DEFORMATION OF SOLIDS

drat
3512859
s
Deformation
Property which the change in dimensions
by
and shape of a solid is studied due to
compressive or tensile force
Types of deformation
Elastic deformation
Plastic deformation
Elastic deformation Solid return to its original
dimensions and shape when deforming force is
removed from it due to its elastic property
Plastic deformation solid can never return to its
original dimensions and shape if deforming force
is removed from it Solid is permanently stretched
or compressed if enter into plastic region

stress
Force unit cross sectional area is stress
Def per
Symbol J Sigma
Formula T
E
Nm Rgm's Pascal Pa
Units
p s scalar
Types
Force per unit cross satinet area
1 Tensile stress used a increase length of a solid
 Length is increased
F C
ca
I but volume is kept
constant
V
F f ICY
Cii per unit cross satinet area
Compressive strees Force to a solid
used
decrease length of
i a F length is decreased
F but volume is kept
constant

ve
F
A E fly
strain
Def Change in length per unit original length
is strain
E Epsilon
Sal
Formula E
Units No units because it is the ratio bw two
similar physical quantities
Scalar
Ifes Decrease in length
la Compressive strain
original length
b Tensile strain Increase in length extens
original length originals
Hooke's law
Statement Within the elastic limit the force
applied is directly proportional to the extension
compression produced
 Mathematical form F a e
F k e
I springconstant or Elastic
or stiffness constant

Graph B
n n
B
JE
FIN
4m

o em o Fln

end point of
L Limit of proportionality straight line from
origin
OL Hooke's law
E Elastic limit end pointoriginal
from where a solid
dimensions
regain its
shape when applied street
Force is removed
OE Elastic region return a its
solid never
Beyond E Plastic original dimensions shape if
region enter inte this region

Ductile material Materials which undergo plastic

F deformation before breakingi e metals

Ting Necking is
region
the property of Ductile
 B Breaking point material solid breaks
ie

snaps at this point

Combination
Combination
of springs
staringconstant Tostenson
Arrangement
decreases increases

IMEMEEimg r.it Itt E e testes

series
Forceacting For
identical n ne
on each
spring is same
springs
each of springconstant
Kt In G
K
x increases decreases

parallel B 3 kt Kitkat's tettetet

Forceacting VF
on each For identical n springs
spring is each of spang constant Kt Nk et E
different K

For two springs in series

It I kik
Kike
Kt kit K2
Productof springconstants
ie Total spring constant
sum of springconstants
Q A force F causes an extension e in a spring
having spring constant K Express the total
spring constant Kt and total extension et interns
of K and e respectively in following arrangements
of identical springs
Arrangement Kt et
Kt en ne
Inimmymntook F I he
y F Kt et
ke
E ne
kink G
K 13 3k 3k
f
V F E
x
F ke
3k 3 2K 2kt K
F
4 z
33 y
BK so
3
IF G
K GK 2k F ft
Bk Bk Bk
j
33k 3kt 2K
F
G Ee
Bk BK q
IF et Sf
t t the Fikret
footsteps p
23,52
F
f Ee
Amknomkimy Kt If 89 e
Q Identical springs

ftp mykn p

Greatest force Greatest extension

springI A spring
sprig20h3
spring4 S F
Divide ie
E spy
g2
or 3 7
E
Spring y and y spring is and14

smallest force smallestextension

springI A
sprigz ol 3
spring4 S F
Spring 2 Ol 3
Divide ie
E If
sprig2 a 3
y
Spring 2
e
ol 3
I
2

Young Modulus
concept Strees a strain
stress Youngmodulus strain
Modulus Strees
Young strain

Def Stress per unit strain is Young modulus

Symbol F
FL

If
Formula E
I E
ADL
of DL ecesctension
E FL
Ae
Units Nm Pascal Pa
Rgm's
P s scalar
Dependance Nature of solids ie its crystal
structure or bonding
Et for hard materials ie metals
than 10 Pascal
eg glede is only for solids because
Note Young Modulus
one can not deform fluids in one dimension

Relationship b w Young Modulus E and

Elastic or spring constant k
Since F ke a

Also E FL
Ae
2
F
Ef e

Comparing a and 2

K
EI
mattress compression analysis
springCombination 1 Combination 2
rt rt rt Ir Ir Ir
Bk Bk Bk Bk Bk BkBkBk
k
2K 2K 2K BH ur 2K2K2K

2 3 33 3 3 BB
3
Kt In 4 Kt NK E K
F ke Fa ki et F ke Fa ki et
ke ki et Ke Kier
Ke ke
UI et k e

et et e
Ze o se
Result Combination a mattress is more soft as
compared to arrangement shown in 1 due to its greater
compression

Q which one is the softer matters ie which

compresses more for same rise of force
F F
v u

3333 B 33
13 3 3K
mattress A mattress B

i i
33
3 33K
mattrels A mattress B

KICK
Kt It I K
3K 3K
Kt 321 9 2
Kt 31
 Since force and total spring constants are
same so both arrangement of springs equally
comprees for the same rise of force
June2011 22 Q No4 lo marks

Experimental determination of Young Modulus

of a metallic wire
X X X X

P q P Q P Q

E Fate
É É
ÉÉÉÉÉ

I b b b b

Design features
s.no Design feature Reason

1 Identical wires ie madeof For better comparison because

same material with similar of same Young Modulus asthey
dimensions ale made of same material

2
Larger length of both to reduce percentage error
wires is takeni e approximately for higher degree ofaccuracy
u
Im
I too
If
 Heavy masses are initially To make them free of
3 Suspended from their ends Rinks so that
accurate
length can be taken

Measurements
1 Measure length of a wire by using metre
rule L
2 Measure several diameters along the length
of a wire and get their mean diameter to reduce
random error
d di dat da
3
Procedure
1 Add mass one by one to the hanger suspended
with wire Q and measure the corresponding
extension
2 Also remove unload masses from hanger one
by one to check that elastic limit of wire
is not exceeded Now get the mean extension

Analysis
1 Plot the graph of Fln defined by loading
the hanger of wire Q and mean extension
The
graph should be a straight line
and this plotting of graph reduce random
 error if any a

FIN

elm
2 Get the gradient of this graph to eliminate
systematic error if any
Gradient
E
Calculation
111 Calculate the sectional
cross Area of wire
mean diameter value
using
A At A ACEY A And

FL
2
Young Modulus E
Ae
E
E Eq E
E Ear
E 4 Gradient original length
A diameter

work energyand

eeasg.it t stni
is
EIgaang
straight line
If graph a

F area Ep
an
Flye Ep ke Ep I
Behaviour of a metallic wire under tension

A
c

Area under ALB Energy supplied to the wire

inorder to stretch it
Area under BC recovered from a
Energy
a

88
Ismaelbox O
SOLUTIONS OF PROBLEMATIC QUESTIONS

Ate

mg ke
mÉge

Same material means same Young Modulusexceed

et and
model Ecrone its elastic limit
mgr
Fante Fate Fet Ae

Pugh
Ight 19 to Ae
em ee laugh
Ae
to
Em Em get
10hm 102L'm
fam
Em Li
102
Em
Oct Nov 10 12 variant
18 Kt
KT F Ke
24 A trolley is held at rest between two steel springs.

P Q
YE KE

Each spring has an unstretched length of 0.10 m.

Spring P has spring constant 60 N m–1.

Spring Q has spring constant 120 N m–1.
et and exceed
its elastic lint
Spring P has an extension of 0.40 m.

What is the extension of spring Q?

A 0.10 m B 0.20 m C 0.30 m D 0.80 m

25 A lift is supported by two steel cables, each of length 10 m and diameter 0.5 cm.

The lift drops 1 mm when a man of mass 80 kg steps into the lift.

What is the best estimate of the value of the Young modulus of the steel?

A 2 × 1010 N m–2

B 4 × 1010 N m–2

C 2 × 1011 N m–2

D 4 × 1011 N m–2
ME my
Space for working

et and exceed
its elastic lint

Tng

© UCLES 2012 9702/13/O/N/12

Nov 4 13 variant
13

20 A bolt is subjected to a tensile force, as shown.

bolt

t.tt
X

tensile
Y
F Kt
tensile
et
4 103
2d d
force
xis 80 4 310
force
et
te y't 103
The bolt has a circular cross-section.
Go et
1000is d.
At end X the diameter is 2d. At end Y the diameter

What is the ratio stress at Y ?

Kt 4310
stress at X
e Goo 6 17
et 6cm
A 0.25 B 0.50 C 2.0 D 4.0

21 A rectangular block of steel supporting a very large component of a bridge has a height of 15 cm
and a cross-section of 20 cm × 12 cm. It is designed to compress 1 mm when under maximum,
evenly distributed, load.

The Young modulus of steel is 2.0 × 1011 N m–2.

June
What is15113 variant
the maximum load it can support?June 21
12variant 0.19
a at.at
A 32 MN B 56 GN C 720 GN D 32 TN
A

Ty iD
2d

Aw
Id
An
d

AW Ipa
Aw X
d d
Ty ad 4 I 0.25

© UCLES 2017 9702/12/O/N/17 [Turn over

 11
F ke
20 The diagram shows a simplified model of a building with four identical heavy floors.
e F
top rods K

floors
middle rods F
Ca Q Kp
Kp ep F ke
Ka bottom rods Kp
e 60
Ep ee o 20m
g go
eat
The spacing of the bottom floor from the ground is twice that of the spacing between the floors.
Between each floor are equal numbers of vertical steel supporting rods of negligible mass
compared with the floors. The rods are of different diameters so that the stress in each rod is the
same.
80129.81 atom
What is the ratio diameter of bottom rods ? d 0.5cm
diameter of top rods ecimm
A 2 B 4 C 8 D 16

FL MGL
21 The Achilles tendon in a rabbit’s leg isE
stretched when the rabbit jumps. 480719.81
Ae
The graph shows the variation with tension of the length of the tendon. F e

4mg L 4140 9.81 Io

40 E E
length / mm die 3.14 0.5 152 1 153
38

E 1.999 10
36
E 2 10 Pa
34

32

30
0 100 200 300 400 500
tension / N

What is the strain energy in the tendon when the tension is 400 N?

A 0.40 J B 0.80 J C 2.4 J D 7.4 J

© UCLES 2020 9702/13/M/J/20 [Turn over

 ACE
And

a y
egg Fay 8 It 4

E FL F EA e
Ae L
F G 0 10 20 12 504 1 153
15 152
F 32 106N
F 32 MN
 hd
the weightoftopfloor
r ma dig Etf
y ME
z
di 4mg
i
egg 4
p dig
stress in bottomrods which
hold theweight ofFourfloors dy
F Mag
di 414mg v
Ids ng

Ep Area ofgraph
37 along with
extension
ol Lengthaxis
Ep Area
35 357153 400
Ep I 37

Ep 0 40J
 June 15 12 Variant 11

19 Two springs X and Y stretch elastically. The graphs show the variation with extension x of the

At
force F applied to each spring.

spring X spring Y

20 80
F/N F/N My
cutlets
0
0 10
0
0
2Ihdtf 5
x / cm x / cm

Which statement is correct?

A When each spring is given the same extension, the energy stored in Y is 4 times the energy
stored in X.
B When each spring is given the same extension, the energy stored in Y is 8 times the energy
stored in X.
C When the same force is applied to each spring, the energy stored in Y is 4 times the energy
stored in X. F
When the same force is applied As ti Zar
D
T2 Ah
to each spring, the energy stored in Y is 8 times the energy

CELINE
In
stored in X.

É
ti
É
20 The diagram shows the force-extension graph for a steel wire, up to its breaking point.

250 t
force / N
200
t 2W
I 150
We

100

Elastically deformed
50

Plastically
0
0
deformed
5 10
If
extension / mm
EA Constant Same
What is the best estimate of the work done to break the wire? I
Different Different
A 2.1 J B 2.3 J C 2.4 J
Af I
D 2.5 J

he Lane same
Same

© UCLES 2017 9702/13/M/J/17 [Turn over

 Ife
Since AL

Ep F Ce I E E
stress strain

Ep 2 1090.010
v I
10 106Jm3
10MJm3

E
Ite
EA Constant Same
I
Different Different
Af E
he Lane same
Same
 152 153
I 203110
15 I 180715
25

Ex I 110 5 152 0 25 J and Ey 2J So Ey 8 Ex

so 9 153 0 225J

169 10 153312003
1 9J

Areaunder graph
1 9 0.225
2 125J
March17 12
17

Es ZE
wire x wire's
23 What is meant by the ultimate tensile stress of a material?

CIEGZEEE.IE
E
A the maximum force that can be applied to a bar of the material before it bends
Fast
the maximum inter-atomic force before the atomic bondsEof the material break
B
E Fate F ACE dig d 2d
Ls
Ey 8
C the maximum stretching force per unit cross-sectional area before the material breaks
E
infilled
F EA
D the maximum tensile force in a wire of the material
Muses
before it breaks
EE E 2
1

F
ERIE Fame and EE
24 The graph shows the behaviour of a sample of a metal when it is stretched until2it starts to

Edited
undergo plastic deformation.
e tiresEx d
Eggs force / N Ego
Y dy
Ey
Ey 550
Age
500 X
E d
Fg
E Cady
Er I Er t
March17 12

E L Fe 103
120 0.25 153
I
0
0 10.0 12.0
15J
March16 12 extension / mm

What is the total work done in stretching the sample from zero to 12.0 mm extension?
Simplify the calculation by treating the curve XY as a straight line.

A 3.30 J B 3.55 J C 3.60 J D 6.60 J

Es ZE
cafés I c
E
Space for working
Fast

Ls es tie
Muses Fdi ed es Ze

Ls 2 he 2
F same
dies di e on bothwires

© UCLES 2014 9702/13/O/N/14 [Turn over

 June16 11
Identical springs in
i series Kt
ii Parallel Kt n k
1
k
14 2,4 2 uncut

F Ktla 2 2K
88 2.4 et E E
et 33 3cm K

March19112

Total spring constant

1
K
14 2,4 2 uncut

F Kyle
85 2.4 et
et 33 3cm
 stretching

maximum n En

work done to stretch awire Gainof Elastic potential energy

Areaof fin elm graph along withextens
axis
d d
153
500 550 2 0
I
1 05J
Areaunder

egg my
Totalworkdone AreaCox xx
2 50J 2 50 1 05
W
W 3 55J

Work doneto stretchsample Area Q R

recovered fromstretched
feot
recovered
Energy
material Area R and becomes the internalenergy
qyygf.gg
 Nov 11 11 Q 26
10

19 In an experiment to measure the Young modulus of a metal, a wire of the metal of diameter
E FL
0.25 mm is clamped, as shown.
A AL Al Constant
E Fl wire y
Ala
clamp
e'al f
pulley
pulley
E Fae marker

F
Al
E et scale

The wire passes from a clamp, around a frictionless pulley, and then to a second frictionless
pulley where loads F are applied to it. A marker is attached to the wire so that the total length of
wire between the clamp and the marker is initially 3.70 m. A scale is fixed near to this marker.

The graph shows how the reading on the scale varies with F.

8.0
June19 12 Q 20 marker position 7.0
on scale / mm 6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0 wirex wirey
2.0
1.0 diameter dx d dy 2d
0
0 2 4 6 8 PE
10 Ex E Ey
Same material means same Young Modulus
F/N

Ex
What is the Young modulus of the metal?
Ex
A 10
5.5 × 10 Pa F L FL
B 10
9.4 × 10 Pa
Ax ex Aye
11
Ax e Aye
C 1.6 × 10 Pa

de nd ey
D 2.2 × 1011 Pa
Andi ex Audi e

ex 9 ex hey
Fe
Elastic potential energy E Iz
F ex
Ey
Ex I F ex É É I
Ey HE

© UCLES 2018 9702/13/O/N/18

June 18 11 918
16

21 A composite rod is made by attaching a glass-reinforced plastic rod and a nylon rod end to end,
as shown.
Same materialmeans 1.00 m 1.00 m
wires wirez
Same Young Modulus Sammeaterial E E

glass-reinforced plastic nylon

Diameter d D da 2D
E FL Ep = 40 GPa En = 2.0 GPa
Length L L 4 31
Ae
The rods have the same cross-sectional area and each rod IF
is 1.00 m inFlength.
force The Young Fa F
modulus Ep of the plastic is 40 GPa and the Young modulus En of the nylon is 2.0 GPa.

The composite rod will break when its total extension reaches 3.0 mm.

What is the greatest tensile stress that can be applied to the composite rod before it breaks?

A 7.1 × 10–14 Pa

B 7.1 × 10–2 Pa

C 5.7 × 106 Pa

F LI
5.7 × 109 Pa
E L2 F 3L
4 41
D

A e Ase
Space for working
agile
I 3 die
ez
die d e di
ez 3 Dix 3Ds
2132
ez
4D2
7 9 32
June18 12 0.20 June14 13 0.23

E Effin E EE E E E E
E E
F e F e
Ey v I A L

5
E s
E E ZE

© UCLES 2014 9702/12/M/J/14

 14

21 A metal wire is attached at one end to a fixed point and a load is hung from the other end so that
the wire hangs vertically. The load is increased from zero to 20 N. This causes the wire to extend
elastically by 5.0 mm. The load is then reduced to 12 N and the extension decreases to 3.0 mm.

load / N

20

12

0
0 3.0 5.0
extension / mm

How much strain energy is released during the unloading process?

A 0.8 × 10–2 J B 1.8 × 10–2 J C 2.4 × 10–2 J D 3.2 × 10–2 J

E
FL judge

E
EFE
E 4110313.70
3 14 0.25 1037218.0 4 6 103
E 2.21 10 Pa

© UCLES 2016 9702/12/M/J/16

Nov 11 12 023
March20 121Q No 19

E FL
Ae
stress L
E
stress on both rods is same

Totalextension plastic t Enylon

3 0 153 Strey too Streets i og
40 109 2.0 109
stress 5.71 106
NOV 11 12 023

greatest Areaunder
graph
Relativeolder
of
Area B D AI
 ne 20 12 918

Strain energy
Area under gege
Area 12 20 2.0 18
Area's
3.2 1025
5
11

June 20 12 918

7600 Got
Sb 8
2.27N I Teigaggist
É2
8.0cm

É Ae the n n
New length
E 2.27 16.0 152 24.0cm
2.0 106 8.0 152
106Pa
E 3.92 extension 24 16
8.0cm
 12

5 (a) Tensile forces are applied to opposite ends of a copper rod so that the rod is stretched. For
The variation with stress of the strain of the rod is shown in Fig. 5.1. Examiner’s
Use
2.5

stress / 108 Pa

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
strain / 10–3

Fig. 5.1

(i) Use Fig. 5.1 to determine the Young modulus of copper.

Young modulus = .......................................... Pa [3]

(ii) On Fig. 5.1, sketch a line to show the variation with stress of the strain of the rod as
the stress is reduced from 2.5 × 106 Pa to zero. No further calculations are expected.
[1]

© UCLES 2010 9702/22/M/J/10

 13

(b) The walls of the tyres on a car are made of a rubber compound. For
The variation with stress of the strain of a specimen of this rubber compound is shown Examiner’s
in Fig. 5.2. Use

stress

0
0 strain

Fig. 5.2

As the car moves, the walls of the tyres bend and straighten continuously.

Use Fig. 5.2 to explain why the walls of the tyres become warm.

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

go...................................................................................................................................... [3]

© UCLES 2010 9702/22/M/J/10 [Turn over

 10

4 (a) A uniform wire has length L and constant area of cross-section A. For
The material of the wire has Young modulus E and resistivity ρ. Examiner’s
A tension F in the wire causes its length to increase by DL. Use

For this wire, state expressions, in terms of L, A, F, DL and ρ for

(i) the stress σ,

............................................................................................................................ [1]

(ii) the strain ε,

............................................................................................................................ [1]

(iii) the Young modulus E,

............................................................................................................................ [1]

(iv) the resistance R.

............................................................................................................................ [1]

(b) One end of a metal wire of length 2.6 m and constant area of cross-section 3.8 × 10–7 m2
is attached to a fixed point, as shown in Fig. 4.1.

wire

2.6 m

load
30 N

Fig. 4.1

© UCLES 2010 9702/21/O/N/10

 11

The Young modulus of the material of the wire is 7.0 × 1010 Pa and its resistivity For
is 2.6 × 10–8 Ω m. Examiner’s
A load of 30 N is attached to the lower end of the wire. Assume that the area of Use

cross-section of the wire does not change.

For this load of 30 N,

(i) show that the extension of the wire is 2.9 mm,

[1]

(ii) calculate the change in resistance of the wire.

change = ............................................ Ω [2]

(c) The resistance of the wire changes with the applied load.
Comment on the suggestion that this change of resistance could be used to measure
the magnitude of the load on the wire.

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................... [2]

© UCLES 2010 9702/21/O/N/10 [Turn over

 10

4 (a) A metal wire has spring constant k. Forces are applied to the ends of the wire to extend For
it within the limit of Hooke’s law. Examiner’s
Show that, for an extension x, the strain energy E stored in the wire is given by Use

E = 12 kx 2.

[4]

(b) The wire in (a) is now extended beyond its elastic limit. The forces causing the extension
are then removed.
The variation with extension x of the tension F in the wire is shown in Fig. 4.1.

80

60
F/N

40

20

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
x / mm

Fig. 4.1

Energy ES is expended to cause a permanent extension of the wire.

(i) On Fig. 4.1, shade the area that represents the energy ES. [1]

© UCLES 2010 9702/22/O/N/10

 11

(ii) Use Fig. 4.1 to calculate the energy ES. For

Examiner’s
Use

ES = ............................................ mJ [3]

(iii) Suggest the change in the structure of the wire that is caused by the energy ES.

..................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

© UCLES 2010 9702/22/O/N/10 [Turn over

 10

4 A student measures the Young modulus of a metal in the form of a wire. For
Examiner’s
(a) Describe, with the aid of a diagram, the apparatus that could be used. Use

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [2]

(b) Describe the method used to obtain the required measurements.

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [4]

© UCLES 2011 9702/22/M/J/11

 11

(c) Describe how the measurements taken can be used to determine the Young modulus. For
Examiner’s
.......................................................................................................................................... Use

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [4]

© UCLES 2011 9702/22/M/J/11 [Turn over

 9

18 Three identical springs, each with the same spring constant, are connected together in four
different arrangements, as shown.

Which arrangement has the largest combined spring constant?

A B C D

19 The force–extension graph for a wire is shown.

X Y

force

0
0 extension

Which row could identify the labels X, Y and Z?

limit of region of elastic region of plastic

proportionality deformation deformation

A X Y Z
B Z Y X
C Y Z X
D Z X Y

© UCLES 2023 9702/12/O/N/23 [Turn over