8 Differential Calculus 1– Introduction

The ideas that are the basis for calculus have been with us for a very long time.
Between 450 BC and 225 BC, Greek mathematicians were working on problems that
would find their absolute solution with the invention of calculus. However, the main
developments were much more recent; it was not until the 16th century that major
progress was made by mathematicians such as Fermat, Roberval and Cavalieri. In the
17th century, calculus as it is now known was developed by Sir Isaac Newton and
Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz.

Sir Isaac Newton

famously “discovered”
gravity when an apple
fell on his head.

Sir Isaac Newton Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz

Differential calculus is a branch of mathematics that is concerned with rate of change.

Consider the graph of a
quadratic, cubic or In a graph, the rate of change is the gradient. Although linear functions have a
trigonometric function. constant gradient, most functions have changing gradients. Being able to find a
pattern for the gradient of curves is the aim of differentiation. Differentiation is the
process used to find rate of change.
The gradient of a straight line is constant.
For example, in the diagram below, the gradient  2.

y y  2x  1

(1, 3)

1
x

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8 Differential Calculus 1 – Introduction 8 Differential Calculus 1 – Introduction

However, when a curve is considered, it is obvious that the gradient is constantly

The gradient of a function, known as the derivative, with notation f¿1x2 is defined:
changing.
f 1x  h2  f 1x2 The idea of a limit is similar to
D f¿1x2  lim sum of a infinite series met in
y hS0 h
Chapter 6 and also to horizontal
The notation lim means the limit as h tends to zero. This is the value to which the asymptotes in Chapter 3.
B F hS0
expression converges as h becomes infinitesimally small.

O x
Example

Find the derivative of f 1x2  3x2.

A
E

f 1x  h2  31x  h2 2  3x2  6hx  3h 2

f 1x  h2  f 1x2  3x2  6hx  3h2  3x2  6hx  3h2

The sections AB, CD, EF have positive gradient (the function is increasing) and sections BC, DE
have negative gradient (the function is decreasing). The question we need to answer is: how
do we measure the gradient of a curve? f 1x  h2  f 1x2 6hx  3h2
  6x  3h
h h
f 1x  h2  f 1x2
So f¿1x2  lim  6x (as 3h S 0 )
8.1 Differentiation by first principles hS0 h
Hence at any point on the curve, the gradient is given by 6x.
¢y
We know gradient  , and one method of finding the gradient of a straight line is This process is known as differentiation by first principles.
¢x
y2  y1
to use .
x2  x1

y Example
B
Find the derivative of f 1x2  x3.

f 1x  h2  1x  h2 3  x3  3x2h  3xh2  h3
P

A f 1x  h2  f1x2  x3  3x2h  3xh2  h3  x3  3x2h  3xh2  h3

O x f 1x  h2  f 1x2 3x2h  3xh2  h3

  3x2  3xh  h2
h h
f 1x  h2  f 1x2
So f¿ 1x2  lim
Consider the coordinates (x, f (x)) and 1x  h, f 1x  h2 2 – the gap between the x-
 3x2 (as 3xh  h2 S 0 )
hS0 h
coordinates is h. This can be used to find an approximation for the gradient at P as seen
in the diagram.

y2  y1 f 1x  h2  f 1x2 f 1x  h2  f 1x2 Example

Gradient   
x2  x1 xhx h
Find the derivative of f 1x2  7x.
This is calculating the gradient of the chord AB shown in the diagram. As the chord
becomes smaller, the end-points of the curve are getting closer together, and h becomes f 1x  h2  71x  h2  7x  7h
smaller. Obviously, this approximation becomes more accurate as h becomes smaller.
Finally h becomes close to zero and the chord’s length becomes so small that it can be f 1x  h2  f 1x2  7x  7h  17x2  7h

f 1x  h2  f 1x2
considered to be the same as the point P.
7h
  7
h h
f 1x  h2  f 1x2
So f ¿1x2  lim  7
hS0 h

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8 Differential Calculus 1 – Introduction 8 Differential Calculus 1 – Introduction

Example 8.2 Differentiation using a rule

Find the derivative of f 1x2  5. Looking at the patterns in Exercise 1, it should be obvious that for:

f 1x  h2  5 f 1x2  axn
Multiply by the power and
f 1x  h2  f 1x2  5  5  0
f¿ 1x2  ax n1 subtract 1 from the power

f 1x  h2  f 1x2 0
 0
h h This rule can be used to perform differentiation.
Unless specifically required,
f 1x  h2  f 1x2 In particular, notice that f1x2  ax gives f¿1x2  a. differentiation by first
So f¿1x2  lim 0 principles is not used – the
hS0 h
above rule makes the
y process much shorter and
y  ax easier.
What happens in a sum or difference of a set of functions? Consider the sum of the
previous three examples, i.e. f1x2  x3  7x  5.
This is no surprise – the
gradient of a linear
O x function is constant.
Example

Find the derivative of f1x2  x3  7x  5.

f 1x  h2  1x  h2 3  71x  h2  5
Also, f1x2  k gives f¿1x2  0. The gradient of a
 x3  3x2h  3xh2  h3  7x  7h  5 horizontal line is zero.
f 1x  h2  f1x2  x3  3x2h  3xh2  h3  7x  7h  5  x3  7x  5 y

 3x2h  3xh2  h3  7h
k yk
f 1x  h2  f 1x2 3x2h  3xh2  h3  7h

h h

 3x2  3xh  h2  7
O x
f 1x  h2  f 1x2
So f¿1x2  lim  3x2  7 (as 3xh  h2 S 0 )
hS0 h
Differential calculus was developed by two mathematicians, Isaac Newton and Gottfried
Leibniz. There are two commonly used notations:
This demonstrates that differentiation of a function containing a number of terms can
be differentiated term by term.
Functional / Newtonian notation Geometrical / Leibniz notation

f1x2  y
Exercise 1 dy
Derivative f¿1x2  
dx
Find f¿1x2 using the method of differentiation from first principles:

1 f 1x2  5x 2 f 1x2  8x 3 f 1x2  2x Either notation can be used, and both will appear in questions.

4 f 1x2  x2 5 f 1x2  x3 6 f 1x2  x4

7 f1x2  2x2 8 f 1x2  5x2 9 f 1x2  4x3

10 f 1x2  9 11 f 1x2  12 f 1x2  x2  4

3
x
13 f 1x2  8  3x 14 f 1x2  x2  4x  9 15 f 1x2  2x 
1
x
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8 Differential Calculus 1 – Introduction 8 Differential Calculus 1 – Introduction

Example Example
As with first principles, we
4. Find the coordinates of the points where the gradient is 2 for
Differentiate y  5x3  can differentiate a sum by
f 1x2  x 3  x 2  8x  7.
x differentiating term by term. 1 1
Simplifying, y  5x3  4x1 3 2

Here we are finding the points on the curve where the derivative is 2.
 5 # 3x 1312  142 x 1112
dy
dx First differentiate: f¿1x2  x2  x  8
 15x2  4x2
Then solve the equation f¿1x2  x2  x  8  2
4
 15x2  2 1 x2  x  6  0
x
1 1x  22 1x  32  0
1 x  2 or 1 x  3

55 25
Example At x  2, y  and at x  3, y  
3 2
2 .
Find the derivative of f1x2  3 55 25
1x So the coordinates required are ¢2, ≤ and ¢3,  ≤ .
3 2
f1x2  2x3
1

2 4
f¿1x2   x3
3
Exercise 2

1 Differentiate these functions.

Example a f 1x2  9x2 b f 1x2  10x3 c f 1x2  6x4

Differentiate y 
2x1x  52 . d f 1x2  3x5 e f 1x2  12 f f 1x2  7x
1x
Sometimes it is necessary to
g f 1x2  11x h f 1x2  8x  9 i f 1x2 
2x2  10x 4
y simplify the function before
x
1
2 differentiating. x2
3 1
 2x2  10x2
j f 1x2  51x l f 1x2 
5
k y  x2  5x  6
dy 3 1 1 1 2x5
 2 # x2  10 # x2
dx 2 2 2 4
m y  x3  5x2  7x  4 n y  6x2  o y  1x
x
 3x 2  5x 2
1 1

4x1x2  32 3x2 1x3  32

p y  2x
3 5 q y r y
3x2 51x

2 Find f¿ (3) for f 1x2  x2  4x  9 .

Example
4  x2
3 Find g¿ (6) for g1x2  .
Find g¿ (4) for g1x2  x2  x  6. x
4 Find the gradient of y  x3  6x  9 when x  2 .
Here we are evaluating the derivative when x  4.
4x2  9
First differentiate: g¿1x2  2x  1 5 Find the gradient of y  when x  16.
1x
Then substitute x  4: g¿142  2 # 4  1  7
6 Find the coordinates of the point where the gradient is 4 for
So the gradient of g(x) at x  4 is 7. f1x2  x2  6x  12 .

7 Find the coordinates of the points where the gradient is 2 for

2 9
f1x2  x3  x2  3x  8 .
3 2
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8 Differential Calculus 1 – Introduction 8 Differential Calculus 1 – Introduction

8.3 Gradient of a tangent Example

A tangent is a straight line that touches a curve (or circle) at one point. Find the equation of the tangent to y  x2  x  6 at x  1.
y Differentiating,

 2  1 12 1  3
dy dy
 2x  1 and so at x  1 ,
dx dx
The point of contact is when x  1 , and so y  11 2 2  112  6  4,
O x i.e. 11, 42
Using y  y1  m1x  x1 2, the equation of the tangent is
y  142  3 1x12 1 y  3x  7
Differentiation can be used to find the value of the gradient at any particular point on
the curve. At this instant the value of the gradient of the curve is the same as the
gradient of the tangent to the curve at that point.

The normal to a curve is also a straight line. The normal to the curve is perpendicular to
the curve at the point of contact (therefore it is perpendicular to the tangent).
4 y
3
Finding the gradient using a graphing calculator 2
1
Using a graphing calculator, the value of the gradient at any point can be calculated. x
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
For example, for y  x2  x  6, at x  1 1
2
3
This is helpful, especially for 4
checking answers. However, Finding the equation of a normal to a curve is a very similar process to finding the tangent.
we often need the derivative
function and so need to
Method for finding the equation of a normal
differentiate by hand. The
calculator can only find the
gradient using a numerical 1. Differentiate the function.
process and is unable to 2. Substitute the required value to find the gradient.
differentiate algebraically. 3. Find the gradient of the perpendicular using m1m2  1.
4. Find the y-coordinate (if not given).
5. Find the equation of the tangent using this gradient and the point of contact
Tangents and normals
using y  y1  m1x  x1 2.
The gradient at a point is the same as the gradient of the tangent to the curve at that
point. Often it is necessary to find the equation of the tangent to the curve.
Example
Method for finding the equation of a tangent
Find the equation of the tangent, and the equation of the normal, to
1. Differentiate the function. y  x2  9x  12 at x  3.
2. Substitute the required value to find the gradient. dy
Using the method,  2x  9.
3. Find the y-coordinate (if not given). dx
4. Find the equation of the tangent using this gradient and the point of contact dy
using y  y1  m1x  x1 2.
At x  3,  2132  9  3.
dx
At x  3, y  32  9132  12  30.

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8 Differential Calculus 1 – Introduction 8 Differential Calculus 1 – Introduction

6 Find the equations of the tangents to the curve y  12x  12 1x  1 2 at the

So the equation of the tangent is y  30  31x  32
points where the curve cuts the x-axis. Find the point of intersection of these
1 y  3x  21 tangents.
The equation of the normal uses the same point but the gradient is different.
1 7 Find the equations of the tangents to the curve y  3x2  5x  9 at the
Using m1m2  1, the gradient of the normal is . points of intersection of the curve and the line y  6x  5.
3 To find the perpendicular
Using y  y1  m1x  x1 2 the equation of the normal is y  30  1x  32
1 gradient turn the fraction 8 Find the equation of the normal to y  x2  3x  2 , which has a gradient of 3.
3 upside down and change the
1 sign. 9 Find the equations for the tangents at the points where the curves
1 y  x  31
3 y  x2  x  6 and y  x2  x  6 meet.

10 For y  x2  7, find the equation of the tangent at x  1.

For y  x2  x  12, find the equation of the normal to the curve at x  4.

Example Now find the area of the triangle formed between these two lines and the y-axis.
Find the equation of the tangent, and the equation of the normal, to y  x3  1
where the curve crosses the x-axis. Tangents on a graphing calculator
The curve crosses the x-axis when y  0. So x  1 1 x  1, i.e. (1, 0)
3
It is possible to draw the tangent to a curve using a graphing calculator.
dy
Differentiating,  3x2. To find the equation of the tangent to y  x2  x  12 at x  3, the calculator
dx
can draw the tangent and provide the equation of the tangent.
dy
At x  1,  3112 2  3.
dx

Using y  y1  m1x  x1 2, the equation of the tangent is

y  31x  12  3x  3.
1
Then the gradient of the normal will be  .
3
Using y  y1  m1x  x1 2 the equation of the normal is y   1x  12
1
3
1 1
1y x
3 3

8.4 Stationary points

The gradient of a curve is constantly changing. In some regions, the function is increasing,
Exercise 3 in others it is decreasing, and at other points it is stationary.

1 Find the equation of the tangent and the equation of the normal to:
y
B
a y  3x at x  1
2
b y  x  3x at x  2
2

C
c y  x4 at x  1 d y  1x at x  9
4
e y  2 at x  1 f y  20  3x2 at x  3 A
x
2 The curve y  1x2  32 1x  12 meets the x-axis at A and the y-axis at B.
O x
Find the equation of the tangents at A and B.
16
3 Find the equation of the normal to y  3 at x  2. D
x
4 The tangent at P(1, 0) to the curve y  x3  x2  2 meets the curve again
At points A, B, C and D, the tangent to the curve is horizontal and so the gradient is zero.
at Q. Find the coordinates of Q. These points are known as stationary points. Often these points are very important to
find, particularly when functions are used to model real-life situations.
5 Find the equation of the tangent to y  9  2x  2x2 at x  1.

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8 Differential Calculus 1 – Introduction 8 Differential Calculus 1 – Introduction

For example, a stone is thrown and its height, in metres, is given by h1t2  4t  t2,
0  t  4. So 13x  12 1x  52  0
h(t) 1
1x or x  5
3
1 38
When x  , y   and when x  5, y  274
3 27

So the stationary points are ¢ ,  ≤ and 15, 274 2.

0 t
1 38
2 4
3 27

h¿1t2  4  2t and so h¿1t2  0 when 4  2t  0

i.e. t  2
Determining the nature of stationary points
So the maximum height of the stone is given by h122  4 metres, which is the point
There are four possible types of stationary point.
where the gradient is zero. We have met this concept before as maximum and
minimum turning points in Chapters 2, 3 and 4, and these are in fact examples of
stationary points.
Maximum Minimum turning Rising point of Falling point of
turning point point inflexion inflexion
dy
• Stationary points are when  0. 0
dx

• Stationary points are coordinate points. 
• The x-coordinate is when the stationary point occurs.    0

• The y-coordinate is the stationary value. 0
 
0
Note that the maximum turning point is not necessarily the maximum value of that
function. Although it is the maximum value in that region (a local maximum) there may r
be greater values. For example, for the cubic function y  x3  2x2  3x  4 the
greatest value is not a turning point as it tends to infinity in the positive x-direction. r
A stationary point of inflexion is when the
sign of the gradient does not change either
y
side of the stationary point.

There are two methods for testing the nature of stationary points.

O x Method 1 — Using the signs of f ’(x)

Here the gradient immediately before and after the stationary point is examined. This is
best demonstrated by example.

Method for finding stationary points

1. Differentiate the function. Example

dy
2. Solve the equation  0. Find the stationary points of y  2x3  3x2  36x  5 and determine their nature.
dx
3. Find the y-coordinate of each stationary point. Using the steps of the method suggested above,
dy
1.  6x2  6x  36
dx
Example dy
2. 0
dx
Find the stationary points of y  x3  7x2  5x  1.
1 6x2  6x  36  0
dy 1 61x  32 1x  22  0
Differentiating,  3x2  14x  5 1 x  3 or x  2
dx
dy
When  0, 3x2  14x  5  0
dx
194 195
8 Differential Calculus 1 – Introduction 8 Differential Calculus 1 – Introduction

3. When x  3, y  2132 3  3132 2  36132  5 3. When x  0, y  0, i.e. (0, 0)

 86
When x  2, y  2122 3  3122 2  36122  5 4. x 0 0 0
 39
Therefore the coordinates of the stationary points are 13, 862 and 12, 392.
dy
 0 
dx
To find the nature of the stationary points, we can examine the gradient before Shape
and after x  3 and x  2 using a table of signs.

This means the negative This means the positive So the stationary point (0, 0) is a rising point of inflexion.

r r
side of 3 side of 3

Method 2 — Using the sign of f ”(x)

x 3 3 3 2 2 2
When a function is differentiated a second time, the rate of change of the gradient of
dy
 0   0  the function is found. This is known as the concavity of the function.
dx

Shape
The two notations used here for the second derivative are:
d2y
f–1x2 in functional notation and in Leibniz notation.
dx2
dy
We can choose values either side of the stationary point to test the gradient This Leibniz notation arises from differentiating again.
dx
either side of the stationary point. This is the meaning of the notation 3 and
d dy d2y
3. 3 means taking a value just on the positive side of –3, that is slightly This is ¢ ≤  2.
higher than –3. 3 means taking a value just on the negative side of –3, that dx dx dx
is slightly lower than –3.
It is important to be careful of any vertical asymptotes that create a discontinuity.
For a section of curve, if the gradient is increasing then it is said to be concave up.
 614  32 14  22. What

dy
So for 3 , x  4 could be used and so
dx
is important is whether this is positive or negative. The brackets are both negative The curve is getting less steep in this

r
section, i.e. it is becoming less negative
and so the gradient is positive. A similar process with, say x  2, x  1,
and so is increasing.
x  3, fills in the above table.
This provides the shape of the curve around each stationary value and hence Similarly, if the gradient is decreasing it is said to be concave down.
the nature of each stationary point.
So 13, 862 is a maximum turning point and 12, 392 is a minimum turning
point. Strictly these should be known as a local maximum and a local minimum
as they are not necessarily the maximum or minimum values of the function –
these would be called the global maximum or minimum.
d2y
Looking at the sign of can help us determine the nature of stationary points.
dx2
Consider a minimum turning point:

Example

Find the stationary point for y  x3 and determine its nature.

dy
1.  3x2
dx
dy
dy At the turning point,  0, although the gradient is zero, the gradient is increasing
2.  0 when 3x2  0 dx
dx
d2y
1x0 (moving from negative to positive) and so is positive.
dx2

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8 Differential Calculus 1 – Introduction 8 Differential Calculus 1 – Introduction

Consider a maximum turning point: d2y

 0 is not quite as helpful. In most cases, this will mean that there is a stationary
dx2
point of inflexion. However, this needs to be tested using a table of signs as it is possible
that it will in fact be a minimum or maximum turning point. A table of signs is also
required to determine whether a stationary point of inflexion is rising or falling. See the
second example below for further clarification.
dy
At the turning point,  0, although the gradient is zero, the gradient is decreasing
dx
d2y Example
(moving from positive to negative) and so is negative.
dx2
4
2 Find the stationary points of y  x  . ,
dy x
At a point of inflexion, is zero.
dx2 dy
1.  1  4x2
dx
dy
2. This is stationary when  0.
dx
So 1  4x2  0
4
1 1
x2
1 x2  4
1 x  2 or x  2
3. When x  2, y  4, i.e. 12, 42 and when x  2, y  4, i.e. (2, 4)
2
dy dy 4. To test the nature using the second derivative,
This table summarizes the nature of stationary points in relation and .
dx dx2
d2y 8
2
 8x3 
Maximum Minimum turning Rising point of Falling point of dx x3
turning point point inflexion inflexion
d2y 8
At x  2,   1 and since this is negative, this is a maximum
dx 2
8
turning point.

d2y 8
At x  2, 2
  1 and since this is positive, this is a minimum turning
dx 8
point.

So stationary points are 12, 4 2, a local maximum, and (2, 4), a local minimum.

dy
0 0 0 0
dx

d2y
  0 0 Example
dx2

Find the stationary point(s) of y  x 4.

This method is often considered more powerful than method 1 (when the functions dy
become more complicated). For examination purposes, it is always best to use the 1.  4x3
dx
second derivative to test nature. However, note that for stationary points of inflexion, it
is still necessary to use a table of signs. dy
2. Stationary when  0,
dx
Although the table above is true, it is unfortunately not the whole picture. A positive or So 4x3  0
2
dy
negative answer for provides a conclusive answer to the nature of a stationary point. 1 x3  0
dx2
1x0

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8 Differential Calculus 1 – Introduction 8 Differential Calculus 1 – Introduction

3. When x  0, y  0, i.e. (0, 0). 3 Find the stationary points and determine their nature using either method.
1
4. To test the nature using the second derivative, a f1x2  x3  2x2  3x  4
3
d2y
 12x2 b y  12x  52 2
dx2
1
c f1x2  16x  2
d2y x
At x  0,  12  03  0
dx2 d y  x6
d2y
As  0 for this stationary point, no assumptions can be made about its e y  x5  2x3  5x2  2
dx2
4 Find the distance between the turning points of the graph of
nature and so a table of signs is needed.
y  1x2  42 1x2  22 .
x 0 0 0

dy
 0 
dx

Shape
8.5 Points of inflexion
The concavity of a function is determined by the second derivative.

Hence (0, 0) is a minimum turning point. This can be verified with a calculator.
f–1x2 7 0 Concave up
f–1x2 6 0 Concave down

This is an exceptional case,

which does not often occur. So what happens when f–1x2  0?
However, be aware of this
“anomaly”. We know that when f¿1x2  0 and f–1x2  0, there is a stationary point – normally a
stationary point of inflexion (with the exceptions as previously discussed).

In fact, apart from the previously noted exceptions, whenever f–1x2  0 it is known as a
point of inflexion. The type met so far are stationary points of inflexion when the gradient
is also zero (also known as horizontal points of inflexion).
However, consider the curve:

Exercise 4 A

1 Find the stationary points and determine their nature using a table of signs.
a f1x2  x2  8x  3
b y  x3  12x  7
c f1x2  5x4
d y  13x  42 1x  22
B

1 Looking at the gradient between the turning points, it is constantly changing, the curve
e f1x2  4x  becoming steeper and then less steep as it approaches B. So the rate of change of
x
gradient is negative (concave down) around A and then positive (concave up) around B.
2 Find the stationary points and determine their nature using the second derivative.
a y  2x2  8x  5 d2y
Clearly the rate of change of gradient ¢ ≤ must be zero at some point between A
dx2
b y  14  x2 1x  62
and B. This is the steepest part of the curve between A and B, and it is this point that is
c f1x2  x1x  42 2
known as a point of inflexion. This is clearly not stationary. So a point of inflexion can
d y  2x3  9x2  12x  5 now be defined to be a point where the concavity of the graph changes sign.
e f1x2  3x5 d2y
If  0, there is a point of inflexion:
dx2

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8 Differential Calculus 1 – Introduction 8 Differential Calculus 1 – Introduction

4.
dy
If  0, it is a non-stationary
dy dx
If  0, it is a stationary 3  3 3 
dx point of inflexion (assuming a x    0 0 0
point change in concavity) 22 22 22

e.g. f–1x2  0   0 

3  3 3 
x
22 22 22

f–1x2  0 

There is a change in concavity (the sign of the second derivative changes)

around each point. So each of these three points is a point of inflexion.
Anomalous case
To test whether each point is stationary, consider f¿1x2.
4 2
3 3 3 405
f¿ ¢ ≤ 5¢ ≤  45 ¢ ≤ 
22 22 22 4

3
Hence x  provides a non-stationary point of inflexion.
22
4 2
3 3 3 405
f¿ ¢ ≤  5 ¢ ≤  45 ¢ ≤ 
22 22 22 4
Method for finding points of inflexion
3
d2y Hence x   also provides a non-stationary point of inflexion.
1. Differentiate the function twice to find . 22
dx2
f¿102  5102 4  45102 2  0
d2y
2. Solve the equation  0. Hence x  0 provides a stationary point of inflexion.
dx2
3. Find the y-coordinate of each point. 3 405 3 405
The three points of inflexion are ¢ , ≤, (0 , 0) and ¢ , ≤.
d2y 22 4 22 4
4. Test the concavity around this point, i.e. must change sign.
dx2 This can be verified on a calculator.

Example

Find the points of inflexion of the curve f1x2  x5  15x3 and determine
whether they are stationary.

1. f¿1x2  5x4  45x2

f–1x2  20x3  90x
2. For points of inflexion, f–1x2  0
So 20x3  90x  0
1 10x12x2  92  0
9 Exercise 5
1 x  0 or x2 
2 1 Find the points of inflexion for the following functions and determine
;3 whether they are stationary.
1 x  0 or x 
22
40 3
3 a f1x2  x5  x
3. f ¢ ≤  100.2324 3
22
b f1x2  x3  3x2  6x  7
f 102  0
3 c i y  x2  x  18
f¢ ≤  100.2324
202 22 203
8 Differential Calculus 1 – Introduction 8 Differential Calculus 1 – Introduction

ii y  5x2  9 Oblique asymptotes

iii f1x2  ax2  bx  c In Chapter 3 we met horizontal asymptotes. These occur where x S ;q. This is also
true for oblique asymptotes.
Make a general statement about quadratic functions.
3 .
Consider the function y  2 
2 Find the points of inflexion for the following functions and determine whether x1
they are stationary. 3
It is clear that as x S ;q, the becomes negligible and so y S 2.
x1
a y  4x3
Hence y  2 is a horizontal asymptote for this function.
b f1x2  x3  3x2  7 y

c y  x3  6x2  8x  3

d f1x2  ax3  bx2  cx  d 2

Make a general statement about cubic functions.

1 O 1 x
3 Find the points of inflexion for the following functions and determine whether
they are stationary.

a f1x2  x4  6x2  8
5 .
b y  3x4  5x3  3x2  7x  3 Now consider the function y  2x  1 
3x  2
c f1x2  x5  3x4  5x3 5
In a similar way, the fractional part ¢ ≤ tends to zero as x S ;q and so
3x  2
d y  x4  3
y S 2x  1. This means that y  2x  1 is an oblique asymptote (also known as a
4 Find the equation of the tangent to y  x3  9x2  6x  9 at the point of slant asymptote).
inflexion.
Method for sketching a function
5 For the graph of y  2x3  12x2  5x  3, find the distance between the
point of inflexion and the root. 1. Find the vertical asymptotes (where the function is not defined).
2. If it is an improper rational function (degree of numerator  degree of
denominator), divide algebraically to produce a proper rational function.
3. Consider what happens for very large positive and negative values of x. This will
8.6 Curve sketching provide horizontal and oblique asymptotes.
Bringing together knowledge of functions, polynomials and differentiation, it is now 4. Find the intercepts with the axes.
possible to identify all the important features of a function and hence sketch its curve. These are when x  0 and y  0.
The important features of a graph are: 5. Find the stationary points and points of inflexion (and their nature).
dy d2y
Determine when  0 and when  0.
dx dx2
• Vertical asymptotes (where the function is not defined)
6. Sketch the curve, ensuring that all of the above important points are annotated
This is usually when the denominator is zero.
on the graph.
• Intercepts
These are when x  0 and y  0.
Example
• Stationary points and points of inflexion
dy d2y 2x2  7x  1 .
Determine when  0 and when  0. Find the asymptotes of y 
dx dx2 x4
Clearly the function is not defined at x  4 and so this is a vertical asymptote.
• Behaviour as x S ;q
This provides horizontal and oblique asymptotes.  2x  15
Dividing, 1x  4 2 2
 2x  7x  1
2

 2x2  8x
With the exception of oblique asymptotes, all of the necessary concepts have been met 15x  1
in this chapter, and in Chapters 1, 2, 3 and 4. 15x  60
 61
204 205
8 Differential Calculus 1 – Introduction 8 Differential Calculus 1 – Introduction

61
Hence y  2x  15  and so as x S ;q, y S 2x  15.
x4
d2y 2
 21x  12 3 
Therefore y  2x  15 is an oblique asymptote. dx2 1x  12 3
This is clear from the graph: The notation ∀ means “for
d2y all”. So ∀ x H , means for
At x  0,  2 7 0 so (0, 0) is a local minimum turning point.
y dx2 all real values of x.
d2y
At x  2,  2 6 0 so 12, 42 is a local maximum point.
dx2

d2y 2
x   0 ∀x H , there are no non-horizontal points of inflexion.
1x  12 3
O 4 As
dx2

yx1

1 O x

Example (2, 4)

x2
Sketch the graph of y  , identifying all asymptotes, intercepts, stationary
x1
points, and non-horizontal points of inflexion.

There is a vertical asymptote at x  1

All of these features can be checked using a graphing calculator, if it is available. In some
x1
1x  12 2 x2
Dividing, cases, an examination question may expect the use of a graphing calculator to find some
of these important points, particularly stationary points.
x2  x
x For example, the calculator provides this graph for the above function:
x 1
1

1 .
This gives y  x  1 
x1
So y  x  1 is an oblique asymptote.

Putting x  0 and y  0 gives an intercept at (0 ,0). There are no other roots.

1
Preparing for differentiation, y  x  1 
x1
In fact, it is possible to be asked to sketch a graph that would be difficult without use of
 x  1  1x  12 1 the calculator. Consider the next example.

 1  1x  12 2
dy
Differentiating,
dx
dy 1 Example
 0, i.e. when 1
1x  12 2
Stationary when
dx
x2 y2
  36
1 x  1  1 or x  1  1 9 4

1 x  2 or x  0 In order to graph this function using a calculator, we need to rearrange into a

y  form.
Substituting into the original function provides the coordinates (0 , 0) and
12, 42. x2 y2
  36
For the nature of these stationary points, 9 4

206 207
8 Differential Calculus 1 – Introduction 8 Differential Calculus 1 – Introduction

2x2 x x2
y2 x2 16 y  17 y  18 y 
1   36 x1 x 1
2
1x
4 9
12x  52 1x  42 1
4x2 19 y  20 y 
1y  2
 144 1x  2 2 1x  32 x  x  12
2
9
4 x2 y2
21 y  22   25
4x2 x2  2 16 9
1y;  144
C 9

8.7 Sketching the graph of the derived

function
Given the graph of the original function it is sometimes useful to consider the graph of
its derivative. For example, non-horizontal points of inflexion now become obvious from
the graph of the derived function, since they become stationary points. Horizontal
points of inflexion are already stationary.
If the original function is known, then it is straightforward to sketch the graph of the
Clearly this function is not defined for a large section (in fact 18 6 x 6 18 ). derived function. This can be done by:
a) finding the derivative and sketching it
The oblique asymptotes are not immediately obvious. Rearranging the equation
y b) using a graphing calculator to sketch the derived function.
4 144
to give  ;  2 makes it clearer.
x B9 x
y 2
As x S ;q,
x
S;
3
Example

2 Sketch the derivative of y  x3  6x2  3x  5.

1yS ; x
3

x
Exercise 6

Find all asymptotes (vertical and non-vertical) for these functions.

2 x x2  5
1 y 2 y 3 y
x x3 x

x3 x2  1 2x2  3x  5 Using method a)

4 f1x2  5 f1x2  6 y
x2 x2 x3 dy
Differentiating gives  3x2  12x  3
dx
x3  2x2  3x  5 x3  4x
7 f1x2  8 y
x2  4 x2  1 y
5x x 6
2
9 y 10 f1x2 
1x  12 1x  42 x2  1
3x2  8 4x3  9
11 y  12 y  O x
x2  9 x x6
2

Sketch the graphs of these functions, including asymptotes, stationary points

and intercepts.

x1 x1 x
13 y  14 y  15 y 
x1 x1x  12 x4

208 209
8 Differential Calculus 1 – Introduction 8 Differential Calculus 1 – Introduction

We can consider this process in reverse, and draw a possible graph of the original
Using method b) function, given the graph of the derived function. In order to do this note that:

1. roots of the derived function are stationary points on the original graph
2. stationary points on the derived function graph are points of inflexion on the
original graph.

Example

Given this graph of the derived function y  f¿1x2, sketch a possible graph of
the original function y  f1x2.

y  f (x)

–3 1 5 x

These methods are possible only if the function is known.

If the function is not known, the gradient of the graph needs to be examined. We can see that there are roots on this graph and hence stationary points on
the original at x  3, x  1, and x  5.
It is helpful to consider the gradient of the original to be able to draw a curve.
Example
Sketch the graph of the derivative of this graph. x S 3 S 1 S 5 S

(1, 1) y f–1x2  0  0  0 

x So a possible graph of the original function y  f1x2 is

We cannot determine
the y-values of the points
y
on the curve but we can
(2, 4) be certain of the shape
of it. This will be covered
Note where the graph is increasing, stationary and decreasing. Stationary points
in further detail in
dy Chapter 14.
on the original graph become roots of the derived function ¢  0≤, increasing 3 O 1 5
x
dx
dy
regions are above the x-axis ¢ 7 0≤, and decreasing regions are below the
dx
dy
x-axis ¢ 6 0≤. So the graph becomes
dx
y
Sketching the reciprocal function
(1, 1)
1
Sometimes we are asked to sketch the graph of a reciprocal function, i.e. .
f1x2
With polynomial functions,
1 2 x If f(x) is known and a calculator is used, this is easy. However, if it is not known, then we
the degree of a derived
function is always one less need to consider the following points.
than the original function.
(2, 4)

210 211
8 Differential Calculus 1 – Introduction 8 Differential Calculus 1 – Introduction

1 Exercise 7
1. At f1x2  0, S q. Hence roots on the original graph become vertical
f1x2
asymptotes on the reciprocal graph. 1 Sketch the graph of the derived function of the following:

1 a y  4x b y  x c y4
2. At a vertical asymptote, f1x2 S q 1  0. Hence vertical asymptotes on f(x)
f1x2 d y  x2 e y  4x2 f y  x2  x  7
become roots on the reciprocal graph.
3. Maximum turning points become minimum turning points and minimum turning 1 3 1 4
g y  x3 h y x  2x2  3x  8 i y x
points become maximum turning points. The x-value of the turning point stays 3 4
the same but the y-value is reciprocated.
2 Sketch the graph of the derived function of the following:
1
4. If f(x) is above the x-axis, is also above the x-axis, and if f(x) is below the a y Linear b y (4, 8) Quadratic
f1x2
1 (1, 3)
x-axis, is also below the x-axis.
f1x2

We will now demonstrate this by example. O x O x

Example

1
If f1x2  sin x, 0  x  2p draw . c y d y Cubic
f1x2 Quadratic

y y
y  sin x 1
1 O x

2 O 6 x
1 (2, 4)
O x 1 O 2 x

1

y  csc x e y f (4, 5) Cubic

Cubic
(1, 4)

This is the standard way of drawing the curves of y  sec x, y  csc x and y  cot x. (1, 1)
x x
5

Example

1
For the following graph of y  f1x2, draw the graph of y  .
f1x2
g y Cubic h y Quartic
y y  f(x) y (3, 7)
(a, b)
(2, 6)
(1, 1)
(c, d)
(–1, 1) (6, 1)
–4 O 2 x O x O x
4 2 x

(1,1)

(–2, –6)

212 213
8 Differential Calculus 1 – Introduction 8 Differential Calculus 1 – Introduction

i y Quartic j y Fifth degree c y d y

(3, 7)

(1, 3)
(2, 3)

O x 1 x O 2 x –3 O 3 x

(2, 4) (6, 4)

3 Sketch a possible graph of the original function y  f1x2, given the derived
function graph y  f¿1x2 in each case. e y f y
(–1, 7)
a y b y
(3, 8)

(–3, 4)
(1, 5)
2 O x
1 O x (4, 1) 2 O 7 x
O x

c y d y

Review exercise
(3, 4)

5 O 1 6 x ✗ 1 Differentiate f1x2  x  4x  5 using first principles.

M
C
7
4
1
0
M–
CE
8
5
2
M+
%
9
6
3
+
ON
X
–
÷

=
3

1 O 7 x
✗ 2 For f1x2  1x  x , find f¿142 .
M M– M+ ON
2
2
C CE % X
7 8 9 –
4 5 6 ÷
1 2 3
=
0 +

3x  x9 dy
M
C
M–
CE
M+
%
ON
X 3 Given that y  , find .
21x dx
7 8 9 –
4 5 6 ÷
1 2 3

1
=
0 +

4 For the following functions, draw the graph of

✗ 4 A function is defined as f1x2  2x  3  x . Find values of x for which the
f1x2 64
M M– M+ ON

2
C CE % X
7 8 9 –
4 5 6 ÷
1 2 3
=
0 +

a f1x2  2x  1 b f1x2  1x  22 2 function is increasing.

c f1x2  x3  2x2  5x  6 d f1x2  2x3  15x2  24x  16 ✗ 5 Given that f1x2  5x

M
C
7
4
1
M–
CE
8
5
2
M+
%
9
6
3
ON
X
–
÷

=
2
 1 and g1x2  3x  2, find h1x2  f1g1x2 2 . Hence
0 +

find h¿1x2.
e f1x2  ex f f1x2  ln x

6 ✗ 6 Find the positive value of x for which the gradient of the tangent is 6 for
M
C
7
4
1
M–
CE
8
5
2
M+
%
9
6
3
ON
X
–
÷

g f1x2  cos x, 0  x  2p h f1x2 

=

1x  32
0 +

y  6x  x3. Hence find the equation of the tangent at this point.

5 For the following graphs of y  f1x2 , sketch the graph of the reciprocal ✗ 7 Sketch the graph of the derivative for the graph below.
M
C
7
4
1
0
M–
CE
8
5
2
M+
%
9
6
3
+
ON
X
–
÷

1
function y  . y
f1x2 (2, 7)

y y
a b
(–1, 2) 3
2

2 O 6 x
3 O x 2 O 4 x

(1, 6)

214 215
8 Differential Calculus 1 – Introduction

✗
M
C
7
4
1
M–
CE
8
5
2
M+
%
9
6
3
ON
X
–
÷

=
8 Find the stationary points of y  14x  12 12x2  22 and investigate their
0 +

nature.
✗
M
C
7
4
1
M–
CE
8
5
2
M+
%
9
6
3
+
ON
X
–
÷

=
9 Find the equation of the tangent to y  x5  3 at x  1 and find the
equation of the normal to y  9  x2 at x  1. Find the point where
0

these lines cross.

x3
✗
M
C
7
4
1
0
M–
CE
8
5
2
M+
%
9
6
3
+
ON
X
–
÷

=
10 Sketch the graph of y 
x2  x  6
, including all asymptotes, stationary

points and intercepts.

x2  5x  4
✗ 11 Find the equations of all the asymptotes of the graph of y  x
M
C
7
4
1
0
M–
CE
8
5
2
M+
%
9
6
3
+
ON
X
–
÷

=
2
 5x  4
[IB Nov 02 p1 Q4]

✗ 12 The line y  16x  9 is a tangent to the curve y  2x

M
C
7
4
1
0
M–
CE
8
5
2
M+
%
9
6
3
+
ON
X
–
÷

=
3
 ax2  bx  9 at
the point (1, 7). Find the values of a and b. [IB Nov 01 p1 Q7]

✗
1
M
C
M–
CE
M+
%
ON
X 13 For the following graphs of y  f1x2 , draw the graphs of y  .
f1x2
7 8 9 –
4 5 6 ÷
1 2 3
=
0 +

a b y
y
(–2, 4) (3, 7)

(1, 3)
–3 O 4 x 1

4 O x
(1, –7)

216
9 Differentiation 2 – Further
Techniques
Leonhard Euler is considered
to be one of the most
important mathematicians of
all time. He was born on 15
April 1707 in Basel,
Switzerland, and died on 18
September 1783 in St
Petersburg, Russia, although
he spent much of his life in
Berlin. Euler’s mathematical
discoveries are in many
branches of mathematics
including number theory,
geometry, trigonometry,
mechanics, calculus and
analysis. Some of the
best-known notation was
created by Euler including the
notation f(x) for a function, e
for the base of natural logs, i
for the square root of 1, p
for pi, © for summation and
many others. Euler enjoyed his
work immensely, writing in
1741, “The King calls me his
professor, and I think I am the
happiest man in the world.”
Even on his dying day he
continued to enjoy
mathematics, giving a mathematics lesson to his grandchildren and doing some work on
the motion of ballons.
In Chapter 8, the basic concepts of differentiation were covered. However, the only functions
that we differentiated all reduced to functions of the form y  ax n  p  k. In this
chapter, we will meet and use further techniques to differentiate other functions. These
include trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic functions, functions that are given
implicitly, and functions that are the product or quotient of two (or more) functions.

217
9 Differentiation 2 – Further Techniques 9 Differentiation 2 – Further Techniques

9.1 Differentiating trigonometric functions It is clear that, as h S 0,

cos h  1
S 0.
h
What is the derivative of sin x?
Now we can use differentiation by first principles to find the derivative of f1x2  sin x.

f1x  h2  sin1x  h2

f1x  h2  f1x2  sin1x  h2  sin x

 sin x cos h  cos x sin h  sin x
 sin x1cos h  12  cos x sin h

f1x  h2  f1x2 sin x1cos h  12 cos x sin h

 
h h h
Using our knowledge of sketching the derived function, we know that the graph must
be of this form: f1x  h2  f1x2
So lim  0  cos x using the above results.
hS0 h

f1x  h2  f1x2
Hence lim  cos x
hS0 h
When dealing with trigonometric
Therefore if f1x2  sin x, f¿1x2  cos x. functions it is vital that radians
are used. This is because of the
What about the derivative of cos x? results that we investigated
above.
Examining the graph of the derived function using the calculator, this would appear
to be sin x. sin h
We can use a calculator to draw the derivative graph as above. In degrees, lim  11 as
hS0 h
This graph looks very much like the cosine function. We now need to see if it is.
seen below.

In order to prove this, there are two results that need to be investigated. First, we need
sin h
to consider what happens to for small values of h. The calculator can be used to
h
investigate this:

Again, we can use using differentiation by first principles to find the derivative of
So in degrees, the derivative of
f1x2  cos x. sin x is not cos x.

f1x  h2  cos1x  h2 Therefore, for calculus, we must

always use radians.
f1x  h2  f1x2  cos1x  h2  cos x

sin h  cos x cos h  sin x sin h  cos x

It is clear that, as h S 0, S 1.
h  cos x1cos h  12  sin x sin h
cos h  1
Second, we also need to investigate for small values of h. f1x  h2  f1x2 cos x1cos h  12 sin x sin h
h  
h h h

f1x  h2  f1x2
So lim  0  sin x using the previous results.
hS0 h

f1x  h2  f1x2
Hence lim  sin x
hS0 h

Therefore if f1x2  cos x, f¿1x2  sin x.

218 219
9 Differentiation 2 – Further Techniques 9 Differentiation 2 – Further Techniques

Summarizing:
9.2 Differentiating functions of functions
y  sin x y  cos x (chain rule)
dy dy
 cos x  sin x
dx dx The chain rule is a very useful and important rule for differentiation. This allows us to
differentiate composite functions. First consider y  1ax  b2 n.
It is clear that these are connected (as the two functions themselves are). Starting with
sin x, repeated differentiation gives cos x, sin x, cos x and then back to sin x. This
cycle can be remembered by Investigation
S Consider these functions:
C
Differentiate
S 1 y  12x  12 2 2 y  12x  12 3 3 y  13x  22 4
C 4 y  13x  22 5 5 y  14  x2 2 6 y  14  x2 3

Using knowledge of the binomial theorem and differentiation, find the derivatives of the
We now have the derivatives of two of the six trigonometric functions. The other four above functions. Factorise the answers.
sin x
functions are all defined in terms of sin x and cos x (remembering tan x  ) and so You should have noticed a pattern that will allow us to take a “shortcut”, which we
cos x
always use, when differentiating this type of function.
this information provides the derivatives of the other four functions. We can consider this as
This is that for functions of the form y  1ax  b2 n, differentiating the bracket to
Proofs of these require the use of rules that have not yet been covered, and hence these the power n and then
are to be found later in the chapter. However, the results are shown below. dy multiplying by the derivative
 an1ax  b2 n1
dx of the bracket.
y  tan x y  csc x y  sec x y  cot x This is a specific case of a more general rule, known as the chain rule, which can be
stated as:
dy dy dy dy
 sec2 x  csc x cot x  sec x tan x  csc2 x
dx dx dx dx
dy dy du
 # This is not due to cancelling!
dx du dx

Example This is where y is a function of a function. This means that we can consider y as a function
Find the derivative of y  cos x  sec x. of u and u as a function of x.
dy
 sin x  sec x tan x Proof
dx
Consider y  g1u2 where u  f1x2.
If dx is a small increase in x, then we can consider du and dy as the corresponding
Example increases in u and y.

Find the derivative of y  8 sin x. Then, as dx S 0, du and dy also tend to zero.

dy dy dy
 8 cos x We know from Chapter 8 that  lim ¢ ≤
dx dx dxS0 dx

dy du
 lim ¢ # ≤
dxS0 du dx
Exercise 1 dy du
 lim ¢ ≤ # lim ¢ ≤
dxS0 du dxS0 dx
Find the derivative of each of these.
dy du
1 y  tan x  3 2 y  sin x  csc x  lim ¢ ≤ # lim ¢ ≤
duS0 du dxS0 dx
3 y  sin x  6x2 4 y  5 cos x
5 y  7 cot x 6 y  3 sec x dy dy du
So  #
7 y  9x  4 cos x
2
8 y  7x  5 sin x  sec x dx du dx
The use of this rule is made clear in the following examples.
220 221
9 Differentiation 2 – Further Techniques 9 Differentiation 2 – Further Techniques

Example dy du dv
Then  2u,  sin v and  3.
Differentiate y  13x  42 4.
du dv dx
dy
Hence  6u sin v.
Let u  3x  4 and y  u4. dx
dy
dy du Substituting back for x gives  6 cos 3x sin 3x.
Then  4u3 and  3. dx
du dx
dy
Hence  4u3 # 3  12u3.
dx This is the formal version of the working for chain rule problems. In practice, the
dy substitution is often implied, as shown in the following examples. However, it is
Substituting back for x gives  1213x  42 3. important to be able to use the formal substitution, both for more difficult chain rule
dx
examples and as a skill for further techniques in calculus.

Example Example
Differentiate y  15  2x2 7. f1x2  217  3x2 6  tan 2x

Let u  5  2x and y  u7. f¿1x2  1217  3x2 5 # 132  2 sec2 2x This working is sufficient and
is what is usually done.
dy du  3617  3x2 5  2 sec2 2x
Then  7u6 and  2.
du dx
dy
Hence  7u6 # 2  14u6.
dx
Example
dy
Substituting back for x gives  1415  2x2 6.
dx 2
 tan13x2  42  212x  12  2
1
f1x2  tan13x2  42 
22x  1
We will now apply the chain rule to other cases of a function of a function.

f¿1x2  3sec2 13x2  42 # 6x4  B2 #  12x  12  2 # 2R

1 3

2
Example
 6x sec2 13x2  42 
2
12x  12 2
3

Differentiate y  sin 4x.

Let u  4x and y  sin u.
dy du
Then  cos u and  4.
du dx Exercise 2
dy
Hence  4 cos u.
dx Differentiate the following:
1 f1x2  1x  42 2 2 f1x2  12x  32 2 3 f1x2  13x  42 2
dy
Substituting back for x gives  4 cos 4x.
dx
4 f1x2  15x  22 4 5 f1x2  15  x2 3 6 f1x2  17  2x2 4

7 y  19  4x2 5 9 y  13x  8 2 2
1
8 y  412x  32 6
Example
10 y  12x  92 3
5 1
11 y  26x
3
5 12 y 
Differentiate y  cos 13x2.
2
23x  2
Remember that this means y  1cos 3x2 2.
4 7 3
13 f1x2  14 f1x2  15 P 
Here there is more than one composition and so the chain rule must be extended 5x  4 3  8x 14  3k2 2
to:
5
dy dy du dv 16 N  17 y  sin 4x 18 y  cos 3x
 # # 218  5p2 3
dx du dv dx
Let v  3x and u  cos v and y  u2. 1
19 y  sin x 20 y  tan 6x 21 y  sec 9x
2

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9 Differentiation 2 – Further Techniques 9 Differentiation 2 – Further Techniques

22 y  6x  cot 3x 23 y  csc 2x  13x  22 4 During the study of exponential functions in Chapter 5, we met the natural exponential
function, y  ex. The significance of this function becomes clearer now: the derivative
26 y  tan2 14x2
4 of ex is itself.
24 y  sin 5x  25 y  sin3 x
213x  42 5
1e 2  ex
d x
 sec2 12x2
2
27 y  3x4  cos3 x 28 y 
13x  42 5 dx

p
29 y  cos ¢3x  ≤ 30 y  tan1 2x  12
4 Below is a formal proof of this.

9.3 Differentiating exponential and Proof of derivative of ex

Consider the curve y  ax.
logarithmic functions
Investigation y
B
y  ax

Draw graphs of: (a) y  10x (b) y  5x (c) y  3x (d) y  2x

For each graph, draw the derivative graph, using a graphing calculator. A 1

You should notice that the derivative graph is of a similar form to the original, that is, it
x x
is an exponential graph.
For y  3x, the derivative graph is just above the original. adx  1
Gradient of the chord AB 
dx

adx  1
Gradient at A  lim ¢ ≤
dxS0 dx
Now consider two general points on the exponential curve.

y y  ax
D

1 C
For y  2x, the derivative graph is below the original.
x x  x x

x

axdx  ax
Gradient CD 
x  dx  x

ax 1adx  1 2
Gradient at C  lim
dxS0 dx
This is another property of the
Hence the gradient at C is ax multiplied by the gradient at A.
curve y  ex . At (0,1) its
This suggests that there is a function for which the derivative graph is identical to the
But when a  e, the gradient at A  1 (this can be checked on a graphing calculator). gradient is 1.
original graph and that the base of this function lies between 2 and 3. What is this base?
Gradient at C  ex # 1
This question was studied for many years by many mathematicians including Leonhard
1e 2  ex
d x
Euler, who first used the symbol e. The answer is that this base is e. Check that y  ex Hence
dx
produces its own graph for the derived function on your calculator. Remember that
e  2.71828 p is an irrational number.

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9 Differentiation 2 – Further Techniques 9 Differentiation 2 – Further Techniques

Example Example
Differentiate y  e5x. Differentiate y  ln14x2.
This can be considered as y  eu where u  5x. dy 1 1
4# 
dy dx 4x x
du
Since  5 and  eu
dx du
dy
 eu # 5
dx Example
 5e5x
Differentiate y  ln1sin x2.
dy 1 #
Example  cos x
dx sin x
y  ex 1
2
 cot x

dy
 2xex 1
2
1
dx
Example

The result for ex can be combined with the chain rule to create a general rule for Differentiate y  ln13x  22.
differentiating exponential functions. dy 1
 #3
dx 3x  2
1e 2  f¿1x2 ef 1x2
d f 1x2
3
dx 
3x  2

This now allows us to differentiate the inverse function of y  ex, known as the
natural logarithmic function y  ln x.
Using the results for ex and ln x helps us generalize so that we can find the derivatives
As y  e and y  ln x are inverse functions, from Chapter 5 we know that e
x ln x
 x. of any exponential or logarithmic function.
We can differentiate both sides of this equation (with respect to x). To find out how to differentiate y  ax we first consider y  4x.

1e 2 
d ln x d
1x2 Since eln 4  4, we can rewrite this function as y  1eln 4 2 x.
dx dx
y  ex ln 4
1 eln x # 1ln x2  1
d
dx dy
1  ln 4ex ln 4
dx
1ln x2  ln x
d 1
1
dx e dy
1  ln 4 # 4x
1ln x2 
d 1 dx
1
In general, ax  1eln a 2 x  ex ln a
dx x
This is a very important result.
dy
and so  ln a # ex ln a  ln a # ax
dx
1ln x2 
d 1
dx x

1a 2  ln a # ax
d x
The result for ln x can be combined with the chain rule to create this general result:
dx

If y  ln1f1x2 2
dy 1 # This result is particularly We will now look at y  loga x. In this case the change of base formula will help.
Then  f¿1x2 important for integration in
dx f1x2
Chapter 15.
f¿1x2

f1x2

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9 Differentiation 2 – Further Techniques 9 Differentiation 2 – Further Techniques

ln x 1 #
loga x   ln x Exercise 3
ln a ln a
Differentiating gives us Differentiate the following:
1 f1x2  e3x 2 f1x2  e7x 3 f1x2  e4x
1loga x2 
d 1 #1
dx ln a x 2 6 2
4 f1x2  5x 5 f1x2   6 f1x2  ex
e e9x
1
 7 f1x2  e2x3 8 f1x2  ln 3x 9 f1x2  ln 7x
x ln a
10 f1x2  2 ln 4x 11. f1x2  ln12x2  42 12 y  4x
1loga x2 
d 1
dx x ln a 13 y  10x 14 y  6 # 5x 15 y  e3x  3x

16 y  ln 2x  2x 17 y  log2 x 18 y  log8 x
x
Considering these two general results, it is clear that the results for e and ln x are
actually just special cases. 19 y  4x  log5 x 20 y  e4x  sin 2x  ln x 21 y  ln1cos x2
22 y  ln1tan x2 23 y  tan1ln x2

Example
9.4 Product rule
Differentiate y  3 log7 x.
Using the chain rule, y  12x  32 4 can be differentiated without multiplying out the
brackets first. However, this does not really help to differentiate y  13x  22 12x  32 3
dy 3

dx x ln 7
without some unpleasant simplification. Equally, we cannot currently differentiate
y  ex sin x. These functions are products of two functions, and to be able to
differentiate these we need to use the product rule.

Example
For y  uv where u and v are functions of x, This is sometimes
Differentiate y  k # 62x. remembered in the shortened
dy du dv dy
dy v u form  v du  u dv
 2k ln 6 # 62x dx dx dx dx
dx

Sometimes it is useful to use laws of logarithms to assist the differentiation. Proof

Consider y  uv where u and v are functions of x.
If dx is a small increase in x, and du, dv and dy are the corresponding increases in u,
Example v and y, then
2x  1 y  dy  1u  du 2 1v  dv2  uv  udv  vdu  dudv
Differentiate y  ln¢ ≤.
x4
As y  uv, dy  udv  vdu  dudv
We can consider this as y  ln12x  12  ln1x  42.
dy dv du dv
So u v  du
dy 2 1 dx dx dx dx
So  
dx 2x  1 x4 dy dy du du dv dv
21x  42  12x  12 Now when dx S 0,
dx
S ,
dx dx
S ,
dx dx
S , du S 0
dx

12x  12 1x  42
dy dy
9 Therefore  lim ¢ ≤

12x  12 1x  42 dx dx
dxS0

dy dv du
1 u v 0
dx dx dx
dy dv du
1 u v
dx dx dx
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9 Differentiation 2 – Further Techniques 9 Differentiation 2 – Further Techniques

Example
Let v  fg where f  e2x and g  cos x
Differentiate y  13x  22 12x  32 3. df dg
 2e2x  sin x
dx dx
Let y  uv where u  3x  2 and v  12x  32 3.
dv
du dv  2e2x cos x  e2x sin x
3  312x  32 2 # 2 dx
 e2x 12 cos x  sin x2
dx dx
 612x  32 2

 13x  22 # 612x  32 2  312x  32 3

dy
 612x  12 2e2x cos x  12x  12 3e2x 12 cos x  sin x2
dy
dx dx
 312x  32 2 3213x  22  2x  34
There are often common
factors which can be used to  12x  12 2e2x 36 cos x  12x  12 12 cos x  sin x2 4
 312x  32 18x  12
2
simplify the answer.

Example Exercise 4
Differentiate y  ex sin x.
Find the derivative of each of these.
Let y  uv where u  e and v  sin x.
x
This is the mechanics of the
du dv solution. It is not absolutely 1 y  x2 sin x 2 y  x3 cos x 3 y  3x2ex
 ex  cos x necessary for it to be shown as
dx dx 4 y  e3x sin x 5 y  ln x sin x 6 y  sin x cos x
part of the solution.
dy 7 y  sin 3x cos 2x 8 y  x2 1x  12 2 9 y  x3 1x  22 4
 ex sin x  ex cos x
10 y  2x3 13x  22 2 11 y  1x  22 12x  12 3
dx
 ex 1sin x  cos x2
12 y  1x  52 2 13x  22 4 13 y  15  2x2 3 13x  42 2

14 y  13x  42 3 sin x 15 y  5x cos x

Example 16 y  x3 log6 x 17 y  e4x sec 3x

Differentiate y  4x2 ln x. 18 y  12x  12 3 csc 3x 19 y  4x log8 x

Let y  uv where u  4x2 and v  ln x. 20 y  x ln12x  32 21 y  4x2 ln1x2  2x  52

p 3 p
du dv 1 22 y  e3x sec ¢2x  ≤ 23 y  tan ¢3x  ≤
 8x  4 x4
2
dx dx x
24 y  x2 ln x sin x 25 y  e3x 1x  2 2 2 tan x
dy 1
 8x ln x  4x2 #
dx x
 8x ln x  4x
 4x12 ln x  12
9.5 Quotient rule
This rule is used for differentiating a quotient (one function divided by another) such as
u
y .
Example v

Differentiate y  12x  12 3e2x cos x. 13x  42 2

Consider the function y   x 2 13x  4 2 2
This example is a product of three functions. We need to split it into two parts x2
and then further split the second part. We can differentiate this using the product rule.
Let y  uv where u  12x  12 3 and v  e2x cos x. Let y  uv where u  13x  42 2 and v  x2.
du dv
 613x  4 2
 312x  12 2 # 2 For we need to use the product du dv
dx dx  2x3
dx dx
rule again.
 6x2 13x  42  2x3 13x  42 2
dy
 612x  12 2 dx
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9 Differentiation 2 – Further Techniques 9 Differentiation 2 – Further Techniques

 2x3 13x  42 33x  13x  42 4

213x  42 142
 2x3 13x  42 142 
x3
813x  42 813x  42
 
x3 x3
In this case it was reasonably easy to rearrange into a product, but that is not always so.
Generally, it is not wise to use the product rule for differentiating quotients as it often
leads to an answer that is difficult to simplify, and hence a rule for differentiating
quotients would be useful. Example
u e2x .
Consider y  where u and v are functions of x. Differentiate y 
v sin x
1.
This can be written as y  u # Let u  e2x v  sin x v2  sin2 x
v
du dv
 2e2x  cos x
¢ ≤  v2 # 1v2
d 1 d
This is a slightly different dx dx
dx v dx application of the chain rule. dy 2e2x sin x  e2x cos x
1 dv So 
 # dx sin2 x
v2 dx e2x 12 sin x  cos x2

sin2 x
Using the product rule:
dy 1 du 1 dv
 # u# 2#
dx v dx v dx
v # du u dv Example
 2
 2#
v dx v dx ln x
Differentiate y  .
du dv 12x  52 3
vu
dx dx

v2 Let u  ln x v  12x  52 3 v2  12x  52 6

This is the quotient rule: du 1 dv

  612x  52 2
dx x dx

12x  52 3  6 ln x12x  52 2
1
du dv This is often remembered as
v u dy x

12x  52 6
dy dx dx dy v du  u dv So
 2  dx
dx v dx v2
12x  52  6 ln x
1
The numerator of the quotient
x

12x  52 4
rule is very similar to the
product rule but the sign is
Example different. 2x  5  6x ln x

x12x  52 4
13x  42 2
Differentiate y  using the quotient rule.
x2

Let u  13x  42 2 v  x2 v2  x4
Once again, this is the Exercise 5
du dv mechanics of the solution and
 613x  42  2x
dx dx so does not necessarily need Use the quotient rule to differentiate these.
to be shown.
dy 6x2 13x  42  2x13x  42 2 ex 6x2 7x
So  1 f1x2  2 f1x2  3 f1x2 
dx x4 cos x x3 tan x
2x13x  42 33x  13x  42 4 ln x ex x3
 4 f1x2  5 f1x2  6 f1x2 
x4 4x x4 x3

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9 Differentiation 2 – Further Techniques 9 Differentiation 2 – Further Techniques

2x  9 4x 2x
7 f1x2  8 f1x2  9 f1x2  dy 3x Note that the answer contains
x2 1x 2x  1 1  both x and y.
dx y
e3x log6 x ln x
10 y  11 y  12 y  We can now find the second derivative by differentiating this again.
9x2 x6 ln1x  42 In a case like this it is important
Using the quotient rule:
to be able to explicitly state
ex sin 2x 413x  22 5 dy
13 y  x 14 y  6x 15 y  dy
e  ex e 12x  32 3 d2y
3y  3x
dx dx
 ... so that the second

dx2 y2 derivative can be found, but this
p
sec ¢x  ≤
x sin x x2e3x 4 3x is not always the situation.
16 y  17 y  18 y 
ex 1x  52 2 e2x 3y  3x ¢
y
≤

y2
p
cot ¢2x  ≤
3 9x2
19 y  3y 
ln13x  12 y

y2
20 Use the quotient rule to prove the results for tan x, csc x, sec x and cot x. You need
sin x
to remember that tan x  . Also consider how you could 3y2  9x2
cos x 
have proved these two results y3
using only the chain rule.
d 2y
We would usually leave the answer in this form. However, if we wanted as
dx2
9.6 Implicit differentiation a function of x, we could proceed as follows:

This is the differentiation of functions that are stated implicitly. Until now we have
317  3x2 2  9x2
We know that
mostly considered functions that are stated explicitly, that is, y  p d 2y
 3x2  y2  7
dx2 17  3x2 2 2
3

Functions defined implicitly have equations that are not in the form y  p Some of 1 y2  7  3x2
these equations are easily made explicit (such as 2x  3y  5 ) but others are more  21

17  3x2 2 2
3
difficult to rearrange. Some of these implicit equations may be familiar, such as the circle
equation 1x  42 2  1y  32 2  36. Differentiating implicit functions does not require
any further mathematical techniques than those covered so far. The key concept utilized
in implicit differentiation is the chain rule.

Method for implicit differentiation

Example
1. Differentiate each term, applying the chain rule to functions of the variable.
dy dy
2. Rearrange the answer to the form . Find for 6 sin x  e3xy3  9.
dx dx
Differentiating with respect to x:
dy
It is possible to rearrange this 6 cos x  ¢3e3xy3  e3x3y2 ≤0 Use the product rule to
Example dx differentiate e3xy3 .
function to an explicit form.
However, unless you are told dy
dy d2y 1 3e3xy2¢y  ≤  6 cos x
Find and for 3x2  y2  7 otherwise, it is often better to dx
dx dx2
leave it in this form and dy 2 cos x
Differentiating with respect to x: differentiate implicitly. 1y  3x 2
dx e y
dy 2 cos x
dy 1  3x 2  y
6x  2y  0 Applying the chain rule gives dx e y
dx

1y 2  2y # .
dy d 2 dy
1 2y  6x dx dx
dx

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9 Differentiation 2 – Further Techniques 9 Differentiation 2 – Further Techniques

Example So the equation of the tangent is So the equation of the tangent is

dQ 2Q y  3  61x  22 y  9  181x  22
for sin pp   ln p.
1p  32 2
Find 1 y  6x  15 1 y  18x  27
dp

Differentiating with respect to p:

1p  32 2  21p  32 # 2Q
dQ Some questions will require the second derivative to be found, and a result to be
2
dp 1
p cos pp  
1p  32 4 p d2y dy
shown to be true that involves , and y. In the examples so far we have found
dx2 dx
1p  32 2  4Q1p  32
dQ
2
dp 1 dy d2y
  p cos pp
1p  32  ... and then differentiated this again with respect to x to find
1 4 . With other
p dx dx2
dQ
2
dp 4Q 1 questions, it is best to leave the result as an implicit function and differentiate for a
   p cos pp
1p  32 2 1p  32 3
1
p
dQ second time, implicitly. The following two examples demonstrate this.
2
dp 1 4Q
  p cos pp 
1p  32 2 1p  32 3
1
p

dQ 1p  32 2 4Q Example
12   p1p  32 2 cos pp 
dp p p3 d2y dy 1
1p  32 2 Show that x2  4x  2y   for x2y  x ln x  6x.
 1p  32 2 cos pp 
dQ p 2Q dx 2
dx x
1 
dp 2p 2 p3
Differentiating with respect to x:
dy 1
2xy  x2  ln x  # x  6
dx x
Example dy
1 2xy  x2  ln x  1  6
Find the equations of the tangents to 3x2y  y2  27 when x  2. dx
Differentiating again with respect to x:
Differentiating with respect to x:
dy dy d2y 1
dy dy 2y  2x  2x  x2 2   0
6xy  3x2  2y  0 dx dx dx x
dx dx
d2y dy 1
1 13x2  2y2  6xy
dy 1 x2  4x  2y  
dx dx2 dx x
dy 6xy
1  2
dx 3x  2y
dy Example
To find we now require the y-coordinates. So, from the formula
dx
dy d2y
3x y  y  27, when x  2, we find
2 2 Given that exy  cos x, show that 2y  2  2  0.
dx dx

12y  y2  27 Differentiating with respect to x:

1 y  12y  27  0
2 dy
exy  ex  sin x
1 1y  32 1y  92  0 dx
1 y  3, y  9 Differentiating again with respect to x:
dy dy d2y
At (2, 3) At (2 , 9) exy  ex  ex  ex 2  cos x
dx dx dx
dy 6 # 2 # 3 dy 6 # 2 # 9 From the original function, cos x  exy
 
dx 12  6 dx 12  18 dy dy d2y
36 108 So we have exy  ex  ex  ex 2  exy
  dx dx dx
6 6
 6  18
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9 Differentiation 2 – Further Techniques 9 Differentiation 2 – Further Techniques

dy
dy d2y 1  cos y #
1 e y  2e
x
 ex 2  exy
x dx This is because sin y  x 1 sin2 y  x2
dx dx
dy 1
dy d2y 1  1 1  cos2 y  x2
1 2exy  2ex  ex 2  0 dx cos y
dx dx
Dividing by ex (since ex  0 ∀ x H  ): dy 1
1  1 cos2 y  1  x2
dy dy 2 dx 21  x2
1 2y  2  20
dx dx 1 cos y  21  x2

dy 1
For y  sin1 x 
Exercise 6 dx 21  x2

dy
1 Find for:
dx x
We can now consider y  sin1¢ ≤
a
a x  xy  4
3
b 4x  y  9
2 2
c y  1x  0
3

x
 sin y
d 1x  32 1y  22  ln x f ey  1x  y2 2
1
e xy  y2  7 a
g e2xy3  9  sin 3x h y  cos1x  y2 i x4  y ln y 1 x  a sin y
1x  y2 4
j 1x  y2 3  ey
Differentiating with respect to x:
k  8x  ex
y
dy
1  a cos y
dx
dy d2y
2 Find and for:
dx dx2 dy 1
1 
a 4y  3y2  x2 b 4xy  sin x  y c xey  8 dx a cos y

3 For the function defined implicitly by x4  2xy  y2  4, find the equations dy 1 x x2

 This is because sin y 
a 1 1  cos y  a2
1 2

of the tangents at x  1. dx x2
a 1
dy dy 2
C a2 x2
4 Show that 2y   2  0 for exy  sin x. 1 1  cos2 y  2
dx dx a
2a2
d2y dy 
5 Given that xy  sin x, show that x2 2  2x  x2y  0. a2a2  x2
dx dx
1
dy d2y 
6 Show that x 2
x 3
 xy  2 for xy  ln x.
2
2a  x2
2
dx dx
dy d2y
7 Given that e2xy  ln x, show that x2e2x ¢4y  4  2 ≤  1.
dx dx
For y  sin 1 a b
x d 1

a dx 2a  x2
2

9.7 Differentiating inverse trigonometric

can be obtained for y  cos1 1x2 and y  cos1¢ ≤.
dy x
functions Similarly
dx a
In order to find the derivative of sin1 x (or arcsin x), we apply implicit differentiation. dy 1
1
For y  cos 1 x 
Consider y  sin x dx 21  x2
1 x  sin y 1
For y  cos 1 a b
x dy

Differentiating with respect to x: a dx 2a2  x2
Now consider y  tan1 1x2
1 x  tan y

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9 Differentiation 2 – Further Techniques 9 Differentiation 2 – Further Techniques

Differentiating with respect to x: We could also consider these examples to be applications of the chain rule. This may be
easier and shorter (but both methods are perfectly valid). This is demonstrated below.
dy
y  sin1 14x2
1  sec2 y # Remember that
dx
sec2 x  tan2 x  1
dy 1 dy 1
 Then  #4
21  14x2 2
1 So sec2 y  tan2 y  1 dx
dx sec2 y
 x2  1
dy 1 4
1  2 
dx x 1 21  16x2

In some cases it is not possible to use the stated results, and the chain rule must be
applied.
dy 1
For y  tan 1x  2
dx 1x

Example
x Differentiate y  tan1 1x.
A similar result can be found for tan1¢ ≤.
a Here we must use the chain rule.
dy 1
 # 1 x 12
dx 1  1 1x2 2 2
x dy a
For y  tan1¢ ≤  2 1
a dx a  x2 
21x11  x2

Example
Exercise 7
x
Differentiate y  cos1¢ ≤.
3 Differentiate the following functions.
dy 1
 x
dx 29  x2 1 y  sin1 ¢ ≤
5
x
2 y  cos1¢ ≤
8
Example x
3 y  tan1¢ ≤
Differentiate y  sin 14x2.1 1. 10
In this case a 
4 2x
4 y  sin1 ¢ ≤
dy 1 3
5 y  cos1 13x2

dx 1
 x2
B 16 ex
6 y  tan1¢ ≤
1 2

1 7 y  cos1 2x  4
21  16x2
B 16 8 y  tan1 12x  12

4 9 y  sin1 1ln 5x2
21  16x 2

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