Quantisation Infinite charged wire Electric charge Electric dipole Addictivity

Force Spherical shell

Electric charges and fields

Gauss’s law Infinite plain sheet Coulombs law

Permittivity Conservation
Equatorial line Method of charging Gaussian surface Electric field Electric field lines
Axial line

Chapter 1
Unit and dimension of electric charge
SI unit of electric charge is coulomb (C)

Charge of electron is -ve and charge of proton is +ve

[I] = A

q = It

[a] = [A -
 Properties of electric charges

Additivity of charges

-Quantisation of charge
Conservation of charge
Additivity of charges
Electric charges are added by simple laws of mathematics.

If the system contains n charges q1, q2, q3 ..... qn . Then the

total charge of the system is

Q = q1+ q2 + q3 +....+ qn

&
as a
Quantisation of charge
Charge of an object is always an integral multiple of the charge
of an electron or proton.

Q = Ine

-19
e is the charge of the electron ( 1.6x 10 )

n = 1,2,3 ... is an integer

Conser vation of charge
The total charge of an isolated system is always conserved.

Charge can neither be created nor be destroyed in an isolated

system. It can only be transferred from one body to another. If one
body gains some charge in an isolated system, then the the other
body loses the same amount of charge.
Question
~
Electric charge is a....... (Scalar/Vector) quantity
Question
The magnitude of charge of proton or electron is…1 . 6x 10 C
Question
When a body is negatively charged it’s mass slightly......
v
(Increases / decreases) and mass slightly......(Increases/
decreases) when it is positively charged.
~
Question
….. electrons constitute 1C

Q = IC

n
=
6 (d8
x 19
I . 25 x
=

1 E
Coulomb’s law
The force between two point charges is directly proportional to the
product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them.

Consider two point charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance r in

vacuum or air.

q₁ q₂
r
< 7
 FL 9192

Fo
F 6
tr K =
-
9, 92

=
Nm222
K
F =

9
med
aig -

K =
t I
- 9 x10Nm K z
1
4 Eo UIE
 >
-
>
-

Fi2 Fal
-- >
-

92
E = Ge ee
---
n
< q,
-

e >
-

1
Viz e
the devi
the unit restor along
via is
-
of Fiz
Relative permittivity
It is the ratio of permittivity of the medium to the permittivity
of vacuum or air.

Er =

- >
°
E = EoEy

↑
F
m
=

tac e
Em =I
UEoEg &a
+
Fm =
Fa = Es Fr
 Question
Two charges of equal magnitude and at a distance r exert a
force F on each other. If the charges are halved and the
distance between them is doubled. Then new force between
them is... F/16

F=
q2 959
is
-

9 28 9/
Fo =
Ti old There 2
+ 94 -- =
E
UTE 102
16/
Question
The force between two charges when placed is free space is
20N. The system when placed in a medium of dielectric
constant εr = 4,What is the new force ?

Fa = 20N

En = = I

-
5N
-
Electric field
Space around a electric charge in which its influence felt.

Q
Electric field intensity
Electric field intensity at a point is defined as the force
experienced per unit test charge which is placed near the
source charge.

E =
To P
.
q. =
lunit

His 9 - y
I -
q
Yo
E = E
rig2
Unit and dimension of electric field intensity

unit =
My I
or
E =

[E] =
AT

=
[ML+3 AD
Electric field lines
These are the imaginary lines which are used to
represent the electric field.
Properties of electric field lines
= =>

1. For an isolated positive charge, electric field lines diverge

2. For an isolated negative charge, electric field lines
converge
>
-
3. Electric field lines start form positive charge and ends at
negative charge. It doesn’t form closed loops.

e
s
4. Tangent of electric field lines shows the direction of
electric field.

- E
·

T
p
5. Two field lines never intersect each other. If the intersect it
show two direction at a single point which is impossible.
E 1

3
.

>E
X
6. In a uniform electric field region, field lines are parallel
to each other.

E
>
7 .

Ex no : of fold his
Question
The spherical distribution of electric field due to two
charges A and B is shown.

a) A is +ve and B is -ve

b) Both are negative -i
c) A is negative B is positive
d) Both are negative
Question
Can two electric field lines intersect ? Why ?

⑭
Two EFL never intersect if they intersect, at the
point of intersection two tangents are possible,
which indicate two directions for electric field
intensity, which is impossible.
Electric dipole
It is a system of two equal and opposite charges separated
by a small distance.

O O

q
-

+q 29
Dipole moment
It is the product of magnitude of either charge and the
vector distance from negative charge to positive charge.

P =
299 p
-o >

p
2a +q
299i q
-

a M
P is a unit Vector
In -
q to + 2
Dipole moment is a vector quantity and is
directed from negative charge to positive
charge. It’s unit is Cm
Electric field at a point on the
axis of an electric dipole
&

r
--
> Er
-q E P
>
+q
D d · / // / / / / / / / / / I / --

O
2a -
r a
-

--
r+a
Ei
= -Q
E=
This tag -
.

E = E , -Ez

=
Treas
E =
H -

nπE0 (2-a)
 E =
"[ -Eac2] a = (ab3

E =

ErasSee
9 [ac

E =
i
taarta-Crkzart
r 9
-
n
 + a
E =

UHEr
2)

acce

E =
Huat
E =

Hisaa
E
a
=
Tie
i
= s
 Electric field intensity on the
equatorial line of an electric dipole

Er I
-
Uπo 22
Oc
C
c
-
re &*
P

zoyt ,
Cost =
E= Tend E1
-2
x r x
E2 =
⑫
-x (a
+ 22)k
1E (Ec) = E A B
=
, θ θ
-q c O
-

a
+q
E 2a 3
 eac of
Sin C Can
E₁ sinθ
Cos Com,
E₁ -

only remains ↑

E₁ cosθ θ
↓

E₂ cosθ θ
E = E, CosG + E CosO

E₂ L

2 E , COSG
~

E =
E₂ sinθ

E = 2
is
n m
:Atozasa
acc g

a o
Es
E =
Tsos-4

Ea =
2 Ee
Dipole in a uniform electric field

I =
FXLd- .

F = &E

O I = BN
m

sing =
29

BN = LaSin
T = GE Lasino

I = PE SinO

E =
x

=> G = 900
Than
0 of 1800
[mn = 0 => G= ↳
Stable en unstable
 Electric flux
Electric flux is defined as the total number of electric field lines
passing normal through the surface.
Consider a small area ds in a uniform electric field so that the field
is in the direction of the normal to the area. The flux passing
through the area is given by > -

d =
G . is x
o
-
Es

unit-mor um
Edseaso
-
Gauss’s law I
Gauss’s law states that the total electric flux associated
with any closed surface which encloses some charge q is
equal to 1/εo times the amount of charge enclosed.

①=
q
Charge densities
Linear charge density e If =
Linear charge density (λ) is defined as the charge per unit length.

-= - 9 = Bl

Surface charge density

Surface charge density (σ) is defined as the charge per unit area.

- = = E =-A
E
Applications of gauss’s law
Electric field intensity due to a charged spherical shell.

Electric field intensity at a point near an infinitely long straight

uniform charged wire.

Electric field intensity at a point near an uniformly charged

infinite thin plane sheet.
Application:1
Electric field due to an Uniformly charged thin spherical shell

Outside the shell

=
Consider a uniformly charged
spherical shell of radius ‘R’.
‘σ' is the surface charge density.
We have to- find the electric field
intensity at a point P.
‘r’ is the distance between the
centre of sphere & the
point P.
 8 Eds =
8 zds =
+ 9(6 = 0 (c

Eods = 19
Ec
2 H
q=
/ /
-

1 UHR
E =

Eo
E =
-88
4AM
Inside the shell
E. =

04*22 =
-
-

E =
E-
0
= (q
Iq.
00
1%-2
=

On the surface of the shell

V= R

- = =
-88
Application :2
E. 4AM =

04*22
Electric field due to an infinitely long state uniform charged wire

Consider
1%-2
E- a=straight rod
Iq .

‘λ’ is the linear charge density.

We have to find the electric field ⑥
↑ >
-
-
as
que
E

intensity at the point P.

>
r is the distance between line charge
-

and the point P. O

Imagine a Gaussian cylindrical surface
E
passing through P. Apply Gauss’s law C
t
=>
-88 8 =
E.
04*22
4AM
Eids
=

Iq 1%-2
E- ⑭
CSA
:

GoEds = E (O 0)
= .

-
Efods = (q
-
I

E &HrN ***
E = y
Application: 3
Electric field due to any uniformly charged infinite plain sheet

Consider a uniformly d
charged plane sheet of ↑
surface charge density, σ. Ods ds
-
We have to find the ds
>
-

electric field produced by

the sheet at the point P.
8Eids =
Efods =
t
+ - dS
/
E2ds
\ I
Eo

E =
To
*
E = E + + E- #
-

=
I
E -
+
-
-

29
I - -
>
-
T
ET

-
Er
-

Es G
E :
Ec
>
-

-
I

I
I
E = E+ -
G-
E = G+ -
E-
20
04
=
Electrostatic potential and capacitance
Chapter :2
Electric potential energy (U]
Potential energy of a charge at any point is the work done by
external force in bringing the charge from infinity to that point
in the electric field without acceleration.
Electric potential CU)
Electric potential at any point is the work done by external
force in bringing a unit positive test charge from infinity to that
point against electric field without acceleration.

-
Potential due to a point charge
Consider a point charge +q at origin. P is a point r distance away
from the origin O. To find the potential at P we have to calculate
the work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to
Point P.
Let P’ be an intermediate point x distance from O.

P
L &
+q
&
· · I /I I I I II III) I #I IIIIIII

E > de Co
z
< 7
N
Small work done in displacing unit charge through a distance dx

dw = FdxCos 180

O
de = -Fas F )
= E
z

S-Fde
We V
W =

F =
sq (90 =
1) E =
UITE. 22

W = V
v =

& -den
9 she
X =
-I

V =
- Factore
V =

is []
* =0

V =
his"[ - -

t q
VI
4/Er T
E
= V =

P
q-
z
F
The U
He
I

- = -

y 92
E
Question -
Is Electric potential a scalar or a vector quantity?
Question
Electric potential at a point in an electric field is measured as the
work done in bringing unit positive charge from infinity to that point.
The intensity of electric field at a point due to a point electric
charge is 20 N/C and the electric potential at that point is 10 J/C
calculate the distance of the point from the charge.

E = 20 N/C
·
ze

Y = look -

t E

, UTE -
-

2
= V
E =
t
U
= -

=
I
'
I 0 5 m
.

-
-
 Potential difference or voltage
It is the work done to bring a unit +ve charge from one
point to another.

Yo = V
,- Va =
Wa r1 -
9 *
B

I 2
4 3
r2
Potential due to an electric dipole
Consider an electric dipole we have to find the
potential at point P.
r is the distance between center of dipole at point P.
θ is the angle between r and dipole
Potential due to +q,
 ·
P
V = V+ + V
q -

en
e 2,

-Te
V=

D
20 o
o

-...
A O a
-
q q
+

V
= [t-t] COSOE A
9

off = aCOSE

V =29 [] Coso = OB
T
OB =
a cost
 I
2, PA 0-OH C+ OB
= =
N2 = PB =

Of = a COSO
OB I a cost
v = 2 - a cos o
Po = +alos

tEasee Coracoso3
V =

V =
hisLos
co
 acccd

20

SE
=I

Ve (O 90)

I
Ya (0 =
0) =

Va =
se Vez O
Equipotential surfaces
Equipotential surfaces are those surfaces where the potential
is equal throughout or the potential difference is zero.
Example 1: point charge
Example 2: Uniform electric field

~ -z

-
.
··
-
Example 3: A dipole
Example 4: Two positive charges
Properties

[Pd =
0)

Note :
Equipotential surfaces are closer in a region of strong electric field
and are farther apart in a region of a weak field.
Question
(a) Define an equipotential surface.
(b) Write any two properties of equipotential surface.
(c) Draw the equipotential surfaces for
(i) a uniform electric field
(ii) isolated point positive charge
Question
How much work is done in moving an electric charge between
two points on an equipotential surface?

wzo
Relation between electric field and potential
difference or voltage
dI/
dV >

-
-

E
-

= &
-

diy

Another unit of E is V/m. ⑭ di

From the above equation we can say that electric field is -ve
gradient of voltage or potential difference.
 ✔
Potential energy of a dipole in an external field
Consider an electric dipole placed in an external electric field.
We have to find the work done to rotate dipole from θ₁ to θ₂.
Work done to move small distance dθ is

dwc [do site

w
Of

=S
PESinE

O2
o
=> e
PESSinEd
q
-
W=
-
W =
PE
[loso]
-

w =
-

Pt[(0sG2 Cost]
-

U= PE (Cost, Cost2)
-
U = PECOSO
>
-

·
u =
-

P. --
7O
-

-
Capacitance
Capacitance or capacity of a conductor is its ability to
store electric charges.
=
Q4V
Capacitance
It is the ability of a capacitor to store charge

c =
g

unit - F
Expression for the Capacitance
Consider a parallel plate capacitor.
Area of the plate is A & d is the distance between two plates.

Fea
= ① E -

T
-

/
V - >
-

>=
>
*
-

I
]
Y
-

-A -
Q ->

[
-

Q
V
>
p
-
=

V = Ed

V =
Tod
-0
+
 I
② in Q
Cm =
SoE
- it
C =

Ed Cm =
&Ca
Eo

Ca
I Es A
T
⑭
Question
A device to store electrical charge is called
a) Transformer
b) Capacitor -
c) Resistor
d) Inductor
Question
On introducing a dielectric slab between the plates of a
capacitor, it’s capacitance ……………….
↑
Question
How capacitance changes if the distance between the plates of a
parallel plate capacitor Is halved ?
(a) Does not change
(c) Doubled -
(b) Becomes half
(d) Becomes one fourth
Natal ,
 Combination of capacitors
a) Capacitors in series
Consider 2 capacitors of capacitance C₁ and C₂ connected in
series. Let V is the PD applied across the combination.

Y,
9 C2
Q >Same Ve
-H#
VE diff:
↳↓ Q Q

④
V = Vi + V2
=
+T
I
b) Capacitors in parallel
C₁and C₂ are connected in parallel to PD across each capacitor
is the same but charge acquired by them is different.

VE Same
Q diff
I 3

4 N]
Q2 C2

↳
3
Q Q =

,
+
Q2

C4 = GV + C V
C = G +
C2
Question
Write an expression for the effective capacitance of the
combination shown below.

c = G +C
--
-
_
Energy stored in a capacitor
The work done in charging a capacitor is the energy of a
capacitor. This work is stored in the capacitor as
electrostatic potential energy.

U =
c Q = CU

2
v
=
=T
=
U =
Eq
Q - V graph
QU
N

& Slope = = C

q
! Area
= QU

Are = U
!
3

u
Question
(a) Draw a graph showing the variation of charge stored in a
capacitor with potential difference across it.
(b) What does the following quantities of the graph represent?
(i) Slope of the line
-a
-

(ii) Area under the graph-

Question
EF
Potential energy of a capacitor is stored in ……………
Dielectric and polarisation

Dielectrics are non conducting substance or roughly

insulators. There are two types of dielectrics namely
polar and non polar substances.
Non polar molecules
The molecules in which the centre’s of +ve and -ve charges
coincide are non as non-polar molecules.

These molecules have no permanent dipole moment.

Examples of non polar molecules are hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, carbon dioxide etc.

D
Polar molecules
The molecules in which the centre’s of +ve and -ve
charges are separated ( even when no external field is
applied) are known as polar molecules. Example of polar
molecules are water, HCl etc.
Chapter Thirteen

NUCLEI
INTRODUCTION
The positive charge and mass are densely concentrated at the
centre of the atom forming its nucleus.

The volume of a nucleus is about 10 ¹² times the volume of

-

the atom.

In other words, an atom is almost empty. If an atom is enlarged

to the size of a classroom, the nucleus would be of the size of
pinhead
Atomic number and Mass number.
An atom is represented as

A —— mass number
Z —— Atomic number
 e

Atomic number
PN

It is the number of protons in the nucleus.

It is denoted by Z.

Mass number

It is the total number of nucleons (p+ n)

Total no. of nucleons = no. of protons + number of neutrons
Mass number is denoted by A.
Number of neutrons in a nucleus
--

-x
I
(Atoma number)
no -

Of protons =

neutrons = A-Z
no of
=
(massnumber-Atoma numm)
n
(P +h) p
=
-

-
 Question
What are the number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus ₉₂U²³⁸

gas
PI 92
no .

Of

n 238-92
of
=

no .

= 146
-
-
 C12
ATOMIC MASSES
The mass of an atom is very small, compared to a kilogram;
26
for example, the mass of a carbon atom, C¹², is 1.992647 × 10 kg
-

Atomic mass unit (amu) is a smaller unit of mass which is used

to express nuclear mass.

One amu is defined as 1/12 times mass of C¹² atom.

lamu-14 =
--
Mass of the H atom = 1.00783 amu
Mass of C12 atom = 12 amu
Mass of Cl atom = 35.47amu
Isotopes, Isobars and Isotones

Isotopes are the atoms of the same element having different

mass numbers.

·
bei
Isobars are the atoms of different elements having same
mass numbers.

I it
 G
Isotones are the atoms with same number of neutrons

I
198-80 = 118
- °
-

Is
&_

Number of neutrons
0 197-79 I

3- = 2
Number of neutrons 4 -
2 = 2
 SIZE OF THE NUCLEUS

The volume of the nucleus is proportional to the mass number.

number
Volume 2 mass

TR A
*
R32 A

RC A'
Density of nucleus

mass
Density : --

volume

= A XU
-
R3
- π

-AU H(ROAYs
I

A *
You

xkg(m)
Density of nucleus is independent of nuclear size or
density of all nuclei is the same.

The density of matter in neutron stars is comparable

to this density. So neutron star resemble a big nucleus.
 Mass – Energy
Einstein showed that mass is another form of energy and one can
convert mass-energy into other forms of energy, say kinetic
energy and vice-versa.

Einstein gave the famous mass-energy equivalence relation

E = mc²
as velocity of light in
Van

-
- 3
-
x100mb
-
Question
Find the energy equivalent of one amu.

E = MC2

= 1 66 xis
.
**
x
(3x108)

E = 931 . 5 Mev
 P Pn
Nuclear binding energy Pprn 4

We have seen that the nucleus is made up of neutrons and protons.

Therefore it may be expected that the mass of the nucleus is equal
to the total mass of its individual protons and neutrons.

However the nuclear mass M is found to be always less than this.

For example, let us consider

of 8 neubre
mass of 8 prom + mass

The expected mass of nucleus is -

16.12744 u.
->
-

But we get the experimental mass of nucleus to be 15.99053 u

Mass defect
[PN)
The difference in mass of a nucleus and its constituents, ΔM,
&

is called the mass defect, and is given by

-
Mass of Nuclea
Individed
--

mass of
nuckon
 n
P

M
$M = (2mp + (A 2)
-

ma) =
 ↑

Question
Calculate binding energy of ₂₀Ca⁴⁰ from the following data :
-
-

mass of proton: 1.007825 a.m.u

mass of neutron: 1.008665 a.m.u P = 20

mass of ₂₀Ca⁴⁰: 39.962589 a.m.u. h = 40-20-20

$M =
(Imp + (A-2) Mn) - M

(20 1 00866nf]
39 96256

[ 007823f +
.
-

[20
x
x 1
z
.

I . 3 672
0
-
-
Binding energy
= 9MX 931 5
.

= 0 3672x 931 5
.
.

Mev
= 341 . 5

-
-
 ⑭
n
- Enemy
What is the meaning of the mass defect? Pp N

If one wants to break the nucleus into protons and neutrons,

extra energy has to be supplied. This energy required related
to the mass defect by

MC2 Mell
D1
5
E = .

Bren
Binding energy is the energy equivalent to mass defect
BE can also be defined as the average energy needed to
separate a nucleus into its individual nucleons.

Energy equivalent of one atomic mass unit,

E = ΔM × 931.5 MeV
 Binding energy per nucleon (E ) n

A more useful measure of the binding between the constituents of

the nucleus is the binding energy per nucleon,

The greater the binding energy per nucleon the more stable is
the nucleus.
BE cur ve
Analysis of the graph
i) For nuclei of middle mass number (30<A<170), binding energy
per nucleon is a constant (about 8MeV)
ii) Binding energy per nucleon is lower for both light nuclei (A<30)
and heavy nuclei (A>170).
iii) Binding energy per nucleon is maximum for A=56, about
8.75MeV
Explanation
Consider a particular nucleon inside a sufficiently large nucleus.
Since the nuclear force is short ranged it will be under the
influence of only some of its neighbours. If any other nucleon is at
a distance more than the range of nuclear force from the particular
nucleon it will have no influence on the binding energy of the
nucleon under consideration.
From the binding energy curve, it is obvious that the lighter
nuclei have low binding energy per nucleon and hence low
stability. Therefore they combine to form heavier nucleus,
thereby increasing binding energy per nucleon and stability.
This process is called nuclear fusion.

The heavier elements like uranium have low binding energy

per nucleon and hence low stability. Therefore they split into
lighter nuclei, thereby increasing the binding energy and
stability. This process is called nuclear fission.
 Nuclear force
The strong force which binds the nucleons in a nucleus is called
the nuclear force.
*
Characteristics of nuclear force

&
i) It is the strongest force existing in nature. It is 10³³ times
stronger than gravitational force.
ii) It is a short range force.
iii) Nuclear force is charge independent and mass independent.
The force between two protons, two neutrons, a proton and a
neutron are of equal strength.

Pay same
RADIOACTIVITY

A. H. Becquerel discovered radioactivity in 1896

Radioactivity is the spontaneous disintegration of heavy nucleus by

emitting radiations.

Radioactivity is a nuclear phenomenon in which an unstable nucleus

undergoes a decay. This is referred to as radioactive decay.
Three types of radioactive decay occur in nature :

(i) α-decay in which a helium nucleus is emitted;

(ii) β-decay in which electrons or positrons (particles with the same
mass as electrons, but with a charge exactly opposite to that of
electron) are emitted;
(iii) γ-decay in which high energy (hundreds of keV or more) photons
are emitted.
 ↑

NUCLEAR ENERGY
Both in nuclear fission and fusion nuclear energy is emitted.

In a nuclear reaction, the energy release is of the order of MeV.

A nuclear reaction produces a million times more energy than an

exothermic chemical reaction (like combustion of petroleum or coal).

Fission of 1kg of uranium generates 10¹↳

I
J of energy while burning of
1kg of coal gives only 10⁷J.
 Nuclear fission ↳de

In nuclear fission a heay nucleus when bombarded with neutron splits

into two or more lighter nuclei, with the emission of large amount of
energy.
The energy released (the Q value ) in the fission reaction of nuclei
like uranium is of the order of 200 MeV per fissioning nucleus.
This is estimated as follows:
Let us take a nucleus with A = 240 breaking into two fragments
each of A = 120.
xY
240 120
Then, >
- + z
-
m
7-6 85 .

Ebn for A = 240 nucleus is about 7.6 MeV,

Ebn for the two A = 120 fragment nuclei is about 8.5 MeV.

Gain in binding energy for nucleon is about 0.9 MeV.

Hence the total gain in binding energy is 240×0.9 or 216 MeV.

 The disintegration energy in fission events first appears as the
kinetic energy of the fragments and neutrons.

Eventually it is transferred to the surrounding matter

appearing as heat.
Nuclear fission
--
-

If
* The source of energy in nuclear reactors, which produce
electricity, is nuclear fission.

*
The enormous energy released in an atom bomb comes from
uncontrolled nuclear fission.
Nuclear fusion

In nuclear fusion, when two light nuclei fuse to form a larger

nucleus, energy is released.

Some examples of nuclear fusion reactions are:

Nuclear fusion occurs at very high temperatures ( ~ 10⁹ K) only.
So it is called thermonuclear reaction.

When two nuclei come closer they should have enough energy to
overcome the coulombic repulsion barrier. The nuclei get enough
kinetic energy to overcome the coulombic repulsion at very high
temperatures.
 Energy generation in stars
The fusion reaction in the sun is a multistep process in which the
hydrogen is burnt into helium.
This process is called proton-proton cycle.

The following are the steps of proton- proton cycles.

For the fourth reaction to occur, the first three reactions must
occur twice, in which case two light helium nuclei unite to form
ordinary helium nucleus.
In a star, when hydrogen in the core gets completely depleted
the carbon cycle may start.
In carbon cycle Helium nuclei combine to form carbon.

The age of the sun is about 5×10⁹ y and it is estimated that

there is enough hydrogen in the sun to keep it going for
another 5 billion years.
Controlled thermonuclear fusion

Nuclear fusion cannot be controlled at present.

Experiments are going on to make nuclear fusion controllable and
use it to generate steady power.
But the main challenge is to confine the fuel in the plasma state,
since no container can with stand such a high temperature.
If successful, fusion reactors will hopefully supply almost
unlimited power to humanity.
Question
Question

Enegy : AM4931.
-- - n

mass of
DM = mass of reatants
-
product
4

-2x) mass of F)-mass of He

I

=
C2 x 2 . 014102) = 4 0026
.

0 00256 402
.

= -
- - &
Energy= DMX 931

0 0025644X 93) I
Mex
I .

-
-
Question

16
/

&

8
Question -

(i)

236

I
I

C12
(iii)FroAs
a s

I's
6
I

(iii)
R

1 : 2
,

F2
=

"
-
Question Energy released
-
-- splitter

↳
Boning
Question
AM = Mass of
react-mass a
of

$
·

=
. 003 + 1 .

00
(1 . 002 + 1 ,
0025)

= am
--
-

E : Am 931

I --
M
-