CHEMISTRY
Solubility - the maximum amount
Phase Change
Solid - liquid = melting
Liquid - gas = evaporation
Solid - gas = sublimation
—----------------------------------
Gas - liquid = condensation
Liquid - solid = freezing
Gas - solid = deposition
—----------------------------------
Gas - plasma = ionization
Plasma - gas = deionization
Plasma - occurs when gasses
are heated to high
temperatures.
Plasmas can be contained and
controlled through the use of
magnetic fields
Solution, Solubility &
Concentration
Solution - what occurs when two
chemicals are mixed
Gas - Gas solution
Liquid solution
Solid solution
of a substance that will dissolve in
a given amount of solvent at a
specified temperature.
➔ Unsaturated Solution -
hasn’t reach its maximum
solubility yet
➔ Saturated Solution - has
reached its maximum
solubility
➔ Supersaturated Solution -
does equilibrium or a
saturated solution but can
dissolve more solute by
adding heat or pressure
Solute - dissolved substance
Solvent - dissolving medium
Tonicity - the capability of a
solution to modify the volume of
cells by altering their water
content.
Osmolarity - total concentration
of solutes in a solution
● Low osmolarity - fewer
solute particles
● High osmolarity - more
solute particle
HYPERTONIC - solute
concentration is higher than that
inside the cell, and the solutes
cannot cross the membrane.
○ High osmolarity
HYPOTONIC - solute
concentration outside the cell is
lower than inside the cell, and the
solutes cannot cross the
membrane
 ○ Low osmolarity
ISOTONIC - solute concentration
outside the cell is the same as
inside the cell, and the solutes
cannot cross the membrane
○ Same osmolarity
Atoms & Molecules
Types of Bonding in Chemistry:
● Ionic Bonding - transfers
electron
● Covalent Bonding - shares
electron
● Metallic Bonding - moves at
its free will

A Nucleus of an atom consists of:

Proton (+) ⇢ positively charge
Neutron (0) ⇢ neutrally charge
Electron (-) ⇢ negatively charge

Strong Force holds all protons

and protons together

Octet rule ( valence electron)

An atom gains, loses or shares ● Hydrogen Bonding (forms a
electrons to fill their outermost special type of dipole-dipole
energy shell with 8 valence attraction when a hydrogen
electrons through chemical atom bonded to a strongly
bonding. electronegative atom exists
in the vicinity of another
Valence Electrons are expressed electronegative atom with a
through the use of dots around lone pair of electrons.)
the element symbol
In H2O, oxygen ( electronegative
atom) is attached into two
hydrogen atoms. It makes O
partially but highly negative
charge and both H partially
positive charge.

If we have H2O close to each

other, the partially positive H will
be attracted to a lone pair atom
( partially but highly negative
charge O) and vice versa.
Ions of chemistry :
ion, any atom or group of atoms
that bears one or more positive or
negative electrical charges

Ions are formed by the addition of

electrons to, or the removal of
electrons from, neutral atoms or
molecules or other ions; by
combination of ions with other
particles; or by rupture of a covalent
bond between two atoms in such a
way that both of the electrons of the
bond are left in association with one
of the formerly bonded atoms.

Cation - positively charged ions Unstable isotopes are the ones

Anion - negatively charged ions
Opposite charges attract but
similars repel
Ex: crystalline structure of salt
[Ionic bonding] (NA+) + (Cl-)
—----------------------------------------
A stable atom has a net charge
of 0. In other words, it has an
equal number of protons and
electrons. The positive protons
cancel out the negative
electrons.
When the number of electrons
does not equal the number of
protons, the atom is ionized.
Isotopes of an Element
Isotopes are members of a family
of an element that all have the
same number of protons but
different numbers of neutrons.
that emit radiation or known as
radioactive isotopes
(elaborated under the topic
Physics: electromagnetic
radiation)
Understanding the Periodic Table
➔ On the periodic table,
elements are listed in order
of increasing atomic
number.
➔ Elements in the same row
are in the same period. This
means they have similar
physical properties, such as
how well they bend or
conduct electricity.
(horizontal)
➔ Elements in the same
column are in the same
group. This means they
react with other elements in
similar ways. (vertical)
The elements present in Group Trends for Ionic Charge
18 have their valence shell
orbitals completely filled. Hence, [understanding A]
they react with a few elements
only under certain conditions.
Therefore, they are known as
noble gasses

Trend for valence electron

The number of valence electrons

decreases from left to right across - Group 1 has a +1 charge
each period. - Group 2 has a +2 charge
◆ Any element in group 1 - Group 13 has +3 charge
has just one valence - Group 14 can either have a
electron. Examples +4 or -4 charge
include hydrogen (H), - Group 15 has a -3 charge
lithium (Li), and sodium - Group 16 has a -2 charge
(Na). Any element in - Group 17 has a -1 charge
group 18 has eight - Group 18 has a neutral
valence electrons charge of 0
(except for helium, - Skipping transition metals
which has a total of since they can have more
just two electrons). than 1 charges
Examples include neon
(Ne), argon (Ar), and [understanding B]
krypton (Kr). Oxygen, - The same with
like all the other understanding A but with a
elements in group 16, few changes. Some elements
has six valence were removed
electrons. (post-transition metals like
lead) and those elements
with specific charges
remained.
 - This time we have a couple
of transition metals with
specific ionic charges.
- Group 11’s Ag has a +1
charge
- Group 12’s Zn and Cd has a
+2 charge
- Group 13’s Al and Ga has a
+3 charge
- Group 15’s N and P has a -3
charge
(and so on, pls refer to the picture
above)
Stoichiometry and Balancing
Chemical Equations
Types of Chemical Reactions:
● Combustion: the formation
of CO2 and H2O from the
reaction of a chemical and
O2
● Combination (synthesis): the
addition of 2 or more simple
reactants to form a complex
product.
● Decomposition: when
complex reactants are
broken down into simpler
products.
● Single Displacement: when
an element from one
reactant switches with an
element of the other to form
two new reactants.
● Double Displacement: when
two elements from one
reactant switched with two
elements of the other to
form two new reactants.
● Acid-Base: acid-base
reaction is when two
reactants form salts and
water.
Balancing Equations
The fundamental principle
behind balancing equations is
the law of conservation of mass,
which states that matter,
meaning physical substances
like atoms and molecules,
cannot be created or destroyed.
1. CO2 + H2O → C6H12O6 + O2
The first step to balancing
chemical equations is to focus on
elements that only appear once
on each side of the equation.
Here, both carbon and hydrogen
fit this requirement. So, we will
start with carbon. There is only
one atom of carbon on the
left-hand side, but six on the
right-hand side. So, we add a
coefficient of six to the
carbon-containing molecule on
the left.
6CO2 + H2O → C6H12O6 + O2
Next, let’s look at hydrogen. There
are two hydrogen atoms on the
left and twelve on the right. So, we
will add a coefficient of six on the
hydrogen-containing molecule on
the left.
6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + O2
Now, it is time to check the oxygen.
There are a total of 18 oxygen
molecules on the left (6×2 + 6×1).
On the right, there are eight
oxygen molecules. Now, we have
two options to even out the
right-hand side: We can either
multiply C6H12O6 or O2 by a
coefficient. However, if we change
C6H12O6, the coefficients for
everything else on the left-hand
side will also have to change,
because we will be changing the
number of carbon and hydrogen
atoms. To prevent this, it usually
helps to only change the molecule
containing the fewest elements; in
this case, the O2.
So, we can add a coefficient of six
to the O2 on the right. Our final
answer will be:
6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
2. Al + HCl → AlCl3 + H2
This problem is a bit tricky, so be
careful. Whenever a single atom is
alone on either side of the
equation, it is easiest to start with
that element. So, we will start by
counting the aluminum atoms on
both sides. There is one on the left
and one on the right, so we do not
need to add any coefficients yet.
Next, let’s look at hydrogen. There
is also one on the left, but two on
the right. So, we will add a
coefficient of two on the left
Al + 2HCl → AlCl3 + H2
Next, we will look at chlorine. There
are now two on the left, but three
on the right. Now, this is not as
straightforward as just adding a
coefficient to one side.
We need the number of chlorine
atoms to be equal on both sides,
so we need to get two and three to
be equal. We can accomplish this
by finding the lowest common
multiple. In this case, we can
multiply two by three and three by
two to get the lowest common
multiple of six. So, we will multiply
2HCl by three and AlCl3 by two:
Al + 6HCl → 2AlCl3 + H2
We have looked at all the elements,
so it is easy to say that we are
done. However, always make sure
to double-check. In this case,
because we added a coefficient to
the aluminum-containing
molecule on the right-hand side,
aluminum is no longer balanced.
There is one on the left but two on
the right. So, we will add one more
coefficient.
2Al + 6HCl → 2AlCl3 + H2
We are not quite done yet. Looking
over the equation one final time,
we see that hydrogen has also
been unbalanced. There are six on
the left but two on the right.
So, with one final adjustment, we to grams of H2O
get our final answer:
Step 1: 200 g C3H8 is equal to
2Al + 6HCl → 2AlCl3 + 3H2 4.54 mol C3H8

Molar Mass Step 2: Since there is a ratio of 4:1

H2O to C3H8, for every 4.54 mol
Molar mass is a useful chemical C3H8 there are 18.18 mol H2O
ratio between mass and moles.
The atomic mass of each Step 3: Convert 18.18 mol H2O to g
individual element as listed in the H2O.
periodic table established this
relationship for atoms or ions. For 18.18 mol H2Ois equal to 327.27 g
compounds or molecules, you H2O
have to take the sum of the atomic
mass times the number of each
atom in order to determine the
molar mass

Using molar mass and

coefficient factors, it is possible
to convert mass of reactants to
mass of products or vice versa.

Propane ( C3H8 ) burns in this

reaction:

C3H8 + 5O2 → 4H2O + 3CO2

If 200 g of propane is burned, how

many g of H2O is produced?

Since you cannot calculate from

grams of reactant to grams of
products you must convert from
grams of C3H8 to moles of C3H8

then from moles of C3H8 to moles

of H2O

Then convert from moles of H2O