Ce312 - Chapter 02.3 - Designing The Highway

CHAPTER 02-3
DESIGNING THE HIGHWAY

CE312 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING
STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE
The stopping sight distance is de ned as the longest distance that a driver could see the top of an object 15 centimeters
(6") above the road surface where the design height of the driver's eye above the pavement is 105 centimeters.
Stopping Sight Distance
1.05m Eye Level

Object 15cm
above the pavement
FIGURE 2.23 MEASURING STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE

CE312-HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING
DATE
04 OCTOBER 2021 INSTRUCTOR
ENGR. CHRISTIAN PIMENTEL
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Stopping Distance is Made-up of Two Elements
1. The distance traveled after the obstruction or object is seen and before the driver applies the brakes.
2. The second distance is consumed while the driver applies brakes for the vehicle to stop.
Stopping Sight Distance
dr d
Perception Breaking Stopping

Point Point Point

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The distance covered could be expressed
by the following formula:
V = Initial Speed, in meters per second
dr = V ∙ t t = Detection, Recognition, Decision and response
initiation (brake reaction time)
Breaking distance:
2 2 gm = Acceleration of gravity, 9.80 m/s2
V V
d= d= f = Coe cient of friction between the tire and pavement
2gm f 19.6f
The above formula assumes that the highway level is at. If the car is traveling uphill, the braking distance is decreased,
and for downhill, braking distance is increased. The braking distance on slope is expressed by the following formula:
2 g = Longitudinal slope of the roadway or % Grade/100
V
d= Uphill grade is positive (+)
19.8( f + g)
Downhill grade is negative (-)

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TABLE 2.6 MINIMUM STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE WET ROAD
Break Reaction Stopping Sight Distance
Design Speed Assumed Speed Coe cient of
Km/hr for Condition Friction Rounded for
Time (sec.) Distance (m) Computed (meter)
Design (meter)
30 30-32 2.5 22-24 0.40 31.8-35.8 36-38
45 40-50 2.5 31-33 0.35 53.4-58.8 60-60
60 55-60 2.5 40-44 0.32 80.1-94.2 82-97
75 65-75 2.5 48-55 0.30 112.8-138.3 112-142
90 80-90 2.5 57-66 0.29 150.2-190.2 157-195
100 85-95 2.5 61-71 0.29 165.0-217.2 165-217
105 90-100 2.5 64-77 0.28 183.9-252.0 187-255
110 90-110 2.5 67-83 0.28 200.1-283.0 202-285
120 95-120 2.5 71-88 0.27 222.3-324.9 225-330
Source: A Policy on Geometric Design

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THE PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE
The passing sight distance is the longest distance that a driver can see the top of an oncoming vehicle where the driver's eye level is 1.05 meters
above the pavement surface. The relationship between the passing sight distance, the algebraic difference in grades, and the length of vertical
curve is represented by the following equations:
L = length required of vertical curve
943 AS2 where: S is less than L
L = 2S − where S is greater than L L= L is length in meters
S = speci ed sight distance
A 943 A = algebraic di erence in grades
expressed in percent
Passing Sight Distance
1.05m Eye Level 1.20m
FIGURE 2.24 MEASURING PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE

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The design of two lane highway of passing over crests is generally practical only on at grades because the longer vertical
curves are required to provide passing sight than stopping sight distance.
V = Velocity (meters/second)
2
V − Se R = Radius in meters
F=
9.8R Se = Super Elevation (slope ratio)
rise per second
The maximum coef cient of side friction on dry pavement as determined by curve tests ranges between 0.4 and 0.5 value
with normal pavement and smooth tires is about 0.35 at 75 kilometers per hour.

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TABLE 2.7 AASHTO MIMMUM PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE FOR DESIGN OF TWO-LANE HIGHWAYS
Assumed Speed Minimum Passing
Design Speed Km/hr Passed Vehicle Km/hr Overtaking Vehicle Km/hr Computed Rounded
35 35 48 243 240
50 42 58 327 320
65 55 70 444 440
80 65 82 525 550
95 75 91 642 640
100 80 96 693 690
110 86 102 747 740
120 90 105 780 780
135 95 110 822 820
TABLE 2-8 AASHTO RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM COEFFICIENT OF SIDE FRICTION

Design Speed Km/hr. 32 48 64 80 97 113 129
Coe cient of Friction 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.08

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ROAD ALIGNMENT
Road alignment should be consistent. An abrupt change from
at to sharp curve and long tangents followed by sharp curve
should be avoided because it will only create hazard and
invite accident. Similarly, designing circular curves of
different radius from end to end or compounded curve is not a
good practice, unless suitable transitions between them are
provided.
To have a short tangent between two curves is also a poor

practice. A long at curve is acceptable at all times. It is
pleasing to look at, with less probability of future
obsolescence. Alignment should be provided with tangent
because there are drivers who hesitate to pass on curves. A
short curve appears like kinks. A long at curve is preferred
for small changes in direction.

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CIRCULAR CURVES
A vehicle traveling in curved road is
subject to centrifugal force. This force is
balanced by equal and opposite forces
developed through the super elevation
and side frictions. However neither the
side friction on the super elevation,
could overcome nor exceed the
maximum control and limit on the
sharpness of the curves with a
prescribed design speed. The sharpness
of a curve is dependent on its radius.
Sharpness is expressed in terms of the
curve degrees, and the degrees of curve
is inversely proportional with the radius.
HORIZONTAL CURVES

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CIRCULAR CURVES
TABLE 2.9 DEGREE OF CURVES
Degree of Curve Radius Meter Degrees of Curve Radius Meter 5,729.58
D=
0˚ 30’ 3,491.75 6˚ 00’ 291.06 Radius
1˚ 00’ 1,746.38 10˚ 00’ 174.63 D = degree of curve and
the radius Degree of
2˚ 00’ 873.19 20˚ 00’ 87.32 curve SI = 0.328D
The degree of curve is expressed either by the Arc de nitions or the Chord de nitions.
Arc De nitions - The degree of curve is the central angle subtended by a 30 meters arc of the curve.
Chord De nitions - The degree of curve is the central angle subtended by 50 meters chord.

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CIRCULAR CURVES
TABLE 2.10 SHARPEST PERMISSIBLE HORIZONTAL CURVES FOR GIVEN DESIGN SPEED
Maximum Permissible Degree of Curve D, or Minimum Radius Design Spped
Km/hr. 35 50 65 80 97 113 127
Coe cient of Side Friction
Super Elev. Condition for use 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.11
0.04 D 45 19 10 6 3.75 - -
Desirable for down
arterials
R 39 92 175 291 466 - -
0.1 D 58 25 13.25 8.25 5.25 3.5 2.25

Max for Rural highway
and suburban freeway
R 30 70 132 198 333 499 776

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CIRCULAR CURVES
The maximum allowed super elevation rate before was 0.12 but now it is 0.10 except on low volume gravel roads. The Policy on
Geometric Design recommend that:
1. For design speed of 50 kilometers per hour, the normal cross slope is 1˚-21' or even atter curves.
2. For a 120 kilometers per hour design speed road, the normal cross slope is 0˚-15' or atter curves without super elevation.
ln each of this solution, the total side friction is less than 0.04 for an adverse cross slope of 0.02.

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SUPER ELEVATION - RUNOFF
Center
Curved sections of roadways are usually Line
super elevated. Provisions for gradual Guard Rail
changes from one point to the other Slope
should be considered. The centerline of
each individual roadway at pro le grade
θ
is maintained while raising the outer edge
and lowering the inner edge to attain the
Ditch
desired super elevation. It is done by
raising-up the outside edge of the
pavement with relation to the centerline Shoulder Lane Surface Shoulder
until the outer half of the cross section is
at. Then, the outer edge is raised until
the cross section is straight. Finally, the
entire cross section is rotated as a whole FIGURE 2.25 SUPER ELEVATION OF CURVES
until full super elevation is reached.

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Superelevation
Superelevation is a method of infrastructure construction used in roadway curves where the outer edge of the pavement is
raised above the inner edge. An aspect of the vertical alignment or “pro le” of a road viewed in cross-section, it's an important
safety element in the design criteria of any road with curves.

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TABLE 2.11 SUGGESTED MINIMUM LENGTH OF SUPER ELEVATION RUNOFF FOR 2-LANE A 3.60 METERS LANE
LENGTH OF RUNOFF FOR DESIGN SPEED in Meter

Super Elevation
Rate Km/hr.
35 50 65 80 95 115 130
0.20 9.0 10.5 12.0 15.0 16.5 18.0 19.5
0.04 18.0 21.0 25.5 28.5 33.0 36.0 39.0
0.60 28.5 33.0 37.5 43.5 48.0 54.0 60.0
0.08 37.5 43.5 51.0 57.0 64.5 72.0 79.5
0.10 48.0 54.0 63.0 72.0 81.0 90.0 99.0

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AASHTO recommended the run off length to vary both with the super elevation rate and the design speed but with minimum set
for appearance and comfort to riders. A roadway that lies in a cut, where the grade line is nearly at, may create sag by lowering
its inner edge. This may not drain surface water.
It is advisable to make the super elevation by raising the outer edge elevated twice the usual distance. Where the alignment is of
tangent connected by a circular curve, super elevation is started on a tangent before the curve is reached and full super
elevation is accomplished at a distance beyond the point of curve. It is therefore recommended that 60% to 80% of the runoff be
on a tangent.
For wider roadway, the length given on Table 2-9 should be increased as follows:
1. Four lanes, individual value increased by 50%
2. Six lanes, individual value increased by 100%

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WIDENING OF CURVES

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WIDENING OF CURVES
A provision for a wider roadway is necessary on sharp curve for two lanes pavement under the following reasons:
1. To force the drivers to shy away from the pavement edge.
2. To increase the effective transverse vehicle width for non-tracking of front and rear wheels.
3. To give additional width due to the slanted position of the front wheel to the roadway center line.
4. For a 7.20 meters wide roadway, an additional width of 30 centimeters is necessary on an open curve highway.
Reverse circular curves are seldom used on modern highways, but reverse curves that are provided with proper length easements between
them are acceptable. If no easement curve is allotted, curves on opposite directions should be separated by tangent several meters long.
There are roads with compound curves that change abruptly from one sharpness to another. Where the radii of the compound curves are
different, sudden change confuse the drivers and in turn they shift position within the lane and sometimes veer out of it. For this reason,
compound circular curve of different radii is considered as poor design.
AASHTO recommends that the radius of the atter curve for rural highways should never be more than 50% greater than that of the sharper
one. For urban intersection, this easement curve is considered which introduces the changes in radius gradually. Super elevation changes
along this transition section.

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ISLAND

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ISLAND
An island is a de ned area between traf c lanes for control of vehicle movement and for pedestrian refuge. Within an
intersection, median is considered an island. This de nition makes evident that an island is no single physical type.
It may range from an area delineated by barrier curb to a pavement area marked by paint. On at-grade intersection in which
traf c is directed into de nite paths by island is termed as Channelized Intersections.
Island is included in the design of intersections for the following purposes:
1. Separation of vehicular ows.

2. Separation of con icts.
3. Reduction in excessive pavement areas.
4. Reduction of traf c and indications of proper use of intersections.
5. Arrangement to favor a prominent turning movement.
6. Location of traf c control devices.
To con ne vehicles in a de nite location proper without route for vehicles and pedestrian, everyone's action could not be
predicted by others and these are usually the main cause of confusion which lead to accidents.

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ISLAND
By channelization, the angle or route between intersecting streams of traf c can be smooth and favorable. Drivers are
commanded to merge into moving traf c streams at at angle and right speed being controlled over vehicles approaching an
intersection.
When cross traf c meets at at angle, head on collision could be more serious. A right angle at 75˚ to 105˚ is most favorable
giving the driver that opportunity to assess or calculate the position and speed of oncoming vehicles. By channelization,
funneling is also effective in preventing overtaking and passing in con ict areas. A well studied super elevation is an important
adjunct to channelization that regulates the vehicle speed and:
1. Prohibited turns are prevented

2. Refuge may be provided for turning or crossing vehicles and pedestrian
3. By channelization, refuge may be provided for turning or crossing vehicles and pedestrians.
4. The drivers has to face only one decision at a time, hence, con icts can be avoided.
5. It provides location for the traf c control devices like signs, signals and refuge for pedestrians.

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END OF PRESENTATION

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Ce312 - Chapter 02.3 - Designing The Highway

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CHAPTER 02-3

DESIGNING THE HIGHWAY

Stopping Sight Distance

1.05m Eye Level

FIGURE 2.23 MEASURING STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE

DESIGNING THE HIGHWAY

Stopping Sight Distance

Perception Breaking Stopping

DESIGNING THE HIGHWAY

DESIGNING THE HIGHWAY

DESIGNING THE HIGHWAY

Passing Sight Distance

1.05m Eye Level 1.20m

FIGURE 2.24 MEASURING PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE

DESIGNING THE HIGHWAY

DESIGNING THE HIGHWAY

TABLE 2-8 AASHTO RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM COEFFICIENT OF SIDE FRICTION

DESIGNING THE HIGHWAY

To have a short tangent between two curves is also a poor

DESIGNING THE HIGHWAY

DESIGNING THE HIGHWAY

DESIGNING THE HIGHWAY

Km/hr. 35 50 65 80 97 113 127

Coe cient of Side Friction

0.1 D 58 25 13.25 8.25 5.25 3.5 2.25

Source: A Policy on Geometric Design

DESIGNING THE HIGHWAY

DESIGNING THE HIGHWAY

DESIGNING THE HIGHWAY

DESIGNING THE HIGHWAY

LENGTH OF RUNOFF FOR DESIGN SPEED in Meter

0.20 9.0 10.5 12.0 15.0 16.5 18.0 19.5

0.04 18.0 21.0 25.5 28.5 33.0 36.0 39.0

0.60 28.5 33.0 37.5 43.5 48.0 54.0 60.0

0.08 37.5 43.5 51.0 57.0 64.5 72.0 79.5

0.10 48.0 54.0 63.0 72.0 81.0 90.0 99.0

Source: A Policy on Geometric Design

DESIGNING THE HIGHWAY

1. Four lanes, individual value increased by 50%

2. Six lanes, individual value increased by 100%

DESIGNING THE HIGHWAY

DESIGNING THE HIGHWAY

DESIGNING THE HIGHWAY

DESIGNING THE HIGHWAY

Island is included in the design of intersections for the following purposes:

1. Separation of vehicular ows.

DESIGNING THE HIGHWAY

1. Prohibited turns are prevented

DESIGNING THE HIGHWAY

DESIGNING THE HIGHWAY

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