If elements are a part of an entity, they are normally grouped together.

Simplicity- Based on their symmetry, smoothness, and regularity, elements should be

arranged into simple figures.

The Gestalt Theory’s main objective is to persuade the brain to view the entire as well as
the individual components that go into it. For instance, when someone stares at a tree,
does he only see the tree itself, or does he also see the leaves, branches, and trunk?
Learning can occur if students are able to conceptually understand how components
might combine to create a whole that is completely different from the sum of its parts.

The main principles of the Gestalt Theory in Learning are:

•Instructors should urge their students to figure out how the components of a problem
relate to one another.

• Disturbances, gaps, and inconsistencies are crucial learning cues.

•The laws of organization should serve as the foundation for educational instruction

The Gestalt Theory is applicable to vision and problem-solving in a learning environment.

But it can be applied to every facet of schooling. When Wertheimer asked kids to calculate
the area of a parallelogram, he gave an excellent illustration. He advised the kids to use
the traditional method to calculate the area of parallelograms as long as they had a regular
shape. Children could not use the same logic or concepts to solve a problem when the
parallelogram had an irregular shape; instead, they had to comprehend the shape’s actual
structure.
 12. THE SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Albert Bandura’s social learning theory places a strong emphasis on the value of seeing,
modeling, and copying other people’s behaviors, attitudes, and emotional responses.
Social learning theory, presented by psychologist Albert Bandura, argued that learning
occurs through observation, imitation, and modeling and is impacted by elements such
as attention, motivation, attitudes, and emotions. The idea explains for the combination
of environmental and cognitive components that determine how people learn.

According to the hypothesis, learning happens as a result of people seeing the results of
other people’s actions. Bandura’s theory goes beyond cognitive theories, which take into
account psychological factors like attention and memory, and behavioral theories, which
contend that all behaviors are learnt through conditioning. Bandura contends that people
either observe conduct directly through encounters with other people in social settings or
indirectly through media. Rewarded behavior is more likely to be imitated, whereas
discouraged behavior is avoided.

Bandura’s social learning theory stated that learning can also take place merely by seeing
other people’s activities, in contrast to behavioral theories of learning that suggested all
learning was the consequence of associations created by conditioning, reinforcement,
and punishment. His thesis included a social component, contending that people might
pick up new knowledge and actions by observing others. This sort of learning, often
referred to as observational learning, can be used to explain a wide range of actions,
including those that are frequently not covered by conventional learning theories.

The three central ideas of social learning theory are as follows. First, there is the notion
that learning can occur through observation. The idea that internal mental states are a
crucial component of this process is the next. Finally, this theory acknowledges that
learning something does not guarantee that behavior will change as a result of it.

Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning:

•A live model, in which a real person performs the behavior being demonstrated.
•A symbolic model, in which actual or imaginary characters in novels, movies, television
shows, or online media exhibit certain behaviors.
•A verbal educational model, which includes behavior descriptions and justifications.

The following steps are involved in the observational learning and modeling process:

•Attention: You need to be paying attention in order to learn. Everything that diverts your
focus will have a detrimental impact on learning through observation. You are much more
likely to focus entirely on learning if the model is engaging or the situation includes a fresh
element.

•Retention: The capacity to retain knowledge is a crucial component of learning. The

ability to recall knowledge later and take action on it is essential to observational learning,
but retention can be impacted by a variety of conditions.
•Reproduction: It’s time to put what you learned about the model into practice after
you’ve watched the model carefully and retained the information. A learnt behavior that
is practiced more results in improvement and skill development.

•Motivation: Finally, you must be motivated to mimic the behavior that has been modeled
for observational learning to be effective. Punishment and reinforcement are significant
factors in motivation. Seeing others receiving reinforcement or punishment can be just as
powerful as actually experiencing these motivators. For instance, you might start to arrive
a little early each day if you observe another student receiving extra credit for arriving on
time.

Bandura’s social learning theory has had significant effects on education in addition to
influencing other psychologists. Today, both parents and teachers are aware of how
crucial it is to provide a good example. The social learning theory is also the foundation
for other teaching techniques including motivating students and fostering self-efficacy.

Bandura noted that learning everything through personal experience would make life
extremely challenging and perhaps deadly. Learning new information and abilities
depends heavily on what we observe in others. You can better appreciate the significant
influence that observation has on how we learn and act if you are familiar with the social
learning theory.
 13. HUMANISTIC THEORY OF LEARNING

The fundamental ideas of this educational theory and method are based on humanistic
psychology, with a particular emphasis on the notion that children are decent people at
their core and that educational methods should be reasonable in order to educate the
“whole” kid. According to this view, the student is the expert on their own learning process,
and all of their demands should be satisfied for them to learn well. For instance, a hungry
pupil won’t pay as close attention to what they are learning. Schools provide meals to
pupils to meet this demand and allow them to concentrate on their studies. As part of their
education, the humanistic theory method involves their social, emotional, intellectual,
creative, practical, and other talents. Self-esteem, goals, and full autonomy are key
learning elements in the humanistic learning theory.

Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and James F. T. Bugental created the humanistic learning
theory in the early 1900s. The prevalent educational theories at the time, behaviorism
and psychoanalysis, prompted the development of humanism. Abraham Maslow is
regarded as the movement’s founder, with Carl Rogers and James F. T. Bugental
contributing to psychology later on.

Maslow and the humanists thought that behaviorism and other psychological theories had
a negative view of pupils; for instance, operant conditioning in behaviorism psychology
indicated that students might be trained based on their desire for a reward to act in a good
or poor way. According to Maslow and humanistic psychology, when their needs are
addressed, students are decent people who make moral decisions. Humanistic
psychology emphasizes the notion that students bring out their best selves and that
people are motivated more by their emotions than by rewards and punishments. Maslow
had this belief and tried to support it in numerous papers.

When they observe inappropriate behavior, educators who are familiar with humanistic
psychology focus on the underlying emotional problems that underlie people rather than
just punishing the inappropriate behavior. The humanistic learning hypothesis was
expanded upon and exploits the notion that pupils are less likely to be able to concentrate
on learning if they are disturbed, sad, or worried. In order for pupils to concentrate on their
learning, teachers are encouraged to provide a comfortable and secure environment in
the classroom. The core of humanistic psychology is emotions.
The humanistic learning theory is based on a number of significant ideas, all of which
promote self-actualization. When all of your wants are satisfied, you have achieved your
full potential, and you are content, you have reached self-actualization. Maslow and the
humanists disagree that the majority of people ever achieve self-actualization, but they
do feel that the closer we get to it, the more we can learn.

• Student choice. The humanistic learning theory and humanistic psychology both
emphasize choice. Since humanistic learning is focused on the individual learner,
students are urged to take charge of their education. They make decisions about
everything from daily activity to long-term objectives. It is suggested for students to
dedicate some time to concentrating on a particular topic area of interest. Humanistic
learning advocates for teachers feel that it’s essential for students to be motivated and
engaged in their studies, and it’s more likely to happen when they choose to learn about
something they are truly interested in.

•Promoting engagement to encourage kids to develop their own motivation for learning.
This psychological strategy is effective when learners are motivated to study and feel
interested in the material. Hence, in order to get children enthused about studying,
instructors must attempt to engage them and encourage them to discover their passions.

•According to humanistic psychology, feelings and information are equally crucial to the
learning process and shouldn’t be separated. Knowledge and feelings go hand in hand in
the learning process, according to humanistic educators. Humanistic learning requires
both cognitive and emotive learning. The whole learner, including both their intellect and
feelings, should be the emphasis of lessons and activities, not just one or the other.

•A secure atmosphere for learning. Humanistic educators are aware that they must
establish a secure environment where kids can have as many of their needs satisfied as
feasible since humanistic learning places a strong emphasis on the whole learner. To
concentrate on learning, they need to feel secure in all three areas of their lives:
physically, psychologically, and emotionally. Hence, helping pupils meet as many of their
needs as they can is a deeply held belief among humanistic educators.
 14. PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY OF LEARNING

Up to the emergence of behaviorism in the 1930s and beyond, the field of psychiatry was
dominated by Sigmund Freud’s psychodynamic perspective on development and
psychopathology. His presumptions that personality development occurs in the first few
years of life and that interactions between parents and other caregivers have a lasting
effect on children’s emotional states have influenced policymakers, educators, clinicians,
and parents for many years. Only recently have we started to understand that early life
events do not always lead to specific personality traits or emotional states. The body of
research on children who grow up in challenging environments without suffering negative
mental scars is expanding. Freud stimulated an enormous amount of research and
generated many ideas. Agreeing with Freud’s theory in its entirety is hardly necessary for
appreciating the contribution he has made to the field of development.

Early life events play a significant role in determining our personality and conduct,
according to Freud. We are biological beings in the state in which we are. Instincts are
what basically motivate us. But as we learn to control our instincts and channel them into
appropriate social behaviors as children, we start to develop into social beings. The way
a child is raised has a significant influence on how their personality develops. In order to
further explore this idea, we must first identify the components of the “self” in Freud’s
model, or in other words, what makes a person’s personality and makes us who we are.
We will do this when discussing psychosexual development.

Theory of Personality/Self
The id, ego, and superego are the three fundamental components of our adult
personalities or selves. The aspect of the self with which we are born is the id, the
fundamental, primitive portion of the psyche. It contains our instincts and desires as well
as the physiologically motivated self. It is the aspect of us that seeks outgratification right
away. It develops later in life to contain our most intense, frequently unpleasant desires,
including sex and aggression. It functions on the basis of the pleasure principle, which
holds that the best indicator of whether something is good or terrible is how it makes you
feel. A baby is all id.

The id also starts to grow during a child’s first three years of life. Then comes the
superego. By the age of five, when a child begins to interact with others more frequently
and learns the social norms for good and wrong, the superego, the last aspect of
personality to develop, begins to show itself. The superego serves as our conscience and
serves as a guide for our moral conduct. It aspires to perfection and evaluates our actions,
causing feelings of pride or shame when we fall short of the ideal.

The ego is the reason-based aspect of our personality, as opposed to the instinctive id
and the superego that is founded on rules. It is the aspect of our personality that is visible
to others and is what Freud thought to be the self. The ego helps the id satisfy its goals
in a realistic fashion by balancing the demands of the id and superego in the context of
reality; it thus functions on what Freud dubbed the “reality principle”.

The superego wants immediate gratification regardless of the consequences, but the
superego insists that we must act in ways that are socially acceptable. As a result, the id
and superego are constantly at odds. The ego’s task is to compromise, so that’s what it
does. It assists in rationally sating the ineeds d’s without making us feel guilty. A strong
ego that can balance the needs of the id and the superego, as per Freud, is a sign of a
healthy personality.

According to Freud, physiological imbalances can cause anxiety problems, neurosis (a

propensity for experiencing negative emotions), or undesirable behaviors. For instance,
a person whose id is in control of them may be egotistical and impulsive. If the superego
is weak or nonexistent, a person may develop into a psychopath. Conversely, if the
superego is strong or present, a person may be controlled by feelings of guilt and deny
themselves even socially acceptable pleasures. An excessively controlling person whose
hold of reality is so firm that they are unaware of their own needs, or a neurotic who is
extremely defensive, may both exhibit an overly dominant superego (overusing ego
defense mechanisms).
 15. KOLB’S MODEL CYCLE OF LEARNING AND LEARNING STYLES

David Kolb’s Theory of Experiential Learning is part of the humanistic and constructivist
approaches to education, which emphasize that learning happens spontaneously.
Experience, according to Kolb, is crucial in the creation of knowledge since learning
happens via exploration and participation. Through transforming experience, Kolb defined
learning as “the process by which knowledge is formed” (Kolb, 1984). The Experiential
Learning Theory by Kolb is divided into two components. The first is that there is a four-
stage cycle to learning. Kolb thought that in an ideal situation, students would move
through the stages to finish a cycle and then convert their experiences into knowledge.
The second part to Kolb’s Theory focused on learning styles, or the cognitive processes
that occurred in order for acquire knowledge.

When all phases of the cycle have been completed, experience can become knowledge.
The entire tenet of Kolb’s philosophy is the idea of turning experience into knowledge.
The learner can combine new observations with their existing learning with each new
experience. The goal is for students to have the chance to move through each level. Kolb
believed that things must be changed or transformed, and this idea is at the heart of his
theory. The learner has received no benefit from memorization or recall of the concepts
given, hence this does not constitute learning. According to Kolb’s paradigm, learning
must result from the experience in order to be considered to have occurred.

Kolb’s Four Stages Of Learning:

1. Concrete Experience:
Kolb’s cycle of the learning process starts with a tangible experience. This could either
be a brand-new experience or a previously experienced that has been recreated.
2. Reflective Observation:

The student takes a step back after participating in the concrete experience to think about
the assignment. The learner has the opportunity to discuss the experience with others at
this point of the learning cycle and ask questions. At this point, communication is crucial
because it enables the learner to spot any differences between what they have
understood and what they have actually experienced.
 3. Abstract Conceptualization:
Making sense of these events is the following stage in the learning cycle. The learner
makes an effort to derive conclusions from the experience by considering their past
knowledge, applying concepts they are familiar with, or bringing up potential theories with
peers. When a learner starts to categorize ideas and draw judgments about what
happened, they go from introspective observation to abstract conceptualization.

4. Active Experimentation:
The testing phase of the cycle is at this point. Students take part in a task once more, but
this time they are trying to apply their learning to new situations. They have the capacity
to forecast outcomes, evaluate tasks, and plan how they will apply newly learned
knowledge in the future.

One can join the process at any point in the cycle because Kolb’s learning theory is
cyclical. To ensure that learning has actually occurred, the cycle should then be finished
completely. To acquire new knowledge, each level must be finished because it depends
on the others. Even though the phases combine to form a learning process, some people
could favor some of the elements more than others. One may opt to spend less time on
the abstract and active stages even if they may rely more on concrete and introspective
experiences. As a result, Roger Fry and Kolb collaborated to discover four distinctive
learning styles:
1. Diverging (Concrete Experience/Reflective Observation)

This method of learning employs a unique and imaginative strategy. People frequently
evaluate concrete events from different angles rather than analyzing them in light of the
activities made.
2. Assimilating (Abstract Conceptualization/Reflective Observation)
Reasoning is emphasized in this learning technique. Those that exhibit this learning style
can review the information and evaluate the event as a whole.

3. Converging (Abstract Conceptualization/Active Experimentation)

This learning style emphasizes problem solving as a method of instruction. Those with
this preferred learning method are capable of making choices and applying their ideas to
novel situations.

4. Accommodating (Concrete Experience/Active Experimentation)

This method of learning is flexible and intuitive. Some people prefer to find the solutions
on their own, using trial and error to steer their experiences.
 16. GARDNER’S THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

Instead of focusing on a single skill, Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

categorizes human intellect into eight different categories. According to him, intelligence
is the biopsychological capacity for information processing. According to the hypothesis,
people process information in various and independent ways. Musical-rhythmic, visual-
spatial, verbal-linguistic, logical-mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal,
intrapersonal, and naturalistic are among Gardner’s eight categories of intelligence. He
added two more categories of intelligence in 2009, namely existential and moral
intelligence.

Gardner’s hypothesis, which distinguished between distinct types of intelligence, was put
forth in his book “Frames of Mind: The Theory of Many Intelligences,” which was
published in 1983. In order to “empower learners” rather than restrict them to a particular
learning medium, he claimed that his theory was intended to do. Also, he has underlined
the need to change how educational curricula are developed so that students can
concentrate on their genuine strengths rather than following a curriculum that is an inch
wide and a mile long.

Gardner (2013) claims that regardless of the subject you teach—“the arts, the sciences,
history, or math”—you should provide learning materials in different ways. Gardner
continues by saying that you “can express and convey... in various ways anything you
are profoundly familiar with. When a student asks us to explain something to them in a
different way and we are at a loss for words, we teachers realize that sometimes our own
knowledge of a subject is shaky. Accordingly, providing information in a variety of ways
not only aids in student learning but also strengthens and increases our own knowledge
of the subject.

It is possible to construct curricula, organize instruction, choose course activities, and

apply related evaluation techniques using Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences.
Gardner notes that everyone has different intelligences, thus educators should choose
how to convey content based on the subject matter and each student’s unique learning
style. It’s true that teaching methods intended to help pupils acquire material in various
ways might encourage their confidence to grow in areas where it isn’t as strong. In the
end, when instruction uses a variety of relevant and appropriate approaches, activities,
and evaluations, students’ learning is boosted.
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

•Verbal-linguistic intelligence (well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the

sounds, meanings and rhythms of words)

•Logical-mathematical intelligence (ability to think conceptually and abstractly, and

capacity to discern logical and numerical patterns)

•Spatial-visual intelligence (capacity to think in images and pictures, to visualize

accurately and abstractly)

•Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence (ability to control one’s body movements and to handle

objects skillfully)

•Musical intelligences (ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch and timber)
•Interpersonal intelligence (capacity to detect and respond appropriately to the moods,
motivations and desires of others)
•Intrapersonal (capacity to be self-aware and in tune with inner feelings, values, beliefs
and thinking processes)
•Naturalist intelligence (ability to recognize and categorize plants, animals and other
objects in nature)
•Existential intelligence (sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions about human
existence such as, “What is the meaning of life? Why do we die? How did we get here?”

According to Gardner, students should be given the tools they need in school to achieve
their avocational and professional goals in accordance with their range of intelligence. In
an interview, Gardner stated that he is now thinking of include teaching-pedagogical
intelligence, or the capacity to successfully educate others. Gardner himself claims that
while creating instruction, teachers should use personalized goals and values relevant to
the teaching style, the subject matter, and the requirements of the students rather than
adhering to a single theory or educational innovation. Instructors can diversify their
curriculum and methods of evaluation and enhance student learning by addressing the
various intelligences.
 17. BLOOMS TAXONOMY

To give teachers a common vocabulary to discuss and exchange teaching and evaluation
strategies, Bloom’s taxonomy was created. The taxonomy can be used to determine
specific learning outcomes, although it is most frequently employed to evaluate learning
on various cognitive levels. Each cognitive level, from higher to lower order thinking, is
described in the table below. By starting with lower-level cognitive abilities, a teacher
employing Bloom’s taxonomy aims to promote higher-order cognition in their students.
To demonstrate how Bloom’s taxonomy can be incorporated into more general
educational goals or standards, behavioral and cognitive learning outcomes are provided.
During the evaluation process, the key phrases can be utilized to prompt for these
competencies.

A framework for classifying educational objectives was published in 1956 by Benjamin

Bloom along with Max Englehart, Edward Furst, Walter Hill, and David Krathwohl. The
title of the framework is Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. This teaching paradigm,
also referred to as Bloom’s Taxonomy, has been used by K–12 educators as well as
college professors for many years. Six main categories made up the framework
developed by Bloom and his collaborators: knowledge, comprehension, application,
analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. The “skills and abilities” categories were listed after
Knowledge with the notion that knowledge was a prerequisite for using these skills and
abilities. Despite the fact that each category featured subcategories that ranged in
complexity from simple to complex and from concrete to abstract, the taxonomy is most
commonly associated with its six main categories.

In order to construct sub-goals and assessment methodologies to achieve these goals,

the taxonomy serves as a foundation. It is crucial to remember that learning outcomes
are objectives rather than the actions taken to reach them. The three types of outcomes
are instructional goals, which are narrowly focused on the daily activities, experiences,
and exercises used in a particular lesson plan, educational goals, which direct curriculum
development over the weeks or months it takes to complete a particular course, and
broad, global outcomes, which may take many years to achieve and provide direction for
education. A classification system for the many goals and competencies that teachers set
for their students is called Bloom’s Taxonomy (learning outcomes). The taxonomy was
proposed in 1956 by Benjamin Bloom, an educational psychologist at the University of
Chicago. The terminology has been recently updated to include the following six levels of
learning. These 6 levels can be used to structure the learning outcomes, lessons, and
assessments of your course:

•Remembering: Retrieving, recognizing, and recalling relevant knowledge from long‐

term memory.

•Understanding: Constructing meaning by interpretation, exemplification, classification,

summarization, inference, comparison, and explanation from spoken, textual, and graphic
messages.
•Applying: Executing or employing a process for carrying out or implementing.
•Analyzing: The process of dissecting a piece of information into its component elements
and figuring out how those parts relate to one another and to a larger structure or goal by
discriminating, organizing, and assigning.

•Evaluating: Making decisions based on standards and criteria by inspecting and

criticizing.

•Creating: Assembling components into a coherent or useful whole; rearranging

components according to a new pattern or structure.

Like other taxonomies, Bloom’s is hierarchical, therefore mastering basic knowledge and
abilities at lower levels is necessary for learning at higher levels. To better illustrate this
classification, Bloom’s Taxonomy is frequently presented as a pyramid diagram. We’ve
changed this pyramidal structure into a “cake-style” hierarchy to show how each level is
built on top of the ones that came before it. The framework can be used to develop
summative assessments, arrange project-based learning, frame group discussions,
create assessments, assess the difficulty of assignments, make a lesson more
challenging, make an activity simpler to aid personalize learning, and more. It may be
used for nearly anything because it just gives cognitive actions an order.
 REFERENCES
Aubin, E (2004). Lifespan development. Lumen. Retrieved March 13, 2023, from
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-lifespandevelopment/chapter/freuds-
psychodynamic-theory/

Bandura, A (1977). “Self-Efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavioral Change.”

Psychological Review 84.2: 191-215. http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1977-25733-
001
Bloom, B. S. (1969). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of
educational goals : Handbook I, Cognitive domain. New York: McKay.
Cherry, K. (2022). How does observational learning actually work? Verywell Mind.
Retrieved March 13, 2023, from https://www.verywellmind.com/social-learning-
theory-2795074

Cherry, K. (2022). What is Piaget’s theory of cognitive development? Verywell Mind.

Retrieved March 13, 2023, from https://www.verywellmind.com/piagets-stages-of-
cognitive-development-2795457
Cherry, K. (2023). What is operant conditioning? Verywell Mind. Retrieved March 13,
2023, from https://www.verywellmind.com/operant-conditioning-a2-2794863
Chick, N. (n.d.). Learning styles. Retrieved from https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-
pages/learning-styles-preferences/
Crosby, R. (2011). Precede-proceed model – rural health promotion and disease
prevention toolkit. PRECEDE-PROCEED Model – Rural Health Promotion and
Disease Prevention Toolkit. Retrieved March 13, 2023, from
https://www.ruralhealthinfo.org/toolkits/health-promotion/2/program-
models/precede-proceed .
Elizabeth Boskey, P. D. (2023). How the health belief model influences your health
choices. Verywell Mind. Retrieved March 13, 2023, from
https://www.verywellmind.com/health-belief-model-3132721

Gardner, H. (2013). Frequently asked questions—Multiple intelligences and related

educational topics. Retrieved from
https://howardgardner01.files.wordpress.com/2012/06/faq_march2013.pdf
John Watson. (n.d.). PBS: A science odyssey. Retrieved from
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/bhwats.html
Kurt, D. S. (2016). Assure: Instructional design model. Educational Technology. Retrieved
March 13, 2023, from https://educationaltechnology.net/assure-instructional-
design-model/
Kurt, D. S. (2022). Kolb’s experiential learning theory & learning styles. Educational
Technology. Retrieved March 13, 2023, from
https://educationaltechnology.net/kolbs-experiential-learning-theory-learning-
styles/
Mcdaniel, R. (1970). Bloom’s taxonomy. Vanderbilt University. Retrieved March 13, 2023,
from https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/blooms-taxonomy/
Mcleod, S. (2023). Classical conditioning: How it works with examples. Study Guides for
Psychology Students – Simply Psychology. Retrieved March 13, 2023, from
https://simplypsychology.org/classical-conditioning.html

Model, S. (2022). Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences (8 types of intelligences).

SlideModel. Retrieved March 13, 2023, from https://slidemodel.com/gardners-
theory-8-multiple-intelligences/
Strauss, V. (2013, Oct. 16). Howard Gardner: “Multiple intelligences” are not “learning
styles.” The Washington Post. Retrieved from
https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/answer-sheet/wp/2013/10/16/howard-
gardner-multiple-intelligences-are-not-learning-styles/
Tapping into multiple intelligences. (2004). Retrieved from
https://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/mi/index.html

Vinney, C. (2020). What is the law of effect in psychology? ThoughtCo. Retrieved March
13, 2023, from https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-the-law-of-effect-in-
psychology-4797968
Wanjohi, A.M. (2011). Lesson plan using assure model. KENPRO Publications.Available
online at http://www.kenpro.org/papers/lesson-plan-using-assure-model.htm.
Western Governors University, J. (2020). What is humanistic learning theory in
education?j. Western Governors University. Retrieved March 13, 2023, from
https://www.wgu.edu/blog/what-humanistic-learning-theory-
education2007.html#close
What Is the Health Promotion Model? – Definition & Theory. (2015). Retrieved from
https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-the-health-promotion-model-definition-
theory.html. [Original source: https://studycrumb.com/alphabetizer]