A T rea ti se

C o m p r i s i n g t h e F i r s t r i n c i p e s o f G e o m e t r i c a nd M e c a n i c a
P l h l
D r a w i n g , Wo r k s o p M a t h e m a t i c s , M e c an i c s , St re n g t
h h h
o f M ate ria s l a nd t h e D e s i gn o f M ac i n e D e t ai s h l
,

i n c ud i n g C a m s , Sp r o c k e t s , G e a r i n g , S af t
l h
P ll
u e ys, B e t i n g , C o u p i n g s , Sc r e w s a nd
l l
Bo t s , C l ut c e s F y w e e s , e t c Pre
l h , l h l .

pa r e d fo r t h e U s e o f r ac t i c a P l
h
M e c an i c s an d Yo un g
D ra f t s m e n .

By F . L .
sy L V E S T E R , M . E .

Wi th Addi ti on s
By E R IK o“ B E R G
As s oc i a te E di tor of M a ch i n e r y
Wi t h C h a p t e rs on t h e Te c h n i q ue o f M e c h a n i ca l D ra w i n g
a nd F r e e h a n d Le t t e r i n g f o f Wo rk ing D r a w m gs
o '

By C . W . REIN HAR D T

TH I R D ED I TI ON
FULL Y I LLUSTRATE D
 P R E F AC E

THE deman d for an elementary treati se on

mechan i cal drawi ng i ncludi ng the first pri n ci ples
,

of machi n e desi g n an d presen ted i n such a way

,

as to meet i n parti cular the needs of the student

, ,

whose prev i ous theoreti cal knowledge i s l i m i ted ,

has caused the author to prepare the present vol

ume I t has been the author s aim to adapt thi s
.
’

treati se to the requi re m ents of the practi cal me

c h a n i c an d young dra f tsman an d to present the
,

matter i n as clear an d con ci s e a mann e r as possi ble

-

so as to m ake self study easy I n order to meet

-
.

the deman ds of thi s class of students practi cally ,

all the i m portant elements of machi ne desi gn have

been dealt w i th an d besi des algebrai c formulas
, , ,

have been e x plai ned an d the elements of trigo

n om e t r y have been treated i n a manner sui ted to

the needs of the practi cal man .

I n arrangi ng the materi al the author has first

,

devoted hi m self to mechan i cal drawi ng pure an d ,

s imple because a thorough un derstandi ng of the

,

pri n ci ples of representi ng obj ects greatly faci li tates

further study of mechan i cal subj ects ; then atten ,

t i on has been gi ven to the mathemati cs neces s a r y

iv P R E F AC E

f or the solution of the problems i n m achi ne desi gn

presented later a n d to a practi cal i nt ro ductio n t o
,

theoretical mechanics an d s tre n gth o f m aterials ;

a n d finally the V arious ele m en ts e n terin g i n ma
, ,

chi ne desi gn su ch as cam s gears s p rocket wheels

, , , ,

cone pulley s b olts scre w s couplin gs clutches

, , , , ,

shaftin g y Wheels etc have bee n treated

fl
,
-
,
T his .
,
.

arra n ge m ent makes i t p os s i b le to present a con

t i n u ou s course of stu dy w hich is easily com p re
hended an d assi milated eve n b y stude n ts of li m ited
previous trainin g .

Porti ons o f the section o n m echanical dra w in g

w ere p ublished b y the author i n T h e P a tter n ma k er
several y ears a go T hese articles have howe ver
.
, ,

been care f ully revised to har m o n ize w ith the p res

ent treatise and i n some sectio n s a m plified
, In .

the preparation o f the m aterial the author has ,

also consulted the w ork s of various authors o n

m achi n e d esi gn an d credit has been g i ve n i n the
,

text w herever use has bee n made o f m aterial fro m

such sources .

Several im p ortant additions have b ee n made b y

M r E rik O berg As s ociate E ditor of M a ch i n er y
.
, .

I n the preparatio n o f these additio n s use has p artl

y ,

bee n m ade of m aterial published f ro m time t o ti me

in M a ch i n er y .

In
the present edition s p ecia l chap ters o n the
T echni q ue o f M echanical D ra w in g an d Freehand
Letteri n g f or Worki n g D raw i n gs b y C W R ei n . .

hardt have also been a dded .

T HE PU B L I SHE R .

O CT O B E R , 1 9 23 .
 C O NT E NT S

PRE FACE Pa g e i i i

H
C APT E R I

I NSTRU ME NTS AN D MATE RI ALS

G en era l R e m a r ks on t h e Stu dy of D r a w i ng D r aw i ng
—

I n s t r u m e n ts — Pe n c i l s — Us e of t h e I n s t r u m e n ts

Pa p e r —
I nk Pa g e 1

C HAPTE R II

DE F I NI TI ONS O F T E R MS U SE D I N G E O ME TRI CAL AN D

ME CHAN I CAL D RAWI NG

Po i n t Li n e Su r f a ce —
Sol i d Pl a n e — —
Ang l e Ci r c l e
— Pa r a l l e l o r a m Po l y g on E l l i ps e I n vo l u t e
g
—
Cy c l o id Pa r a b ol a Pa g e 1 0

CHAPTER III

GE O ME TRI CAL PRO B LE MS

—
B i s ecti n g of Li n e s a n d Ang l e s Pe r p en d i cu l a r Li nes
T a ng en ts — R e g u l a r Po l yg on s — I n s c r i b e d a n d Ci r
cu m s c r i b e d Ci r c l e s — E l l i p s es — —
Sp i r a l s I n v o l u te s
— Cy c l o i d s —Pa r a b ol a s Pa g e 1 7
 C ON T E NT S

CHAPTE R I V

PRO JE CTI O N
Mode of R ep r e s e n ti n g O bj e t
c s
— Pr oj e cti ons of I n cl i ned
Pr i s m s —
Su r f a ce D e v e l op men ts of Cones a n d Py r a
—
m i d s I n te r s e c ti n g Cy l i n de r s , a n d Cy l i nde r a n d
Con e Pr oj e c ti on of a
— He l i x I s omet r i c Pr oj e c
—

Pa g e 3 2

H
C APTE R V

W ORKI NG D RAW I N G S
Obj e ct of W r k i ng
o D r aw i ng s As s e m b l y D r aw i n g s
—

D e ta i l D r aw i n g s D i m e n s i on s — F i n i s h Ma r ks
Se ct i on a l V i ew s Cr os s -s e ct i on Ch a r t Sc r e w
T h r e a ds — —
Sh a de Li nes T r a c i ng a n d B l u e -p r i n t
Pa g e 5 0

CHAPTE R VI

ALG E B RAI C F ORMULAS

Th e Me a n i ng of F o r mu l a s Sq ua r e
— and Sq u a r e R oot
Cu b e a nd Cu b e R oots E x p on e n s — t Ar e a s a nd

Vo l ume s O f Pl a n e F i g u r e s and So l i d s Pa g e 7 9

H
C APTE R VI I

E LE ME NTS O F TRI G O NO ME TRY

Ang l e s R i g t a ng l ed T r i a n g l e s
h - T r i g on om e t r i ca l
—
Fun cti on s T a b l es O f N a tu r a l Fu n cti on s — So l u t i on
O f R i g h t a ng l e d T r i a ng l e s
- — So l u t i on O f O b l i q u e
a n g l e d T r i a n g l e s — Layi n g O ut An g l e s by Me a n s

of T r i g on omet r i c F u n c t i on s .
 CON T E N T S

H
C APTE R VI I I
E LE M E NTS O F M E CHANI CS
Res o l u ti on of F r s
o ce — Le v e r s — F i xe d a nd Mo v a b l e
Pu l l e y s — I n c l i n e d Pl a n e s — Th e Sc r e w — D i ff e r e n ti a l
Sc rew N e w t on s La w s of Moti on Pe n du l u m —
- ’

F<
a 11i n g B o d i e s
— E n e r g y a n d o r kW
— o r s H
e - ow e r
p
of Ste a m E ng i n e s Pa g e 1 2 0

CHAPTE R IX

FI RST PRI N CI P LE S O F STR E NG TH O F MAT E R I ALS

F a ct or of Sa f e ty Sh a p e O f Ma ch i n e Pa r t
— St r e ng th
s
—

of Ma t e r i a l s a s G i v e n by Ki r k a l dy s T e s t s St r e s s e s
’ —

i n Cas ti ng s Pa g e 1 5 1

C HAPT E R X

C AMS

G e ne r a l Pr i n c i p l e s — Des i g n Ca m s I m p a r ti ng U n i f o r m
of

Moti on R e c i p r oca t i ng Ca m s Ca m s Pr o v i d i n g
U n i f o r m R e tu r n U n i f o r m l y Acce l e r a te d Mot i on
—
Ca ms G r a v i ty Ca m Cu r v e H
a r m on i c Act i on
—
Ca ms Ap p r ox i m a te G r a v i ty Ca m Cu r v e Pa g e 1 6 4 . .

H
C APT E R XI

PRO CKE T WHE E LS

S

O bj ec t of Sp r ocket W
he e l s — D r a f ti n
g of Sp r ocke t
Wh e l s e f or D i ff e r e n t Cl as s e s of Ch a i n — Sp e e d
R a ti o Pa g e 1 8 5
 H
C APT E R XI I

GE N E R AL PRI NCI P LE S O F GE ARI N G

F r i cti on a nd Kn u ck l e G e a r i ng — E p i cy c l oi d a l G ea ri ng
—
G e a r s w i th St r en g th e ned Pl a nks G ea r s w i th
R a d i a l F l a n ks — I n v o l ute G e a r s — I n te r f e r e n ce i n
I n v ol u te —
G e a r s Th e T w o Sy s t e m s Com p a r e d -m

T w en ty d e g r e e I n v o l u t e G e a rs
- — Sh r ou d e d G e a r s
Be ve l G e a rs —
~

W
orm G e a r i ng — Ci r cu l a r Pit ch
‘

Pr op o r t i on s of T e e t h — D i a m e t r a l Pi t ch — Th e
H u n ti n g T ooth — Ap p r ox i m a te Sh a p e s f or Cy c l o i da l
G e a r T e e t h I n v o l u t e T e e th
— — Pr op o r t i on s O f G e a r s
—St r e ng th O f G e a r T e e th —
Thu r s t on s R u l e f or
’

—
G ea r Sh a f ts Sp e e d R at i o of G e a r i ng Pa g e 1 9 0
. .

H
C APT E R XI I I

A ATI NG HE D I ME NSI O NS O F AR S

fl
C LC UL T GE

Sp u r —
G ea r i n g B e v e l G e a r s — Wo r m G ea r i ng . Pa g e 2 2 2

CHAPT E R XI V
C O NE P ULLE YS
Con i ca l D r u ms I n ue nce of Cr os s e d Bel t Con e
Pu l l e ys Sm ith s Ru l e
’
f or Lay i ng O ut Con e
Pu l l e ys Pa g e 2 3 9

H
C APT E R XV

B O LTS , T
S U D S AN D SC R E WS
—
Ki n ds O f Sc r e w s U n i te d Sta te s St a n da r d Sc r e w T h r e a d
— Ch e c or Loc
k k N uts B ol ts t o i th s ta n d Sh ock
— W
“
W —
r e n ch Ac t i on Sc r e w s f or Pow e r T r i i ans m s s on
—E ffi c i e n c Sc r e w s
of Ac m e Sta n da r d T h r e a d
-
y
Mi s ce l l a n e ous Sc r e w Th r e a d Sy s t e m s — O the r Com
me r c i al F o r ms of Sc r e w s
 C ON TENTS

C HAPTE R XVI

C O UP LI NG S AN D CLUTCHE S

Si m p l e F o r m s O f Cou p l i ng s Ca l cu l a ti on of F l an g e
-
“

Cou p l i n g B ol ts — O l dha m s Cou p l i ng

’
— ’
o ok e s H
—
Cou p l i n g or U n i v e r s a l JO i n t T oothe d Cl u t ch e s
F r i c ti on Cl u t ch e s fl Con e Cl u t ch es Pa ge 2 5 9

C HAPT E R XV I I

SHAFTS , T
B E L S AN D P ULLE YS
Ca l cu l a ti on of S h a f t i n g
—
o r H
s e -
p ow e r O f B e l t i n g
Sp e e d of B e l ti n g — Pu l l e y Si z e s a n d Sp e e d Ra ti os
— T w i s te d a n d U nu s u a l Ca s e s of B e l t i n Pa g e 2 7 2
g . .

H
C APT E R XV I I I

F LY- WHE E LS F OR P R E SSE S P UNCHE S , , ETC .

b e
O j c ot f F l y
- W h e l F
e s
—
o r m u l a s f o r F l y -w h e e l Ca l e u

l a t i on s f —E xam p l e O f F y w h e e l Ca l cu l a ti on f or
l -

Sh e a r s Pa ge 2 8 9

H
C APTER XI X

TR AI NS O F M E CHANI SM

To —
Se c u re I n c r eas e O f Sp eed T O Se cu r e R e v e r s a l of
,

—
D i r e cti on T h e Comp ound I d l e r T h e Sc r e w Cu t
—
—
ti ng T r a i n Si m p l i fi e d Ru l es f o r Ca l cul a ti ng La th e
Ch a n g e G e a r s B a ck G e a r s
— - Pa g e 29 7
X CO N TE N T S

CHAPT E R X X
Q U I C K R E T U R N M O TI O N S

O bj e c t o f Qui c k R e t u r n M oti E xa m p l e s O f Si m p l e
on s —

D es i gn s o f Qu i c k R et urn M oti o n s — The W

hitw o r th
k r v — l r
Q u i c R et u n D e i c e T h e E l i p tic G e a Q k
u i c

R e tu rn . Pa ge 3 1 3

CHAPT E R X X I
T HE T E CH N I Q U E O F M E C H AN I CAL WI N G
D RA

Ad v a n t a ge of F a c s i m ile R e p r o du cti o n s a n d el l W
—
E xe cuted D r a w i n gs O ut l i n e Sh a di n g Se c ti on
—

Li n i n g— C u r v ed Su r f a ce Sh a d i n g— Sh a p e s o f B r e a k s
of D i ffe r e n t M a te r i a l s a n d O b je c t s . Pa ge 3 2 6
.

CHAPT E R X X I I
F R E E H AN D LE TT E R I N G FOR WO R KI N G D RA WI N G S
O e S
n - t r ke
o L n —
ette r i g M ethod s of C on s t r u cti o n
Pr o p or ti on s — St a n d a r d Si z es — Pr ogre s s i v e Arr a n ge
me t O
n f — —
G r ou p s Sl a n ti n g Lette r i n g V e r ti c a l
—
Lette r i n g D i m e n s i ons — C on s t r u cti on O f T itl es
Sp a ci n g of Lette rs Pa ge 3 3 2
.
 SE L F T AU G HT
-

ME CHAN I CAL D RA WI N G
CHAPTE R I

INS T R U ME N T S A N D M A T E R I A L S

ON E who i s to study the subj ect drawi ng Of

should not merely read a book on the subj ect but ,

shoul d prepare Sheets of exerci ses T hi s wi ll fix .

the pri n ci ples wh i ch he learn s i n hi s mi n d i n a w a y

as readi ng alone w i ll not do an d wi ll gi ve hi m
,

practi cal experi en ce i n t h e use of t h e tools The .

geometri cal problems gi ven i n thi s book make

perhaps the best O f subj ects for a begi n n ing as ,

thei r proper executi on w i ll requi re careful w ork .

Later the studen t may make dimensi oned free

,

han d sketches O f some machi ne wi th whi ch he i s

fami l i ar an d from these sketches he may m ake up
,

a set O f fi n i shed work i ng drawi ngs I n all of thi s .

work care should be taken to have i t so lai d out

, ,

wi th proper margi ns an d spaces betw een di ff erent

parts that the dra w in g when fin i shed shall pre
,

sent a n appearan ce Of neatness an d m ethodi cal

arrangement .

F or the purposes of the student a dra w i n g board,

about 1 5 by 1 8 i n ches wi ll be large en ough Wi th .

th i s shoul d be an 1 8 i n ch T square a pai r of 6 i nch

- - -
,

tri angles an d a set of three or four i rregular curves

,
.
2 SEL F -T AUG H T ME CHA N I CA L DR AW I N G

For dra w i ng full -si ze work a good flat beveled ,

edge rule wi ll ans w er ordi nary requ i rements but ,

f or maki ng half or quarter -si ze drawi ngs some

“
ki nd of a scale w i ll be foun d desi rable The tri
”
.

angul a r scale shown i n Fi g 1 i s perhaps the on e .

mostly used and i t has the advantage o f posses s

,

FIG . 1 — Th e
. T ri a n g ul a r Sc a l e .

i ng Si x surf aces f or g raduati ons gi v i ng vari ety ,

enough for all sorts of co n di ti ons but i t has the ,

di sadvantage O f p ersi stently presenti ng the wrong

edge and putti ng on e to the trouble O f turn i ng i t
,

over an d over to get the desi red ed ge Thi s trouble .

may of course be overcome by usi ng a scale guard

, ,

such as i s sho w n i n Fi g 2 but the gu a rd i s i tself

.
,

o f ten i n the way As .

but t w o or three d i ffer

en t scales asi de f rom ,

full s i ze w i ll be l i kely ,

to be requi red i t w i ll be ,

f oun d much more con

FIG 2
. . Sc a l e G u a r d or H o lde r ve n i e n t to have a s e p
-

u s e d o n T ri a n g u l a r Sc a l e arate flat scale for each

.

graduati o n Such scales .

may be purchased or i f on e i s sati sfied wi th the

, ,

open graduati on syste m Sho w n i n Fi g 3 he may .

,

make the m w i thout much trouble hi m s e lf I n thi s .

system o n ly on e i nch i s di vi ded thi s i n ch bei ng

, ,

numbered 0 ; and measuremen ts whi ch i n clude a

 I N ST R U ME N T S A N D M A T ER I A L S 3

fracti onal part O f an i n ch ar e rec k oned f ro m the

requi red w hole nu m ber to the p roper place on the
d i vi ded i n ch .

The drawi ng i nstrumen ts themselves W hi le not ,

necessari ly of the h i ghest pri ce should be o f a ,

good serv i ceable qual i ty of G erm an si lver Th e .

cheap brass or n i ckel plated school sets should not

be con si dered as they w i ll prove unsati s f actory
,

for regular w ork I t i s not n ecessary to have a

.

large nu m b e r of i nstrume n ts A very good set .

,

suffici en t for al l ordi nary requi reme n ts m ight be ,

as follow s : Fi rst a p ai r of about 4 % or 5 i nch com -

FIG . 3 .
-
x
I ne pe n s i ve Type Of Sc a l e .

passes w i th fixed n eedle p o I n t s ( bayonet poi nts are

useless ) an d i ntercha n geable pi n an d p enci l p oi n ts ,

T hen a pai r o f hai r

'

w i th le n gth en i ng bar .
,

spri n g spacers of about the same si ze These r e .

semble ordi nary plai n compasses but the steel en d ,

of on e l e g i s made adj ustable by m eans of a

thumb screw Next a pai r O f ruli n g pen s on e

.
, ,

large an d on e s m all and lastly a set Of three , , ,

spri ng i n strumen ts pen p e n ci l a n d spacers for

, , ,

small work . R ather than to get chea p i n s t r u

ments i t would be adv i sable t o obtai n a set gradu
,

all y by getti ng the large i nstruments an d on e pen

first an d addi ng the secon d pen an d the spring
,

i n struments later The large compasses can i f

. ,

necessary be used to make ci rcles of from about

,

i i nch to about 1 8 or 20 i nches i n di ameter so ,

4 SEL F -T A U G H T ME CH AN I CA L DR A W I NG

that they wi ll do very well for a begi nn i ng F or .

maki ng larger ci rcl es beam compasses I n wh i ch

, ,

separate heads for the needle poi n t and f or the pen

or pen ci l poi nt are attached to a wooden bar after ,
’
the manner of workmen s trammels are used , .

A conven i en t case f or the i n struments when ,

they are bought separately i s Shown i n Fi g 4 , .

,

an d i s made as follows : Take two pi eces Of

chamoi s ski n or th i n broadcloth on e Of them about ,

n -half longer than the longest i nstrument an d

o e ,

somewhat wi der than all of them when they are

FIG . 4 — H ome -m a de I n s t rum e n t Ca s e

. .

lai d out si de by si de and the secon d O ne of the

,

same wi dth as the first but som ewhat Shorter than

,

the longest i nst rumen t Thi s secon d pi ece i s

.

sewed onto the large pi ece at on e en d by the outer

edges Pockets for the recepti on of the i n s t r u
.

ments are then made as shown an d when t h e free ,

end Of the large pi ece i s folded over the i n s t r u ,

m ents are rolled up together .

The penci ls whi ch to avoi d scratch i ng parti cles

, ,

Should be o f best qual i ty should n ot be sharp ened

,

to a roun d poi nt but to a flat oval poi nt as such

, ,

a shape wi ll wear longer than a roun d poi nt ; the

leads used i n th e compasses however sh oul d be , ,
 I N S R UME N
T T S AN D M A T E R I A L S 5

only sl i ghtly flattened I t wi ll be foun d desi rable

.

to have two grades of pen ci ls on e qui te hard

ab out 4 H to be used f or lay i ng out work an d
, ,
“
, ,

a s ofter on e about 2 H to be used f or goi ng

“
, ,

over the l i nes of work whi ch I s n ot to be i n ked I n .

I n layi ng -out work where the hard penci l i s used ,

only a moderate pressure Should be appli ed so as ,

t o permi t of erasures at any ti m e whether for the ,

purpose of maki n g alterati ons or to free the draw ,

i ng of pen ci l marks after i nki ng .

The drawi ng pen s Shoul d be kept sharp though ,

n ot so sharp as to cut the paper a n d thei r e n ds ,

should presen t a neat oval shape The needle .

poi nts of the compasses should also b e kept sharp

to avoi d the ten den cy to sl i p when doi ng work
where i t i s un desi rabl e to pri ck through the p a
per A small Arkan sas ston e wi ll be foun d useful
.

for thi s purpose Where i n u ch use i s made of a

.
"

gi ven center i t may be desi rable to e m ploy a horn

,

or metal center such as are ke p t i n stock by deal

,
’
ers i n arti sts suppli es to avoi d the troublesome
,

enlargemen t of the center i n the paper whi ch the

poi nts of the compasses would otherwi se make .

I n mak i ng a drawi ng care should be taken to

,

have the prel i mi nary pen ci l work done correctly .

I t i s a m i stake whi ch begi nners are li kely to make ,

to th i nk that errors i n the penci l work may be

readi ly corrected i n th e i nk i ng Thi s however .
, ,
“
i s usually another case where haste makes
waste .
”
I t i s much better to spen d a l i ttle extra
ti m e on the pen ci l work than to have to throw ,

a w ay a n early fi n i shed i nk drawi n g an d do the

work all over agai n I n locati ng the vari ous
.
6 SEL F -T A U G HT ME C H AN I CA L DR A W I N G

v i ews of a drawi ng upon the paper i t w i ll f r e ,

quently be foun d to be well to make rough s k e t ch es

of i t on scrap paper These sketches can then be .

moved around on the drawi ng paper unti l the best

arrange m ent i s secured .

I n m aki ng a dra w i n g i t wi ll be fou n d most con ,

ve n i ent ordi
,
n ari ly to l i m i t the use,O f the T -S
quare
to hori zontal li nes the head O f the square bei ng
,

kept pressed fir m ly agai nst the le f t -han d en d of

the drawi ng board Verti cal l i nes are then mad e.

FIG . 5 — . A p p e a ra n c e of Ca r e l e s s l y m a d e D raw i n g .

wi th the ai d Of the tri a n gles resti n g agai nst the

blade o f the T -square V erti cal li nes whi ch are .

t oo long to be made i n thi s w a y are of course , , ,

made wi th the T square i tsel f

-
I n i nk i ng i n a .

drawi ng i t i s best to draw all curved or ci rcular

,

l ines first as i t i s easi er to j oi n strai ght l i nes onto

,

curved l i nes than to j oi n curved l i nes on to strai ght

li nes Care should also be taken to have meeti ng
.

li nes j ust meet whether they meet en d to en d or

,

at an angle Carelessness i n thi s respect gi ves a

.

draw i n g a very bad appearance as sho w n by Fig , .

5 A an d B
, .
8 SEL F -T A U G HT ME CH AN I CA L D R A W I NG

thi ckness a l i ttle i n e x cess of the di ameter of th e

screw -head Thi s combi nati on i s then used i n th e
.

central hole i n a triangle as shown Then w i th

, .
,

on e finger on the tri angle i tself an d w i th another ,

on e on A the two may be moved along fi rst on e

, ,

an d then the other f or secti on l i n i ng the desi red

, ,

W i dth of space bei ng secured by the adj ustmen t

gi ven to B .

For maki n g erasures of i n k l i n es on paper a ,

s teel scrapi ng eraser o r a sharp k n i f e blade i s usu

p l e C ro s s Li ne r
FI G . 7 .
—Si m -s e c t i on .

ally the best the roughened surface bei ng after

,

wards rubbed do w n smooth wi th some hard sub

stance. When maki ng erasures of ei ther pen ci l
or i nk wi th a rubber eraser an erasi ng shi eld , ,

such as i s sho w n i n Fi g 8 i s use f ul for pre vent

.
,

i n g rubbi n g ou t more than i s i n tended These .

Shi elds are made both of thi n sheet metal an d of

celluloi d ; the metal ones bei ng the thi nner are , ,

the more conven i ent to use .

The pa p er used i f good work i s desi red should

, ,
 I N ST R U ME N T S A N D M A T ER I A L S 9

be regular dra w i n g paper whether i t be whi te or ,

brown Thi s has an u n glaze d surface a n d wi ll be

.
,

fou n d much more sati sfactory i n every way than

common paper The glazed s u rface of the cheaper
.

pa p er does n ot tak e pe n ci l marks well a n d i s torn ,

up badly i n maki n g erasures Such pa p er i f used .

,

at all shoul d be used only on the most tempor ary

,

FIG . 8 .
—E r a s i n g Sh i e ld m a d e f rom Shee t M e t al
or Ce ll u lo i d .

work . O f whi te drawi n g papers the s m ooth sur ,

faced k i n ds shoul d be selected For ma k i n g i n k .

drawi ngs i t w i ll be foun d most sati s f actory to use

,

the pre p ared drawi ng i n ks rather than to go to ,

the trouble of prepari n g i t oneself from the sti ck

I ndi a i nk .

F or fasten i ng the paper on to the board common ,

-half— oun ce cop p er tac k s are as good i f n ot

o e
n ,

preferable to other faste n i n g mean s

,
.
 CHAPTE R II

DE F I N I T I O N S OF T ERM S U SED G E O ME T R I CA L
IN

AN D ME C H AN I CA L DR AW I N G

1 A Poi n t has posi ti o n but not mag n i tude

.
,
.

2 A L i n e has length but nei ther breadth n or

.
,

thi c k n ess .

3 A Su rf a ce has length an d breadth but n ot

.
,

th i ck n ess .

4 A Soli d has length breadth an d th i ckness

.
,
.

5 A Pl a n e i s a surf ace whi ch i s straight i n

.

every di recti on ; that i s on e whi ch i s per f ectly

,

flat .

6 Pa r a l le l l i n es are such as are everywhere

.

equally di stan t from each other Ci rcular l i nes .

whi ch a n swer to thi s con di ti on are also sai d to be

con cen tr i c .

7 .An An g le i s the diff erence i n the di recti on

of t w o l i nes I f the l i nes meet the poi n t of meet
.
,

i n g i s called the ver tex of the angle and the l i nes ,

a b and a c Fig 9 are i ts s i de s

, .
, .

8 I f a straight l i n e meets another so that the

.

adj ace n t angles are equal each of these angles i s,

a r i gh t a n gle an d the two l i nes are p er p en di cu la r

,

to each other Thus th e angles a cd an d d cb Fi g

.
, .

1 0 are right angles an d the l i n es a b an d d c are

, ,

perp endi cular to each other A di sti ncti on i s to .

be made here between the words p er p en di cu la r ,

10
 DE F I N I T I O N S or T ERM S 11

an d ve r A verti cal l i n e i s on e wh i ch i s p er
ti ca l .

p e n di cul a r to the plan e of the earth s hori zon ; that

’

i s to the surfac e of sti ll water

, .

9 An O btu s e An gle i s on e whi ch i s greater

.

than a ri ght angle as a ce Fi g 1 0 , , . .

1 0 An Acu te An g le i s on e whi ch i s less than a

.

ri ght angle as ecb Fi g 1 0 , , . .

1 1 I t i s obv i ous that the sum of all the a n gles

.

whi ch may be formed about the poi n t c Fig 1 0 ,

.
,

abov e the l i n e a b wi ll be equal to the t w o ri ght

angles a cd an d d cb .

FI G . 9 , Angle .
FIG .
—ll us t r a t i on f or M a k i n g
I DA I
Cl e a r t h e T e rm s R i g h t A c u t e ,

an d O b t us e A n g l e s .

The Comp le m en t of an a n gle i s a right a n gle

12 .
,

less the gi ven angle Thus be e Fi g 1 0 i s the

.
, .
,

compleme n t of dcc .

1 3 The Sup p l e m en t of an a n gle i s t w o right

.

angles less the gi ven angle Thus bce Fi g 1 0 i s .

, .
,

the supplemen t of a ce .

1 4 A Ci r cle i s a conti nuous curved l i ne Fi g 1 1

.
, .
,

or the Space en closed by such l i n e every poi n t o f ,

whi ch i s equally di stan t from a poi nt wi thi n called

th e cen ter .

15 The di stance across a ci rcle measured

. ,

through the center i s the di a m e ter The di stance

,
.

aroun d the ci rcle i s the ci r cu mf er en ce The di s .

 SEL F -T A U G H T ME C H AN I CA L DR AW I N G

tance from the center to the ci rcumferen ce i s the

r a di u s .

16 The rati o between the ci rcumference an d

.

the di ameter that i s the ci rcumferen ce di vi ded

, ,

by the diameter i s Whi le thi s i s n ot exact

,

( B radbury s G eome tr y states that i t has been car

’

ri ed out to two hundred a n d fifty places of deci

mals ) i t i s n e a r e n ough f or practi cal purposes
, .

Thi s rati o i s frequently represented by the G ree k

letter i f ( p i ) .

1 7 A ci rcle i s co n si dered as bei n g equally di vi ded

.

— 111us t r a t i 0 n
FIG . 11 f or FIG . 1 2 — Si m i
. l a r T ri a n g l e s .

M a k i n g Cl e a r th e T e rm s
Re l at i n g to th e Ci r c l e .

i nto three hundred a n d s i xty d egr ees each

degree I n to si xty m i n u tes an d each mi nute
i nto Si xty s econ ds
1 8 I f two di ameters cross each other at right
.

angles the ci rcle i s di vi ded i nto four equal parts ;

,

hence a right angle con tai ns n i nety degrees .

1 9 An Ar c of a ci rcle i s a n y part of i ts ci rcum

.

ference as a bc Fi g 1 1, , . .

2 0 A Ch or d i s a straight l i n e j oi n i ng the ends

.

of an arc as a c F i g 1 1 , , . .

2 1 T w o tri angles as a bc a n d dec Fi g 1 2 hav

.
, , ,

ing l ike angles are s i mi la r tri angles The corre .

 DE F I N I T I ON S OF T ERM S 13

s p on d n g s i des of simi lar triangles have the same

i
rati o Tii us i f a c were tw i ce as long as dc a b
Woul d b e twi ce as long as de an d he would be
.
,

t w i c e a s lo n g as ec
. .

22 The sum of the angles of a triang le i s equal

.

to two right angles Le t a bc Fig 1 3 represen t .

, .
,

a n y tri angle E xten d on e Si de a c as shown a n d

.
, , ,

make cd parallel w i th a b Then the angle dcc i s .

equal to the angle ba c for thei r si des have the ,

same di recti on an d the angle be d i s equal to the

,

FIG . ll us t r a t i on f or
13 —I
.

Sh ow i n g t h a t t h e Su m o f
t h e A n g l e s i n a T ri a n g l e
e qu a l s T WO R i g h t An g l e s .
FIG . 14 — . T an g e n t and N or
m al t o a Cu rv e .

angle a bc for thei r si des have o p p osi te di recti ons ;

,

hen ce the sum of the three a n gles formed about

the poi n t c i s equal to the sum of the three angles
of th e tri angle a bc an d these are equal to two ,

right angles ( 1 1 )
23 A Ta n gen t i s a l i n e wh i ch touches a n other
. ,

but does n ot though exte n ded cross i t Thus a

, ,
.
, ,

b a n d c Fi g 1 4 are ta n ge n t l i nes
,
.
A line d
,
.
, ,

perpen di cular to the strai ght li n e b at the poi nt ,

of tan g en c y i s called a n or
,
m a l I f on e of t h e ,
 SEL F -T AUG H T ME C H A N I CA L DR AW I N G

l i nes as a i s ci rcular the normal wi ll pass through

, , ,

i ts center .

24 A Pa r a l l e logr a m i s a figure whose opposi te

.

si des are parallel as a b an d cd or e h a n d f d i n

, ,

Fig 1 5 The s i des may all be of equal length

. . ,

FIG . 1 5 —P a r a ll e l og r a m s
. . FIG . 16.
— Squ a r e .

w he n the p arallelogram i s called a square .

( Se e
Fig .

25 Figures havi n g five s i x o r ei ght s i des are

.
,

called res p ecti vely Pen ta gon Hexa gon a n d Octa gon ,
.

These a n d all figu res havi n g more than fou r s i des

, ,

are called Polygon s I f the si des i n a polygon are

.

FIG . 17 .
— R e g ul a r P o l y g o n . FIG . 18 .
— E ll i p s e .

all o f equal length a n d all the angles equal the , ,

polygon i s called a r egu la r p olygon ( Se e F i g 1 7 . .

26 An E l li p s e F i g 1 8 i s a conti nuous curved

.
, .
,

l i n e or the space en closed by such l i ne of such

, ,

s ha p e that th e s um of the di st an ces f ro m t wo

16 SEL F -T AUG H T ME C H A N I CA L DR AW I NG
ta i n e d
by cutti ng a con e so th at the e x posed
secti onal surface w i ll b e parallel wi th on e of the
si des of the cone as Shown i n Fi g 2 1
, Thi s . .

curve as sho w n i n Fi g 2 2 i s of such Shape that

, .
,

li n es dra w n to i t from a certai n poi n t w i thi n ,

called the f ocu s sho w n at f i n the i llustrati on

, ,

make the sa m e angle wi th i t as l i nes drawn from

FIG . 22 . P a r a b ol a .

the i ntersecti on poi n ts p arallel w i th the axi s a x .

Thus the l i n e f m makes the sam e a n gle w i th the

parabola at the poi nt of i ntersecti on as the l i ne
, ,

ml . B ecause of th i s property of the parabola ,

mi rrors of th i s shape are used i n headli ghts of

locomoti ves i n search lights an d i n ma n y li ght
, ,

houses ; because i f a l ight be placed at the focus

, ,

i ts rays when reflected from the mi rror wi ll be

, ,

throw n out i n parallel li nes .

 CHAPT E R I I I

G E O ME T R I CA L P R OB LEM S

Pr ob 1 , F i g 2 3
. . . T o bi s ec t a li n e ,
ei th er cu r ve d

a s a bc or s tr a i g h t
, centers at a an d c
as ac .
—
Wi th
an d w i th a radi us som e w hat greater than half the
length of the l i ne descri be the arcs d an d e A
, .

li ne passi ng through the i n tersecti ons of these arcs

bi sects e i ther li n e I t wi ll also pass through the
.

center of the ci rcle of w hi ch the arc a bc i s a p art .

Pr ob 2 F i g 2 4
.
, T o bi s ect a n a n gle
. .
— Wi th .

FIG . 23 — . B i s e ct i n g a Li ne . FIG . 24 —. B i s e ct i n g a n An g l e .

cen ter at a an d wi th a n y conven i e n t radi us de

, ,

scri be th e arc be Wi th centers at b a n d c a n d

.
,

wi th a radi us greater than hal f the arc descri be ,

the arcs d an d e A l i n e from a through the i nter

.

secti on of these arcs bi sects the a n gle .

Pr ob 3 , F i g 2 5
. . . To m a k e an a n g l e e qu a l to a
— be the gi ven angle a n d let i t
gi ven a n g le Le t . a ,

be desi red to make an angle equal to i t on the li ne

dg. Wi th center at a make the arc bc an d then ,

wi th center at d make the arc e h wi th the same

17
18 SEL F -T AUG HT ME CH AN I CA L D R A WI NG
radi us Then wi th a radi us equal to bc an d w i th
.
,

center at h make the a r c f A l i ne from d th r oug h

, .

the i ntersecti on of the arcs gi ves the requi red

angle .

Pr ob 4 , F i g 2 6
. To er e c t a p er p en di cu la r a t th e
. .

en d of a l i n e , a b
— W
i th a n y co n ven i e n t center, 0 ,
.

FIG . 25 — . M ak i n g an A ngl e E qu a l t o a Gi ve n An gl e .

an d wi th radi us cb draw a semi ci rcle i ntersecti ng,

a b at d D raw a l i n e f rom d through c i n tersect

.

ing the se m i ci rcle at c A li ne from b passi ng .

through e i s the requi red perpendi cular .

Pr ob 5 F i g 2 7.
,
To dr op a p er p en di cu l a r f r om
. .

a p oi n t a to a g i ven li n e bc
,
— Wi th a as a center .
,

>l< g
f
FIG . 26.
— E re c t i n g a Pe r p e n FIG . 27 —
. D r aw i n g a Pe r p e n
di cu l a r L i n e . di c ul a r L i n e .

draw an arc i ntersecti ng bc at d and e Wi th d .

an d e as centers draw the i ntersecti ng arcs f an d

g. A l i n e from a through the i ntersecti on of
these arcs i s the requi red perp en di cular I f a .

were over on e en d of the l i n e be the process shown

 —
G E O ME T R I CA L P R OB LEM S 19

i n the precedi ng problem might be reversed by

drawi ng a l i n e from a corresponding to de Fig , .

26 an d upon thi s l in e dra w i ng a semi ci rcle when

, ,

i ts i ntersecti on wi th t h e base l i ne woul d gi ve the

poi nt to wh i ch the perpendi cular from a shoul d be
drawn .

Pr ob 6 F i g 2 8 . To dr a w a ta n gen t to a ci r cle
, . .

a t a gi ven p oi n t
— D raw a radi us of the ci rcle to
the r e q u I r e d poi nt a n d erect a perp en di cular to i t , ,

wh i ch w i ll be the requi red tangent To fin d the .

poi n t of tangen cy of a l i ne to a ci rcle drop a per ,

FIG . 2 8 — D r aw i n g
. a T an g e n t FI G . 29 .
—F i n d i n
g t h e Ce n t e r
to a Ci rc l e . of a Ci rc l e .

e n d i c ul a r to the tange n t f rom the ce n ter of the

p
ci rcle .

Pr ob 7 F i g 2 9 T
. o fi n d,
th e c e n ter of
.
a ci r c l e .
.

Mark off two arcs as a b an d a c u p on the ci rcum f er

e n ce an d bi sect these arcs as i n Prob 1
,
here . . W
these bi secti ng li nes cross each other w i ll be the
requ i red center .

Pr ob 8, Fig 30 To dr a w a r e gu l a r h e xa g on
Wi th a radi us equal
. . .

b ab
— to the
u p on a gi ve n a s e ,
.

length the arcs c and d The i n t e r s e c

of a b draw .

ti on of these arcs w i ll be the center of a ci rcum

scri bi ng ci rcle upon wh i ch the other s i des may b e
marked off .
20 SEL F -T AUG H T ME C H AN I CA L D R AW I NG

Pr ob 9 , F i g 3 1 T o dr a w a
. . in . r egu la r octa g on
— D raw the di agonals of the square a d
a s qu a r e .
,

an d bc an d wi th a radi us equal to half of a di ago

,

nal an d wi th centers at a b c an d d draw the

, , , ,

arcs e f , g and h,
The i ntersecti ons of these arcs .

FIG . 30 —. D r aw i n g a R e gu lar FIG . 31 — D r a w i n g

. a R e gu l ar
H e x a g on . O ct a g on .

wi th the Si des of the square gi ve the corners of

the requi red octagon .

Pr ob 1 0 F i g 3 2. To dr a w ,
. . a ci r cl e a bou t a tr i
—
a n g le, a s a bc B i sect a n y t w o . the si des as i n of

Prob . 1 . Where the bi secti ng l i nes cross each

FIG . 32 —D r a w i n g
. a Ci r c l e FI G . 33 — I n s c r i b i n g
. a Ci r c l e
a b ou t a T ri a n g l e . in a T ri an g l e .

other wi ll be the ce n ter of the requi red ci rcle I n .

a si m i lar manner a center may be found from

w hi ch to draw a ci rcle through a n y three gi ven
poi nts the gi ven poi n ts i n th i s case bei ng the cor
,

ners of the tri angle .

 G E O ME T R I CA L P R OB LEM S 21

Pr ob 1 1 . F i g; 3 3 To dr a w a ci r cle w i th i n a
, .

—
gi ven tr i a n g le a s a bc B i sect any two of the angles
, .

as i n Prob 2 . . W
here the bi secti ng l i nes cross w i ll ,

be the cen ter of the requi red ci rcle I n a simi lar .

m anner a center may be fou n d f rom whi ch to draw

a ci rcle tangen t to a n y three gi ven straight li nes .

Pr ob 1 2 F i g 3 4
. To fi n d th e f oci of a n e lli p s e
, . . .

D raw the long and the short diameters of the

elli pse a b an d cd an d w i th a radi us equal to half
, ,

of the long di ameter and wi th a center at c or d ,

F I G 34
. .
— F i n di n g th e F oci of F I G 35 . .
-
Si m p l i fi e d M e t ho d
ll D r aw i n g E ll i p s e
'

an E i pse . of an .

draw the arcs e an d f Where these arcs i ntersect .

the long di ameter wi ll be the requi red foci .

Pr ob 1 3 F i g 3 5
.
, . . To dr a w an e lli p s e w i th a

p en ci l a n d th r ea d
— the foci of the Hav ing found
elli pse sti ck a pi n firm ly i n to each focus and loop
, ,

i ng a thread aroun d them allow i t to be Slack ,

enough so that the pen ci l wi ll draw i t out to the

e n d of the Short di ameter The thread wi ll then .

gui de the penci l so that i t wi ll draw an elli p se A .

groove should be out aroun d the pen ci l lead to pre

ven t the thread from Sli ppi n g off .

Pr ob . 1 4, F i g . 36 . To dr a w an e lli p s e w i th a

tr a mm e l .
—
the long an d the short diame
~

La y out

ters of the el li pse a b an d cd an d on a stri p of , ,

pa per A mark o
,
ff,
1 -3 equal to half of the lo n g di am
22 SEL F -T AUG H T ME C H A N I CA L DR AW I NG

eter an d 2 3 eq ual to half of the short di ameter

,
- .

Then keepi ng poin t 1 on the short diameter an d

, ,

poi nt 2 on the long diameter mark off an y des i red ,

The elli psogra p h an i n strumen t f or draw i ng e l

,

l i p s e s i s m ade on thi s pri n ci p le poi nts at 1 an d

, ,

2 trave l i n g i n grooves w hi ch coi n ci de w i th a b

and cd .

Pr ob 1 5 , F i g 3 7
. To dr a w a n e l li p s e by ta n g en t
. .

l i n es — Make a b equal to one half of the lon g d i

-

FIG . 36 A n ot h e r M e t h o d
.
— of F I G 37 —
. . D r aw i n g an E ll i p s e
D r a w i n g a n E ll i p s e . by T an g e n t s .

a m e t e r of
the requi red elli pse a n d bc equal to on e ,

half i ts short diameter D iv i de a b an d bc i n to .

the same n u m ber of equal parts and numberi n g , ,

them as i ndi cated conn ect 1 an d 2 an d 2 an d

,
’

so forth A curved li n e starti ng at a tange n t to

.
,

these l ines and en di g at

n c i s o e quarter of the
,
n -
,

requi red ell i pse .

Pr ob 1 6 , F i g 3 8 . . . T o dr a w an a p p r oxi m a te el

li p s e w i th c omp a s s es f ou r cen ter s La y ou t ,

us i ng .
-

the lo n g di am eter a b an d the short di ameter cd , ,

crossi ng each other cen trally at 0 From b meas .

ure off e equal to co o e half of the short di am

b n -
,

eter The length a e w i ll then be the radi us g h

.

for forming the part h it of the elli pse From e .

24 SEL F -T AUG H T ME CH AN I CA L D R AWI NG

h wi ll be the cen ter subj ect to ce rtai n m odi fi ca

,

ti ons for narrow ell i pses from whi ch to stri ke the ,

ends of the elli pse To get the radi us of th e thi rd

.

curve f or connecti ng the s i de an d en d curves lay ,

off a base li n e a b Fi g 39A of an y con ven i en t

, .
,

length a n d di v i de i t i n to five equal parts by the

,

poi n ts 1 2 3 an d 4 At on e en d of the l i n e erect

, , .

the perpe n di cular a c equal to the en d radi us a h , ,

a n d at the other end erect the perp en di cular bd

equal to the Si de radi us cg Connect the e n ds of .

these perpen di culars by the l i ne cd an d at poi n t ,

2 erect a pe r pe n di cular meeti n g cd at c The , .

length e2 wi ll be the desi red th i rd radi us Wi th .

the com p asses set to thi s radi us fi n d a cen ter i ,

from whi ch a curve can be struck w hi ch wi ll be

j ust tangent to the si de an d en d curves From .

other ce n ters si m i larly located the remai n der of

the ell i p se i s drawn Li ne s drawn f rom i t h r oug h
.

h a n d from g through i determi n e the meeti ng

,

poi n ts of the di fferen t curves .

For narrow ellipses the length of the en d radi us ,

ah Should be i n creased as f ollo w s :

,
For an ell i pse
havi n g i ts breadth equal to on e -ha lf of i ts le n gth ,

m a k e a h on e eighth lo n ger
-
F or an ell i pse hav i ng .

i ts breadth o e thi rd of i ts length make a h on e

n -
,

fourth lon ger For an ell i pse havi ng i ts breadth

.

equal on e quarter of i ts length make a h on e -half

-
,

longer . For i n termedi ate breadths le n gthen a h

proporti on ately Wi th thi s modi ficati on of the
.

length of the en d radi us thi s method gi ves curves ,

w hi ch ble n d well together so as to sati sfy the eye ,

an d gi ves a figure whi ch co n forms qui te closely to

the actual outli nes of an elli pse .
 G E O ME T R I CA L PR OB LEM S’

FIG . 3 9a .

FI GS 39 an d 39 a —D r a w i n an Ap p rox i m a t e E ll i p s e b y
. .
g
E i g h t Ci r cu l a r A rcs .
26 SEL F -T AUG H T ME C H A N I CA L DR AW I NG

Pr ob 1 8 , F i g 4 0
. . . To dr a w a r egu l a r l
p yg
o on o f
a n y n u m ber of s i des on a i ven ba s e ab
—E x ten d ab
g , .

as shown an d on i t wi th on e en d as a cen ter an d

,

a radi us equal to the length of the gi ven s i de draw ,

a s e m I CI r c l e D i vi de thi s semi ci rcle i nto as many

.

equal spaces as there are to be si des to the polygon .

A l i ne from b to the s econ d space reckoni ng from ,

w here the se m i ci rcle meets the extensi on of ab ,

w i ll be a Secon d s i de of the requi red polygon .

Li nes are the n dra w n f ro m b through the remai n

i n g di vi si ons of the se m i ci rcle and the remai n i ng ,

FI G 40
. .
— D raw i ng a R e gu a l r FIG . 41 — . D r aw i n g a Sp i r a l
P e n t a g on . a b ou t -a Squ a r e .

si des of the p olygon are marked off u p on them as

i n di cated I f the polygon i s to hav e m any si des
.
,

as an addi ti onal precauti on agai n st error b i sect a b ,

a n d b2 thus getti n g the ce n ter of a ci rcumscri bi ng

,

ci rcle upon whi ch the rem ai n i ng si des may be

m arked off .

Pr ob . 1 9, Fig . 41 . T o dr a w a spi r a l a bo ut a

s qu a r e . out a square 1 -2 -3 —
—
La y 4 hav i ng the , ,

length of each si de equal to on e -quarter of the de

si red di stance between the success i ve con voluti on s
o f the spi ral an d exten d each si de i n on e di recti on
,

as Sho w n Wi th a center at 2 a n d wi th a radi u s

.
,

1 -2 draw a quarter of a ci rcle Wi th a Center at 3 .

 G E O ME T R I CAL P R OB LE M S 27

draw another quarter of a CI r c l e co nti nuing the ,

first on e an d so conti nue w i th successi ve cor n ers

,

of the square for centers .

F ig 4 2 shows how by si mi larly extending on e

"

.
,

en d of each s i de a spi ral may be dra w n about a ,

regular polygon of a n y nu m ber of si des A curve .

so formed determi nes the shape of the teeth of

sprocket wheels .

Pr ob 2 0 F i g 4 3
. To dr a w a n i n volu te
, . Up on .
-

th e ci rcumferen ce of the gi ven ci rcle mark off a n y

FI G . 42 — . D r a w i n g a Sp i r a l FIG . 4 3 — D r aw mg
. an I ny o
a b ou t a R e g ul a r P o l y g on . l ut e .

n umber of equally di stan t poi nts as 0 -1 -2 -3 etc , , .

,

an d draw l i n es tange n t to the ci rcle at these poi n ts

begi n n i ng at poi n t 1 Then wi th the co m p asses .

set the same as for marki ng off the spac e s on the

ci rcle mark off on e space on l i n e 1 t w o spaces on
, ,

l i n e 2 three spaces on l i n e 3 an d so forth A

, , .

curved l i n e starti ng at 0 an d passi ng through these

poi n ts wi ll be the requi red i n volute Thi s curve .

i s used f or the shape of the teeth of i nvolute gears .

—
Pr ob 2 1 F i g 4 4
. T o dr a w a cycloi d
, . U p on the
. .

base l i n e a b mark off any number of equally di s

t an t poi n ts as 0 1 2 3 etc the di stan ce between
- - -
, ,
28 SEL F - T A U G H T ME CH AN I CA L D R AWI NG
them bei ng made for conven i en ce sake about on e, ,

si xth of half the ci rcumferen ce of the generati ng

ci rcle B egi nn i ng at 1 erect perpendi culars from
.

these poi nts an d wi th centers on these l i nes draw

,

arcs of ci rcles tangen t to the base l i ne to represen t

FIG . 44 —. D raw i n g a Cy FIG . 45 —. D r aw i n g an E p I cy

c l oi d . c l oi d .

successi ve posi ti on s of the generati ng ci rcle as i t

i s rolled along Wi th the compasses set as f or
.

spacing off the base l i ne mark off one space on the ,

a r e whi ch starts from poi nt 1 t w o spaces on arc ,

2 three spaces on a r e 3 an d so forth

, A curved , .

l ine starting at 0 an d pass

i n g through the poi nts
thus obtai ned wi ll be the
requ i red cycloi d .

An epi cycloi d Fig 4 5 , .

,

FIG . 46 —. D r aw i n g a H ypo Pr a h y p oq IO i d’ F i g 4 6 ‘
’
.

l d
c y c oi formed I n
.
Is p r e c I s e l y the
same way e x cepti ng that ,

as the base l i ne a b i s an arc of a ci rcle the cen te r

, , ,

li nes from poi nts 1 -2 -3 etc are made radi al , .

, .

These three cycloi dal curves are used for the

sha p e of the teeth of epi cycloi dal gears sometime s ,

called s imply cycloi dal gears .

 G E O ME T R I CA L P R OB LEM S 29

Pr ob 2 2 F i g 4 7
.
, To dr a w a p a r a bol a by m ea n s
. .

i n ter s e cti n g l i n es —
of D raw the axi s a x an d on i t ,

mark the focus f a n d the verte x v an d at right ,

angles to i t draw the l i n e be at a di stance from v

equal to the di stance of v from f Across the axi s .
,
‘
an d at r i ght angles to i t draw a number of l i n es , ,

1 2 3 4 5 6
, , , Then wi th radi us a 1 a n d w i th
, , .
,

center at the focus f draw arcs i n tersecti n g li ne ,

1 ; w i th radi us a 2 and wi th ce n ter agai n on f draw

,

arcs i ntersecti ng l i n e 2 an d so on A curved l i n e

”

, .

FIG . 47 — . D raw i n g a P a r a b ol a .

pass i ng through these i ntersecti on s w i ll be a para

bola I t w i ll be seen from thi s m ethod of dra w i n g
.

a parabola that any poi n t on i t i s equally di sta n t

fro m the focus an d from the l i ne be called the
, ,

di r ectr i x .

Pr ob 2 3 F i g 4 8
.
, To dr a w a p a r a bola w i th a
. .

—
p en ci l a n d s tr i n g La y out the axi s the
. focus the , ,

verte x an d the di rectri x as be f ore Attach on e .

en d of a thread to the focus , f by mean s of a pi n , ,

an d attach the other en d of the thread to the

square shown at d, havi n g the thr e ad of suc h
30 SEL F -T AUG H T ME C H A N I CA L DR AWI NG
length that when the i nner edge of the square i s
on the axi s a x the thread i f drawn down wi th
, ,

a penci l wi ll j ust reach to the verte x v Now

’

.
,

sli de the square alo n g be i n the di recti on of the

FIG . 4 8 — Si m p l i fi e d
. M e t hod of D raw i n g a P a r a b ol a .

arro w k eepi ng the pe n ci l agai n st the square ; the

,

thread w i ll cause the pe n ci l to move alo n g so as to

describe a parabola as shown .

Pr ob 2 4 F i g 4 9
. To dr a w a p a r a bol a of a g i ven
, . .

3 2 1 d 1 °
3 4

FIG . 49 — . A n ot he r M e t h o d of D r aw i n g a P a r a b ol a .

br ea d th of op en i n g a b a n d of a gi ven d ep th
, , , cd .

D raw ef parallel wi th a b a n d draw a c a n d bf , paral

lel wi th cd , havi n g a c an d be equ al , Space off do
 CHAPTE R I V

P R O JE CT I ON

Mo de R e p res e n t ing Obj ec

of I n mecha n i cal ts —

drawi ng machi nes or parts of machi nes are rep

, , ,

resented by v i ews generally three i n wh i ch per

, ,

s p e c t i vei s ignored an d wh i ch show the obj ect i n

,

diff erent posi ti ons at right angles to each other .

The mode of represen ti ng these v i ews an d thei r ,

posi ti ons w i th regard to on e a n other whi ch e x p e ,

r i e n c e has Shown to be most con ve n i en t i s perhaps

best shown by mean s of the fami l iar cardboard

i llustrati on Le t a bcdef gh Fi g 5 1 represen t a
.
, .
,

pi ece of cardboard wh i ch we wi ll suppose to b e

,

tra n spare n t creased on the dotted l ines to perm i t

,

of the outer porti on s bei ng tur n ed back Le t us .

n ow suppose that we have a pri sm shaped as shown

at C a n d of the le n gth shown at A I f th e pri sm

, .

i s stood upright w i th i ts broad Si de faci ng the ob

server a n d the cardboard bei ng bla n k i s hel d up
, , ,

i n fro n t of i t the pri sm wi ll appear i f all i ts li nes

, ,

are brought perpen di cularly forward to the card

board as i t i s Shown at A l i nes on the pri sm
, ,

whi ch would be hi dden by i ts body as the further ,

corner bei n g dotted I f secti on C of the cardboard

, .

i s now turned backward through an angle of 90

degrees over the top of the pri sm we woul d get the
v i e w shown i n that part all l i nes bei ng brou g h t
,

32
 PR OJE CT I ON 33

perpendi cularly for w ard from the pri sm t o the

cardboard as be f ore Li ke w i se i f part D of the
.

cardboard were turned back w ard through an angle

of 90 degrees an d the li n es of the pri sm were
,

brought perpe n di cularly forward on to i t w e would ,

get the V i ew shown i n that part The v i e w sho w n .

at A i s called the e leva ti on that Sho w n at C i s ,

called the p la n a n d that Sho w n at D i s called the

,

s i de vi e w.O ccasi onally a pi ece i s so shaped or ,

FIG . 51 . Pri n c i p l e
— of Pro j e c t i on .

has so much of detai l to i t as to m ake a n other si de

vi ew desi rable ; such a V i ew woul d be placed at B .

I n many other cases as i n the case of the pri sm

,

here shown the plan a n d elevati on v i ews alone

,
.

wi ll fully show the obj ect .

The producti on of these v i ews from on e another

i s called p r oj ecti on ; an d by the use of connecting
l i n es an d also at times of temporary con structi on
,

v i ews obj ects may be shown at any desi red angle

,
,

i rregular or curved l i nes may be traced an d sur ,

faces may be developed .

34 SEL F -T A U G HT ME C H A N I CA L D R AW I NG

An Up ri g h t Pr i s m Fig 5 2 shows a pri sm i n i ts

.
—
.

simplest posi ti on A moment s e x ami nati on wi ll

.
’

Show that the elevati on cannot be drawn di rectly ,

as the di stan ce apart of the Verti cal l i nes whi ch

represen t the corners of the pri sm cannot be deter ,

min ed w i thout other ai d ; he n ce i t i s necessary t o

dra wthe plan vi e w first Hori zontal l i nes hav i ng .

been made to gi ve the height of the pri sm i n the

elevati o n the verti cal l i n es may the n be drawn i n
,

FIG . 52 — . Proj e c t i on s of FIG . 5 3 — Pro

. j e c t i on s of

Pri s m . T i l t e d Pri s m .

from the plan as i ndi cated by the verti cal dotted

,

li ne.

Th e Pri s m I n cl i n e d at On e Angl e — Fi g 5 3 shows .

the pri sm i ncl i ned to the righ t A bri ef e x a m i .

nati on of these v i e w s wi ll Show that none of them

can be drawn di rectly as the di stan ce apart of ,

the verti cal l i nes i n the elevati on an d s i de v i ews

i s n ot known an d the l i n es of the plan V i ew are
,

foreshorte n ed ; but the v i e w s can be develope d

from Fig 5 2 I t i s evi den t that as the pri sm i s
. .

ti pped the elevati on v i ew wi ll remai n un changed

, ,
 P R O JE CT I ON 35

hen ce the first step wi ll be to reproduce that v i ew

i n cl i ned at the desi red angle As the pri sm i s .

ti pped i t i s also ev i dent that al l poi nts i n the plan

v i ew of Fi g 5 2 wi ll move i n hori zontal li nes to the
.

right hen ce hori zon tal l i nes are drawn from these
,

poi nts through the posi ti on wh i ch the plan wi ll

occupy i n Fi g 5 3 The i ntersecti on of these l i nes
. .

wi th verti cal l i nes from the correspondi ng poi nts

i n the elevati on w i ll determi ne the posi ti on of
each poi n t i n the plan The poi nts so determ i ned .

on e by on e bei ng then connected by straight l i n es ,

gi ves the plan v i ew as shown To make the si de .

v i ew hori zon tal l i nes are first dra w n from the

,

vari ous poi nts of the pri sm as seen i n the eleva

ti on through the posi ti on whi ch the si de v i e w w i ll
occupy Then beari ng i n mi n d that each poi n t
.
,

of the pri sm i n the si de v i ew wi ll be as much to

the left of the verti cal li n e a b as the sam e poi nt
i n the plan i s below the l i ne e d the posi ti o n of ,

each poi nt on the hori zontal li nes i s marked off

”

from a b .

Th e Pr i s m I n cli n ed a t TWO An g l e s — Pi g 5 4 shows .

the pri sm ti pped forward after hav ing been ti pped

t o the right as sho w n i n Fi g 5 3 An exami nati on . .

of these v i e w s w i ll Show that not only can they

n ot be drawn di rectly but they cannot be devel ,

oped from Fi g 5 2 They may however be de

. .
, ,

ve l op e d from Fi g 5 3 I t i s evi den t that as the

. .

pri sm i s ti pped forward the si de v i ew of Fig 53 , .

wi ll remai n unchanged ; hen ce the fi rst step wi ll

b e t o r eproduce that v i ew i n cli ned at the desi re d
angle N e x t hori zon tal li nes are drawn from the
.
,

corners of the pri sm as seen i n thi s v i e w through

36 SE L F -T AUG H T ME C H AN I CA L D R AW I NG

the plac e whi ch the elevati on i s to occupy and the ,

perpe n di cular l i ne g h i s d rawn . I t i s ev i den t that

as t h e p ri sm i s ti pped forward the diff eren t poi nts
,

of i t as seen i n the elevati on o f Fi g 5 3 do not .

mov e a n y to the right or left but forward only,

.

Hen ce the di stance of the corners of the pri sm

,

from t h e l i n e ef may be taken by the compasses

an d marked off from the l i ne g h upon the proper
hori zontal l i ne . The n ew posi ti on of all of the
corners havi ng thus be e n
determ i ned the con ,

n e ct i n g strai ght l i nes

ar e drawn gi v i ng the
,

elevati on as Shown i n
Fig 5 4 Verti cal l i ne s
‘
. .

are then drawn from the

diff eren t poi n ts of the
pri sm as seen i n thi s
,

v i ew through the posi

,

ti on whi ch the plan i s

to occupy an d the e xam:
F I G 54
. .
— Pro j e c t i on s o f Pri s m ,

T i l t e d i n T w o D i r e c t i on s posi ti on of each poi n t

upon t h e s e l I n e s I s
m arked Off from mn at the sam e di stan ce whi ch
i t i s from the l i ne fi t i n the si de v i ew .

An Up righ t R ec t angular Pri sm The upright —

.

rectan gular pri sm shown i n Fi g 55 i s of course .

, ,

draw n i n the same way as was the pri sm shown

i n Fig 5 2 . .

The Pri sm of Fig 5 5 Tipped Forw ar d on On e E dg e

. .

—I t
i s evi dent that i f the pri sm were to be ti pped
on i ts edge i n the di recti on of the arrow N o 1 the .
,

result would be the s a me a s though i t had been

‘
 P R O JE CT I O N 37

ti pped fi rst t o the ri ght and then di rectly forward

,
,

as was done to produce Fi g 54 ; but as those .

angles are not gi ven the method employed i n that

,

case i s not readi ly avai lable .

produce the v i ews . D raw the li ne cd at the same

FI G . 55 —
. U p ri g h t R e c t an FIG . 56 .
— l a r Pri s m
R e c t a n gu
g u l a r Pri s m . T i p p e d F o rw a rd .

angle to the hori zontal as the edge a b of the pri sm

i n Fi g 5 5 an d make ef at right angles to i t U po n
.
, .

these l i nes draw the te m porary si de v i e w of the

pri sm A ti pped at the desi red angle Wi th the
, , .

ai d of thi s v i ew the plan vi ew i s readi ly drawn .

Verti cal l i nes are the n dra w n from the vari ous
poi nts of the plan v i ew through the place whi ch
the elevati on i s to occu p y an d the exact locati on ,

of each poi n t i s marked off on these l i nes at the

38 SEL F -T AUG H T ME CI I AN I CAL DR A W I NG

same height above the base l i ne gh that i t i s a b ove

the l i n e f c i n the temporary S i de v i ew A The , .

permanent S i de vi ew i s then developed from

the plan an d elevati on i n the same way as was the
S i de vi ew of Fi g 5 3 . .

L e t i t n ow be r equ i r ed to ti p th e p r i s m of F i g 5 5 .

d i h e di r e cti on of a r r ow
f or w a r on o n e cor n er n t
No 2 . .

I t w i ll be seen that ti ppi ng i t i n thi s di recti on

FIG . 5 7 — R e c t an g u
. l a r Pri s m T i p p e d i n T w o D i re c t i on s .

wi ll ca us e a foreshorten i ng of all of the l i nes i n the

p lan hence
,
the use of a si ngle temporary v i ew
such as was used i n Fi g 56 wi ll not solve the .

problem ; but i t may be solved by the use of two

temporary v 1 e w s as Sho w n i n Fi g 5 7 D raw the . .

l i ne a b i n the di recti on i n w hi ch the pri sm i s to be

ti pped and the l i ne cd at right angles to i t At A
, .

reproduce the plan v i ew of Fi g 55 an d at B draw .

,
40 SEL F T AUG H T ME C HA N I CA L DR AW I N G
-

a ls o th e a m , un t o f f or es h or ten i n g of th e l i n es w h i ch
w i l l be ca u s e d .

In Fi g 58 A shows a face V i e w Of the cube set

.
,

on edge B sho w s a si de v i e w of the same a n d C

, ,

sho w s B i ncl i ned unti l the diago n al k e becomes

hori zontal Th e length of h e bei ng lai d out on the
.

center li ne the posi ti on of the other co rn ers i s ob

,

t a i n e d as i n di cated by the arcs a b c a n d d The , , .

angle ge h i s the requi red angle w hi ch t h e edg es

whi ch m eet at c make
wi th a p lan e p e r p e n di c
ular to e k O f w hi ch f g I s ,

an edge v i e w ; the a n gle

f ej i s the a n gle wh i ch
the si des havi ng corn ers
meeti ng at c make wi th
the pla n e D i s a face .

V i e w of C an d a n y of i t s ,
~

l i n es w hen compared ,

wi th a n y of the l i n es of
A wi ll Sho w the fore ,

shor ten i n g caused by the

cub e bei ng put i nto thi s
posi ti on .

The Surface Dev el op

men t of a Cone Le t A
—
.

an d B Fig 5 9 be the , .
,

F I G 59 — D e v e l opm e n t o f plan an d elevati on v i ews

Wi th a radi us
. .

0 Con e
.
of a cone
.
.

equal to a b an d wi th a ,

center at c draw the arc def maki ng i t equal i n

, ,

length to the ci rcu m f erence of the base of the con e ,

as sho w n at A Thi s may be most conven i ently

.
 P R O JE C T I ON 41

don e by spaci ng i t off D raw the l i nes c d an d cf ;

.

an d the figure C thus forme d wi ll be the requi red

surface developmen t .

The Surfac e Developmen t of a Pyra mi d H a v ing

I t s T op Cut Off Obliquel y I n Fi g 6 0 A B an d C
.
-
.
, ,

show respecti vely the plan elevati on and si de

, , , ,

F I G 6 0 — D e v e l op m e n t
. . of a F ru s t um of a Py ram i d .

v i ews of the pyrami d the top of whi ch i s cut off by

,

the plan e a b These v i ews may be made by the

.

pri n ci ples already e x plai ned as may also the vi e w

,

at D whi ch Shows the pyrami d as though B were

,

v i ewe d i n the di recti on of the connecti ng dotted

l i ne whi ch i s at ri ght angles to a b thus showi ng
, ,

the shape of the secti on e x posed by cutti ng off the

top.
42 SEL F -T AUG H T ME C H A N I CA L DR AW I N G

To get the surface development take a radi us ,

equal to the length of on e edge of the pyrami d as

shown at cd i n the elevati on th i s bei ng the only ,

on e whi ch Shows at full length the others bei ng ,

more or less foreshortened an d w i th a center at c ,

i n v i ew E draw an arc of a ci rcle upon whi ch the

,

si des of the base are to be marked off Th e se .

poi n ts are connected wi th on e another a n d w i th c;

thi s gi ves the shape of the surface of the whole
pyrami d .U pon the l i nes connecti ng the poi n ts
wi th e as e 1 e2 a n d e3 the lengths of the di ff e ren t
'

, , ,

edges of the cut o ff pyrami d are marked off As .

the edge whi ch i s seen at the left i n the elevati on

Shows full length i ts length all may be taken di
, , ,

r e ct l y and marked off on the l i ne e 1 As the other .

edges are seen foreshortened thei r lengths cannot ,

be taken di rectly but by hori zon tally transferri ng

,

the upper en d of each edge to the l i ne cd thei r ,

actual lengths d2 an d d3 may be obtai ned an d then

marked off on the li n es e2 an d e3 The poi nts so .

obtai ned bei ng connected an d the outer half sec ,

ti ons bei ng fin i shed gi ves the requi red surface ,

development .

I f the cone shown i n Fi g 5 9 were to have i ts t op .

cut off obl i quely the v i e w s of i t correspon di ng to

,

A B C an d D Fig 60 an d i ts surface develop

, , , .
,

ment w ould be obtai ned by di v i di ng o ff i ts base

, ,

as seen i n the plan i nto any number of si des an d

, ,

then proceedi ng as though i t were a pyrami d of

that number of si des unti l th e poi n ts correspon d ,

i ng to those of Fi g 60 had been located but then .

,

connecti ng them wi th curved l i nes i nste ad of

strai ght l i n es .
 P R O JE C T I O N 48

I n t ers e c t ing Cylinders Fig 6 1 — R e qu i r e d th e

, . .

li n e f th e i n te r s ecti on
o ,
th e s u rf a ce d eve l op m en t of th e

br a n c h ,
and th e s hap e w h i ch th e en d o f th e br a n ch
w ou l d a p p ea r t o h a ve as s e en i n th e vi e w at th e
r i gh t
.

Fi rst dra w the elevati o n A i n o u tli n e a n d as , , ,

m uch of the e n d v i e w B as ca n be di rectly draw n

, , .

FIG . 61.
— I nte rs e c t i n g Cy l i n d e r s .

O ppos i te the en d of
the bra n ch i n each of these
v i ews an d i n l i n e wi th i t draw ci rcles of the same
, ,

di ameter as the branch an d space off the semi ,

ci rcu mferen ce nearest to i t i nto a nu m ber of

equal parts the same number i n both cases From
, .

the poi nts so obtai ne d draw l i nes parallel wi th the

center l i n e of the branch as shown From the , .

poi n ts where these l i nes i n the v i ew B meet the

 EL F -TAUGH T ME CHANI CA L D RAW I N G
S

ci rcle representi ng the en d of the large cyl i n der ,

draw hori zontal li nes i n tersecti ng the li nes drawn

from C These i n tersecti ons wi ll be poi n t s through
.

whi ch the l i ne of the i ntersecti on of the cyl i n ders

i s to be drawn F rom the poi nts where the l i nes
. .

drawn from C cross the en d of the bran ch draw ,

hori zontal li nes i ntersecti ng those drawn from D .

T hese i ntersecti ons wi ll be poi nts through whi ch

the l i ne representi ng the en d of the bran ch i s to
be drawn .

To get the surface developmen t of the b ran ch ,

first draw the l i n e a b i n E hav i ng i t i n l i n e wi th

, ,

the en d of the bran ch Make thi s l i n e equal i n

.

length to the ci rcumferen ce of the bran ch spaci ng ,

i t off equally each way from the center l i n e 0 X i nto

the same nu m ber of spaces as the semi ci rcumfer -

ence of C was di vi ded i nto From these poi nts .

draw l i nes parallel w i th 0 X an d from th e poi n ts

,

i n the i ntersecti on of the two cyli n ders prev i ously ,

obtai ned draw l i nes parallel wi th a b i ntersecti ng

, ,

these l i nes . These i ntersecti ons wi ll be poi nts

through whi ch a curved l i ne i s to be drawn thus ,

gi vi ng the completed surface developmen t of the

branch .

I n drawi ng these curved l i nes through the poi nts

of i ntersecti on the i rregular curves me n ti o n ed i n
,

the early part of the chapter on i nstruments an d

materials are used .

I n t er s e c t ing Cyli n der an d F ru s t um of Co n e F ig , .

62 .
— R e qu i r e d li n e of i n ter s ecti on a n d s u rf a ce d e
ve l op men t of br a n ch a s bef or e
, .

D raw the elevati on A i n outl i ne conti nui ng the

, , ,

si des of the con i cal bran ch ei ther way un ti l they

 P R O JE C T I ON 45

meet at thei r vertex a on the on e ha n d and to

, , ,

any co n ven i en t poi nts c a n d d on the other I n a

, , .

s i mi lar manner draw as much of the end V i ew B , ,

FI G —I n t e r s e c t i n l de r
. 62 .
g Cy i n an d Con e .

as can be made di rectly Wi th centers at a and at .

b an d w i th any c onven i ent radi us dra w the a rcs

, ,

cd an d cf ; i n tersecti n g the exte n ded si des of the

con i cal b ranch Th en , wi th ce nt e rs at t h e i nte r

.
.
46 SEL F -T A U G H T ME CH A N I CA L DR A W I N G

secti on of these arcs wi th the center l i ne of the

bran ch draw the half c i cr l e s sho w n tangent to
, ,

the e x tended Si des of the branch an d space them ,

off i nto a number of equal parts t h e same number ,

i n each case From these poi nts draw l i nes to the

.

verti ces a an d b From the poi n ts where these

.

l ines i n the en d vi ew B i ntersect the ci rcle r e p r e

, ,

senti ng the e n d of cyl i nder draw hori zon tal l i nes

,

to the elevati on A i n tersecti ng the l i nes drawn

, ,

from the verte x a to the half ci rcle cd The i n ter

- .

secti ons w i ll be poi nts through whi ch the l i n e rep

resenti ng the i ntersecti on of the cyl i n der an d i ts
con i cal branch i s to be drawn The shape of the .

en d of the branch as seen i n the e n d vi ew B i s , ,

n ow obtai ned i n the same manner as i n the case of

the i n tersecti ng cyl i n ders From the poi nts where

.

the l i n es drawn from the vertex a of the s i de ele , ,

vati on A , to the half ci rcle at cd cross the en d of

-
,

the branch draw hori zo n tal l i nes i ntersecti ng the

,

l i nes drawn from the verte x b These i n t e r s e c .

ti ons w i ll gi ve poi n ts through w hi ch the l i n e rep s

resenti ng the en d of the branch i n V i ew B i s t o

be dra w n .

To get the development of the bran ch as shown

at F take a radi us equal to the di stan ce from the
ape x a to the en d of the bran ch as seen i n the Si de
elevati on A an d w i th a cen ter at g draw an arc
, ,

h i maki ng the length of the arc equal to the ci r

,

c umf e r e n c e of t h e en d of the bran ch as shown at

E spaci ng equally each way from the center l i n e

,

gj the length an d number of the spaces each way

,

being the sa m e as those ob tai ned i n spacin g off the

s e mi ci r cl e at E Through these poi nts draw l i n e s
.
 SEL F -T A U G H T ME
C H AN I CA L DR AW I NG

semi -ci rcumferen ce of the en d v i ew of the cyl i n der ,

toward the s i de v i ew i nto the Same number of ,

equal parts an d from these poi nts draw hori zon tal
,

l i nes to meet the perpendi culars previ ously erected .

Where these li nes meet wi ll be poi n ts through

whi ch the heli x i s to be drawn .

The outl i nes of a screw thread are hel i ces Fi g . .

6 4 Shows a double threaded Acme stan dard or 29 ,

degree threaded scre w the outl i n e of whi ch on , ,

i ts outsi de diam eter i s the heli x of F i g 63

, . .

I so m et ri c Proj ec t io n — I f a cube i s ti pped over on

on e corner so that the di ago n al of i t i s hori zo n tal
,

as shown at D Fi g 5 8 an d also i n Fig 65 the

, .
, .
,

FI G . 65 —
. Pri n c i p l e o f FIG . 66 . An E x a m p l e
-
of

I s om e t ri c Pro j e c t i on . I s o m e t ri c Pro j e c t i on .

li nes of i t wi ll all a p p ear of equal le n gth D raw .

i n gs m ade on thi s pri n ci ple as Fi g 6 6 are called , .

,

i s om e tr i c dra w i n gs Verti ca l l i nes re m ai n ver

.

ti cal
. Hori zon tal li nes become i n cli n ed to the
hori zontal of the paper at an a n gle of 3 0 degrees .

Ci rcles a p p ear as elli p ses w hi ch may b e drawn as,

sho w n i n the up p er square of Fi g 6 5 F rom the . .

“
e n ds of the Short diagonals l i n es are drawn to
”
,

the mi ddl e of the op p osi te S i des

”
Where these .

li nes cross the long diagonals are located the

centers from whi ch th e ends of th e elli pse may
 P R O JE C T I ON 49

be drawn The e n ds of the short di agonals w i ll

.

be ce n ters fro m whi ch to draw the si des of the

ell i pse .

I rregular curves may be dra w n as i n di cated i n

Fi gs 6 7 an d 6 8 The figure 2 t h e r e sho w n i s first
. .

drawn i n the desi red posi ti o n i n a n aturally shaped

square whi ch i s then di vi ded off by equally spaced
,

li nes i n to smaller squares The i som etri c square .

i s then Si mi larly di vi ded off an d the figure i s ,

FG
I S . 67 an d 68 .
— M e t hod of T r a n s f e rri n g I rre g u l a r L i n e s in
I s om e t r i c Pr o j e c t i on.

m ade to pass through the correspondi n g i n ter

secti o n s .

I sometri c drawi ngs diff er from perspecti ve draw

i ngs i n tha t recedi n g l i nes re m ai n parallel i nstead ,

of con vergi ng to a va n i shi n g poi n t They may be .

m easured the sa m e as ordi n ary dra w i ngs i n any

on e of the three di recti ons i n di cated by the li nes

of the cube The foreshorte n i n g of the l i n es caused

.

by ti ppi ng the cube i n to thi s posi ti on i s generally

i gn ored I f an I so m etri c drawi n g i s to be shown
.

i n connecti on wi th ordi nary vi e w s how ever i t , ,

should be made on a scale of about 8 1 0 of an i n ch -

to the i n ch otherwi se i t woul d a p pear t oo large

, .
 CHAPT E R V

W O R K I NG DR AW I N G S

AS the obj ect of worki n g drawi ngs i s to convey

to the workman a clear i dea of the appearan ce and
constructi on of the pi ece to be made and as the ,
“
whole sci en ce of mechan i cal draw i ng has been
”

developed pri mari ly f or the p u rpose of conveyi ng

the i deas and thoughts of the desi gner an d drafts
man to the men who carry out these i deas i n wood
and metal the subj ect of w orki ng drawi ngs i s of
,

supreme i mporta n ce to all mechan i cs A work i ng .

drawi ng should be as com p lete as possi ble so com ,

p l e t e i n fact that w hen i t has once passed out of

, ,
’
the draftsman s han d i nto the shop no further ,

questi ons w i ll be necessary I n or de r t o a e com

’

p l i s h thi s all necessary i nformati on of whatever

, ,

kind shoul d be i ncluded and i f requi red Short

, , , ,

notes an d di recti ons may be wri tten on the draw

i ng to prevent eventual mi sunderstan di ngs .

The number of vi e w s necessary t o p r op e r l y rep

.

resent an obj ect must be left for the dra f tsman s ’

j udgment to determi ne U sually t w o v i e w s are

suffici ent W
.

, hen the obj ect i s simple but when at

,

all compl i cated three or more vi e w s wi ll be foun d

,

n ecessary . Cyli ndri cal pi eces can often be ade

q ua t e l y repres ented by a si n gle V i ew on whi ch the
,

vari ous diametral and length di men si on s are gi ven .

50
 W O R K I N G DR AWI N G S 51

Whi le i t i s customary to put the plan vi ew of an

obj ec t above th e elevati on i t frequently becomes
,

necessary i n order to presen t the obj ects shown i n

,

as clear a manner as possi ble to deviate from thi s ,

rule A cas e of thi s ki n d i s show n i n F i g 69

. .
,

where the shaft hanger i llustrated has been se

l e ct e d as an example of the methods employed i n
worki ng dra w i ngs .

An e xa m i n ati on of the hanger wi ll show that i f

the plan were placed above the elevati on and i f i t ,

were represented accordi ng to the methods already

e x plai ned the b ox an d the yoke wi th i ts adj usti ng
,

screws an d check -nuts would have to be shown

mostly by dott ed li nes Such a multi pl i ci ty of
.

dotted l i nes would tend to confusi on ; hence the

obj ect i n v i ew that of presenti ng the hanger i n as
,

clear a man n er as possible i s best accompli shed i n

,

a case li k e th i s by havi ng the plan u n derneath the

elevati on and letti ng i t be a bottom vi ew i nstead
,

of a top vi ew .

I n design i ng a machi ne detai l of thi s k i nd the ,

starti ng poi n t woul d of necessi ty be the sha f t

i tself an d the first step would be to desi gn the
,

b ox ; n e x t would come the yoke an d lastly the

fram
, ,

e Much of the preli mi nary work may f r e

.

quently be done on scrap paper ; havi ng determi ned

the s i ze an d proper proporti ons of the vari ous
parts the posi ti on whi ch the diff erent v i ews wi ll
,

occupy i n the fin i shed draw i ng i s e asi ly a s ce r

ta i n e d The ce n ter l i nes are then lai d out as
‘

shown a n d the drawi ng bui lt up about these li nes

,

as a base .

When a drawi ng i s for tem p orary use only an d ,

52 SEL F -T A U G H T ME C H A N I CA L DR AW I NG

the mecha ni sm represen ted on i t of a s imple natur e ,

the a s s em bly drawi n g correspo n di n g to the three

,

v i ews i n F ig 69 wi ll a n swer all purposes the

.
, ,

me n s i on s bei n g gi ven di rectly o n thi s drawi ng I n .

FI G . 69 — S
, h a f t H an g e r .

some cases only the most i m portan t di m ensi ons

would be gi ven those of seco n dary consequence
,

bei n g left for the work m an to be obtai ned by

scal i n g the drawi ng Thi s procedure however
.
, ,

i s possible only when the drawi ng i s made care

f ully to scale an d i s not one that shoul d b e e u
,
r
 W O R K I NG DR AW I NG S 53

c ou r a g e d . In
general a drawi ng s houl d be s o di
,
.

me n s i on e d that i t can be w orked to w i thout the

“
work m an obtai n i ng any measurements by scal
”
i ng the drawi ng .

I n most cases i t i s not possible to Show the de

tai ls of a mechan i sm clearly e n ough i n an assembly
drawi ng ; f or i f the devi ce show n i s more or less
compl i cated a hopeless confusi on results from the
,

attempt to put i n all the l i nes n ecessary to fully

Show all the detai ls ; nei ther w ould i t be possi ble ,

for the same reason to gi ve more than the pri nci

,

C AST I RO N BABB IT T E D
,

I —
F G 70
. .
—E x a m p l e o f W o rk i n g D r a w i n g .

pal di mensi ons I n such cases i t i s therefore cus

.
, ,

t om a r y a f ter the asse m bly dra w i n g ha s been c om

,

l t d an d the proper si zes an d proporti o n s of the

p e e
,

vari ous parts of the mechan i sm thus ascertai ned ,

to make a separate drawi ng of each detai l ei ther ,

on the same sheet of paper or on separate sheets ,

.

Thi s perm i ts the parts of the mechan i sm to be

clearly an d completely shown an d fully di m e n
i
s o e n . d F i gs 7 0 an.d 7 1 S how two pi eces of the
hanger i n Fi g 6 9 detai led i n thi s manner These
.
.

detai l drawi ngs gi ve all the requi red i nforma

ti on f or the mak i ng of the pi eces an d the assemb l y ,
 EL F -T AUG H T M EC H A N I CA L D R AW I NG
S

drawi ng merely shows i n a general way h ow t h e

, ,

parts are to be assembled when completed .

I n the case of j i g an d fi x ture drawi ngs i t i s the ,

practi ce i n a great many large drafti n g-rooms to

Show asse m bled v i ews only an d t o put all d i m e n
,

CAS T I RO N

FIG . 71 .
-
E x amp l e of W o rk i n g D r a w i n g .

si ons di rectly on the asse m bly drawi n g ; the argu

me n t advan ced i n favor of thi s practi ce i s that ex
p e r i e n c e d pattern makers an
-
d tool -m akers who are , ,

as a rule the only mechan i cs w h o w i ll work on

,

the m aking of these tools wi ll fin d n o di fficulty i n

,

readi ng the assembly dra w i ng ; besi des i t i s sai d , ,

56 SEL F -T A U G H T ME C HAN I CA L DR AW I NG
rate the li ght surfaces of an obj ect from the dark ,

as wi ll be e x plai ned i n the followi ng The dotted .

l i ne CC as has already been explai ned i n the pre

,

vi ous chapter i s used to represent l i nes obscured

,

or hi dden from v i ew The l i n e D D called a .

,
“ ”
dash l i ne i s used by a great many draftsmen
,

for dimensi on li nes F i nally the l i n e E E the .

, ,
“
dash a n d dot o r S imply the dash,
-
”
dotted , ,
”

Il:

FI G . 72 .
-
St y l e s of L i ne s U s e d on W o rk i n g D r a w i n g s .

l i ne i s used i n common practi ce f or center li nes

, ,

t o i ndi cate secti ons etc Thi s l i n e i s also com , .

mon l y used for constructi on li nes i n layi ng out ,

mechan i cal movements

The dimensi on l i nes may be m
.

ade e i ther fine

“ ”
full l ines or dash l ines the dashes bei n g about ,

3 i nch long A space i s left open for the figures

.

gi vi ng the dimen si on The w it n ess poi n ts or ar .

row heads showi ng the term i nati on of the di m e n

,

si on are made free hand Many draftsmen draw

, .

the extensi on an d dimensi on l i n es i n red i nk the ,

arrow heads however sti ll being m a de b l a ck

, It , .

i s w ell to avoi d as far as possi ble hav i n g the, ,

 W O R KI NG D R AWI NG S 57

dimen si on l i nes cross each other as such crossi ng ,

ten ds to con fusi on ; the difficulty can usually be

avoi ded by hav i ng at least on e set of dimensions
placed outsi de or between the v i ews the larger di
m e n s i on s bei ng placed farther fromthe outli n e of
,

the obj ect than the shorter ones to avoi d havi ng

,

the exten si on l i n es of the latter cross the d i m e n

s i on l i nes of the former D imensi ons under 24
.

i n ches are mos t co n ve n i ently gi ven i n i n ches ;

larger di mensi ons are gi ven i n feet an d i n ches .

The usual practi ce i s to i n di cate feet an d i n ches

“
on drawi ngs by short marks prime marks ,
”

placed at the right an d a l i ttle above the figure

, ,

on e mark i n di cati ng feet an d t w o marks , ,

“
double pri m e mark s ”
i n di cati ng i nches so ,

that 5 7 woul d read 5 f ee t 7 i n ch es Som e drafts

’ ”
.

men do n ot consi der th i s method of marki n g safe

enough to el i m i nate mi stakes a n d prefer to wri te ,

dimen si on s of thi s ki n d i n the form 5 ft A .

method equally sati sfactory i n pre venti ng possible

mi stakes i s to place a short dash between the
figure gi v i ng the nu m ber of feet an d that gi ving
the nu m ber of i nches at the same time retai n i ng
,
“ ”
the prime marks ; thus 5 When feet only
,
’

are gi ven i t i s w ell for the sake of un i formi ty

, ,

an d to preven t any mi su n derstandi ng to g I ve the ,

di m e n s I on I n the form 5
’

A f e w examples showi ng the pri n ci ples of the

usual methods of di mensi on i n g drawi n gs may be
of value . I n Fi g 7 3 i s shown a si m ple bushi ng
. .

The di ameter of the hole or bore i s gi ven as 2

i n ches by a di m ensi on l i ne passi ng through the
center of the ci rcles i n the en d v i ew I t i s con .
 SEL F -T A U G H T ME H AN I CA L D R AW I NG
C

fusi ng however to have more than on e di mensi on

, ,

li ne passi ng through the same center and there , ,

fore the outsi de diameters of the bush i ng have

,

been gi ven on the Si de v i ew The lengths of the .

vari ous steps or shoulders of the bushi ng are gi ven

below the si de v i e w as i s also the total length I t
, .

wi ll be noti ced that the dimensi ons of the three '

—
steps are slightly Off set that i s the dimensi on ,

- _
2

FIG . 73 — . Si m p l e E x am pl e of D i me n s i on i n g a D r aw i ng .

li nes do n ot extend i n on e straight l i n e ; thi s makes

a very clear arra n ge m e n t .

The method of di m e n si on i n g holes dri lled i n a

c i rcle i s shown i n Fi g 7 4 O utsi de Of the d i m e n
. .

si on f or the holes themselves o n ly the di ameter of

the ci rcle passi ng through th e centers of the holes
i s gi ven together wi th the number of holes As
, .

the holes of course are to be equally spaced that

, ,

i s all that i s requi red When a great many bol t

,

holes or bolts occur aroun d a flange i t i s not nec ,

essary to draw them al l i n on the work i ng draw

i n g ; a common meth od i s to show a few an d t o ,
 W O R K I NG DR AW I NG S 59

draw the ci rcle passi ng through thei r centers the ,

p i tch ci rcle The total number of bolts aroun d the

.

fla n ge i s o f course also gi ven A cas e of thi s

, , .

k i n d i s i llustrated i n Fig 75 When a great many . .

holes are dri lled i n a r ow a simi lar expedi ent may ,

8 H O LE

FIG . 74 .
— D i m e n s i on i n g H o l e s D ri ll e d in a Ci rc le .

be adopted to avoi d showi n g a n d dime n si o n i n g

.

all the holes ; a n i llustrati o n of thi s i s sho w n i n

Fig 7 6
. .

I n Fi g 77 are show n the common m ethods of

.

di mensi on i n g scre w s an d bolts At A i s Sho w n a .

hexagon head bolt so drawn that three si des of ,

60 SEL F -T A U G H T ME C H AN I CA L D R A W I NG

the head are v i si ble Hex agon bolt heads are

.
-

usually drawn i n thi s manner i n all v i ews i rre ,

s p e c t i ve of the fact that the rules of proj ecti on

would call for only two si des to be vi si ble i n one

vi ew The reason for thi s i s partly that the bolt
.

28 O E S 94
HL -

FIG . 7 5
.
— Si m p li fi e d M e t hod of D i m e n s i on i n g H o l e s
D ri ll e d in a Ci r c l e .

head looks better when three si des are v i si ble an d ,

partly that when so drawn there can be n o c on f u

si on whether a hexagon or a square head i s mean t .

I f only two si des were shown as at B the head , , ,

especially i f carelessly drawn might be mi staken ,_

f or a square bolt -head As a rule the di men si on s

.
,
 W O R K I N G D R AW I NG S 61

of bolt heads are standard for gi ven di ameters of

-

bolts an d n o dimen si ons are requi red for the

,

head I n some cas es however the head may be

.
, ,

requi red to fit a gi ven si ze of wren ch or for some ,

other reason be requi red to be m ade di ff erent from

the stan dard si ze ; i n such cases dimen si ons may
be gi ven as shown at C Fig 77 the di mensi on , .
,
“
1 hex i n di cati ng that the head i s on e i nch
” ”
.

FIG . 7 6 —. D i m e n s i on i n g H o l e s D ri ll e d in a R ow .

“
2 sq would ”
across flats I n the same way
. , .

i n di cate that the head should be square an d three ,

“
quarters i nch across flats .

The length of the bolt should be gi ven as shown

i n the lower v i ew i n Fi g 77 The dimensi ons . .

“ ”
should be gi ven under the head both the total ,

di men si on an d the di stance to the begi nn i ng of

,

the thread .

I n general full ci rcles shoul d be di mensi oned by

,

thei r di ameters ; an arc of a ci rcle agai n should , ,

be di men si oned by i ts radi us The center from .

62 SEL F -T A U G H T ME CH AN I CA L D R AW I NG

w hi ch the arc i s struck shoul d preferably be i n di

ca t ed by a small ci rcle drawn aroun d i t I n small .

dimensi ons the arrow poi n ts ar e frequently placed

,

outsi de of the li nes between wh i ch the dimens i on

i s gi ven as Shown i n Fig 7 1 i n dimensi on i ng
, .

the narrow ribs ; s om eti mes the figures gi vi ng the ,

1 HE X .

-1 0 T HR E A DS
PE R I NC H

FIG . 77.
— D i m e n s i on i n g Sc r e w s an d B ol t s .

dimensi on are the m selve s placed outsi de of the

space between the arrow heads because the space ,

i s too small to permi t the dimensi on to be clearly

wri tten wi thi n i t .

The pri nci pal di m e n s i on s s h oul d be so gi ven

that the workman w i ll n ot have to ad d a nu m ber
of other dimensi ons to get them When the .

di m ensi on i n g of a pi ece naturally di v i des i tself

i n to several measurements a n over all di men si on
,
-

should always be gi ven for verificati on I f how .

,
64 SEL F -T AUG H T ME CH AN I CA L DR A W I NG

ments the l imi ts of variati on between whi ch any

,

measurement i s allowed to vary are g i ve n w i th ,

each dimensi on or at least wi th di mensi on s for

, , ,

diameters whi ch are to fit the holes or bores of

other pi eces The determi nati on of the li mi ts of
.

accuracy requi red calls f or g Ood j udgmen t on the

part of t h e drafts m an Li m i ts may be expressed
.

i n two ways F or i nstance a runn i ng fi t on a

.
,

shaft to go i nto a i nch stan dard si ze hole may

be marked
max .

mi n .

or i t may be e x pressed
max .

mi n .

whi ch means that the shaft must n ot be larger

than i nch an d n ot smaller than
, i n ch .

On drawi ngs the tap dri ll si ze an d the depth of

,

tapped holes Should always be sh own Surfaces .

“
to be groun d to si ze should be marked gri n d .
”

“
I f the surface i s to be filed the words file fin i sh
,
“
are substi tuted f or the letter f Fi n i sh ing .
”

marks as a rule are used on casti ngs an d f or g

, ,

i ngs only O n work made from b ar stock every

.
,

surf ace i s nearly always fin i shed so that here the ,

fin i shi ng marks are omi tted When a casti ng or .

forgi n g i s fin i shed on every surface i t i s not nec ,

“
essary to Show fin i sh marks but the words fin i sh ,
”
all over may be wri tten i n a conspi cuous place ,

so as to readi ly catch the eye of the workman I f .

,

on work made from bar stock i t i s desi red that ,

the pi ece be left rough at any poi nt the words ,

 W O R K I NG D R AWI NG S 65

stock si ze may be appl i ed to the figures gi vi ng

that parti cular di men si on For i nstan ce on a .
,

1 3 i n ch col d rol led shaft turned for j our n als f or a

-
,

short di stan ce at each en d the cen tral part would

‘

be di mensi oned é i n ch stock si ze

- ”

Wh i le the practi ce of i ndi cati ng fin i shed surfaces

.

“ ”
by the letter f i s by far the most freque n tly
met w i th i t i s by n o mean s un i versal I n some
, .

“ “
shop s the words poli sh ream fin i sh,
”
etc ,
”
,
”
.
,

are wri tten near the li nes re p resenti ng the sur

faces to be thus treated Sti ll another method .

much i n use i s to draw a red l i ne outsi de of the

l i n e representi n g each surface to be fin i shed I f .

a blue -pri n t i s made from a traci n g thus pre

pared th e red l i nes wi ll pri n t fai nter than the

‘

black ones an d the fi n i sh l i nes on the blue p ri n ts

,
-

are traced over w i th a red penci l or red i n k before

bei ng sen t out i n the shop Thi s method how .
,

e ve r i s more expens i ve than that of i n di cati n g

'

,
“
t h e fin i shed surfaces by the let ter a n d on
”
f ,

c ompl i cated drawi ngs th e ma n y addi ti o n al red

,

li nes ten d to cause co n fusi on B y whatever .

method the fin i sh i s i n di cated the fi n i shing ,

marks should always be Shown fully i n every vi ew

of the obj ect .

I t frequen tly happen s that the representati on of

a n obj ect i s made clearer by the use of secti on al
v i ews representi ng the obj ect as havi ng been cut
,

i n two e i ther wholly or i n part E xamples of thi s

,
.

a r e Shown i n F i gs 6 9 70 an d 7 1. F rom these

, .

i llustrati on s i t i s apparen t that the constructi on of

the vari ous pi eces i s much more clearly exhi b i ted
“ ”
w hen a secti on i s shown The surface cut or .
66 SEL F -T A U G H T ME CH AN I CA L D R AWI NG
shown i n secti on i s cro s s h atched or cross secti oned
- -

w i th fine l i nes a t a di sta n ce apart varyi ng from a

thi rty -secon d to an ei ghth of an i n ch accordi n g ,

to the si ze of the drawi n g an d the pi ece The .

cross secti on i ng bri ngs the parts i n secti on i n to

-

bol d contrast w i th the remai nder of the drawi ng ,

an d preven t a ll confusi on as to wha t parts are i n

secti on an d what parts sho w n i n full Al l l i nes .

beyon d the secti onal surface whi ch are exposed to

v i ew shoul d be shown i n the dra w i ng as usual
,
.

Should i t be deemed n ecessary whi ch i t sel dom i s , ,

to Show any parts that have been cut a w ay f or the

purpose of showi ng a secti on such parts may be ,

drawn i n by dash dotted l i nes th i s i n di cati ng that

-
,

the parts thus sho w n are i n fron t of the secti on

a n d actually cut away .

When a mechan i sm i s shown i n secti on the d i f ,

f e r e n t parts of the same pi eces Shoul d always be

cross secti oned by l i nes i n cl i ned i n the same d i r e c
-

t i o n wh i le separate pi eces adj oi n i ng each other

,

Shoul d always when possi ble be cross -secti oned

, ,

by l i nes run n i ng i n diff eren t di recti on s When a .

soli d rou n d pi ece I s exposed to V i ew by a secti on ,

i t i s customary to Show i t soli d an d n ot to secti on ,

i t ; the screw stud i n Fig 6 9 i s an e x ampl e of thi s

.

practi ce .

Secti onal v i ews may also be used for many pur

”

poses where a sl ight deviati on from the theory of

proj ecti on wi ll ten d to simpl i fy the representati on
of certai n machi n e detai ls The shape of the arm
.

of a pulley or gear o r of any other part of a cast

,

i ng may be conven i ently represented i n thi s way

, .

The cutti ng plan e may be assumed t o l i e at any

 W O R K I NG DR AW I N G S 67

angle necessary to bri ng out the detai ls most clear

ly. A secti o n al v i ew for i nstan ce may represent
, ,

a casti ng as though i t were cut through partly on

on e plan e an d partly on a n other I n all such cases .
,

however i t shoul d be i n di cated i n another v i ew of

,

the obj ect j ust where the secti onal vi ews are sup

S E C T O N AT
I B -C

FIG . 78 .
—Me t h o d s of Sh ow i n g Se c t i on s .

posed to be taken so that n o confusi o n may ari se

,

on thi s accou n t The examples i n the followi n g

.

w i ll serve to make clear the pri n ciples lai d do w n .

I n F i g 7 8 are sho w n secti ons of t w o ha n d

.

wheels When an obj ect i s sy mm etri cal i t i s

.

unnecessary to Show more than on e half i n sec

ti on although i t i s qui te common to secti on gears
, ,

pulleys etc
,
co m pletely on worki ng dra w i ngs .

The han d -wheel at A i n Fig 7 8 i s represented as .

68 SEL F -T A U G HT ME CH AN I CA L DR AWI N G

though cut i n two along i ts diameter B C Whe n .

the secti on i s taken along the center l i n e i t i s n ot ,

absolutely necessary to explai n where the secti on

i s taken ; but i t can do n o harm to make a practi ce
of i n all cases to state where the secti on i s made ,

e x ce p t when perfectly obvi ous I n thi s case i t .

would be clear that the s e ct i on i s taken through /

S E T O N AT A-
C I B

FIG .
— A G e a r-w h e e l i n Se c t i on .

the center an d the legen d Secti on at B C i s

,

gi ven o n ly to Show the pri nci p le The han d -w heel .

at D i s provi ded wi th four arm s an d the method ,

of representi n g the shape of the arms hub an d ,

ri m are clearly i ndi cated .

I n Fig 7 9 are shown two v i ews of a gear-wheel

.
,

i n di cati ng the conventi o n al method of represent

i ng gears on drawi ngs The v i ew on the left s i d e
.

i s the S i de v i ew an d as all the teeth are of course

, , ,
 W O R K I N G DR AW I NG S 69

al i ke i t i s unnecessary to draw more than a few

,

of them The pi tch li ne of the teeth i s represented

.

by a dash dotted li ne
-
I n the part of the gear
.

wheel ri m where the teeth are not Sho w n the face ,

of the gear i s i ndi cated by a sol i d l i ne an d the ,

bottom of the teeth by a dotted li ne I n the case .

of mach i ne cut geari ng where the teeth are cut

-
,

b y s t a n da r d form ed cutters i t i s u n n ecessary to

‘

Show any teeth at all on the ri m o f the gear i t ,

bei ng suffici e nt to state the p i tch an d the nu m ber

of teeth as w i ll be more f ully explai n ed later i n
,

the cha p ter on geari ng T o Show the shape to

.

wh i ch the arms are form ed a secti o n al v i e w of

,

on e of the arm s i s dra w n i n the si de V i e w ; the

en ds of the shaft are sup p osed to b e bro k e n off ,

an d are there f ore secti o n ed as Show n T h e ri gh t

, , .

ha n d v i ew of the gear i s a secti on tak e n alo n g the

l i ne AB I t w i ll be noted that the shaft an d key
.

are n ot secti oned usual p racti ce bei ng follo w ed i n

,

thi s respect The gear sho w n has five arm s an d

. ,

the l i n e AB cuts through on e of them o n ly Thi s .

arm however i s n ot secti oned i n the right han d

, ,
-

V i ew an d two opposi te arms are drawn as though

both of them lay i n the pla n e of the paper Whi le

,

th i s i s n ot theoreti cally correct i t i s the method ,

usually followed because of si m pl i ci ty i n dra w i ng

an d clearness of representa ti on The method of .

represen ti ng the gear teeth i n the secti onal v i ew

i s the on e commonly e m ployed .

Secti onal an d top v i ews of a cyli n der en d w i th

flange an d cover are shown i n Fig 8 0 Thi s . .

cyl i n der cover has only five bolts an d the plane ,

through wh i ch the secti on i s taken cuts through

 SEL F -T AUG H T ME C H AN I CA L DR A W I NG

only one of the bolts I t i s common practi ce how

. ,

ever to draw the secti on as shown at the left

,

The bolts are shown as i f two of them were i n the

plane of the s ecti on The bolts are n ot sec t i oned
. ,

FIG . 8 0 — Se c t i on
. of Cy l i n de r E n d w i t h an d Cov e r .

but are drawn i n full as e x plai ned prev i ously

, .

D otted li nes of the remai n i ng bolts or full l i nes ,

of thei r nuts should n ot be Shown because thi s

, ,

detracts from the clearness of the drawi ng ; the

top vi ew shows clearly the number of the bolts
an d thei r arrangemen t an d that i s all that i s n ec
,

essary Some draftsmen prefer to draw secti on s

.
 72 SEL F -T A U G HT ME C H AN I CA L D R A W I NG

i n such a way as to i ndi cate the material from

whi ch each pi ece i s made There i s however n o .
, ,

un i versally adopted or recogn i zed stan dard f or

cross -secti on i ng for the purpose of i ndi cati ng di f
f e r e n t materi als I n Fi g 8 2 i s shown a chart
. . ,

OU
WR G HT I RON S T EEL A E A LE RO N
M LL B I CAS T R O N
I

B RO N EZ B RA SS CO E R
PP L EA D

A
B BB I TT LE A T HE R G LASS
FIG . 82 — Cro s s -s e c t i on i n g
. us e d f or d
I n i cat i n g D i ff e re n t
M a t e ri a l s .

publ i shed by Mr I G B ayley i n Ma ch i n er y Cc

. . .
,

tober 1 906 whi ch represents average practi ce

, , ,

although i t must be di sti n ctly un derstood that

there i s no agreement i n all respects between the
numerable charts i n use i n vari ous drafti ng-rooms .

For thi s reason cro ss secti o n i n g alone should

-
,

never be depen ded upon for i n di cati ng to the work

 W O R K I N G DR AW I NG S 73

man the ki n d of m aterial to be used Wri tten .

di recti ons shoul d also be gi ven the ki n d of m ate ,

ri al for each part bei ng plai nly marked Tool s teel .

“
may be abbreviated T m achi ne steel
. M , .

R OUND B AR , SO L D
I

ROU N D BAR , O LL O W
H

S Q U AR E O R R E C T A N U L AR
G B AR

W OO D E N E A
B M

L B E AM

FIG . 83 . B r ok e n D r a w i n g s of L on g O bj e ct s .

S. wrought i ron WI cast i ron

, . C I .
, . .

etc The less co mm on materi als i n machi ne c on

.

st r ucti on such as bronze brass copper etc should

, , , , .
,

preferably be w ri tten out i n full i n order to avoi d ,

a n y chan ces for confusi on I t i s better to be too

.
 SE L F - T A U G H T ME CH AN I CA L D R AW I NG
expl i ci t as regards the i nformati on on the draw
i ng than to ri sk mi sun derstandi ngs an d c o u se
,

quent errors .

Long bars shafti ng structural beams etc can

, , , .
,

not conven i ently be shown f or thei r full length on

the drawi ng I n such cases the pi eces are drawn
.

as long as the drawi ng an d the adopted scale per

mi t and are broken as shown i n Fi g 8 3 a part
, .
,

between the two end porti on s shown bei ng i ma g

i n e d as broken out The di .

m e n s i on s of course are gi ven

, ,

for the full length of the pi ece ,

as i f n ot broken .

There are several c on ve n

t i on a l methods f or Showi ng
screw threads ; these methods
are adopted largely for savi ng
of ti me as i t would be out of
,

the questi on to spen d the ti me

F I G 84 —Me t h o d o f
r e q uI r e d for dr a w m g
.

a tru
.

e
D r a w i n g a Sc re w ,

G i v i n g c or r e c t He hel i cal screw thread on a work

l i x E ff e c t
. i ng dra w i n g A method f or .

very nea rly approx i mati ng the

ap p earance of a theoreti cally correct screw dra w i ng
i s sho w n i n Fig 8 4 where the proj ecti on of the
.
,

screw hel i x i s dra w n b y straight l i nes The V .

shaped outli ne i s first lai d out an d the connecti ng ,

li ne s are then dra w n I t wi ll be noti ced that th e

.

l i nes represen ti ng the roots of the threads are n ot

parallel wi th those representi ng the tops or poi nts .

Thi s ai ds i n maki ng the drawi ng resemble th a t of

‘

a true hel i x .

U sually however much simpler methods a r e

, ,
 W O R K I NG DR AW I NG S 75

employe d for i ndi cati ng screw threads I n Fi g . .

85 A B an d C some of these methods are sho w n

, ,

When a long pi ece i s threaded the enti re length

, .

th i s fact can be i n di cated as at D whi ch saves ,

draw i ng the conventi onal thread f or the full length

of the pi ece The l i nes i ndi cati ng the thread are
.

FIG . 8 5 — Si m p l i fi e d
. Me t h od s h ow i n g
f or S Sc re w Th re a ds .

i n cl i ned the same as woul d be the l i nes represent

,

i n g the true hel i x At E i n Fig 8 5 i s shown a

. .

right han d thread an d at F a left han d thread the

- -
,

di ff erent di recti on of i n cl i nati on of the thread i n

di ca t i ng thi s fact However i f a thread i s to be
.
,

left han d i t shoul d always be so marked on the

-
,

drawi ng I t i s usual to abbrevi ate left hand wri t

.
-
,

i ng L H
“
. .
76 SEL F -T A U G HT ME C H AN I CA L D R A W I NG

Three methods of i ndi cati ng tapped holes are

shown i n Fi g 8 6 these bei ng used when the holes
.
,

are obscured from vi ew an d shown by dotted li nes

,
.

Wh e n a tapped hole i s shown i n secti on an d looked ,

upon f rom the t op i t i s shown as i n di cated at D

, ,

whi le i f seen from the si de i n secti on i t i s r e p r e

, ,

FIG . 86 . l
Si m p i fi e d M e t h od s d
f or I n i c a t i n g T a pp e d H ol e s .

sented as at E A surface hav i ng tapped h oles i n

.

i t seen from above i s shown at F

,
At G an d H
, .

are shown the methods of representi ng bolts or

screws i nserted i n place i n tapped holes I t wi ll .

be noted that when the thread s of a tapped hole

are exposed to vi ew by secti on the l i nes r e p r e ,

senti ng the screw hel i x wi ll be seen to slope i n the

opposi t e di recti on to those of the screw i t bei n g ,
 W O R K I NG DR AWI NG S 77

the back si de that i s e x posed to vi ew An e x ample .

of thi s i s shown i n Fi g 7 1 as well as i n Fi g 8 6

.
. .

I n drawi ngs made for use i n the Shop i t i s cus

t om a r y to make the li nes of un i form thi ckness .

F or shop use such drawi n gs are as good as any

When however the purpose of a drawi ng i s chi efly
.

, ,

to Show up the obj ect whi ch i t represents i ts e f ,

f e ct i ve n e s s may be con si derably enhanced by the

use of s h a de li n es as Shown i n Fi g 8 7 I n Shade . .

l i n e work the l i ght i s usually ass umed to come

,

from the upper left han d corner ,

an d to shi ne di agonally across

the paper at an angle of forty
fi ve degrees Li nes on the si de
.

of the obj ect away from the

light or li nes separati ng li ght
,

from dark surfaces are made ,

extra heavy Thi s gi ves t o the

.

F IG 87 Us e of . .
_

drawi ng a suggesti on of reli ef Sh a d e L i n e s

.
,

An exami nati on of the li nes of

Fi g 8 7 taken i n connecti on wi th the di recti on from
.

wh i ch the l i ght i s su p posed to com e w i ll Sho w ,

wi thout the ai d of any other v i ew that the hex ,

agonal part i s rai sed above the surf ace o f the

square an d that the ci rcle i n the center represents
,

a depressi on .

When a drawi ng i s i nten ded f or permanent use

i t i s customary to make o n ly a penci l layout on
paper u sually on brown pap er an d from thi s to
, ,

make a traci ng from wh i ch any number of blue

pri n t copi es may be made The traci ng i s usually
.

made on the regular traci ng cloth Thi s has on e

.

g lazed a n d on e un g la z ed surf a ce E i t her

. surfac e
 fl
78 SEL F T A U G H T ME CH AN I CA L DR AWI NG
-

may be used The traci ng cloth i s drawn ti ghtly

.

over the penci l drawi ng an d i ts surface i s cleaned

,

of any greasi ness w i th dry po w dered chalk Thi s .

i nsures a good ow to the i nk I n doi ng the i nk

.

work curved l i nes should be made first strai ght ,

l i nes afterwards as menti oned i n Chapter I

, .

The blue pri nts are made i n the same manner a s

photographs are pri nted the traci ng tak i ng the
,

place of the photographi c negati ve An e x posure .

of from three to ten mi nutes may be requi red de ,

pendi ng on the freshness of the blue pri n t paper

an d the brightness of the sun After the proper.

exposure has been gi ven whi ch may requi re some

,

experi menti ng at first unti l on e gets accustomed

,

to the change i n the paper whi ch the l i ght makes ,

the pri n t i s thoroughly ri nsed ou t i n clear water

an d dri ed by bei n g hung up by on e edge
,

Wh i te wri ti ng may be made on a blue pri n t wi th

.

saleratus water t h e water bei ng gi ven all the sale

,

ratus i t wi ll di ssolve .
80 SEL F -T A U G H T ME CH AN I CA L D R AWI NG
all ki nds of calculati ons As each letter s tan ds f or .

a certai n number or quanti ty whenever a speci fic ,

problem i s solved the figures for that cas e are put

i nto the formula i n place of the letters an d the ,

calculati on i s carri ed out as i n ordi nary ari thmeti c .

Thi s may perhaps be made clearer by m ean s of a

, ,

few examples .

The ci rcumferen ce of a ci rcle equals the di ameter

times Thi s rule may be wri tten a s a
formula as follows :
C D X
I n thi s formula C ci rcumferen ce an d D ,

diameter No matter what the di ameter i s thi s

.
,

formula says the ci rcumferen ce i s always equal to

,

the diameter ( D ) times Assume that the

diameter i s 5 i nches Then to fin d the ci rcumfer .
,

ence place 5 i n the formula i n place of D

, .

C 5 X i nches .

If th e diam eter of a ci rcle i s 1 2 feet then ,

C 12 X 6992 feet .

Thi s of course i s the very s implest ki n d of a

, ,

formula but i t i llustrates the pri n ci ple i nvolved

, ,

and i ndi cates how easi ly formulas may be em

ployed .

O n e of the most well -known formulas i n steam

engi neer i n g I s that gi v i ng the horse -power of an
engi ne when the average or mean eff ecti ve pres
,

sure of the steam on the pi ston the length of the ,

stroke of the pi ston i n feet the area of the pi ston ,

i n square i nches an d the nu m ber of strokes per

,

mi nute are known Le t

, .
 A L G E BRA I C F OR M U LA S 81

horse -power ,

mean eff ecti ve pressure i n pounds per

square i nch ,

length of stroke i n feet ,

area of pi ston i n square i nches an d ,

number of strokes per mi nute .

The rule conveyi ng thi s i n formati on e x pressed

i n words w oul d r e q ui r e consi derable sp ace an d be ,

difficul t to grasp i mmedi ately ; but the meani n g of

the formula i s qui ckly understood I f the pressure.

( P) equals 75 poun ds the stroke ( L ) 2 feet the

, ,

a rea of t h e pi ston ( A) 1 2 5 square i n ches an d t h e ,

n umber of strokes per mi nute ( N ) 6 0 then ,

I t wi ll be seen that the values for the diff erent

quan ti ti es are merely i nserted i n the form ula i n
place of the correspon di ng letters an d then the ,

calculati on i s carri ed out as usual I t wi ll be .

remembered that the l i n e between numerator an d

den omi nator i n a fracti on also mea n s a di vi si on ;
that i s

I t i s very common i n formulas to leave out e u ,

t i r e l y the S ign of multi pl i cati on ( X ) between the

,

letters expressi ng the values of the vari ous quanti

ti es that are to be multi pli ed . Thus for e xample
, ,
82 SEL F -T A U G HT ME CH AN I CA L DR AW I NG

PL means simply P X L an d i f P 2 1 an d L 3
,
.
=3
,

then PL P X L 2 1 X 3 63 I f the multi pl i .

cati on si g n s are left out i n the formula for the

horse po w er of engi nes j ust referred to the f or
-
,

mula
could be wri tten
33 , 000

AS a further example of the leav i ng Out of th e

multi pl i cati on Si gn i n a formula assume t h a t D ,

12 R, 3 an d r
,
2 then ,
O

DRr D X R X r 72
9 9 9 9

I t must be remembered that n o other i gn s e x S ,

cept the multi pli cati on S ign may thus be left out
,

between the letters i n a formula .

F r om the e x amples gi ven the use of s i mple ,

formulas i s clear ; each letter s tan ds for a cer

tai n nu m ber or quanti ty whi ch must b e known i n
order to solve the problem ; when the formula i s
used f or the soluti on of a problem the letters are ,

simply replaced by the correspon di n g number ,

a n d the result i s foun d by regular ari thmeti cal

operati ons .

The expressi ons square an d square root

“ ” “
an d cube an d cub e root are frequently used
i n engi neering hand books an d techn i cal j ournals
-
.

I t woul d see m to on e unfami liar w i t h these names

,

an d thei r mathemati cal mean i ng a s well as the ,

Sign s by whi ch they are i n di cated that di fficult ,

mathemati cal operati ons are i nvolved ; but thi s i s

not necessari ly always the case The square of a .

number i s simply the product of that number mul

 A L G E B R AI C FO R MULA S 83

t i pli e d
by i tself T hus the square of 3 i s 3 X 3 9
.
,

an d the square of 5 i s 5 X 5 25 I n the same .

way the square of 8 1 i s 8 1 X 8 1

, 6 56 1 I nstead .

of wri ti ng 81 X 8 1 i t i s common practi ce i n

,

2 “
mathemati cs to wri te 81 whi ch i s read 81 ,

square an d i n di cates that 8 1 i s to be mul ti p l i ed

by i tself Si mi larly we may wri te 7
.
2
7 X 7,

2 “
4 9 an d 1 2 12 X 12 1 44 The li ttle 2 i n the ”
.
,

upper ri ght ha n d corner of these expressi ons i s

-

“
N early all mecha n i cal a n d
”
called e x ponent .

engi neeri ng han d -books are prov i ded wi th tables

whi ch gi ve the squares ( an d also the square root ,

cube an d cube root ) of all nu m bers up to 1 000 so ,

that i t i s usually un n ecessary to calculate these

values by actual multi pl i cati on .

AS the squares of numbers are frequently used

i n formulas for solvi n g problems occurring i n
machi n e design an d mach i ne -Shop calculati on s a ,

few examples wi ll be gi ven below of f ormulas con

tai n i ng squares .

The area of a ci rcle equals the square of the

radi us multi pl i ed by E x p ressed as a f or
mula i f A area of ci rcle R
,
radi us a n d the , ,

G reek letter n ( Pi ) we have :

‘

A R
2
7r .

If we w an t to k n ow the area of a ci rcle havi n g a

5 -foot radi us w e h ave : ,

A 5
2
ir = 5 X 5 X square f eet .

AS a further example assu m e a f orm ula to be ,

gi ven as follo w s :
84 SEL F -T AUG H T ME C H AN I CA L D R A W I NG

A ssume that D 3 N = 5 R 4 an d 7: ( as , , ,

usual ) 3 1 4 1 6 What i s the value of A I n se rt

= . .
?

i ng the values of the vari ous letters i n the formula ,

w e h a ve :

2 2
3 X 5 + 4 X 7r

ex 4 ex 4

9 5 16 r 45
12 12 12

It wi ll be seen i n the example above that a l l the

multipli cati ons are carri ed out before any addi ti on
i s made Thi s i s i n accordan ce wi th the rules of
.

mathemati cs When several numbers or e x pres

.

si ons are conne cte d wi th si gn s i n di cati ng that

addi tion s subtracti on s multi pl i cati on s or di vi si on s
, ,

are to be made the multi pl i cati on s Shoul d be

,

carri ed out before any of the other operati on s ,

because the numbers that are connected by the

multi pli cati on Sign are actually only factors of
the product thus i ndi cated an d con sequently thi s ,
-

product must be consi dered as on e number by

i tself The other operati on s are carri ed out i n the
.

order wri tten exce p t that di v i si ons when wri tten

,

i n l i ne wi th addi ti ons an d subtracti on s precede ,

these operati on s A number of e xamples of these

.

rules are gi ven below °

5 + 13 X 7

——
z 3

Sometimes ho w ever i n formulas i t i s desi red

, , ,

that certai n operati ons i n addi ti on an d sub t racti on

 A L G E B R AI C FO RMULA S 85

precede the multi pl i cati ons I n such cases use are

.

made of the parenthesi s an d bracket T hese

mathemati cal a ux i l i a r l e s i n di cate that the expres
si on i nsi de of the parenthesi s or bracket should be
consi dered as on e si ngl e expressi on or value an d ,

that therefore the calculati on i n si de the p a r e n th e

, ,

si s or bracket should be carri ed out by i tself com

p l e t e before the remai n i n g calculati on s are com
me n ce d I f on e bracket i s placed i nsi de of a n other
.
,

the on e i n si de i s fi rst calculated an d when com ,

p l e t e d the other on e i s carri ed ou t Som e e x amples

.

wi ll i llustrate these rules an d pri n ci ples :

(6
—3
]
3 I
-
[ 1 05 — 3]
— 61 5 .

Wi thout the paren theses an d brackets the ,

c a l cu

l a t i on s above woul d have bee n as f ollows :

6

These e x ampl es should be carefully studi ed unti l

“

thoroughly un derstood .

We are n ow ready to return to the questi on of

square roots The square root of a number i s that
.

number whi ch i f mul t i p l e d by i tself would gi ve

, ,

the gi ven number Thus the square root of 9 i s 3

. , ,

because 3 multi pl i ed by i tself equals 9 The square .

root of 1 6 equals 4 of 36 equals 6 an d SO forth I t

, ,
.

w i ll be seen at on ce that the square root may be

86 SEL F -T A U G H T ME CH AN I CA L DR AW I NG

consi dered or r ather actually i s the reverse of

, , ,

the square so that i f the square of 20 i s 4 00 then

, ,

the square root of 4 00 i s 20 I n the same way as . ,

the square of 1 00 i s so the square root of

i s 1 00 The Sign used i n mathemati cal
.

formulas for the square root i s Thus 9 3 ,

49 7 a n d so forth
,
The process of actually .

calculati ng the square root i s rather cumbersome ,

and i t i s very seldom requi red because as already , ,

—
menti oned the engi neeri ng han d books usually
,

gi ve tables of square roots for all n umbers up to

1 000 a n d for larger numbers the tables can also be
,

used for obta i n i ng the square root a p prox i mately

correct or at least near enough so for almost all
,

practi cal calculati ons .

The cube of a number i s the product resulti ng

fro m repeati ng the gi ven nu m ber as a factor three
ti m es Thus the cube of 3 i s 3 X 3 X 3
.
,
2 7 an d ,

the cube of 1 7 i s 1 7 X 1 7 X 1 7 4 9 1 3 I n the same .

2
w a y as we wri te 2 2 X 2 = 4 for the square of
:
,

3 =
2 so we can wri te 2
, 2 2 = 8 f or the cube ,

of 2 . The ex p onent ( ) i n di cates how many ti mes

3

the gi ven nu m ber i s to be repeated as a factor .

3
Th e cube of 4 for example may be wri tten 4
, 4 ,

X 4 X 4 64 Simi larly 1 7
= 3
. 491 3 The expres -
.

3 “ “
si on 1 7 may be r e a d th e cube of 1 7 1 7 cube , ,
”

“
or the thi rd power of 1 7 I n the same way as
the square root mean s the reverse of square so the ,
“
cube root ( or thi rd root ) mean s the reverse of ”

“ ”
cube o r thi rd po w er ; that i s the cube root of a ,

number i s the n umber whi ch i f repeated as facto r ,

three times would gi ve the gi ven number For

, .

e x am ple the cube root of 6 4 i s 4 because 4 X 4 X

, ,
88 SEL F - T AUG H T ME CH AN I CA L DRAWI NG

Thus , 2 because 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 16,

In .

the sam e way 25 6 4 The fifth root i s wri t .

ten "/
2 43 .

These explanati ons w he n fully u n derstood wi ll, ,

el i m i nate all di fficulti es wi th formulas of a simple

nature a n d wi th such ex p ressi ons as cube root
, ,

exponents etc , .

An i mportant method faci l i tati ng the use of

formulas i s commonly k n o w n as the tra n s p osi ti on
,

of formulas A form ula for fin di n g the horse

.

p ow er whi ch can safely be tra n smi tted by a gear

of a gi ven si ze run n i n g at a gi ven speed i s :
, ,

In thi s form ula HP . horse -power ,

D pi tch diam eter ,

N revoluti on s per mi nute ,

P ci rcular p i tch of gear ,

F w i dth of face of gear .

Assu m e for example that the pi tch di ameter of

, ,

a gear i s i nches the number of revoluti ons ,

per mi nute 2 00 the ci rcular pi tch 1 % i nch an d the

, ,

wi dth of the face 3 i n ches T hen i f these values .

,

are i nserted i n the f ormula we have : ,

X X 2 00
45 horse
1 2 6 , 050
power v ery nearly
, .

Assume however that the horse -po w er requ i red

, ,

to be transmi tted i s kno wn an d that the pi tch of ,

the gear i s requi red to be foun d Assume that .

 A L G E B R A I C FO R MULA S 89

HP
.
= 30 ; D Nan d that P
= 2 OO; F = 3;
i s the unknown quanti ty ; the n i nserti ng the ,

known values i n the formula gi ves us : ,

2 00

In
order to be able to fin d P w e want i t gi ven ,

on on e si de of the equals S i gn wi th all the kno w n,

quan ti ti es on the other si de I f we multi p ly the

.

expressi ons on both Si des of the equals Sign by

the same number we do n ot change the condi ti ons ;
thus
2 00 X P Sfi w fi o
30 x
1 2 6 0 50 ,

By can cel i ng the nu m ber on the rig ht

han d si de we hav e
30 X X 200 X P X 3 X 200 .

I f we now di vi de on bot h si des of the equals

Si gn wi th X 200 X 3 X 2 00 we have : ,

200 X 3 >< 200 2GO X S >< 200

W can n ow can cel all nu m eri cal values i n the

e

fracti on on the right-ha n d si de ; then :

X 3 X 200
X 2 00

Thi s i s then the transposed form ula gi vi ng

an d from th i s we fin d that P 1 i n ch .

I n ge n eral any f ormula of the form

,

B
C
0

can be tran sposed as elow :

AX C — B ; C
90 SEL F -T AUG H T ME CH AN I CA L DR A W I N G

wi ll be seen that the quanti ti es whi ch are i n

It
the denomi nator on on e si de of the equals Si gn are ,

transposed i nto the numerator on the other si de ,

an d vi ce ver s a .

E xa mp l es :

Then :
A X D .

X X L
Then :
AX K X L A X K X L A X K X L .

F X G E >< G E X F

E X F X G
A >< K
The pri nci ples of tra n sposi ti on of formulas can
best be grasped by a care f ul study of the examples
gi ven N ote that the method i s only di rectly a p
.

pli cable w hen all the quanti ti es i n the nu m erator

.

and de n omi nator are f a ctor s of a p r oduc t I f con .

n e c t e d by or si gns the transposi ti on cannot

,

be m ade by the Simple methods shown unless the

w h ol e s u m or difi er en ce i s transposed E xample : .

The most usual c a cl ula t i on s perhaps i n some

, ,

classes of m achi ne desig n are those i nvolvi ng t h e

,

fi n di ng of the stre n gth of certai n machi ne mem

bers ; and i n order to fin d the stren g th of the s e
,
92 SEL F -T A U G H T ME C HAN I CA L D R AW I NG
The area of a rectangle equals the product of i ts
long and Short Si des I f A area L
. length of ,

the lo n ger si de an d H length of the shorter si de

, ,

then

The area of a parallelogram equal s the product

of the base an d the alti tude .

The area of a trapezoi d equals one half the sum

-

of the parallel si des multi pli ed by the alti tude .

If A area B
, length of on e of the p arallel si des ,

C length of the other parallel si de an d H ,

alti tude then

,

Assume that the le n gths of the t w o parallel

si des are 1 2 a n d 9 f eet res p ecti vely a n d that the
, ,

alti tude i s 1 6 f eet T hen

.

X 16 X 16 1 68 square feet .

To fin d the a r e a of an i rregular figure boun ded

~

by straight l i n es di vi de the figure i n to tri angles

, ,

and fi n d the area of each triangle separately The .

sum of the areas of all the tri angles equals the

area of the figure .

The ci rcumferen ce of a ci rcle equals i ts di ameter

multi pl i ed by
The di ameter of a ci rcle equals the ci rcumfer
ence di vi ded by
The area of a ci rcle equals the square of the
diam eter multi p li ed by
The di ameter of a ci rcle equal s the area di vi ded
 A L G E B RA I C FO RM U LA S 93

by an d the square root extracted of the

quoti en t .

If D di am ete r C ci rcumference a n d A
, ,

area these last r u les may be expressed i n f orm ulas

,

as follow s :
C D X

A D
2
X

The length of a ci rcular arc equals the ci rcum

feren ce of the ci rcle multi pl i ed by the number of
,

degrees i n the a r e di vi ded by 36 0 I f L

, length .

of arc C , ci rcumferen ce of ci rcle an d N num ,

ber of degrees i n the a r e then ,

The area of a ci rcular sector equals the area of

the whole ci rcle multi pl i e d by the quoti e n t of the
number of degrees i n the arc of the sector di vi ded
by 36 0 I f a. area of se ct or A area of ci rcle , ,

an d N number of degrees i n sector then ,

a = A ><

The area of a ci rcular se gm ent equals the area of

th e ci rcular sector formed by drawi n g radi i from
th e c e n t e r o f the ci rcle to the extre m i ti es of the
arc of the seg m e n t mi n us the area of the triangle
,

formed by these radi i an d the chord of the arc of

t h e segment .

Th e area of a pentagon ( re g ular polygon havi n g

94 SEL F -T AUG H T ME C H AN I CA L D R A W I NG

five s i des ) equals the square of the s i d e t i mes

The area of a hexagon ( regular polygon hav i ng

s i x Si des ) equals the square of the s i de times

The area of a heptagon ( regular polygon hav i ng

seven si des ) equals the square of the s i de ti mes

The area of an octagon ( regular p olygon hav i ng

eight si des ) equals the square of the s i de ti mes

The volume of a cube equals the cube of the

length of i ts si de .

The volume of a pri sm equal s the area of the

base multi pl i ed by the alti tude .

The volume of a cyli n der equals the area of i ts

base ci rcle multi pl i ed by the alti tude .

The volu m e of a pyrami d or cone equals the area

of the base times on e thi rd the alti tude
-
.

The area of the surf ace of a s p here e quals the

square of the di ameter multi pli ed by 3 1 4 1 6 . .

The volu m e of a sphere equals the cube of the

diameter times
The volume of a spheri cal sector equals two
thi rds of the square of the radi us of the sphere
multi p li ed by the hei ght of the contai n ed spheri cal
m
seg e t multi pli ed by
n , If V = volu m e of
sector R r a di us of sphere a n d H height of the
,
=
,

contai n ed spheri cal segme n t then ,

R
2
X HX
Assume tha t the length of th e radi u s of a s ph e r i
 CHAPT E R VI I
‘

E LEME N T S OF T R I GONO ME T RY

TR I GO N O ME T RY i s a very i mportant part of t h e

sci ence of mathemati cs a n d deals w i th the deter
,

mi nati on of angles an d the soluti on of tri angles .

I n order to fully understan d the subj ects treated

of i n the followi ng i t i s necessary that the reader
,

i s fully fami li ar wi th the usual methods of de s i g

nati ng the measurements or s i zes of angles Wh i le .

mathemati ci an s e mploy a ls o another method i n ,

mechan i cs a ngles are measured i n degrees a n d

subdi vi si on s of a degree c alled mi nutes
, The .

mi nute i s agai n subdi vi ded i nto seconds but these

,

latter subdi v i si on s are so s m all as to permi t of

bei ng di sregarded i n general practi cal machi n e
design .

A degree i s 1 3 60 part of a ci rcle or i n o the r

, ,

words i f the ci rcu m f erence of a ci rcle i s di vi ded

,

i nto 3 60 parts then each part i s called on e degree

, .

I f two li nes are drawn from the center of the

ci rcle to the e n ds of the small ci rcular a r e whi ch
i s 1 -360 part of the ci rcumferen ce then the angle
,

between these t w o l i nes i s a 1 -degree angle A .

quarter of a ci rcle or a 90 degree angle i s called a

-

right angle The mean i ng of obtuse an d acute

.

angles has already been explai ned i n Chapter I I .

An y angle wh i ch i s not a right angle i s call e d a n

obli que an g le .
 E LE ME N T S OF T R I GO N O ME T R Y 97

A mi nute i s 1 -60 part of a degree an d a second ,

1 6 0 part of a mi nute
-
I n other words on e ci rcle
.
,

3 60 degrees on e degree , 6 0 mi nutes and on e ,

mi nute 60 seconds The s ign ( ) i s used for i n

.
0

di ca t i n g degrees ; the S i gn i n di cates mi nutes ,

an d the Sign seco n ds A comm on abbreviati o n .

for degree i s f or mi n ute a n d f or ,

“
secon d sec
, .

T w o angles are equal when the nu m ber of de

grees they contai n i s the sa m e I f t w o a n gles are .

both 3 0 degrees they are equal n o m atter h ow

, ,

lo n g the si des of the on e may be i n relati o n to the

other .

O f all tri angles the right-a n gled triangle occurs

,

most frequently i n machi ne design A right-ang .

led t r i angle i s on e havi ng the a n gle betw een t w o

si des a right a n gle ; the angl es betw een the other
si des may be of any Si ze I n the calculati ons i n .

volved i n solv i ng right angled tri angles a use f ul

-
,

appl i cati on of the squares an d square roots of

numbers i s also presented Assu m e that the lengths .

of the s i des of a right angled triangle as sho w n

-
,

i n Fi g 88 are 5 i n ches 4 i nches an d 3 i nches

.
, , , ,

respecti vely Then .

or 25 = 16 + 9 .

Thi s relati onshi p between the three si des i n a

ri ght-angled triangle holds good f or all right ang -

led tri angles The square of the si de opposi te the

.

ri ght angle equal s the sum of the squares of the

s i des i n cludi ng the ri ght angle Assume for ex .
,

ample that the lengths of the t w o si des i ncludi ng

,

the ri ght angle i n a ri ght angled tri angle are 1 2

-
98 SEL F T AU G HT ME CHAN I CA L D R AW I NG
-

an d 9 i n ches long respecti vely as shown i n F i g

, ,
.

89 and that the si de opposi te the right angle the ,

We then first square

,

h yp oten u s e i s t o be found
,
.

the t w o gi ven si des and from our rule j ust gi ven, , ,

we have that the sum of the squares equal s the

square of the si de to be foun d The square r o ot .

—4 9

FIG . 88 . F I G 89
. .

of the sum must then equal the s i de i tself . Carry

i n g out thi s calculati on w e hav e
2 2
12 9 1 44 81 225
2 25 15 i nches length of hypotenuse .

Simi lar method s may be employed for fin di ng

any of the si des i n a right angled tri angle i f two -

si des are gi ven I f the hypotenuse were known

.

to be 1 5 i nches an d on e of the s i des i ncludi ng the

,

right angle 9 i nches as shown at D i n Fi g 90 , .

,

then the other si de i ncludi ng the right angle can

be found I n thi s case however we must subtract
.
, ,

the square of the known si de i ncludi ng the right

1 00 SEL F -T AUG H T ME C H AN I CA L DR A W I NG

equals the square of AC These rules wri tten

. as

general formulas would take the form :

AB 2
AC 2
BC
2

BC
2
AC 2
AB 2

BC
2
AB 2
AC 2

Fro m these formulas we have by extracti ng ,

th e
square root on each s i de of the equal S ign :
BC x/AB 2 —
I-
AO 2

AB x/ AC
2 2
BC
AC x/B C
P — AB 2

These form ulas ma k e i t possi ble to fin d the thi rd

si de w he n t w o si des are gi ven no matter what the,

F I G 91
. .

numeri cal values of the length of the S i des may

be Assu m e AB
. 1 2 an d B C ,
2 0 ; fin d AC Ac .

cordi ng to the form ula :

AC V 20 2
12
2
V 4 OO 1 44 V 25 6 = 16 .

Assume that AB 15 and AC 20 . Fin d B C .

BC V 15 2
+ 20
2

The rules and formulas gi ven make i t possi ble t o

find the le n gth of the si des i n a right-angled tri
angle To fin d the angles however use must b e
.
, ,
 ELEME N T S OF T R I GONO ME T RY 1 01

made of the tr i gon om e tr i c f un cti on s the mean i ngs ,

of wh i ch w i ll be prese n tly explai n ed The trigo .

n om e t r i c fu n cti on s are the s i n e cos i n e ta n en t co

g , , ,

ta n gen t s eca n t an d cos e ca n t of angles

, Wh i le these .

functi on s are used i n the s oluti on of all ki n ds of

tri angles they refer di rectly to right angled tri
,
-

angles an d the mean i n g or value of each fun cti o n

,

can be explai ned by refere n ce to a right a n gled -

triangle as shown i n Fi g 9 1 a t G where t h e si de .

, ,

B C i s the hy p otenuse AC the si de adj ace n t to ,

angle D an d AB the si de opposi te a n gle D

, Of .

course i f referen ce i s made to a n gle E the n AB

, ,

i s the s i de adj acent an d AC the si de opposi te .

The Si ne of an a n gle i s the le n gth of the o pp osi te

si de i f the hypotenuse i s assu m ed to equal 1 The
, .

s i n e of angle D then i s the length of AB i f B C

, ,

equal s 1 To fin d the s i ne of D when B C i s a n y

.

/
other length d i v i de AB b y t h e le n gth of B C To
,
.

fin d the si n e of D i f B C equals 5 for exam ple i t

, , ,

i s necessary to di v i de the le n gth of AB by 5 .

F i n d the si ne of D when AB 1 5 and B C

,
20 .

The si n e of D 15 20
The cosi ne of an angle i s the le n gth of the adj a
cen t s i de i f the hypote n use i s assu m ed to equal 1
,
.

The cosi ne of angle D then i s the length of AC , ,

i f B C equals 1 To fi n d the cosi n e of D when B C

.

i s an y other length di vi de AC by the length of

,

BC . To fin d the cosi n e of D i f B C equals 8 for , ,

example i t i s necessary to di vi de the le n gth of

,

AC by 8 .

F i n d the cosi n e of D when AC 1 2 and B C ,

30 . The cosi n e of D 12 30
The tangent of a n a n gle i s the le n gth of the op
1 02 SEL F -T A U G H T ME CH AN I CA L D R AW I NG

p os i t esi de i f the adj acen t s i de i s assumed to

,

e qual 1 The tangent of angle D i s the length of

.

AB i f AC equals 1 To fin d the tangent of D when .

AC equals any other length d i vi de AB b y the ,

length of AC To find the tangent of D when AC

.

e quals 3 for example i t i s necessary to di vi de t h e

, ,

length of AB by 3 .

Fi n d the tangent of D when AB 1 6 an d AC ,

12 . The tangent of D 16 12
The cotangent of an angle i s the length of th e
adj acen t si de i f the opposi te Si de i s assumed to
,

equal 1 The cotange n t of angle D i s the length

.

of AC i f AB equals 1 To fin d the cotangen t of D .

when AB equals any other length di v i de AC by ,

the length of AB To fi n d the cotangen t of D

when AB equals 1 2 for example di vi de AC by 1 2 , , .

Fi n d the cotangent of D when AB 3 an d AC

36 . The cotangent of D 36 3 12 .

The secant of an angle i s the length of the hypo

tenuse i f the adj acent si de i s assumed to equal 1
, .

The secant of angle D i s the length of B C when

AC equals 1 To fin d the secan t of D when AC i s
.

any other length di vi de B C by the length of A C

,
.

F i nd the secant of D when B C 24 an d AC 9 .

The secant of D 24 9
The cosecant of an angle i s the length of the
hypotenuse i f the opposi te si de i s assumed to equal
1 . The cosecant of angle D i s the length of B C
when AB equals 1 To fin d the cosecant of D when
.

AB i s any other length di vi de B C by the len gth ,

of AB .

Fi n d the cosecan t of D when B C 3 0 an d AB

The cosecan t of D 30 8 .
1 04 SI N E S

MI N U T ES ;

. 00 3 . 0 06
. 020 . 023
. 0 38 . 04 1
. 05 5 . 058
. 07 3 . 076
. 0 90 . 09 3
1 07 1 10
1 25 1 28
142 1 45
1 59 1 62
1 77 1 79
1 94 1 97
. 211 2 14
. 2 28 231
. 24 5 248
. 26 2 264
. 2 78 28 1
. 2 95 2 98
. 312 315
. 32 8 33 1
. 34 5 3 47
36 1 36 4
37 7 '

38 0
. 39 3 39 6
. 4 09 4 12
. 425 428
. 44 1 444
457 . 4 59
. 472 4 75
487 4 90
. 50 3 505
. 5 18 520
. 5 32 5 35
. 5 47 550
. 562 564
. 576 578
. 590 592
. 604 606
. 6 18 6 20
. 6 32 6 34
. 6 45 647
. 658 6 60
. 67 1 673
. 684 68 6
697 699

M I NU T ES .
 CO SI NE S 1 05

DEG .
M I NU T ES .

M I NU T ES .
1 06 T AN G E N T S

M I NU T ES .

M I NU T ES
.

C O T AN G E N T S
1 08 SEL F -T A U G H T ME C H AN I CA L DR AW I NG

ge n ts ,
we read Cotangents an d at the bottom ,
“ “
Cota n ge n ts
”
of the table headed we read Tan ,

gents . The obj ect of thi s w i ll be prese n tly ex

plai ned The e x treme left ha n d colum n we fi n d i s
.
-
, ,

headed an d the follo w i n g seven column s

1 0 20 3 0 4 0 5 0 an d 60 r e
’
are headed
s p e c t i ve l y these colu m ns i n di cati n g the mi nutes
, .

At the bottom of the pages the same nu m bers are

foun d but readi ng from the right to the left The .

values of the fun cti o n s marked at the top are read

i n the table opp osi te the degrees i n the left ha n d -

colu m n an d under the mi nutes a t top The values .

of the fu n cti o n s marked at the bottom are read

opposi te the degrees i n the right ha n d colu m n a n d

-

over the mi nutes at the bottom F or exam p le the .

,

si ne of 39 4 0 or si n 3 9 4 0 as i t i s wri tten i n
° ’

form ulas i s th us fou n d to be

, an d the si ne
of 64 1 0 i s
°
thi s latter value bei ng read off
i n the secon d table readi n g i t from the bottom up
, ,

an d locati n g the number of degrees i n the right

ha n d colu m n .

As further exam p les we fin d ,

tan 3 7 4 0 ° ’

cot 3 7 4 0 ° ’

ta n 8 0 0
° '

cos 7 5 3 0 ° ’

We are n ow ready to proceed to solve right-ang

led triangles wi th regard both to the si des an d the
angles I n any ri ght angled triangle i f ei ther two
.
-
,

si des or on e si de an d on e of the acute a ngle s are

,

known the remai n i ng quanti ti es can be foun d As

, .

a general rule i n a n y tri angle all the quanti ti es

, ,
 E LE ME N T S OF T R I GO N O ME T RY 1 09

can be foun d when three quanti ti es at least on e ,

o f whi ch i s a si de are gi ven I n a right-angled

, .

triangle the right angle i s al w ays kno w n of ,

course so that here therefore o n ly t w o addi ti onal

, , ,

quanti ti es are n ecessary I f all the three a n gles .

are kno w n the le n gth of the si des can n ot be de

,

t e r m i n e d ; on e s i de at least m ust also al w ays be

, ,

kno w n i n order to make possi ble the soluti on of

the tri angle .

The followi n g rules Should be used for solvi n g

right-angled tri a n gles .

Ca s e 1 T w o si des kno w n
.
—
U se the rules a l
ready gi ven i n thi s chapter for fi n di n g the thi rd

"

A D ACE N T D E
— J SI

FIG . 92 . FIG . 93 .

s i de when t w o s i des i n a right a n gled tria n gle are -

gi ve n To fi n d the a n gles use the rules already

.

gi ven for fi n di ng Si nes cosi nes etc a n d the , , .

,

tables .

Ca s e 2 Hypotenuse a n d on e a n gle gi ve n Call

.
—

the SI de adj ace n t to the gi ve n a n gle the adj acent

s i de a n d the s i de opposi te the gi ven a n gle the
,

opposi te si de ( see Fi g Then the adj acen t .

Si de eq u als the hypotenuse multi pli ed by the cosi ne

1 10 SEL F T A U G H T ME CH AN I CA L D R AW I N G
-

of the gi ven angle ; the opposi te si de equals the

hypotenuse multi pl i ed by the si ne of the gi ven
angle ; and the unknown angle equals 90 degrees
mi nus the gi ven angle .

Ca s e 3 O n e angle an d i ts adj acen t s i de gi ven

. .

The hypotenuse equals the adj acent si de di vi ded

-

by the cosi ne of the gi ven angle ; the oppos i te Si de

equals the adj acent Si de multi pl i ed by the tangent
of the gi ven angle ; an d the unknown angle i s

found as i n Case 2 .

Ca s e 4 O n e angle an d i ts opposi te s i de known

. .

—The hypote n use equals the opposi te s i de di v i ded

by the si ne of the gi ven a n gle ; the adj acent S i de

equals the opposi te si de multi pl i ed by the cotangen t
of the gi ven angle ; an d the unknown angle i s
foun d as i n Case 2 .

These rules may be wri tten as formulas as f ol

lows ( see F ig .

Ca s e 1 For formulas for the si des see the first

.

part of thi s Chap ter For the angles we have : .

6
Si n B si n C
a

Ca s e 2 . Here , when a an d B are gi ven we hav e : ,

c = a cos B ; b = a si n B ; C 90
= —B
°
.

Wh en a an d C are gi ven we have : ,

b = a cos C; c = a si n C; B = 9 0
°
C .

Ca s e 3 . Here , when B an d c are gi ven we hav e ,

c
b — c ta n B , C -
90
o
__
B
B
, .

CO S

When C and b are gi ven we have ,

'

5
e — b t a n C, B — 90
. o _
C
os c , .

C
112 ‘

SEL F -T A U G H T ME CH AN I CA L D R A W I NG

The hypotenuse B C equals the adj acent s i de

di vi ded by the cos i ne of D or ,

12
1 5 666
. i n ches .

Si de AB equals the adj acen t si de multi pl i ed by

the tangent of D or ,

AB 12 x tan 4 0 °
12 x i nches .

The cosi ne an d tangent of 4 0 degrees are foun d

i n the tables of tri gonometri c fun cti o n s as already
e x plai ned .

E xa mp le 2 —
I n the triangle i n Fi g 95 the
, .
,

hypote n use B C 1 7 5 i n ches On e angle i s 44 de .

grees Fi n d angle E a n d the s i des AB a n d AC

. .

Thi s i s an exam ple of Case 2 the hypotenuse ,

an d on e a n gle bei ng gi ven U si ng the rules or .

formulas gi ven f or Case 2 we have : ,

AC 1 75 X cos 44
°
X
i nches .

AB 1 7 5 X si n 44
°
X
i nches .

E :
90
°
44
°

E xa mp le 3 — the tri angle i n Fi g 9 6 si de AC

In
. .
,

208 feet ,a n d the angle o p posi te thi s si de = 3 8

degrees . Fi n d angle E an d the t w o remai n ing ,

si des.

Thi s i s an exa m ple of Case 4 on e si de and the ,

angle opposi te i t bei ng k n own Fro m the rules or .

f ormulas gi ven for Case 4 we have ,

:

BC 2 08 38
°
2 08 —
-
t SI n 2 feet .

AB 208 X cot 38
°
2 08 X feet .

E
’
= 90
° — 38 °
 E L E ME N T S OF T R I GONO ME T RY 1 13

E xa mp le 4 — I nthe triangle i n Fig 97 si de AC

.
.
,

3 i nches an d the
,hypotenuse B C = 5 i nches Fi n d .

s i de AB an d a n gles D and E .

Thi s i s an example of Case 1 Accordi n g to a .

formula prev i ously gi ven i n thi s chap ter

x/
2 —
AB = V BC AO 2 —
5
2
3
2
9

FIG . 96 . FIG . 97 .

s p on d i n g
to a si ne w hi ch equals i s 53 10
°

Conseque n tly :
E = 53
°
10 and D 90
° — 53 °
10
’
36
°

E xa mp l e 5 . In
the tri angle i n Fig 98 si de B C
-
.
, ,

the hypotenuse i s 1 5 i n ch lo n g O n e a n gle i s 6 5

,
“

degrees Fi n d angle E a n d the remai n i ng si des

. .
114 SEL F -T A U G HT ME CH AN I CA L DR A W I NG

Thi s i s an e x ample of Case 2 . We hav e

E 90 65
° °
=

AB 1 3 x cos 6 5
= °
i n ch :
AC 15 X si n 65
°
X i n ch.

E xa mp le 6 the tri angle i n Fi g 99 s i de AB

.
—
In .
,

i n ch an d the angle adj ace n t to thi s s i de i s

,

6 0 degrees Fi n d angle E an d the Si des AC an d B C

. .

F I G 98 . . FIG . 99 .

Thi s i s an example of Case 3 . We have :

°
E
°
90
= 60
°
BC cos 60
i nch .

AO = X tan 6 0 °
X
i nch .

The previ ous examples carefully studi ed w i ll , ,

gi ve a co m prehensi ve i dea of the methods us ed for

solvi ng right-angled triangl es n o matter wh i ch ,

parts are gi ven or unknown .

A triangle whi ch does n ot contai n a right angle

1 s called an obli que tri a n gle An y such tri angle .

can be solved by the ai d of the formulas gi ven f or

the right tri angle by di vi dI n g I t i nto two ri ght
,

angled tri angles by means of a l i ne drawn from

the vertex of on e angl e perpendi cular to w ards the
opposi te si de Formulas can be deduce d wh i ch do
.
116 SEL F -T AUG H T ME C H AN I CA L DR AW I NG

B AD an d CAD and then all the angles a n d si des , ,

i n the triangle are found .

T h e successi ve calculati ons would be carri ed out

as follo w s :
AD 4 X Si n 5 0
°
4 X
BD 4 X cos 4 X
An gle B AD
°
40
°
90 50
DC 5 BD 5
AC v 41)
.
?
DC
?
V 3 06 4 .
2

AD
SI n e of angle ACD
AC
Angle ACD 51 40
Angle CAD
° ° ’ °
90 51 40 38 20
An gle B AC
° ° °
20
’
= 40 38 78

I n or der to check theresults obtai n ed add angles ,

AB C B AC a n d AOB
,
T h e sum of these angles .

must equal 1 80 degrees i f the results are correct :

° ° °
+ 51 40 1 80
0
+ 78 20
’ ’
50

Thi s m ethod w i th such modi ficati on s as are

-
,

n ecessary to m eet the di fferent requi remen ts i n

each problem m a y be used for solvi ng all obl i que
,

a n gled tri angles exce p t i n the case where n o angle

,

i s known but only the lengths of all the three

,

si des I n thi s case the use of a di rect formula

.

wi ll prove the be s t an d most conven i en t Le t the .

three kno w n si des be a b an d c a n d the angles , ,

opposi te each of the m A B an d C respecti vely as , , ,

i n Fig 1 01 ; then we have :

.

b sm A
2 2
b + 0 _
a
2

c os A = '

sin B —
;
2 1) c a

C ; 1 80
°
 E LE ME N T S OF T R I GONO ME T RY 117

AS an example assume that the three si des i n a

,

tri angle are a 4 b 5 an d c 6 i n ches long , , .

Fi n d the angles .

— 42 45
Cos A
2 x 5 >< 6 60

5 c m 41 25 5
Si n B
4

C (41
°
1 80
° °
25
°
55
’
82

AS only the first pri n ci ples of trigo n ometry have

here been treated some of the more adva n ced,

FIG . 1 01 .

problems have by necessi ty been omi tted For

, , .

ordi nary shop calculati ons the present treatment

wi ll however b e f ou n d more sati sfactory as some
, , ,
,

of the matter whi ch woul d unnecessari ly burden

the mi n d has been left out I f the studen t only .

fi rst acqui res a thorough un derstan di ng of the first

118 SEL F T
- AU G H T ME CHAN I CA L D RAW I NG

pri nci ples of mathemati cs an d thei r appl i cati on t o

machi ne design i t i s comparati vely easy to broaden
,

the field of one s knowledge ; i t i s therefore of

’
, ,

extreme i m portan ce that these fi rst pri n ci ples

be thoroughly understood an d digeste d The a p .

pli cati on wi ll then be foun d comparati vely easy .

The tri gonometri c functi ons aff ord a conven i en t

means for layi ng out angles ; an d when the si des

(F I G . 1 02 .
—Me t h od of L ay i n g O ut A n g l e s by Me an s of
N a t u r a l F u n c t i on s
.

of the angle lai d out are much exten ded i t can ,

be lai d out more accurately i n thi s man ner than

by the use of an ordi nary protractor Le t i t be .

requi red for i nstance to lay out an angle of 3 7

, ,

degrees on e s i de of the angle bei ng 6 0 i n ches long

'

, .

La y out the Si de AB Fi g 1 02 60 i n ches long , .

, .

Then wi th a radi us e qual to the si ne of 3 7 degrees

multi pl i ed by 6 0 an d wi th a cen ter at B draw an
, ,
 CHAPTE R VI I I

E LEME N T S OF ME C H AN I CS

ME CHAN I CS i s defined as that sci ence or bran ch ,

of appli ed mathemati cs whi ch treats of the acti on

,

of f orces on bodi es . That part of mechan i cs whi ch

consi ders the acti o n of forces i n produci ng rest or
equi li bri u m i s called s ta ti cs ; that wh i ch relates to
such acti o n i n p roduci n g moti on i s cal l ed dyn a mi cs ;
the term m e ch a n i cs i ncludes the acti on of fo r ces
on all bodi es w hether soli d li qui d or gaseous ,
It .

i s someti mes how ever an d formerly w a s often

, , ,

used di sti ncti vely of s oli d bodi es only The me .

ch a n i c s of li qu i d bodi es i s called also h y dr os ta ti cs

or h y dr odyn a m i cs accordi ng as the la w s of rest or

,

moti on are consi dered The mechan i cs of ga s eou s

.

bodi es i s called also p n eu m a ti cs The mechan i cs

.

of flui ds i n moti on wi th speci al referen ce to the

,

methods of obtai n i ng fro m the m useful results ,

consti tutes h ydr a u li cs .

T h e R e s u l t a n t of Tw o o r Mor e Force s — When a

body i s acted upon by several forces of diff eren t
m agn i tudes i n diff erent di recti ons a S i ngle force ,

m ay be found whi ch i n di recti on an d magn i tude

,

w i ll be a res ulta nt of the acti on of the several

forces Th e magn i tude an d di recti on of thi s si ngle
.

f orce may be obtai ned by w hat i s known as the

p a r a l l e logr a m of f or ces Le t A and B Fi g 1 04
.
, .
,

1 20
 E LE ME N T S OF ME C H AN I CS 1 21

represent the di recti on of t w o forces acti ng s imul

t a n e ou s l y upon P an d let thei r lengths represent
,

the relati ve magn i tude of the forces ; then to find

a force whi ch i n di recti on and magn i tude shall
,

be a resultan t of these two forces d raw the l i ne C ,

parallel wi th B an d draw the li n e D parallel w i th

,

A A di agonal o f the p arallelogram thus formed

.
,

drawn from P t o E w i ll g i ve the di recti on an d i ts

, ,

FIG . 1 04 — P a r a ll e l og r a m of Fo rce s .

length as com p ared w i th A a n d B the relati ve ,

magn i tude of the requi red f orce

, .

T hat thi s i s so m a y be S een by co n si deri n g the

two forces as acti n g separately upon P Le t A be .

consi dered as acti n g u p o n P to m ove i t through

a di stan ce equal to i ts le n gth Then P w ould be .

moved to F I f the force B i s n ow caused to act

.

upon P to move i t through a di stance equal to i ts

length P w i ll arri ve at G AS F P has the same
, .

length a n d di recti o n as A an d as G F has the same

.
,

length an d di recti o n as B the di stan ce from G t o ,

P w ould be the same as the di stance fro m P to E ;

therefore PE the di agonal of th e parallelogram
, ,

formed h y the l i n es A B C and D represents the

’

, , , ,

requi red n ew force or resultant .

I f there are more than two forces acti ng upon

the poi n t P first fin d a resultan t of any t w o of the
,

forces ; the n co n si der thi s resultant as re p lacing

1 22 SEL F T A U G H T ME CH AN I CA L D R AW I NG
-

the first tw o ,
and fin d the resultan t of i t an d an ~

other of the origi nal forces ; con ti nue thi s process

unti l a force i s obtai ned whi ch wi ll be the resul ta n t
of all of the ori gi nal forces Thus i n Fi g 1 05 i f.
,
.
,

A B and C be con si dered as represen ti ng i n d i

,

recti on an d magn i tude

three forces wh i ch are
acti n g si multaneously
upo n P; t h e n i f we draw ,

a parallelogram upon A
a n d B w e have i ts diag ,

onal PD as the resultant

F I G 1 05 —R e s u l t a n t o f Th re e
of A a n d B A parallel
.

Fo rce s .
.

ogra m i s n ow drawn
u p on PD and C gi vi ng PE i ts diago n al as the
, , ,

resultan t of these two and consequently of the , , ,

three origi nal forces .

Thi s pri n ci ple holds true whether the ori gi nal

forces are acti ng i n the same pla n e or n ot Thus .
,

i n Fig 1 06 let A B .
, ,

an d C be three forces
a cti ng s imulta n eously

upon P Then the r e .

s ul t a n t o f A and B

would be the di agonal

PD Con si deri n g thi s F I G 1 06 —R e s u l t a n t o f Th re e
.
. .

as replaci ng A a n d B F or c e s i n D i ff e re n t P l a n e s
, .

a resultan t of i t and C
would be a diago n al dra w n from P to the further
corne r E ; PE would then be the resultant of A; B
an d C .

T hi s operati o n m a y of course be reversed to , ,

a lloys of fi ndi n g t w o or more f orces i n diff eren t

r
 1 24 SEL F - T AUG H T ME C HA N I CA L DRAW I N G

counte rbalanced by a si ngle force Le t A B and .

,

C represent the relati ve magn i tudes of the forces .

A resultant of B an d C would be D equal i n ,

FIG . 1 09 — R e s u t an t l of
FIG . 1 08 — P a r a ll e l F o rce s . Se v e r a l P a r a l l e l F o rce s .

magn i tude to B a n d C com bi ned and i ts poi n t of ,

ap p li cati on determi ned i n the manner previ ously

,

descri bed w ould be at a R egardi ng D as a si ngle

, .

force replaci ng B an d C ,

woul d gi ve E equal i n ,

magn i tude to A an d D
combi ned as the result ,

ant of these t w o an d i ts ,

poi n t of ap p li cati on de ,

t e r m i n e d as before woul d
,

be at b .

FIG — O b l i que F o rc e s O b li ? u e F or ( 26 2 Le t A
2
. 1 10 .

A c t i n g a t D i ff e re n t P oi n t s an (1 I ) lt? lg 1 1 0 f epr e 1

on a B a r . sen t the d i rect i on s an d

 ELEME N T S OF ME C H AN I CS 1 25

balanced by a Si ngle force whi ch i n di recti on and

,

magn i tude shall be a resultant of them Produce .

A an d B unti l they meet at a D raw the parallel

.

ogram a bcd maki ng da equal to A an d ba equal

, ,

to B The di agonal of thi s parallelogram wi ll gi ve

.

the di recti on an d relati ve m agn i tude of the n e w

force an d i f e x ten ded i ts i ntersecti on wi th D E
,

wi ll gi ve the poi nt of appl i cati on .

Op p o si n g Forc e s —
Le t A a n d B Fig 1 1 1 r e p r e , .
,

sent the di recti on s an d relati ve magni tudes of t w o

forces acti ng upon oppo
s i te si des of the bar D E .

T hese two forces may be

replaced by a si ngle force ,

whi ch i n di recti on a n d
magn i tude wi ll be a r e
s ul t a n t of th em Produce .

A an d B u n ti l they mee t
at a La y o ff a c equal to
.

the length of B a nd make ,

be equal to ml d parallel
i F I G 1 11 — O pp o s i n g O b l i que
. .

W i th A A l i n e draw n
.

.
F o rce s .

from a to b wi ll gi ve the
d i recti on of the n ew force a n d the le n gth of a b
, ,

as com p ared wi th A an d B w i ll gi ve i ts relati ve

magn i tude I t s appl i cati on on bar D E may be de
.

t e r m i n e d by extendi ng a b unti l i t i ntersects D E .

Le v e r s — When a workman wi shes to rai se a

heavy obj e ct h e may i n sert on e end of a bar n u
,

der i t an d li ft on the other en d ; or pushi ng a

, ,

block of wood or i ron i n under the bar as close to

the obj ect to be rai sed as he can he presses down ,

upon the free en d of the bar A bar so used con .

1 26 SEL F -T AUG H T ME C H A N I CA L DR AW I N G

a l ever an d the poi nt where the bar rests

s t i t ut e s ,

when the lever i s doi ng i ts work the en d of the ,

bar i n under th e heavy obj ect i n the first case or ,

the block on whi ch the bar rests i n the secon d

case i s the f u lcr u m of the lever
,
.

Levers are of three ki n ds as shown i n Fi g 1 1 2 :

,
.

F i rst where the fulcru m i s between the power

,

FIG . 1 12 —C
l as s e s L e v e rs .

and the weight ; second where the w ei gh t ,

betw een the fulcrum a n d the power ; and th i rd , ,

where the po w er i s between the fulcrum an d the

w eight A man s forearm furn i shes a good i llus
.
’

t r a t i on of a lever of the thi rd class the fulcrum ,

bei ng at the elbow the w eigh t at the han d an d

, ,

the muscle bei ng attached to the bon e of the a r m

, ,

at a short di stance f rom the elbo w f urn i sh i ng the ,

power .
1 28 SEL F - T A U G H T ME CH AN I CA L DR AWI NG
appli ed or to the di recti on of the resi s tanc e of th e
,

weight or load .

I n Fig 1 1 4 two cases are shown where the power

.

i s appli ed obl i quely on the lever ; but the lever arm

on whi ch the calculati on i s based wi ll be the di s

F I G 1 1 4 — P ow e r
. A pp l i e d O b l i que ly on Le ve r .

tance F a m easured from the fulcrum at rig ht ,

a n gles to the di recti on of the power .

Co m p oun d Le v e r s — I n F i g 1 1 5 i s shown a case

.

where the power gai ned wi th one lever i s further

i ncreased by the use of a second lever acti ng on ,

th e fi rst one Th e weight an d pow e r wi ll balance

.
 E LE ME N T S OF ME CHA N I CS 1 29

e achother when the p r oduct of the weight a n d t h e r

lever arms a b an d of multi p l i ed together equals

, ,

the product of the power an d the lever arms gf and

bc multi pl i ed together Thus to fin d the weight
.
,

FIG 1 15
.
—Com p oun d L e v e rs .

w h i ch a gi ven power w i ll l i ft di vi de the product ,

of the power an d i ts lever arms gf an d be multi ,

p li ed together by the product

, o f the lever ar m s of
the wei ght a b an d ef multi pl i ed together To fi n d
, ,
.

18 P O U N DS

FI G 1.1 6 — D i ag r am f or L e v e r Prob l e m .

the power necessary to l i ft a gi ven weight di vi de ,

the product of t h e weight an d i ts leve r arms a b

‘

an d of multi pli ed together by the

, ,
product of the
lever arms of the power gf an d ,
be multi pli ed
,

together .
1 30 SEL F -T A U G HT ME CH AN I CA L D R AW I NG
A f e w examples wi ll i llustrate these pri n ci ples .

Assume that i n Fig 1 1 6 a weight at A must bal

.

an ce the 1 8 -poun d wei ght at B The lever arms .

are gi ven as 1 2 an d 5 i nches respecti vely How ,

.

m uch mus t the wei ght W be i n order to balan ce ,

the w eight at B ?

The weight at B ( 1 8 poun ds ) times i ts lever arm

( 5 i n ches ) must equal the weight W t i m e s i ts lever
arm ( 1 2 i nches ) I n other words :
.

90 12 W .

90
75 poun ds
12
.

I n Fig 1 1 7 ; t w o w ei ghts 4 an d 2 poun ds r e s p e c

.
, ,

t i ve l y are balan ced by a weight

, Fi n d what W .

—1 6 -6
77

OU N S
4 P D 2 P OU N SD

FIG 1 17 —
. D i a g r am f or L e v e r Prob l e m .

the wei ght of Wmus t be wi th the l ever arm s

gi ven i n the engrav i ng .

I n thi s case the wei ght at A ti mes i ts lever a r m

p lu s the wei ght at B times i ts lever arm wi ll
equal weight Wti mes i ts lever arm The sum of
,

the products of the wei ghts an d leverages of the

weight at A an d B i s taken because both these ,

weights a r e on the same s i de of the ful crum F .

1 32 SEL F -T A U G H T ME C H AN I CA L DR A W I NG

In thi s case we have that the momen t of the

steam pressure whi ch acts upward shoul d equal
, ,

the sum of the momen ts of the weight of the lever

and the weight W Therefore :.

W .

W .

900 W .

S4 O = 2O W
840
42 pounds
20
.

The calculati on above has been carri ed out step

by step s o that students unfami liar wi th the alge
,

brai e soluti on of equati o n s may be able to un der

stan d the pri nci ples i nvolved i n simple examples
of th i s ki nd . I n the follo w i ng the calculati on s
,

have been carri ed out more di rectly but the stu ,

“ ”
dent should use the step by step method un ti l
thoroughly fam i li ar wi th the subj ect .

Fi x e d an d Mov a bl e Pulley s A fi x ed pulley i s

—

frequen tly used to change the di recti on of the

power as sho w n i n Fi g 1 1 9 but there i s no gai n
,
.
,

i n power w i th such a pulley as there i s no c om

,

p e n s a t i n g loss o f S peed ; the w eight wi ll move up

ward a t the same rate of speed as the pow er moves
down w ard .

I f now a movable pulley be used i n connecti on

wi th the fi x ed pulley as shown i n Fi g 1 20 then as .
,

the end of the rope to whi ch the power i s ap p li ed

i s draw n down w ard each of the t w o stra n ds of
,

rope between the pulleys wi ll take half of th e

stress of the suspended wei ght an d the wei ght ,

wi ll be rai sed only on e -half the di stan ce that th e

 ELEME N T S OF ME CH AN I CS 1 33

power descends The po w er w i ll therefore need to

.

be only o n e -
half of the weight I n Fig 1 2 1 there
. .
,

are three stran ds of rope between the pulleys each ,

of whi ch wi ll be equally shortened when the free

en d of the rope i s pulled ; the power therefore i s , ,

only o n e -
thi rd of the w eight I n Fi g 1 22 wi th
. .
,

FIG 1 19 —
. F i x e d Pu ll e y . F I G 1 20
. . F i x e d an d M ov a b l e
Pull e y s .

four stran ds of rope between the pulleys each fur ,

n i s h i n g an equal amoun t to the free end as i t i s

drawn out the po er need be only one fourth of

,
w -

the wei ght .

The la w of the pulley then where a si ngle rope

, ,

i s employed i s that the power wi ll be i ncreased as

,

many ti mes as there are li nes of rope betw een the

pulleys to parti ci pate i n the Shorten i ng I n a sys .

tem usi ng more than on e rope as shown i n Fig , .

1 34 SEL F -T AUG H T ME CH AN I CA L DR AW I NG

1 23 each addi ti onal movable pulley doubles the

,

power as i t wi ll move at only half the rate of the

,

precedi ng pulley .

Di ffe ren t i a l Pull e y s Another form of pulley

.
-
,

know n as the di ff erenti al pulley much used i n ma ,

chi ne Shops i s sho w n i n Fi g 1 24 I n thi s form of

,
. .

F I G 1 21
. . T a c k l e w h e re L o a d F I G 1 22
. . T a c k l e w h e re L o a d
is T ak e n on Th re e St r a n ds is T a k e n on F ou r St r a n d s
of R op e . of R op e .

pulley an endless chai n replaces the rope the pul ,

leys themselves bei ng grooved an d toothed l i ke

Sprocket wheels The tw o pulleys at the top are
]

of slightly di fferen t di ameters but rotate together ,

as on e pi ece I n operati on as the chai n i s dra w n

.
,

up by the large w heel i t passes aroun d i n a loop to

the s m all wheel from whi ch i t i s unwoun d causi ng ,

the loop i n whi ch the movable pulley re s ts to be

1 36 SE LF -T A U G H
T ME C H AN I CA L D R AW I NG

theoreti cal results gi ven by calculati on s by the ,

losses occasi oned by fri cti on .

I n clin e d Pl a ne s — In rai si ng heavy we i ghts

through short di stan ces as for i nstan ce i n loadi ng
,

barrels onto wagons a plank may be used to faci li

,

tate the work by placi ng on e en d of i t on the

ground an d the other end on the wagon an d roll ,

i ng the barrel up the plank onto the wagon Such .

an arrange m en t i s called an i n cli n e d p la n e When .

the force whi ch i s bei ng appli ed to t h e rolli ng

. l
F I G 1 25 — I n c i n e d P l an e . FIG . 1 26 — P ow e r A p p l i e d
P a r a ll e l to B as e .

obj ect i s exerted i n a di recti on parallel to the i n

c li n e d surface as i n Fig 1 2 5 i t i s evi dent that the
, .
,

pow er must move through a di stan ce equal to the

le n gth of the i n cl i ne i n order to rai se the weight
the desi red heigh t The gai n i n po w er wi ll then
,

be equal to the length of the i ncl i n e di vi ded by the

height .

I f the po w er i s appl i ed i n a di recti on parallel

.

wi th the base as i n Fig 1 2 6 the power wi ll have

, .
,

to advance through a di stance equal to the length

of the base t o rai se the obj ect the desi red height .

T h e gai n i n power w i ll then be equal t o the base

di vi ded by the hei ght B y consi deri ng Fi g 1 26
.
.
 E LEME N T S OF ME CHAN I CS 1 37

further i t will be seen that i n rolli ng the obj ect

,

up the i n cli n e the power wi ll hav e to advance from

the begi nn i ng of the
i ncl i n e to a poi n t
from whi ch a l i ne
may be drawn per
p e n di cul a r to i ts di
recti on to the top of
the i n cl i ne I n any.

case where the

power i s appl i ed i n
an y di recti on other
F I G 1 2 7 — P ow e r A p p l i e d O b l i qu e l y
than parallel w i th
.

t o Su r f a c e o f I n c l i n e
.

the i n cl i ne i n roll ,

i ng the obj ect to the top the power wi ll have to,

advan ce to a poi n t from whi ch a li ne may be drawn

perpen di cularly to i ts di recti on to the top of the
i n cl i n e I n Figs 1 27
. .

an d 1 28 are shown two

other cases where the
power i s appl i ed i n
a di recti on obli quely
to the surface of the
‘

i ncli ne I n ei ther of
.

these cases as i n the,

other two cases the ,

gai n i n power wi ll
F I G 1 28 — A n o t h e r Ca s e w h e r e
l) 8 f G un d b y l i di n g
.

P ow e r i s A p p l i e d O b l i que ly t o
Su r f a ce of I n c l i n e .
the di stance through
whi ch the force
moves a b by the di stance through whi ch the
, ,

obj ect i s rai sed c d , .

I t w i ll be further seen that the gai n i n power i s

1 38 SEL F -T A U G H T ME C H AN I CA L D R A W I NG

greatest when the di recti on i n whi ch the force i s

bei ng appl i ed i s parallel wi th the i ncl i ne When .

the di recti on of the force i s upward from the i n

cli ne as i n F i g 1 27 part of the force i s e x pen ded
, .
,

i n l i fti ng the weight off from th e i n cl i ne unti l , ,

w hen i ts di recti on i s made verti cal i t i s all ,

e x pended i n thi s way When the di recti on of the .

force i s downward from the i ncl i ne as i n F i gs 1 26 , .

an d 1 28 part of i t i s lost i n pressi n g the obj ec t

,

agai nst the i n cl i n e .

Th e Scre w — The screw i s a modi fied form of

.

i n cl i ned plane the lead of the screw the di stan c e

, ,

F I G 1 29 —
. D i ff e re n t i a l Sc re w .

that the thread advances i n goi n g aroun d th e

screw once bei ng the height of the i n cl i n e an d
, ,

the di sta n ce arou n d the s c r e w m e a s ur e d on th e

‘

thread bei n g the length of the i n cl i ne

, .

Th e Di fferen t ial Scre w — The diff erenti al screw .

i s a compou n d screw havi ng a coarse thread part of

i ts length a n d a some w hat finer thread the rest of
,

i ts length the obj ect bei ng to get a slow moti on

,

com bi n ed wi th the strength of a coa rse thread .

Fi g 1 29 shows such a screw The pi ece A i s a

.
.

fixed part of some machi ne The pi ston B sl i des .

w i thi n A b e i n g prevented f rom turn i n g by the pi n

,

C whi ch enters a groove i n B I f t hat part of the .

1 40 SEL F -T AUG H T ME C HAN I CA L DR AWI NG
the r es u l ta n t of the several forces an d takes place
,

i n the di recti on of the resultan t Thi s has been

.

clearly explai ned i n the prev i ous pages i n connec ,

ti on wi th the resoluti on and composi ti on of forces .

The most important poi nt to note i n regard to

the secon d l a w of moti on i s that when two or
more forces act on a body at the same ti me each ,

causes a moti on exactly the sam e as i f i t acte d

alone ; each force p r odri ce s i ts eff ect i n depen dently ,

but the total e ff ect on the moti on of the body of ,

course i s a combi nati on of all these i n depen den t

,

moti ons .

N ewton s thi rd la w says that for e very acti on

’

the r e i s an equal reacti on Thi s mea n s that i f a

.

force or weight presses dow n ward on a support

wi th a certai n pressure the reacti on or resi stance
, ,

i n the support must equal the sam e pressure I f

, .

a bullet i s shot from a ri fle wi th a certai n force ,

“ ”
there i s a reacti o n or recoi l
, i n the ri fle equal
, ,

to the force requi red to gi ve the veloci ty to the

bullet . Thi s la w i s very i mportant and many ,

fai lures i n machin e design have been due to

ignorance of the real mean i ng of the l a wof acti on
an d reacti on .

N ewton s thi rd law may be i llustrated by a loco

’

moti ve drawi n g a trai n of cars The dri vi ng

.

wheels gi ve as much of a back w ard push on the

rai ls as there i s of forward pull exerted on the
trai n ; and i t i s only because the rai ls are hel d i n
place by thei r fasteni ngs an d by the weight rest
,

i ng on them that the locomoti ve i s able to pull th e

,

trai n forward Thi s pri nci ple of acti on an d r e ac

.

ti on bei ng equal an d opposi te i s also an eff ectual

 E LE M EN T S OF ME CH AN I CS 1 41

bar to any perpetual moti on machi ne as such a

-
,

machi n e i n order to work would have to produce

a greater acti on i n on e di recti on than the reacti on
i n the other di recti on .

Th e Pendulu m —
A body or weight suspended
from a fi x ed poi nt by a stri ng or r od an d free to ,

osci llate back and forth i s called a p en du lu m Th e .

cen ter of os ci l la ti on i s the poi nt whi ch i f all of the

,

materi al composi ng the pendulum i ncludi ng the ,

sustai n i ng stri ng or r od were concentrated at i t

,

( the material so concentrated bei ng consi dered as

bei ng s uspended by a l i ne of n o weight ) would
v i brate i n the same ti me as the actual pen dulum .

Th e length of the pen dulum i s the length from the

poi n t of suspensi on to the center of osci llati on
When the length of the pe n dulum i s unchanged
.

i t s ti me of v i brati on wi ll be the same i f i ts a n gle

,

of v i brati on does not e x ceed three or four degrees ,

a n d i ts ti me of v i brati on wi ll be but sl ightly i n

c reased f or larger angles .

The ti m e of vi brati on of a pen dulum i s n ot

a ff ected by the materi al o f whi ch i t i s made ,

whether l i ght or heavy e x cept as the l i ght mate

,

ri al wi ll off er greater r esi stan ce to the ai r by ,

presenti ng a greater surface i n proporti on to i ts

W ei ght than a heavy material
,
.

T h e t i me of v i brati on of a pendulu mof a gi ven

l ength i s i nversely as the square root of the i n t e n
s i t y of grav i ty
. As the i ntensi ty of gravi ty de
creases w i th the di stan ce from the cen ter of the
e arth i t follows that a pen dulum wi ll vi brate faster
.

at th e poles or at sea level than i t wi ll a t th e e qu a

tor or at an e lev ati on ,
1 42 SEL F -T A U G H T ME CH AN I CA L DR AWI NG
The ti m e of v i brati on of a pendulum vari es di
re c t l y as the square roo t of i ts length That i s a .
,

pendulum to v i brate i n on e half or on e thi rd the

- -

time of a gi ven pendulum wi ll need to be only on e

quarter or on e -n i nth of i ts length .

E xa mp l e 1 — A pendulum i n the lati tude of Ne w

.

York wi ll requi re to be i n ches long to beat

secon ds R equi red the length of a pen dulum to
.

make 1 00 beats per mi nute .

A pendulum to make 1 00 beats per mi nute w i ll

have to make i ts v i brati o s i n 60 1 00 of the ti me
n -

of on e whi ch i s mak i ng 6 0 beats per mi nute an d ,

i ts length wi ll be equal to the length of on e wh i ch

beats seconds multi pl i ed by the square
,
o f 60 -1 00 ,
:

or
2
X 60 X 3 600
2 i n ches
1 00
.

E xa mp le 2 — Re qui red th e t im e of vi b rati on of

.

a pendulum 1 20 i nches l ong Le tti n g x r e p r e .

se n t the requi red t i m e w e h av e th e p r op or t i on

,

V 1 20 z s /39 . 1 01 7 x : 1, or x : 1 .

secon d
6 25 3
.

A short pendulum may be made to v i brate as

“
Slowly as desi red by havi n g a s e c on d b ob placed
”

above the poi n t of suspen si on whi ch wi ll parti ally ,

counteract the wei ght of the lower bob .

Fal ling B odie s A fall ing body w i ll have a c

—

qui red a veloci ty at the en d of the first secon d of

feet per second un der ordi nary condi ti on s
, .

I f the body i s of such shape or materi al as to p re

se n t a larg e surfa c e to th e ai r i n p ro por t i on to i ts .
1 44 SEL F - T AUG H T ME CH A N I CA L D R AWI NG

body falls an d v and t have the si gn i fican ce

,

above B ut 71
. X t ; i f thi s value of v
s e r t e d i n the formula j ust gi ven we have : ,

X t X t 2
t .

Thi s las t formula e x pressed i n words gi ves us

, ,

the rule that the di stan ce through whi ch a body

falls i n a gi ven time equals the square of the num
ber of Seconds duri ng whi ch the body has fallen ,

multi pli ed by
How long a di stan ce wi ll a body fall i n 1 0 s e c
o d
n s ? I nserti ng t 1 0 i n the formula we have : ,

2 2
h If X 10 X 1 00 1 608
feet .

The time i n secon ds requi red f or a body to fall

, ,

a gi ven di sta n ce equals the square root of the

di stan ce ex p ressed i n feet di vi ded by
, Ex ,

pressed as a f ormula thi s rule would be : ,

As an exam p le assume that a stone falls through

,

a di sta n ce of 3 600 f eet How long time i s requi red

.

f or thi s ?
I nserti ng h 3 600 i n the formula we have : ,

x /3 6 00
15 seconds very ne arly
4 01
, .

The veloci ty of a falli ng body a f ter i t has fallen

through a gi ven di stance equals the square root of
the di stan ce through whi ch i t has fall e n mul t i
p l l e d b y 8 029 .
 E L E ME N T S OF ME C H AN I CS 1 45

Thi s rule e x pressed as a formula i s :

, ,

What i s the veloci ty of a fall i ng body after i t

has fallen through a di stance of 3600 feet ?
I nserti ng h 3 600 i n the formula we have : ,

1) X V 3600 X 60 feet .

The height from whi ch a body must fall to acqui re

a gi ven veloci ty equal s the square of the veloci ty
di vi ded by AS a formula thi s rule i s : ,

2
7)
h

From what hei ght must a body fall to acqui re a

veloci ty o f 500 feet per secon d ? I n serti ng v 500
i n the formula gi ven we have : ,

2
500
38 87 feet .

I f a body i s thrown upward wi th a gi ven ve

l oc i t y , i ts veloci ty wi ll di mi n i sh duri ng each secon d
at the same rate as i t i n creases when the body
falls A body thrown up i nto the ai r i n a verti cal
.

di recti on wi ll return to the groun d wi th exactly

the same veloci ty as that wi th whi ch i t was throw n
i n to the a i r At any poi nt the veloci ty on the up
.
,

ward j ourney w i ll be equal to the veloci ty on the

downward j ourney e x cept that the di recti on 1 s
,

reversed .

The accelerati on of a falli ng body feet per ,

secon d i s the value at the lati tude of New York

, ,

at sea l evel .

The force requi red to gi ve to a falli ng body i ts

1 46 SEL F -T A U G H T ME CH AN I CA L D R AW I NG
accelerati on of 3 2 1 6 feet per secon d i s the weight
.

of the body i tself The force requi red to gi ve any

.

accelerati on to a body then i s to the wei ght of the

, ,

body as that accelerati on i s to the accelerati on

produced by gravi ty Therefore to fin d the force .
,

requi red to produce a gi ve n rate of accelerati on t o

a body di vi de the wei ght of the body by
,

an d multiply the quoti ent by the requi red rate of

accelerati on .

E xa mp l e — A body wei ghi ng 1 25 pounds i s to be

li fted wi th a n accel e rati o n of 1 0 feet per second .

R equi red the strai n on the sustai ni ng rope .

1 25
X 10 the tensi on necessary to produce
32 1 6
.

the accelerati on .

To thi s must be added the pull necessary to l i ft

the weight wi thout accelerati o n o r the weight of ,

the body i tself Thus 1 25. i s the r e

qui red ten si on on the rope .

The rate of accelerati on whi ch a conti nuously

acti n g force wi ll produce i s equal to the force
di vi ded by the weight of the body multi pl i ed by ,

E nergy an d Work —
The un i t of work the stan d ,

ard by whi ch work i s measured i s the f oot-p oun d , ,

o r the amou n t of work do n e i n li f ti ng a wei ght or

overcomi n g a resi stan ce of on e poun d through on e

foot of space .

“
E nergy i s the product of a force factor an d a
space factor E n ergy per un i t of ti me or r a te of
.
,

d oi n g w or k i s the product o f a force factor an d a

,

veloci ty factor si n ce veloci ty i s s p ace per un i t of

,

time E i ther f actor may be changed at the e x

.
1 48 SEL F -T AUG H T ME CH AN I CA L DR AWI NG
weight of the falli ng body by an d then mul
t i p l y i n g the quoti ent by the square of the veloci ty
at the en d of the di stance through whi ch i t falls .

Thi s rule e x pressed as a formula i s :

, ,

i n whi ch E a n d W denote the same quanti ti es as

be f ore a n d v the veloci ty of the body at the end
,

of i ts fall .

B oth of these formulas gi ve of course the same , ,

results That the secon d method gi ves the same

.

result as multi p lyi n g the wei ght by the height

through whi ch i t falls i s evi den t from the fact
, ,
“
stated un der the head of Falli ng B odi es that the ,
”

square of the veloci ty of a falli n g body di vi ded ,

by gi ves the height through wh i ch i t has

fallen .

Thi s secon d method allows of determ i n i ng the

energy of any weight or force movi ng at a gi ven
veloci ty whether i ts veloci ty has been acqui red by
,

falli ng or i s due to other causes

, .

Now assume that w e wi sh t o fin d the force of

the blow of a 300-poun d drop hammer fall i ng 2 ,

feet before stri ki ng the forgi ng an d compressi ng ,

i t 2 i n ches .

The energy of the falli ng hammer when reach

i ng the forgi n g i s :
E WX h 3 00 X 2 6 00 foot -poun ds .

Thi s energy i s used duri ng the act of compress

i ng the f orgi ng 2 i n ches or of a foot Con .

sequently the average force of the hammer wi th

,
 E LE ME N T S OF ME C H A N I C S 1 49

wh i ch i t compresses the forgi ng i s 6 00

the weight of the hammer or ,

6 00
Averag e force of b low “ 3 00
L

3 600 3 00 3900 pounds .

The general formul a for the force of a blow

W >< h
d
i n whi ch E average force of blow i n pounds
W
,

wei ght of h ammer i n pounds ,

h hei ght of drop of ham m er i n feet ,

d penetrati on of blow i n feet .

A h or s e-
p ow er i n mechan i cs i s the power e x
, ,

e r t e d o r work done i n l i fti ng a weight of 3 3 000

, , ,

poun ds o n e foot per mi nute or 5 5 0 poun ds on e foot

,

per secon d The power e x erted by a pi ston d ri ven

.

by steam or other medi um duri ng on e stroke i n ,

foot-poun ds i s equal to th e are a of the pi ston

, ,

multi p l ie d by the pressure per square i nch multi ,

pli ed by the stroke i n feet the product of the area

,

by the pressure gi v i ng the force an d the stroke ,

gi v i ng t h e di stan ce through whi ch t h e force i s

e x erted I n the case of steam engi nes where the
.
,

steam i s cut off at on e quarter on e thi rd or on e

.
- -
,

half of the stroke the pi ston bei ng dri ven the rest
,

of t h e way b y the e x pansi on of the steam the ,

“
average pressure for the enti re stroke t h e mean ,

eff ecti ve pressure ”

as i t i s called i s the ,

basi s of cal culati on s As each revoluti on of the

.

eng i ne equals two strokes of the pi sto n the number ,

of foot -poun ds per mi nute an engi n e i s developing

wi ll be th e product of the area of the pi ston i n
1 50 SEL F - T A U G H T ME CH AN I CA L D R AWI NG
square i n ches mul t i pl i ed b y th e mean e ff e cti ve
,

pressure multi pl i ed by t h e s t rok e i n fe e t mul t i

, ,

pl i ed by t h e numbe r of r evoluti on s p e r m i nute

ti mes 2 Thi s product di vi ded by
. gi ve s
,

the i n di ca te d horse -power of t h e e ngi ne ;

thi s name bei ng deri ved from th e fac t t h at th e

mean eff ecti ve pressure i s determi ned by t h e us e
of the steam engi n e i n di cator Therefore : .

s t r ok e X r e v per m i n
I . HP
. .
. .

3 3 00 0 ,

Thi s formula may be transposed i n vari ous ways

to gi ve other i n f ormati o n F or i n stan ce i f the .
,

pi ston area f or a gi ven horse -power i s desi red ,

then
I HP X 33 000 . . .

ME P stroke. rev per mi n X 2

. . . . .

If the vol ume of the cyli n der i s desi red then ,

Area stroke
I . HP . . 3 3 000
M . E P . . rev per mi n
. . X 2 .

I f th e p ressure to produce a gi ven horse -power

i s desi red then
HP
,

I . . . 33000
Area stroke rev per mi n X 2 . . .

The mean eff ecti ve pressure i n th e cyl i n de r of

the engi ne i s of course consi derably l ess t ha n th e
, ,

boi ler pressure a s shown by the steam gauge The .

i ndi cated horse power of an eng i ne does n ot t ake

-

i nto account the losses caused by the fri cti on of

the worki ng parts The power whi ch t h e engi ne
.

actually del i vers as show n by a brake dynamo

meter or other contri vance at the flywheel i s call ed
the b r a k e h or s e p ow er
-
.
1 52 SEL F T AUG H T ME CH AN I CA L DR AW I NG
-

even as strong as though the load was appl i ed an d

released To i llustrate i t i s a fami l iar fact that a
. ,

pi ece of wi re whi ch may be ben t a gi ven amoun t

wi thout appare n t i nj ury may be broken by repeat
,

e dl y ben di ng i t back an d forth the same amount

at on e poi nt An d s imi larly i n machi ne parts

.
, , ,

rupture may be caused n ot only by a steady load

whi ch exceeds the carryi ng strength but by r e ,

p e a t e d appli cati ons of stresses none of whi ch are

equal to the carryi ng stre n gth R upture may also .

be caused by a successi on of shocks or i mpacts ,

none of whi ch alone would be suffi ci ent to cause i t .

I ron axles the pi ston rods of steam hammers an d

,

other pi eces of metal subj ected to repeated shocks ,

i nvariably break after a certai n length of servi ce .

The factor of safety used wi ll therefore vary

wi dely wi th the nature of the work requi red of th e
part F or a steady or dead load Prof A W
“ ”
. . . .
,
“
Smi th says : I n excepti o n al cases where t h e
stresses permi t of accurate calculati on a n d t h e ,

material i s of proven h i gh grade an d posi ti vel y

known streng th the factor of safety has bee n
,

gi ven as low a value as but values of 2 an d 3 a r e

ordi nari ly used for i ron or steel free from welds
W hi le 4 to 5 are as small a s should be used f or cas t
i ron on account of the un certai nty of i ts composi
ti on the danger of spongi ness of structure an d
, ,

O thers woul d
”
i n determi nate shri nkage stresses .

make 3 the lowest factor of safe t y t ha t shoul d b e

used f or wrough t i ron an d steel
‘

Where the load i s vari able but well wi thi n th e

,

elasti c l imi t of t h e materi al that i s where the load

,

i s not so gre at b ut s o t hat the part w i ll i mme di

 ST RE NG T H OF M A T ER I A L S 1 53

ately resume i ts origi nal shape when the load i s

re m oved a factor of safety of 5 or 6 mi ght b
,

used The part wi ll need to be made stronger i f

.

the load or force acts first i n on e di recti on an d

then i n the opposi te di recti on that i s i f i t acts , ,

back an d forth than i t wi ll need to be i f the same

,

force i s si mply appl i ed a n d then released Where .

the part i s subj ected to shock the factor of sa f ety ,

i s generally made n ot less than 1 0 A factor of .

safety as hi gh as 4 0 has been used for Shafts i n

mi ll -work w h i ch trans m i t very vari able powers .

I n cases where the forces are of such a nature

that they cannot be determi ned the n Prof Sm i th , .

“
says "
Ap p eal must be made to the precedent of
successful practi ce or to the j udgm en t of som e ex
,

p e r i e n c e d man u n ti l one s ow n j udgm ent becom es

’

trustworthy by experi ence I n proporti oni ng

.

mach i n e parts the desig n er must al w ays be sure

,

that the stress whi ch i s the basi s of calculati on

or the estimate i s the maxi m um possi ble stress ;
,

otherw i se the part wi ll be i n correctly prop or

t i on e d . An d he ci tes the case of a pulley w here
”

i f the arm s were to be desi gned o n ly to resi st the

bel t tensi on they w ould be absurdly s m all because ,

the stresses resulti n g from the shri nkage of the

casti ng i n cooli ng are often far greater than those
due to the belt pull .

I n many cases the practi cal questi on of f e a s i

'

b i li t y of casti ng wi ll determi ne the thi ck n ess of

parts i n d e penden t of the questi on of strength
,
.

F or i n stan ce on small brass work such as plu m b

, ,

ers su p ply an d s m all valve work a thi ckness of

’
, ,

3 -32 of an i n ch i s as l i ttle as can be reli ed

about
1 54 SEL F -T AUG H T ME CH AN I CA L DR AW I NG

on to make a good casti ng on cored out work ; or

,

i n the case of parti ti on s i n such work where the

m etal has to flow i n between cores a thi c kness of
,

about of an i n ch i s as small as should be used ;

yet such thi ck n esses may be much greater than

are requi red to gi ve the necessary strength O n .

larger cast i ron work the thi ckness to be allowed

,

to i n sure a good casti ng w i ll of course depen d

, ,

u p on the s i ze of the p i ece The j udgm ent of t h e

.

pattern -maker or foun dry m a n wi ll naturally de

-

termi n e the thi c k ness i n such cases .

Shape of Machi n e Part s —

Whi le the s i ze of ma
chi ne p arts wi ll vary greatly w i th the nature of the
work req ui red of them thei r shape wi ll depen d
,

very m u ch on the m a n ner or di recti on i n whi ch

the load or strai n i s brought to bear upon them .

I f the part i s subj ected to S imple te n si on that i s , ,

merely resi sts a force te n di n g to pull i t apart then ,

the s hap e of the m e m ber w hi ch serves thi s purpose

i s n ot very material though a rou n d rod bei ng most
, ,

compact a n d cheap est i s best Almost any shape

, .

wi ll a n swer how ever though i t i s w ell to avoi d

, ,

usi n g th i n a n d broad parts as a strai n though not

, ,

greater than that w h i ch the part as a whole mi ght

bear sa—f ely m ight be brought upon on e edge pro
, ,

du c i n g a teari ng eff ect beyon d the safe l i mi t For .

resi sti n g si m ple tensi o n the part Should be made of

un i form si ze i ts e n ti re le n gth of a si ze to be deter
,

m i n ed by the te n si le strength of the materi al an d

the f actor of sa f ety used .

I f the part i s to resi st comp r es s i on then when ,

the proporti on of i ts le n gth to i ts dia m eter or

“
thi ckne s s i s such that i t wi ll buckle or b en d ”
,
1 56 SEL F -T A U G HT ME CH AN I CA L DR A W I NG

force would i ncrease i ts capaci ty to resi st bendi n g

four or n i ne ti m es ; w hi le to i n crease i ts breadth
t w o or three times would onl y i n crease i ts strength
t w o or three ti m es The proporti on of depth to .

breadth whi ch can be used wi ll of course depen d , ,

upon the length of t h e pi ece as i f the pi ece i s long ,

a n d i ts depth i s made large i n proporti on to i ts

thi ckne s s the tendency wi ll be for the pi ece to

buckle or yi eld si deways To resi st thi s tende n cy
, .

i t i s customary to put ri bs on the edges of such a

F I G 1 30
. . FIG . 1 31 .

FI GS . 1 30 an d 1 31 — B e a m C ro s s
.
-s e c t i on s of

D i ff e re n t T y p e s.

pi ece gi vi ng i t the form Show n i n Fi g 1 30 The

, . .

hollow box form sho w n i n Fi g 1 3 1 i s of course

-
.
, ,

equally effecti ve to resi st com bi ned bendi n g an d

buckli ng stresses a n d i n some cases may be pref
,

e r a b l e as a matter of ap p earan ce on account of

the i mpressi on of sol i di ty whi ch i t gi ves .

A proj ecti n g beam li ke that shown i n Fi g 1 3 2 , .

,

design ed to resi st a force or sustai n a load at

i ts end would need to have i ts low er edge made
,

of the form of a parabola i f made of un i form ,

thi ckness I f the edges were ri bbed to prevent

.

buckli ng then m aterial might be taken ou t of

,

the mi ddle porti on as shown i n Fi g 1 33 wi thout, .

,

weaken i n g i t .
 ST R E N G T H OF M A T ER I A L S 1 57

Streng t h of Mat erial s as G ive n by Ki r k aldy

’
s

Tes t s A very large number of tests of cast i ron

.
-

made by Ki r k a l dy gave results as follo w s : T e n si le .

strength per square i nch necessary to j ust tear ,

asunder from about , or pounds to

about or pounds or an average ,

strength of about pounds Tests on the .

abi l i ty of cast i ron to resi st crushi n g gave results

varyi ng from about to about pounds ,

FIG . 1 32 — C a n t i l e ve r of FIG . 1 33 — Com m on De s i gn

U n i f o rm St r e n g t h w h e n
, of Ca n t i l e v e r of U n i f o rm
L o a de d a t E nd . St re n g t h .

or an average strength of about pounds

per square i n ch These tests i n di cate that cast
.

i ron has about five ti mes the capaci ty to resi st

crushi ng that i t has to resi st tensi on They also .

i n di cate that cast i ron i s a somewhat un certai n

ma t e r i a l f
Tests of wrought i ron i n di cated a tensi le strength
of bet w een an d pounds per square
i n ch the elasti c li m i t bei ng reached at about on e
,

half the ten si le Strength T ests on steel casti ngs

.

gave results for te n si le strength rangi n g f rom

t o about pounds per square i n ch ,
1 58 SEL F -T A U G H T ME C H AN I CA L D R AW I N G

the elasti c l i m i t bei ng reached at about

pounds .

Tests of wi re gave results as follows : B rass ,

from to p ou n ds per square i nch o f

area .I ron from ,
to poun ds Steel .
,

from to poun ds .

The tensi le strength of regular mach i ne steel

( low carbon steel ) i s generally gi ven at about
pounds per square i n ch .

Si z e of Pa rt s t o R esi s t Str e s s e s — To resi st ten

si on i t i s of course only necessary to have the
, ,

pi ece of such a si ze that each square i n ch shall not

have a stress greater than the avera g e strength
of the materi al ( as pou n ds for cast i ron )
di vi ded by whatever factor of sa f ety may be
selected .

To R esi s t Crushin g Prof Hodgki nson s rule

—
.
’

for the s trength of hollow cast i ron pi llars i s as

f ollows : To ascertai n the crushi ng wei ght i n ton s
multi ply the outsi de di ameter by from thi s
subtract the product of the i nsi de di ameter multi
p l i ed by an d di vi de by the length multi pl i ed
by Multi p ly thi s quoti ent by Ex
pressed as a formula thi s rule would be :

Sc X
( D (d
L x
i n whi ch
S cultimate compressi ve ( crushi n g ) strength
of hollow column i n to n s , ,

D outsi de di am eter i n i nches ,

d i n si de di ameter i n i nches ,

L len g th of colu mn i n f e e t .
1 60 SEL F - T A U G H T ME CHAN I CA L D R A W I NG
by the desi red factor of safety The breadth an d .

depth of rectangular bars the di ameter i f the bar , ,

i s rou n d an d the length are all i n i n ches

, , .

For rectangular bars fixed at on e en d wi th the

force a p pli ed at the other Fig 1 34 the breaki ng , .
,

load equal s
2
1 b X d X 20 000
X
6 l

For round bars u n der the sam e co n di ti o n s Fig , .

1 3 5 the b r e a k l n g load equals

,

6 Z

I f the rectangular bar i s hollo w as shown i n ,

F I G 1 3 5 —Ci rc u l a r Se c t i on C a n t i l e v e r
. . .

Fig 1 31 subtract the i nternal b X d from the

.
,
2

external b X ( P .

I f the rou n d bar i s hollow subtract the i nternal

3
d f rom the extern al d 3
.

The case of a bar of the I -secti on shown i n Fi g .

1 3 0 i s Simi lar to that of the hollow recta n gular bar

of Fig 1 31 the depressi o n s i n i ts si des correspon d
.
,

i ng to the hollow part of Fig 1 3 1 the sum of thei r .

,
 ST R E NG TH o r MA T E R I A L S 1 61

depths correspon di ng w i th the i n ternal wi dth b of

the hollo w recta n gular bar .

I f a beam i s fixed at on e e n d an d the load i s

evenly di stri buted throughout i ts e n ti re length ,

i t wi ll bear double the weight i t wi ll i f the load

i s supported at the outer e n d .

I f the beam i s sup p o rted at the ends an d loaded

i n the mi ddle i t wi ll bear four ti m es the weight of
the beam of Fig 1 34 or i f the load i s eve n ly di s
.
, ,

tri buted throughout the length of the beam eight ,

times .

I f the beam i nstead of bei ng Simply supported

,

at the ends has the e n ds fixed an d i s loaded at the

,

center i ts abi l i ty to resi st breaki ng w i ll be doubled

,

as compared wi th that when loaded at the center

an d wi th the en ds o n ly supported .

R egardi ng the safe load that beams or bars of

“
di ff erent materi al may bear G riffi n says that wi th
but a general k n owledge of the elasti c l i mi t ordi ,

nary steel i s good for from between 1 2 000 to ,

poun ds per square i n ch non -reversi n g stress and ,

from 8 000 to poun ds reversi n g stress Cast .

i ron i s such an un certai n metal on account of i ts ,

vari able structure that stresses are al w ays kept

,

low say from 3 000 to 4 000 f or n on -reversi ng stress

, ,
”
a n d 1 5 00 to 2 5 00 for reversi n g stress .

Agai n though the tests of wrought i ron Show i t

,

to have a much h igher tensi le strength than cast

i ron N y s t r om i n formulas for lateral strength
, , ,

gi ves wrought i ron but l i ttle more tha n three quar -

ters the value of cast i ron probably because i t ,

ben ds s o readi ly .
1 62 SEL F -T A U G HT ME CH AN I CA L D R AW I NG

A table i s appended gi vi ng the averag e break i ng

strength i n pounds per square i nch of some c om
, ,

m on l y used materi al s i n engi neeri ng practi ce .

T e n s i on . Co m p r e s s i o n .

A l um i nu m
B ras s c as t
,

Co p p e r c a s t
,

I r on c a s t
,

I ron w r ou g h t
,

l
St e e c a s t i n g s
St ru c t u r a s t e e l l

—
St res s e s i n Cas t i n g s has been pre R e f ere n ce
v i ous l y made to stresses i n casti n gs due to Shri nk ,

age i n cooli n g I f all parts of a casti n g could be

.

made to cool equally fast there w ould not be much

trouble i n thi s respect but as di fferent parts of a ,

casti n g vary i n thi ckness the ti me they requi re ,

to cool wi ll vary a n d the thi ck parts remai n i ng ,

flui d the longest wi ll on cool i ng cause a strai n on

, , ,

the already cool thi n parts I n the case of a pulley .

,

where the ri m a n d arms are much l i ghter than the

hub the hub on cool i n g w i ll ten d to draw the arms
,

to i tself an d away from the r i m an d i f th e diff er ,

ence i n thi ckness i s great they may b e even foun d ,

to be pulled away so as to s how a crack where they

j oi n the rim The remedy i n such a case would of
.
,

course be first to take out as much of the metal

, ,

from the center of the hub as possi ble by mean s

of a core an d second to keep the outsi de of the
, ,

hub as s m all as woul d be consi sten t wi th strength ,

getti n g necessary thi ckness f or set screws by hav

i ng a rai sed place or boss at that poi n t .
 CHAPTE R X

CA M S

G en eral Prin ci p le s — In design i n g mach i nery i t

i s frequently desi rable to gi ve to some part of the
mechan i sm an i rregular moti o n Thi s i s o f ten
.

done by the use of ca m s whi ch are made of such

,

form that when they recei ve moti o n e i ther rotary ,

or reci procati ng they i m part to a follower the

,

desi red i rregular moti on .

The follow er i s sometimes flat a n d someti mes

,

round When the follo w er i s roun d i t i s usually

.

made i n the form of a wheel or roller so as to les ,

sen the wear a n d the fri cti on The f ollo w er may

.

'

work upon the edge of the cam or i f round i t , ,

may work i n a groove formed e i ther on the face

‘

or on the si de of the cam .

The worki ng surf aces of cams wi th roun d fol

lowers are lai d ou t from a p i tch l i n e so called ’

, ,

w hi ch passes through the center of the follower .

The shape of thi s pi tch l i n e determi nes the work

whi ch the cam wi ll do . The worki n g surface of
the cam i s at a di sta nce from the f ollower equal to
on e -half the dia m eter of the follo w er Thi s pri n .

c i p l e o f a pi tch li ne holds good whether the cam

w orks only upon i ts edge li ke the on e shown i n

Fig 1 39 or whether i t has an outer porti o n to
.
,

i n sure the posi ti ve return of the follower Thi s .

1 64
 CA M S 1 65

outer porti on i s frequently made i n the form of a

mm of un i form thi ckness aroun d the groove
Desig n a Ca m H
.

aving a St raigh t Follo w er Whi ch

Moves To w ard or From t h e Axi s of th e Ca m as ,

Sho w n i n F ig 1 3 6 — Le t i t be re q u i red that the

.

follower shall advance at a u n i f orm rate from a to

FIG . 1 36 .
—
C a m w i t h St r a i g h t F o l l o w e r h a v i n g U n i f o rm
M o t i on .

b as the cam makes a half revoluti on thi s advance ,

bei ng p receded a n d follo w ed by a peri od of rest of

a t w el f th of a revoluti on of the cam .

D i vi de th a t half of the cam during the r e vol u

ti on of wh i ch the follower i s to be rai sed from a to
b i n thi s case the half at the ri ght of the verti cal
,

center li n e i nto a number of equal a n gles

, ,
an d
1 66 SEL F-T A U G HT ME CH AN I CA L D R AW I NG
di vi de the di stance from a to b i n to the sam e num
ber of equal spaces Mark off the poi nts so oh
.

ta i n e d onto the successi ve radi al li nes as i ndi cated

by the dotted l i nes an d at th e poi n ts where these
,

dotted li nes i n tersect the radi al li nes dra w l i nes at

ri ght angles to the radi al li nes to represen t the
posi ti on of the follower when these radi al l i nes
become verti cal as the cam revolves .

A peri od of rest i n a cam i s represen ted by a ci r

c ul a r porti on hav i ng the a x i s of the cam as i ts
,

center I n order therefore to obtai n the requi red

.
, ,

peri ods of rest the di stances of a an d b from the

,

center are marked off upon the radi al l i nes o an d

d these li ne s bei n g made a t w elfth of a revoluti on
,

from the verti cal center l i ne an d l i nes represen t ,

i ng the follower are dra w n at these poi n ts a s b e

fore To get the return of the follower the space
.

from c to d i s di vi ded i nto a number o f equal

‘
angles a n d the di stan ce from e to f i s di v i ded off
,

to represen t the desi red rate of return of the

follo w er I n thi s case the rate of return i s made
.

un i form so the di stan ce ef i s spaced off equally

, .

The di stance of these poi nts from the a x i s i s ma r k e d ‘

off upon the radi al l i nes bet w een c an d d an d li nes ,

representi ng the follower are drawn .

A curved l i ne whi ch may be made wi th the

,

ai d of the i rregular curves whi ch i s tangen t to all

,

of the l i nes representi ng the follower gi ves th e ,

sha p e of the cam .

Fig 1 37 shows a cam hav i ng the condi ti ons as to

.

the ri se rest and return of the f ollow er the same

,

as the on e Shown i n Fi g 1 36 the follower h ow

.
, ,

ever bei ng pi voted a t on e end

, .
1 68 SEL F -T AUG H T ME
C H ANI CA L D R AW I NG

at that part of i ts stroke correspondi ng to the par

t i cula r radial li ne across whi ch the l i n e re p rese n t
i ng the follower i s bei ng dra w n A curved li ne .

passi ng along ta n ge n t to all of these li nes gi ves

the shape of the cam as before .

Design a Ca m w i t h a R oun d Follo w er R i sing Ve r

t ic al ly
.
—I n Fig 1 3 8 the follo w er has the same un i
.

form ri se a n d the same peri ods of rest as before

, .

FI G . 1 38 — Ca m w i t h R o ll e r F o ll ow e r
.

A cam wi th a roun d follo w er i s less li mi ted i n i ts

capabi l i ti es than on e wi th a strai ght follower ; i n
the on e here show n the follower on i ts return
drops below the posi ti on i n w hi ch i t i s shown .

That part of the cam duri n g whi ch the condi ti on s

are the sa m e as i n the others i s di vi ded off and
 CA M S 1 69

the posi ti on of the cen ter of the follow er u p on the

.

radi al l i nes i s obtai n ed i n the same ma n n er as

before . That part of the cam representi ng the
return of the follo w er i s di vi ded i nto such angles
as desi red an d the di stan ce through whi ch the fol
,

lo w er i s to drop as the cam revolves through each

of these angles i s marked off upon the proper
radial l i ne A curved li ne w hi ch i s n ow made to
.

pass through all of the poi nts so obtai ned gi ves

the pi tch li n e of the cam .

I n dra w i ng such a cam i t i s n ot al w ays n e ce s

sary to fully draw the worki n g faces The pi tch .

l i ne an d the method of obtai n i ng i t bei n g show n ,

a nu m ber of ci rcles representi n g consecuti ve posi

ti on s of the follo w er may be drawn Thi s wi ll .

usually be suffici en t The si de v i ew of the ca m

.
,

whi ch i n a case l i ke thi s would naturally be made

i n secti on wi ll gi ve op portu n i ty to show any f ur
,

ther detai l that m a y be desi red .

Desi g n a Ca m w i t h a R ou n d Follo w er Moun t ed o n

a Sw i ngin g Ar m
—Fi g 1 39 sho w s such a ca m all
. .
,

of the con di ti ons as to ri se rest a n d return o f the

,

follower bei ng the same as i n the cam sho w n i n

Fi g 1 3 8 The cam i s di vi ded i n to the sa m e a n gles
. .

as before an d the posi ti o n of the foll ower i s lai d

,

ou t on these radi al l i nes as though i t moved ver

ti cally These posi ti on s are then modi fied i n the

.

follo w i ng mann er : D raw the arc a b represe n ti ng

the path of the cen ter of the follower as i t ri ses ,

an d e x ten d the dotted ci rcular l i n es whi ch r e p r e

,

sent successi ve hei ghts of the follower from the ,

verti cal cen ter l i n e to th i s arc The di stance of.

each of the i ntersecti ons of the do tted c i r cul ar

1 70 SEL F -T A U G H T ME CHAN I CA L DR AW I NG
l i nes wi th the arc a b from the verti cal cen ter l i n e
,

i s then taken wi th the compasses an d i s marked

off upon the same dotted li n e from the radi al l i n e

at whi ch i t termi nates or where the f ollower has

, ,

a peri od of rest from both of the radial l i ne s

,

FIG . 1 3 9 — Ca m w i t h R o ll e r F oll ow e r M ou n t e d on

Sw i n g i n g Ar m .

where the period of rest takes place Thus the di s .

tance of the poi n t 1 f rom the verti cal cen ter l i ne i s

marked back upon the dotted ci rcular l i n e from the
radial l i nes m an d n Poi n t 2 i s marked back from
.

the radial l i n e 0 Poi n t 3 i s marked back from the

.

l i ne p . B y thi s means the posi ti on w hi ch the f ol

lo w er wi ll occupy when each of the radial l i nes
,

h as b e com e v e rti cal as the cam revolves i s d e ter

, ,
 EL F -T A U G HT ME C H AN I CA L DR A W I NG
1 72 S

whi ch i s made to pass through the i ntersecti ons of

these l i n es wi ll be the requi red pi tch l i ne of the
cam .

I f the follo w er i n stead of ri si ng verti cally rose

, ,

at an a n gle or i f i t w ere moun ted on a swi ngi ng

,

a r m the pi tch l i n e would be modi fied i n the same

,

manner as that of the cam show n i n Fi g 1 39 . .

Cam s Wi t h a G rooved E dge —

I t i s so m eti m es de
.

si red to have a revolvi ng cam i mpart a s i deway s

F I G 1 41 — Ca m w i t
. . h Groove d E dg e .

moti on to a follower Thi s i s done by hav i ng a

.

groove i n the edge of the cam as show n i n Fig , .

1 41. Such a cam may be consi dered as a modi fied

form of a reci procati ng cam and i ts pi tch l i ne may
,

be determ i ned i n the same way .

B y layi ng out a development of the pi tch l i n e or ,

of that part of i t whi ch i s to o p erate the follower ,

as show n i n Fi g 1 4 2 hori zon tal li nes that i s l i nes

.
, , ,

parallel w i th the pi tch l i ne may be drawn to i ndi

,

cate successi ve stages I n the movement of the fol

lower and l i nes at ri ght angles to these to i ndi cate
,
 CA M S 1 73

the desi red movemen t of the cam The pi tch li n e .

i s then drawn through the i ntersecti ons of these

l i nes as before .

A Doubl e Ca m Providing Posi t i v e R e tu r n r —I n a

cam l i ke that sho w n i n Fi g 1 3 8 where the return .
,

FIG . 1 2
4 — D e v e l op m e n t of Ca m A c t i on of Groov e d-E dg e
Ca m i n F i g 1 4 1 . .

of the follower i s i n sured by a groove i n the face

of the cam the groove must be sl ightly broader
,

than the di ameter of the cam roller to i n sure free

dom of acti on as when the cam i s forci ng the rol
, ,

F I G 1 4 3 —D oub
. . le Ca m Prov i di n g P os i t i v e R e t u rn .

ler away from the center the roller wi ll revolve i n

,

the op p osi te di recti on to that i n whi ch i t revolves

when the other face of the cam groove acts on i t
t o d ra w i t t owa rd the cen t er so t ha t unless clear ,
1 74 SEL F -T A U G H T ME CH AN I CA L DR AW I NG

ance i s provi ded th e r e w i ll be a gri n di ng acti on

,
‘

between the roller an d the faces of the cam groove .

Thi s clearan ce however causes the cam to gi ve a

, ,

knock or blow on the roller each ti me i ts acti on i s

reversed an d the reversal of the di recti on of the
,

revoluti on of the roller i tself causes a temporary

gri nding acti on These acti ons may become ob
.

'

FI G . 1 4 4
.
— P os i t i v e R e t u rn C a m w i t h Ro ll e rs M oun t e d on

Sw i n g i n g A rm s .

je c t i on a b l e ,
especi ally at hi gh speeds A method .

w hi ch overcomes these obj ecti ons an d whi ch i s ,

pre f erred by some for such work i s Shown i n Fi g , .

1 4 3 where the return i s secured by a secondary

,

cam mounted on the sa m e shaft as the pri mary

cam but acti ng on a roller of i ts own I n thi s case
, .

there i s n o reversal of the di recti on of the r e vol u

t i on of th e r ollers so t h at th e n e cessi ty of p r ovi d
,
1 76 SEL F -T A U G H T ME C H AN I CA L DR A W I N G

FI G . 1 45 — U n i f o rm l y A c ce l e r a t e d Mot i on C am .
 CA M S 1 77

i s called a un i formly accelerated moti on cam The .

di stan ces whi ch the follower passes through duri ng

equal peri ods of ti me i n crease un i formly so that , ,

i f f or i nstan ce the follower moves a di stance equal

, ,

to 1 length un i t duri n g the first secon d and 3 ,

duri ng the seco n d i t wi ll move 5 length un i ts ,

duri ng the thi rd secon d 7 duri ng t h e f our t h an d

so forth When the moti on i s retarded i t wi ll
, ,

.
,

move 7 5 3 an d 1 le n gth un i ts duri n g successi ve

, ,

seco n ds unti l i ts moti on becomes zero at the r e

,

versal of the di recti on of moti on of the follower .

I n Fi g 1 4 5 i s sho w n a un i form ly accelerated

.

moti on plate cam O nly one -half

of the cam has
.

been shown complete the other half being an exact ,

dupl i cate of the half shown and constructed i n the ,

same manner The moti on of the follower i s back

.

an d forth from A to G the ri se of the cam bei ng

'

1 8 0 degrees or on e -half of a complete revoluti on

, .

To construct thi s ca m di v i de the half ci rcle AKL ,

-
, ,

i n s i x equal a n gles a n d draw radi i HB HC ,

etc Then di v i de AG first i n two equal parts AD

.

an d D G an d then each of these parts i n three

,

di v i s i on s the length of w h i ch are to e ach other as

,

as shown Then wi th H as a center draw

.

ci rcular arcs from B C D etc to B 1 C D 1 etc , , , , .

The poi n ts of i n tersecti on betw een the ci rcles an d

the radi i are poi nts on the cam surface .

I f the half ci rcle AKL had been di vi ded i nto 8

-

equal parts i n stead of 6 then the l i ne AG would

, ,

have been di vi ded i nto 8 parts i n the proporti on s ,

each di vi si on bei ng the same

amoun t i n excess of the previ ous di vi si on whi le
the moti on i s accelerated an d the same amount ,
1 78 SEL F -T A U G H T ME CH AN I CA L D R AW I NG
less than the previ ous di vi si on whi le the moti on i s
bei ng retarded Wi th a cam constructed on th i s
.

pri nci ple the follower starts at A from a veloci ty

of zero ; i t reaches i ts maxi mum veloci ty at D an d
at G the veloci ty i s agai n zero j ust at the moment ,

when the moti on i s reversed .

A graph i cal i llustrati on of the shape of the un i

formly accelerated moti on curve i s gi ven i n F ig .

FIG . 1 46 —
. D e v e l op m e n t a n d Proj e c t i on of U n i f orm l y
A c c e l e r a t e d M o t i on C a m Cu rv e.

1 46 To the right i s shown the developmen t of

.

the curve as scri bed on the surface of a cyl i n dri cal

cam Thi s developmen t i s necessary for fin di ng
.

the proj ecti on on the cyl i n dri cal surface as shown ,

at the left To co n struct the curve di v i de fi rst

.
,

the base ci rcle of the cyl i nder i n a number of equal

1 80 SEL F T A U G H T ME C H A N I CA L DR AWI NG
-

curve Fig 1 4 7 causes the follower to start very

, .
,

abruptly an d to reverse from full Speed I n on e

,

di recti on to full speed i n the opp os i t e di r e c t i on '

The un i formly accelerated moti on curve Fi g 1 4 6 , .

,

perm i ts the follo w er to start a n d reverse very

smoothly as i s clearly shown by the graphi cal
,

FIG . 1 47 —
. D e v e l op m e n t and Pro j e c t i on of U n i f o rm M ot i on
Ca m Cu rv e .

i llustrati on of the curve The abrupt starti ng an d.

reversal of the follower i n the un i form moti on

curve i s the cause why thi s form of cam whi le ,

the S implest of all cams to lay out an d cut cannot ,

be used where the Speed i s consi derable w i thout ,

a percepti ble shock a t b oth th e begi nn i ng an d th e

end of the s troke .
 CA M S 1 81

B esi des the un i formly accelerated moti on cam

,
m
curve qui te co m only called the grav i ty curve ,

on accoun t of i t bei n g based on the same law of

accelerati on as that due to gravi ty there i s another ,

curve the harmon i c or crank curve w hi ch i s qui te

, ,

often used i n cam constructi on The harmon i c .

moti on curve prov i des for a gradual i n crease of

speed at the begi nn i ng a n d decrease of Sp eed at the
,

en d of the stroke an d i n th i s respect resembles

, ,

FI G . 1 4 8 — L ay -ou t
. of H a rmon i c Mo t i on Ca m Cu rv e .

the un i formly accelerated moti on curve ; but the

accelerati on not bei ng u n i form does not produce so
, ,

easy work i ng a cam as the gravi ty curve provi des

for The harmon i c moti on curve i s however very
. , , ,

si mple to lay out an d for ordi nary purposes where

, ,

excess i vely h i gh speeds are not requi red of the

mechan i sm cam s lai d out accordi ng to thi s curve
,

are very sati sfactory .

The harmon i c curve i s lai d out as shown i n Fig .

1 48
. D raw first a half -
ci rcle AE I D i vi de the .
1 82 SEL F -T A U G HT ME CH AN I CA L D R AWI NG

ci rcle i n a certai n number of equal parts D ra w a .

li ne AI I an d di vi de thi s li ne i n a n umber of equal

I

parts the number of di vi si on s of Al L bei ng the

,

same as that of the half -ci rcle N ow draw hori .

z on ta l li nes from the di vi si ons A B C etc on the , , , .

,

half ci rcle an d verti cal l i nes from the di v i si on s on

-
,

l i n e AI I I The poi nts w here the l i n es from corre

s p on di n g di vi si on poi nts i ntersect are poi n ts on ,

the requi red harmon i c cam curve .

An approxi m ati on of the u n i f ormly accelerated

moti on or gravi ty curve ca n be drawn as shown i n

—A
FIG . 1 49 .
p p r o i m a t i on
x of U n i f o rm l y A cce l e r a t e d M ot i on
Cu rv e .

Fig 1 4 9 B y usi n g thi s appro x imate method any

. .
,

degree of accuracy can be attai ned w i thout the

necessi ty of di vi di ng the verti cal li n e AK F i g , .

1 4 6 i n an e x cessi vely great number of parts

, The .

approximate curve i n Fi g 1 4 9 i s constructed as .

follows : D raw a half ellipse AE I i n wh i ch the

-
,

mi nor a x i s i s to the maj or axi s as 8 to 1 1 D i v i de .

thi s half ell i pse i n any number of equal parts an d

-
,

di vi de the li ne A 1 1 i n the same number of equal

1

parts Now draw hori zontal l i nes from the di vi si on

.
1 84 SEL F -T AUG H T ME C H A N I CA L DR A W I N G

passing from dwell to ri se the reversal of the ,

“ ”
di recti on of moti on an d the return to the dwell
,

posi ti on i s accompli shed by means of smoothly

,

acti ng curves an d even at high speeds n o per

, , ,

c e p t i b l e shock wi ll be n oti ced .

The examples gi ven w i ll show the n ecessi ty of

careful analysi s of con di ti ons before a certai n type
,

o f cam curve i s selected I n machi nery whi ch

.

works at a l ow rate of Speed i t i s not i mportan t

,

whether the f ollo w er moves w i th a un i f orm har ,

mon i c or un i formly accelerated moti o n ; but whe n

,

the cam has a high rotati ve Speed an d the follo w er ,

a reci procati ng moti on i t o f ten becomes practi cally

,

impossi ble to make use of the un i form moti on

curve i n the cam I n such cases as alread y men
.
,

t i on e d the harmon i c or pre f erably the un i f ormly

, , , ,

accelerated moti on curve should be used i n layi ng

out the cam .
 CHAPTE R XI

SP R O C K E T WHEEL S

WH E N i t i s desi red to trans m i t power from on e

shaft to another on e qui te near to i t especi ally i f ,

the power to be transmi tted i s consi derable so as ,

to preclude the use of belti ng sprocket w heels ,

wi th chai n are frequently used i f the speed i s not

,

h i gh. B i cy cles aff ord a fami l i ar i llustrati on of

thi s sort of power transmi ssi on .

Fi g 1 5 2 sho w s a Sprocket wheel of a type simi lar

.

to those used on bi cycles an d Shows the method of

getti ng the shape of the teeth The chai n i s shown
.

wi th the l i nks ( on the si de toward the observer )

removed so as to allow of s how i ng the teeth wi th
out dotted l i nes . The SI z e of a sprocket wheel to
fit a gi ven chai n may be determi ned graphi cally as
follows : A ci rcle n ot sho w n i n the i llustrati on i s
, ,

first drawn of a di ameter about equal to that of

the desi red wheel an d thi s ci rcle i s spaced off i nto
,

as many di vi si ons as the wheel i s to have teeth .

Li nes correspon di ng to the dotted radi al li nes i n

the upper half of the wheel shown are drawn from ,

these di vi si on poi nts to the center of the ci rcle A .

templ et s i mi lar i n shape t ofth a t shown i n Fig 1 54

,
.
,

i s ne x t cut out of paper the l i nes a b and cd being

,

at ri ght angles to each other an d the length of a

,

li nk of the chai n measured from center t o center

,

1 85
1 86 SEL F -T A U G H T ME C H AN I CA L DR A W I NG

of the pi ns as shown at a Fi g 1 5 2 i s,marked off .

,

upon the l i ne a b measuri ng equally each way from

,

the cen ter l i ne cd I n getti ng the length of the

.

l i nk i n the chai n i t wi ll be best for the sake of a o ,

curacy to measure off the length of a consi derable

,

porti on of the chai n an d wi th the spaci ng com

,

passes di vi de thi s length i nto twi ce as many spaces

as there are l i nks i n the measured porti on of the

FIG . 1 52 — Sp ro ck e t W he e l an d Ch a i n .

chai n The compasses bei ng then set to e x actly

.
,

half the length of a li nk m a y be used to mark off

,

—
the length of the li nk 1 2 upon the templet .
, ,

N ow letti ng the angle a bc Fi g 1 5 5 represen t one

, .
,

of the angles i nto whi ch the ci rcle has been di

v i de d bi sect i t to get a center li ne bd and placi ng
, ,

the templet so that i ts li n e cd shall coi n ci de wi th

—
thi s center li ne move i t along unti l the p oi n ts 1 2
“

shall coi nci de wi th the l i nes a b and cb of the angle .

These poi nts bei ng n ow marked off upon the l i nes ,

give the locati on of the centers of the pi n s i n the

chai n and a l i ne conne ct i ng them wi ll be on e si de
,
1 88 SEL F -T A U G H T ME C H A N I CA L DR AW I N G
I f a wheel i s to have many teeth i t wi ll gener
,

ally be a ccurate enough to consi der the pi tch l i ne

as a ci rcle of a ci rcumference equal to the number
of the teeth multi pli ed by the length of the l i nk .

I t s di ameter wi ll then of course be foun d by

, ,

di vi di ng the ci rcumferen ce by
I n the case of the wheel sho w n i n F i g 1 5 2 .
,

Should the pi tch l i ne be regarded as such a ci rcle

i t would have a di ameter a l i ttle over a thi rty

Secon d of an i nch t oo small i f the length of the
,

li nk i s taken a t three -quarters of an i n ch I f the

.

wheel were to be made twi ce as large the error ,

would be a l i ttle l es s than a si xty -f ourth of an i n ch ,

as i t woul d decrease at a sl ightly faster rate than

that at whi ch the number of the teeth i n creased An .

error of a sixty -fourth of an i n ch i n the di ameter

of such a sprocket would be of but very l i ttle
moment . Where a sprocket has but f e w teeth ,

however i t wi ll be on the si de of sa f ety to always

,

gi ve to the pi tch li ne i ts true polygonal form an d

-

the only w a y by whi ch i ts di ameter coul d be a s ce r

t a i n e d wi th any greater accuracy than by the
method here gi ven would be to calcul ate i t as may
When the pi tch l i ne of
,

be done by tri gonometry .

a sprocket i s regarded as a ci rcle the path of the

,

chai n as i t unwi nds wi ll be regarded as an i nvolute

‘

( see geometri cal problem 20 )

The Shape of the ri m of a sprocket wheel wi ll be
governed by the style of the chai n for whi ch i t i s
designed Fi g 1 53 Shows a porti o n of the ri m of
. .

a wheel whi ch i s designed f or a common l i nk

chai n ; but whatever the general shape of the rim
may be the worki ng faces of the teeth or of the
, ,
 SP R O C K E T WHEEL S 1 89

proj ecti on s whi ch correspond to teeth wi ll always

,

be made on the pri nci ples here explai ned .

The speed rati o of the two wheels of a pai r of

sprockets wi ll be i nversely as the number of teeth
i n each F or i nstan ce i f the large and the small
.
,

w heels have respecti vely 1 3 an d 7 teeth then the,

speed of the large w heel wi ll be to the speed of

the small wheel as 7 to 1 3 .
 CHAPT E R X I I

G E N ER A L P R I N C I P LE S or G E A R I NG
—
Fri c t io n a n d Knuc k le G earin g I n machi nery
i t i s frequently necessary to transmi t power from
on e shaft to another near to i t For thi s purpose .

gears are generally e m ploy e d Le t a an d b Fig .

, .

1 5 6 be t w o such sha f ts
,
I f n ow di sks c an d d are
.

mounted upon these shafts of such di ameters as ,

FIG . 1 56 — Fri c t i on W he e l s . FI G . 1 5 7 — K n u ck
. le G e a rs .

to gi ve the requi red speed rati o we wi ll have ,

geari ng i n i ts si m plest form Such di sks havi ng .

,

thei r edges covered wi th leather or other e q u i va

lent materi al are called f r i cti on gears an d are
,

sometimes empl oyed on l ight work At best how .

,

ever they w i ll transmi t but l i ttle power

, .

I f now we make semi -ci rcular proj ecti ons at

equal di stances apart upon the outsi de of the ci r
cles c an d d and cut out correspondi ng depressi on s
,

i n si de of the ci rcles as shown i n Fig 1 5 7 we wi ll

, .
,

have a sim ple form of toothed geari ng an d th e ci r

190
1 92 SEL F -T AUG H T ME CH A N I CA L DR AW I NG

a and b were rolled back upon each other these ,

li nes would work smoothly together bei ng i n c on ,

tact and tangent to each other at all times upon

the li ne of the ci rcle 0 I f the ci rcle 0 i s n ow placed
.

beneath the ci rcle b i n the posi ti on shown an d the ,

three ci rcles are rolled together as before the tra ,

ci ng poi nts would trace l i nes i nwardly from 6 an d ,

FIG . 1 58 —Pr i n c i p
. le of E pi FIG . 1 59 — Pri n c i p le of I uv o
cy c o il d a l G e a ri n g .
l u t e G e a ri n g .

outwardly f rom a w hi ch would also work together

,

smoothly i f the ci rcle c w ere removed and the ci r

cles a and b w ere rolled back upon each other I t .

i s evi den t that as the three ci rcles are rolled

together the l i nes formed by the traci ng poi nts are
the same as though ei ther a or b were taken by
i tself and the ci rcle 0 were rolled ei ther wi thi n
,

or upon i t hence the li nes formed by the traci ng

,

poi nts are ei ther epi cycloi ds or hypocycloi ds as

the case may be and so could be formed by the
,
 G E N ER A L P R I N C I P LE S OF G E A R I N G 1 93

plotti ng method descri bed i n the geometri cal

problems .

I f these two sets of l i nes are n ow j oi ned together

so that the l i nes w hi ch exten d i nwardly f rom a or
b form a con ti nuati on of those whi ch extend out
w a r dl y an d reverse curves are m ade at a di stance
f rom the first s et equal to the thi ckness of a gear
tooth a n d they are then cut off at such a di sta n ce
,

both outsi de a n d i nsi de of the ci rcles a and b as to

gi ve to the teeth the proper
length i t i s ev i dent that
,

w e w i ll have a pai r of per

f e c t l y worki ng gears The
.

ci rcles a an d b woul d roll

upon each other w i thout C LE ARANC E

Sli ppi ng an d hen ce w ould

F I G 1 60 .
— D e fi n i t io n s o f
be true pi tch ci rcles The .
G e a r T oot h T e r m s .

teeth woul d work smooth ly

together i n constant contact the poi nt of co n tact
,

bei ng always on the li ne of the generati ng ci rcle .

The length of the poi nt of the gear tooth that ,

i s the porti on lyi ng outsi de of the pi tch li ne i s ,

—
usually made on e thi rd of the ci rcular pi tch the
-

latter bei ng the di stan ce between the teeth meas

ur e d from cen ter to center on the pi tch li ne Th e
.

di sta n ce below the pi tch li ne i s made some w hat

greater for the sake of clearance For the names .

of the vari ous parts of a gear t e e t h see Fi g 1 60 . .

Cast gears have some ba ck l a s h between the teeth

to allow for the roughness of the casti ngs as ,

shown i n Fi gs 1 6 1 an d 1 63
. .

I t i s evi den t that i f another ci rcle ei ther larger

,

or smaller were substi tuted for b i n Fi g 1 58 the

,
.
,
1 94 SEL F -T AUG H T ME C H A N I CA L DR AW I N G

li nes formed by the g enerati ng ci rcle c ei ther

wi thi n or upon the ci rcle a would remai n unchanged .

Or i f a different ci rcle were substi tuted for a the ,

curves formed wi thi n or upon b would remai n u n

changed Hence i t follow s that all gears i n the
.

e p i cycloi dal system hav i ng thei r teeth f ormed by

,

the same generati ng ci rcle and made of the s ame

F I G 1 62 —R a c k w i t
. h
E p i cy c oi al d lT
eet h .

FIG 16 1 —G e a rs w i t
. . h E p i c y c l oi d a l
Te e th .

si ze wi ll work together corr e c tly or as i t i s com

, , ,

mon l y e x pressed are i nterchangeable

, .

I n standard i nterchangeable gears the g e n e r a t

i ng ci rcle i s made on e half the di ameter of the
-

smallest gear of the set whi ch has twelve teeth , .

T hi s smallest gear wi ll have radi al flanks as that ,

part of the worki ng surface lyi ng wi thi n the pi tch

li ne i s called because the hypocycloi d of a ci rcle
,

f ormed by a generati ng ci rcle of half i ts si ze wi ll

be a strai ght li ne pass i ng through i ts center .

Fi g 1 61 show s a p orti on of a pai r of such gears

.
,

Fi g 1 62 Showi ng the rack

. .
1 96 SEL F T AUG H T ME C H A N I CA L DR A W I N G
-

lower porti on of half the pi tch di ameter of the

,

large gear the eff ect woul d be to gi ve to that gear

,

radial flan ks an d to make the poi n ts of the teeth

fl
,

of the s m all gear broader I n order to work properly

wi th them Then both gears woul d have radi al

.

fl a nks Such gears have been consi derably used

. .

They are n ot as stro n g as gears of the stan dard

shape a n d the only advantage i s that i t i s easi er
,

to m ake the p a t t e r n t h e teeth bei n g all worked out

,

w i th a a t faced plane ; but as the teeth of i n

-

volute gears descri bed i n the next secti o n can be

, ,

w orked ou t i n the same way and as such gears are ,

i n terchangeable the adva n tage i s obvi ously i n

,

favo r of the i nvolute syste m for such work .

— In
I nvolu t e G e ar s i nvolute gears the work i ng
surfaces of the teeth are i nvolutes formed n ot ,

upon the pi tch ci rcles but upon base ci rcles lyi ng

,

w i thi n the pi tch ci rcles and tange n t t o a li ne ,

called the l i ne of acti on whi ch passes obl i quely,

through the poi nt where the pi tch ci rcles cross the

li ne connecti n g thei r centers Le t a an d b Fi g .
, .

1 5 9 be pi tch ci rcles a n d let the l i n e c d be the l i ne

, ,

of acti o n T hen e a n d f bei ng made ta n gent t o

.
,

the li ne cd w i ll be the base ci rcles upo n w hi ch

,

the i n volutes are to be form ed I f now thi s l i n e .

of acti on be consi dered as part of a thread whi ch

u n w i nds from on e base ci rcle and wi nds up on the

other as the pi tch ci rcles are revolved back and
,

forth upon each other then i f traci ng poi nts were

,

attach e d to the thread at poi nts 1 2 3 4 5 an d , , , ,

these poi nts woul d descri be i nvolutes outwardly

from the base ci rcles w hi ch bei ng formed Si mul
, ,

ta n e ou s l y i n pai rs an d each pai r bei n g formed by

 G E N ER A L P R I N C I P LE S or G E A R I NG 1 97

a common poi nt w ould w ork together smoothly

,

li ke those formed by the generati ng ci rcles of the

epi cycloi dal system That the base ci rcles are of
.

such Si ze as to j ust pass the thread as the pi tch

ci rcles roll upon each other i s proven by the fact
that thei r radi i g d and gi an d h e an d h i the radi i
, , ,

gd an d h e bei ng made at right angles to the li ne of

acti on are correspondi n g si des of Simi lar tri angles
, ,

the segments i nto whi ch the li ne of acti on i s di

v i de d by the l i ne of centers bei ng the other Si des ,

an d h e n ce have th e same rati o I t would only th e n .

F I G 1 65 — Mo di fi e d
. F o rm of In v ol u t e R ack T e e th .

be necessary to reverse the di recti o n of the thread

to get curves for the other si de of the teeth and ,

to gi ve to the teeth thei r proper length i nsi de and

outsi de of the pi tch li ne to obtai n a pai r of cor
r e c t l y work i ng I nvolute gears That part of the .

tooth of an i nvolute gear whi ch may li e wi thi n the

base l i ne i s made radial .

I n the standard i ntercha n g e able i nvolu t e gears

the l i n e of acti on i s gi ven an obli qui ty of 1 5
degrees ( cut gears 1 4 5; degrees )
, Thi s angle may .

be readi ly ob tai ned by the combi nati on of the

tri angles resti ng agai nst the blade of the T square
"
-

Shown i n Fi g 1 66 . The poi nt of contact of the

.
1 98 SEL F T AUG H T ME CH AN I CA L DR AW I N G
-

teeth i s alway s upon the li ne of acti on and the

push of on e tooth agai n st another i s i n i ts d i r e c
ti on hence i ts name
, .

The teeth of the 1 5 -degree i nvolute rack have

straight Si des i n cl i ned to the pi tch l i n e at an angle
,

of 7 5 degrees as Sho w n i n Fi g 1 6 4 T h i s shape . .

,

ho w ever i s subj ect to a sl ight m odi ficati on to avoi d

,

i n terference of the poi nts of the teeth w i th the

radi al flanks of small gears .

I n t e r feren c e i n I n v olu t e G ear s — The poi nts 0

a n d d Fi g 1 5 9 where the li ne of acti on i s tangent
, .
,

to the base ci rcles are called the li mi ti ng poi nts

, .

I f the i nvolutes whi ch spri n g from ei ther base ci r

fl
cle are so long as to reach
beyon d these li mi ts on the
other base ci rcle they w i ll ,

i nterfere wi th the radi al

fla n ks of the mati ng teeth .

At k i s shown an elongated
i nvolute i n ter f eri ng wi th
F I G 1 66 — O b t ai n i n g 3 1 5
.

the radi al an k of the

z d
z g f
f
l le

gb- hfiIEZe iei r ij course a I l

GE
-
mati ng tooth '
Th i s i s o f .
,

an g l e s .
h g h y e x a g g e r ,

ated case The i n t e r f er .

ence wi ll occur sooner as the li n e of acti o n i s made

to cross the li ne of centers at a l ess obl i que angle ,

as i n standard gears an d sti ll earl i er as the pi tch

,

ci rcle b i s made larger I n ge ar i ng of stan dard pro .

porti ons a gear of 3 0 teeth i s the smallest that wi ll

,

work correctly w i th a strai ght toothed rack In .

the gears shown i n Fi g 1 63 the teeth of the large .

,

gear pass beyon d the l imi ti ng poi nt of the small

gear an d hen ce i f made of true i nvolute Shape
, ,
,
 200 SEL F -T AUG H T ME C H AN I CA L DR AW I N G

passed the thread as before a n d hen ce woul d be ,

true pi tch ci rcles for th e time bei ng The amoun t .

of backlash that i s the space between the faces

, ,

of the teeth woul d vary ,

but the smoothness of
,

operati on would not be aff ected Thi s property of .

i nvolute gears i s very valuable i n cases where the

di stance between centers i s vari able as i n rolli ng ,

mi ll geari ng I n such cases how ever i n te r f e r

.
, ,

ence must be avoi ded by the first of the three

methods explai n ed that of hollo w i n g out the flanks
,

of the teeth o f the mating gear .

The epi cycloi dal system i s the older of the two ,

and cast gears are sti ll qui te largely made to thi s

system there bei n g so many patterns of that sys
,

tem on hand B ut though the epi cycloi dal system

.

once had the field t o i tself the fact that the i n vol
,

ute system has so largely replaced i t havi ng a l ,

most wholly superseded i t for cut geari ng Sho w s ,

the tren d of m odern practi ce I t i s someti mes .

urged agai nst the i n volute system that the thrust

on the sha f t beari ngs i s greater than w i th the epi
cycloi dal system on account of the obli qui ty of i ts
,

l i ne of acti on B ut though the l i ne of acti on i s at

.

an angle to the di recti on of the m oti on of the teeth

when they are on the li n e connecti n g thei r centers ,

i t i s a constan t angle ; whi le i t i s never less i t i s ,

never more Wi th the epi cycloi dal system on the

.
,

other hand though the teeth of the dri ver gi ve a

,

square push t o t h e teeth of the dri ven gear when

they are i n contact on the li ne of centers yet ,

the di recti on of thi s pushi n g acti on bei ng on the

‘

l i ne of the ge n erati n g ci rcle I S vari able so that

, ,

when the teeth a r e fi rst comi ng i nto con ta c t wi th

 G E N E R A L PR I N CI P LE S or G E A R I NG 201

one another they have an obli qui ty of acti on fully

as great i f not greater than standard i nvolute
, ,

gears . F or thi s reason such authori ti es as the

B rown Sharp Co G ran t an d U nwi n do not con
.
, ,

s i der thi s obj ecti on as bei ng of great wei ght .

—
T w e n t y Degree I n v olu t e G e a r s
-
I t has been a l
ready sho w n how the teeth of epi cycloi dal gears
may be co n si derably stre n gthe n ed w here i t i s not
ne cessary to have the m i n tercha n geable I n i n vol .

ute geari ng w he n a stronger gear i s desi red than

,

the stan dard 1 5 -degree tooth p rovi des for recourse ,

may be had t o i n creasi n g the obli qui ty of the li ne

of acti o n T hi s m akes the tooth co n si derably
.

br oader at the base a n d correspondi n gly narro w er ,

at the poi n t The angle usually ado p ted i n such

.

cases i s 20 degrees a n d some m akers re p ort an ,

i n creasi n g deman d for such gears .

Shrouded G ears —When i t i s desi red to stre n gthen

.

the teeth of cast gears w i thout i ncreasi ng thei r

si ze or wi thout usi ng any other tha n a standard
,

shape or tooth the practi ce of shroudi ng them i s

,

sometimes resorted to Thi s consi sts i n casting .

a flange on on e o r both si des of the gear Full .

shroudi ng consi sts i n havi ng the flanges e x ten d to

the poi nts of the teeth as show n i n Fi g 1 6 7 ; half .
'

shroudi ng i s where the flanges e x ten d only to the

pi tch l i ne as shown i n Fi g 1 68 When the t w o . .

gears of a pai r are of nearly equal si ze s o that

the i r teeth wou ld be of about the same strength
i t woul d be natural to use half shroudi ng on both
gears as shown .

When how ever there i s much diff erence i n the

, ,

s i z e of the gears as shown i n Fi g 1 6 7 i t would be

,
.
,
202 SEL F -
T AUG H T ME CH A N I CA L DR AW I NG
natural to use full Shroudi ng on the small gear as ,

otherw i se i ts teeth would be weaker than those

of the large gear
. Shroudi ng i s esti mated to
.

strengthen the teeth from 2 5 to 5 0 per cen t .

FIG . 1 67 .
FIG . 1 68 .

FI GS . 1 67 an d 1 68 . h rou de d G e a rs
S .

B e v el G e a r s —
I n cyl i ndri cal or s p ur gears the
pi tch surf aces are cyli nders of a di ameter equal to
the pi tch ci rcle ; i n bevel gears the pi tch surfaces
are con es havi ng thei r api ces coi nc i di ng
, .

I n designi ng a pai r of bevel gears as shown i n

Fi g 1 69 the center l i nes a b and cd are first drawn
.
,
,

an d the pi tch di a m eters then lai d out f rom these

20 4 SEL F T AUG H T ME C H A N I CA L DR AW I N G
-

Worm Ge arin g —
worm geari ng as shown i n
In ,

Fig 1 70 a screw hav i ng i ts threads Shaped li ke

.
,

the teeth of a rack engages wi th the teeth of a

gear havi ng a con cave face an d teeth of such shape
as to fit the threads of the screw I f the screw i s .

S ingle threaded on e rotati on of i t wi ll cause the

,

gear to revolve the di stan ce of one tooth ; i f double

threaded the gear w i ll tur n t w o teeth an d so on
, ,
.

I n w orm geari n g the w or m w ears much faster

,

than the gear ; i t i s there f ore frequently made of

, ,

F I G 1 70 —
. W o rm an d W o rm -G e a r .

steel whi le the worm wheel i s made of bron z e t o -

,

gi ve the combi nati on i n creased durabi li ty .

I n i n volute worm gearing i nter f eren ce i s com

mon l y avoi ded by the last of the three methods
already m enti oned T h e poi n ts of the thread of the

fl
.

scre w i n Fi g 1 7 0 proj ect but l i ttle beyon d the

.

pi tch l i ne the root s p aces of the gear bei ng made

,

correspondi ngly Shallow At the same ti me the .

,

poi n ts of the teeth i n the gear are made long

enough to preserve thei r total length the same as
usual and the de p th of the screw thread i nsi de the
,

pi tch l i ne i s made s u i c i e n t f or clearan ce B ut un .

 G E N ER A L P R I N CI P LE S or G E AR I N G 205

less the worm gear has less than 3 0 teeth the

-
,

s t an dard shape of tooth wi ll be sati sfactory .

Circ u l a r Pi t c h — I n design i ng geari ng the ol d ,

method ( the one whi ch i s gi ven i n the older trea

ti ses on the subj ect ) i s to use the ci rcular p i tch ;
that i s the di stan ce between the teeth measured
, ,

from cen ter to center on the pi tch ci rcle Thi s .

method has many di sadvantages For i nstan ce i f .

,

i t i s requi red to make a pattern of a gear to mesh

wi th on e already on hand the natural thi ng to do
,

i n measuri ng up the ol d gear i s to first guess at

where the pi tch l i ne i s a n d then measure straight
,

across from on e tooth to the next Thi s leads to .

two errors i n the result ; fi rst the probably i ncor

,

rect locati on of the pi tch l i ne and second the di s

, , ,

tan ce measured i s the chordal pi tch i nstead of the

ci rcular pi tch A noi sy p ai r of ge ars would qui te
.

l i kely be the result

Agai n as the rati o between the Ci rcumference
,

an d the di ameter of a ci rcle i s not a n even n um

ber but a troublesome fracti o n the use of the ci r
, ,

c ul a r pi tch method wi l l gi ve the p i tch di ameter of

the gear i n i nconven i en t f racti ons of an i n ch un ,

less a n equally i n conven i e n t ci rcular pi tch i s used .

Thi s method has s o ma n y di sadvan tages that i t

has been largely replaced by the more conveni ent
di ametral pi tch method For cut gears the dia
”
.

metral pi tch method i s used almost exclusi vely ;

but f or cast gears there are so many patterns on
han d made by the ci rcular pi tch method that that
, ,

method i s sti ll used consi derably on such work ,

especi ally on the larger Si zes of gears .

Wh e re one i s desi g n i n g n e w work h owever , ,

2 06 SEL F -T A U G H T ME CH AN I CA L DR AWI NG
where no ol d gear pattern s made by the ci rcular
pi tch method are used the di ametral pi tch m e thod
,

wi ll be by far the most conven i ent to use whi ch ,

e ver style of tooth whether i nvolute or e p i cy

,

cloi da l may be adopted

, .

P I T C H D I AME TE R S O F G E A R S F R O M 1 0 T O 1 00
T E E TH O F 1 I N C H CI R C U L A R P I T C H
,
- .

T e e th

When the pi tch of a gea r i s gi ven i n i n che s or

f racti ons of an i n ch the ci rcular pi tch i s always
,

m eant ; as for i nstan ce where a gear i s sai d t o be

, ,

of 1 -i n ch pi tch or l i -i n ch pi tch To get the pi tch

, .

di ame ter i n suc h a cas e i t i s necessar y to multi pl y

,
2 08 SEL F -T AUG H T ME CHAN I CA L DR AWI NG

( the di stance whi ch the teeth proj ect beyon d the

pi tch li ne ) i s m a de equal to on e di vi ded by the
pi tch so that the addendum on gears of three four
, ,

or five pi tch woul d be resp ecti vely on e thi rd on e

-
, , ,

fourth or on e -fif th of an i nch The advan tages of .

thi s method are numerous .

To get the di ametral pi tch of a gear i t i s only

necessary to di vi de the nu mber of teeth by the
pi tch diameter or to di vi de the nu m ber of teeth
,

plus t w o by the outsi de di ameter A complete

'

.
,

set of rules as well as formulas an d examples for

,

calculati ng Sp ur gear dimen si on s wi ll be gi ven i n ,

the next chapter .

I t i s qui te a commo n practi ce i n figur i n g gears

made by diam etral pi tch to gi ve only the pi tch an d
the number of teeth as 4 pi tch 1 8 teeth or 4 D , , , .

P 18 T
.
, .The letters D P stand for di ametral . .

pi tch the letters P D standi ng f or pi tch di ameter

, . . .

The pi tch di am eter i s then foun d by di v i di ng the

n umber o f teeth by the di a m etral pi tch When .

thi s method i s used the ci rcular pi tch becomes ,

of seco n dary i m p ortan ce but may be foun d by di ,

v i di n g by the di am etral pi tch When the .

ci rcular pi tch i s gi ven an d the di am etral pi tch i s

desi red di vi de
, by the ci rcular pi tch The .

diam eter of a gear unless otherw i se speci fied i s , ,

al w ays u n derstood to be the pi tch diameter Wi th .

the di ametral pi tch method the pi tch di ameter , ,

unless i n even i nches wi ll be i n fracti on s of an ,

i n ch correspon di ng to the pi tch so that the frac ,

t i on a l parts of the diameter of gears of three four ,

or five pi tch f or i nstance would be thi rds four t hs

, , ,

or fi f th s of an i nc h .
 G E N E RA L P R I N CI P LE S OF G E A R I N G 209

Th e Hu n t ingToo t h —
It
i s a common practi ce i n
.

maki ng gear patte rns to have the teeth of the two

gears of a p ai r of such numbers that they do not
have a com mon di vi sor For i nstan ce i nstead of
.
,

hav i ng 25 a n d 35 teeth i n the gears of a p ai r one ,

m a y gi ve to on e of them on e m ore or on e less

tooth so as to i nsure all of the teeth of one gear
,

comi ng i n to contact w i th all of the teeth of the

other as they run together .

Th i s practi ce i s co n dem n ed by some ho w ever , ,

on the grou n d that i f any of the teeth are o f bad

shape i t would be better to confine thei r i nj uri ous

acti on w i thi n as narrow li m i ts as possi ble rather '

than to have them rui n all of the teeth of the other

gear ; but the Shape of badly form ed teeth Should
be corrected as soo n as the error i s di scovered _
.

Approxi m at e Shap es f or Cycloid al G e ar Teet h .

That part of the cycloi dal curve w h i ch i s used i n

the for m ati on of gear t e e t h outl i n es i s so Short
that i t may be re p laced w i th a ci rcular arc w hi ch
wi ll very closely approxi m ate i t a n d such arcs are ,

generally used i n the practi cal c on structi o n of gear

patterns I n the follo w i n g i s gi ven a table of such
.

arcs wi th the locati o n of the centers from w hi ch

they are struck The ce n ter f rom w hi ch that p art
.

of the tooth lyi ng outsi de of the p i tch l i n e i s

drawn the f a ce of the tooth Wl l l be i nsi de of the
, ,

pi tch l i ne w h i le the cen ter from w hi ch that p art

,

of the tooth lyi ng i nsi de of the pi tch l i n e i s dra w n ,

the f l a n k of t h e tooth wi ll be outsi de of the pi tch

,

l i ne
. These radi i an d center locati o n s w ere ob
t a i n e d di rectly from a set of tooth outl i nes of
3 -i n ch ci rc ular pi tch formed by roll i ng a genera
,
21 0 SEL F -T AUG H T ME C H AN I CA L DR AW I NG

ti ng ci rcle drawn upon traci ng paper upon a s e t

, ,

of pi tch ci rcles correc t rotati on bei ng assured by

,

the use of needle poi n ts pri cked through the gen

e r a t i n g ci rcle i nto the pi tch ci rcle the needle ,

poi nts servi ng as pi vots upon whi ch the genera

ti n g ci rcle w a s swung through Short successi ve
stages the forward movements of the traci ng
,

poi nt i n formi ng the cycloi dal curves bei ng also

pri cked through N eedle poi nts were also used i n
.

the I nstruments whi ch were used for traci ng thi s

curve w hen the radi us an d cen ter locati on w e re
determi ned .

'

C YCLoI D AL T O O TH O U T L I N E S
R a di i a n d ce n te r l oc a ti on s f or on e -i n c h ci r cu l a r p ch
i t . F or
a n y ot h er p i tc h m u l ti p l y th e gi ve n fi gu r e by t h e r e qu i r e d

i
p tc h .

N um b e r of I n s i d e of O u t s i d e of
T e e th . Pi t c h L i n e . Pi t c h L i n e .

I f t h e d i a m e t r a l p i t c h m e t h od i s b e i n g u s e d , t h e c or r e s p on d i n g c i r c ul a r
p i t c h m a y b e f o u n d b y d i vi d i n g t
b y t h e d i a m e r a l p i ch , a s t a l r ea d y
m e n t i on e d .

—
I n vol u t e T e e th
The constructi on of a correct
i nvolute tooth outli ne i s so simple a matter as to
make the use of tables of appro x i mate ci rcular
21 2 SEL F -T AUG H T ME CH A N I CA L DR AW I NG
Should have to work correctly wi th the radi al flan k
of the mati ng gear .

That p art of a n i nvolute tooth lyi ng wi thi n the

base ci rcle i s m ade radi al as previ ously stated an d
, ,

a good fillet Should be dra w n i n at the root F or .

thi s p urp ose use a radi us of one -twelfth of the

ci rcular pi tch A templet whi ch i s fi tted to th i s
.

PI T C H C I RC LE

B AS E C R C LE
I

FIG . 1 72 — Modi fi e d T oo t h F o r m to A v oi d I n t e r f e r e n ce :

outli n e i s used to fin i sh the dra w i ng a n d t o mark ,

out the teeth on the pattern .

O n large w ork the si ze of the base ci rcle may be

obtai n ed by calculati o n m ore readi ly than by the
use of the tria n gle as Show n i n Fi g 1 66 When
, . .

the l i n e of acti o n has a n obli qui ty of 1 5 degrees ,

the diam eter of the base ci rcle w i ll be equal to

of the p i tch di am eter For 2 0 degree i n vo-
.
- z

lute gears the diameter of the base ci rcle wi ll be

of the pi tch diameter .

Wi th the degree i nvolute system the teeth of

2 0 -

the rack have an i n cl i nati on of 70 degrees to the

p i tch l i ne .Wi th thi s system there wi ll be no n e
ce s s i t y f or roundi ng off the poi nts of the teeth of

the rack or of a large gear u n less i t meshes wi th

 G E N ER A L P R I N CI P LE S or G E A R I NG 21 3

a gear of less than 1 8 teeth When to avoi d i nter

.
,

feren ce i t does become necessary to roun d off the

,

poi n ts of the teeth of the rack or of large gears ,

the same radi us i nches di v i ded by the diam

,

e t r a l pi tch i s to be used as i n the 1 5 -degree

, ,

system the center bei ng on the pi tch li ne as

,

before .

Pro p ort ion s of G ear s —

A somewhat com mon rule
i s to make the ri m and the arm s of about the same
thi ckness as the teeth at the root though som e ,

make the thi ckness of the r i m equal to the height

of the tooth ; an d t o make the di am eter an d le n gth
of the hub about equal to about t w i ce the dia m eter

of the shaft On Spoked gears the rim i s also sti ff

.
,

ened by ri bbi ng i t between the arm s O n a l ight .

gear mounted on a relati vely large shaft i t would

be natural to l ighten the hub s om ew hat Th e .

w i dth of t h e face of cast gears i s usually m ade

f rom t w o to three ti m es the ci rcular pi tch The .

fa ce of bevel gears should not exceed one fif th of -

the di ameter of the large gear an d the f ace of ,

w or m gears shoul d n ot exceed on e -

half of the
di am eter of the worm .

St reng t h of G ear Tee t h —

When a gear i s to be
desi gned for a gi ven work the first questi on i s ,

h ow large t o make the teeth to gi ve the requi red

strength O n thei r si ze wi ll also depen d the gen
.

eral proporti on s of the gear .

I t i s comparati vely easy to determi ne the w ork

w h i ch the teeth are doi ng that i s ; the strai n or
,

load whi ch they are beari n g w hen the power ,

w h i ch the gear tran smi ts i s kno w n A horse power -

.

bei ng the power requi red to l i f t 33 000 pounds on e ,

21 4 SEL F -T AUG H T ME C H A N I CA L DR A W I NG

f oot i n one mi nute the load on th e teeth wi ll be

,

3 3 000 m ulti pl i ed by the horse power wh i ch i s

,
-

bei ng tra n s m i tted and di vi ded by the veloci ty of

,

the pi tch li ne of the gear i n feet per mi nute ; or ,

w hat i s the same thi n g multi pl i ed by the

,

horse -po w er a n d di vi ded by the product of the

,

p i tch di a m eter i n i n ches multi pl i ed by the number

of revoluti ons per mi nute T hi s latter figure
.
,

takes i nto account the fact that i n the first

case the veloci ty i s expressed i n feet whi le i n th i s ,

case the di am eter i s i n i nches an d also the fact ,

that the veloci ty i s a f actor of the ci rcumferen ce

i nstead of the di ameter .

Wh i le the load on the teeth may be readi ly

determi ned the questi on of h ow large they Shoul d
,

be made to bear i t i s on e where authori ti es have

diff ered very much on accoun t of the number of
factors i nvolved Fi rst of all i s the questi on of
.

the material usually cast i ron whi ch i s a vari able

, ,

quanti ty both on account of the nature of the

,

material i tself diff erent grades varyi ng greatly as

,

to stre n gth a n d the liabi l i ty of defects i n t h e cast

,

i ng . T h e n there i s the questi on of whether the

load should be consi dered as di vi ded between tw o
or more teeth o r carri ed by on e tooth or the cor ,

ner of a tooth .

T hen there i s the nature of the work : whether

the load wi ll be un i f orm or whether the teeth wi ll
be subj ect to severe strai n or Shock There are .

questi ons of t h e Shape of the tooth an d the veloci ty ,

at whi ch the gear i s runn i ng the teeth havi n g ,

greater strength at slow speeds than at high speeds

due to the shocks accompanyi ng hi gh veloci ti es .
21 6 SEL F T AUG H T ME C H A N I CA L DR AW I N G
-

and for high speeds Lewi s also consi ders thi s

.

rule as a passably correct e x press i on of good gen

eral averages .

T h e value gi ven by Nystrom and those gi ven by

B ox f or teeth of small pi tch are so much smaller ,

than those of other authori ti es that Ken t says they

may be rej ected as gi v i ng u nnecessary strength .

Accepti n g the f actor 200 as a good average w ould

leave on e room f or the exerci se of i n di v i dual j udg
me n t f or the p arti cular case i n ha n d I f the speed .

w ere slow and the teeth w ere of stro n g shape as ,

where both the gears of a pai r or all of the gears ,

of a trai n have , a reasonably large number of

teeth a hi gher figure perh aps 225 or more might
, , ,

be taken ; w hi le i f the Speed were higher an d one

of the gears had but f e w teeth gi vi ng them a ,

wea k f orm or i f they w ere to be subj ect to much

,

v i brati on or Shoc k a lo w er figure perhaps as low

, ,

as 1 25 m ight be taken
, .

T o ascertai n the horse po w er safely transmi tted -

by an ex i sti n g gear we w ould then multi ply to

,

geth er i ts dia m eter pi tch ( ci rcular ) an d face

, ,

take n i n i n ches and the number of revoluti ons

,

per mi nute a n d multi ply thei r product by 200 or

, ,

w hatever figure i s selected an d di v i de the total ,

p roduct by T hi s may perhaps be e x , ,

pressed clearer as fo llo w s : ,

di am rev ci rc pi tch X 2 00
Horse - po w er
. .

1 26 050
.

.
,

Th e figure 200 would gi ve to the 24 -i nch gear

pre vi ously consi dered horse -power The fi g .

ure 1 25 w ould gi v e horse power -

.
 G E N ER A L P R I N CI P LE S OF G E A R I N G 21 7

To a s ce r t a i n
the si ze of the teeth to tra n smi t a
'

gi ven horse power we may transpose the above rule

-

an d say that the product of the pi tch multi pli ed

by the face would be equal to multi pl i ed
by the horse -power and di vi ded by the product of
,

the di ameter i n i n ches the n umber of revoluti o n s ,

per mi nute an d 200 or the figure selected ; that i s :

, ,

Cl rc p l t Ch X f ace
diam rev X
.

. . 2 00 .

Assumi ng some pi tch and di vi di n g thi s result

by i t would gi ve the breadth of f ace A f e w .

tri als w i ll gi ve the desi red rati o betw ee n pi tch

an d breadth of face I f on e has a table of square
.

roots at ha n d the work m a y be si m p li fied by

,

assumi ng some desi red rati o w he n the pi tch w i ll ,

be the square root of the quoti e n t of thi s figure ,

pi tch multi pl i ed by the face di vi ded by the rati o ,

.

I f for i nsta n ce the p i tch multi pl i ed by the face

, ,

w ere foun d to be 1 2 a n d we desi red them to be,

i n the rati o of 2 5 t o 1 the pi tch w o u ld be equal to

,

the square root o f the q u oti ent o f 1 2 di vi ded by

2 5 or
,
w hi ch w ould be about the sa m e as
di ametral pi tch .

E xa m p l e — R equi red the s i ze of the teeth of a

gear 1 8 i n ches i n di ameter to r u n 1 20 revoluti o n s ,

per mi nute w h i ch shall trans m i t fi ve horse pow er

,
-
,

allowi ng 200 pounds load per i nch of f ace and ,

i n ch of p i tch T hen : .

Pl t Ch X f ace
_
_
u ecrn 5 _
6 391 25 O __

18 1 20 20 0

early A c i r c ul a r pi tch of i n ch correspo n d

"

n . ,
21 8 SEL F T AUG H T ME C H AN I CA L DR A W I N G
-

i ng to 4 diametral pi tch would gi ve a breadth of ,

f ace of about 1 % i nches For bevel gears take the .

di ameter and pi tch at the mi ddle of the face .

Mr Le w i s s method diff ers from the precedi ng

.
’

i n that i nstead of usi ng a si ngle constan t as 200 ,

pounds per i n ch of pi tch an d i nch of face t w o ,

constants are used on e Y a factor of strength , , ,

dependi n g on the number of teeth i n the gear an d ,

a n other S a safe w ork i ng stress f or di ff eren t

, ,

speeds of the pi tch l i ne i n feet per m i nute The , .

values of these consta nts are gi ven i n the a e com

panyi ng tables .

The rule to get the horse po w er of a gi ven gear -

33 000
,

the veloci ty bei ng that at the pi tch l i n e i n feet per

mi nute a n d the values of S and Y bei ng taken
,

from the tables The veloci ty i s of course the

.
, ,

diameter i n feet X number p f r e vol u

ti ons I f the di amete r w ere taken i n i nches then
.

the total product woul d be di vi ded by 1 2 The .

product of the pi tch multi pli ed by the face to ,

determi ne the si ze of teeth to tran smi t a gi ven

po w er would then be
,

Ci rc p i tch f ace
HP
. .

veloci ty X S X Y
.

The calculati on shoul d be made for the gear of

the pai r or trai n havi n g the fe w est teeth a s i t ,

w ould be the weakest u n less i t were made of some

,

stronger m ateri al as steel or unless i t were ,

220 SE L F -T A U G H T ME C H A N I CA L DR A W I NG

speed whi ch would be especi ally desi rable i f the

,

speed were h igh or the teeth of weak form Tak .

i n g S at on e half the tabulated value would gi ve

-

to the 24 i n ch gear previ ously con si dered about

-

the same po w er as allowi ng 200 poun ds per i nch

of pi tch and face w hi ch Mr Le w i s consi ders a
,
.

fai r value Wi th cast gears w here i n t erchange

.

abi li ty i s n ot a n ecessary feature the teeth of a ,

s m all gear could of course be consi derably strength

e n ed i n the man n er prev i ously i n di cated f or e p i cy
c l o i da l gears ; or the 2 0 -degree syste m mi ght be
used i f the teeth have the i nvolute form .

Thu rs t o n s R ule f or Sh aft s

’
— The Si ze of Shaft
w h i ch the gear wi ll requi re may be foun d by the
rule gi ven by T hursto n Mu lti p ly the horse -power
.

to b e tran s m i tted by 1 25 f or i ro n or by 7 5 for cold

-
,

rolled i ron an d di v i de the p rod u ct by the number

,

of re voluti ons p e r mi nute Th e cube root of the

.

quoti e n t wi ll be the si ze of the shaft .

Th e S i ze of gear to gi ve a requi red speed may

be readi ly determ i ned from the fact that the prod
u c t of the speed of the dri vi n g sha f t multi pl i ed by

the si ze of the dri vi ng gear or gears Shoul d be ,

equal to the product of the speed of the dri ven .

Shaft multi pl i ed by the si ze of the dri ven gear or

,

gears Thi s perhaps may be made clearer by

.
, ,

p laci ng the dri vi ng members on one si de of a l i ne ,

and the dri ven members on the other si de as i n ,

the f oll ow m g e x ample .

A sha f t mak i ng 7 5 turns per mi nute has on i t a

gear of 200 teeth R equi red the Si ze of gear to
.

mesh wi th i t whi ch shall dri v e i ts s haft 1 20

 G E N ER A L P R I N CI P LE S or GEAR I N G 22 1

revoluti on s per mi nute Letti ng . r represent the

si ze of the requi red gear w e have
Rev . d ri v i n g s h a f t 75 x siz e d ri v e n g e a r .

Si z e d ri v i n g g e a r 200 1 20 rev . d ri v e n s h a f t .

Then as the product of the numbers on one si de

of the l i ne equals the product of those on the other

si de 7 5 X 200,
1 20 w i ll gi ve the value of x the ,

number of teeth i n the dri ven gear T hi s method .

appl i es to a trai n of gears as well as a pai r .

 CHAPT E R X I I I

CA L CUL A T I N G T HE D I ME N SI ON S OF G E AR S
IN the previ ous chapter the general pri n ci ples ,

O f geari ng have been explai ned The th ree ki nds .

of geari ng most commonly i n use spur geari ng , ,

bevel geari ng an d worm geari ng have been ,

touched upon an d the fundamental rules f or the

,

dimensi ons of gear teeth have been gi ven In .

thi s chapter i t i s proposed to gi ve i n detai l the

rules an d f ormulas for these three classes of gears ,

SO as to enable the studen t to calculate f or hi mself

any general problem i n geari n g wi th whi ch he

may meet .

Spur G ea rin g — I n the follo w i ng machi ne cut ,

geari ng i s i n parti cular referred to ; but the gen

, ,

eral f orm ulas are O f course of equal value f or use

, ,

w hen calculati ng cast gears The expressi on s pi tch .

diameter diametral pi tch an d ci r cular pi tch have

,

already been explai ned an d rules have been gi ven

,

f or transferri ng ci rcular pi tch i nto diametral

p i tch an d vi ce ver s a
, These rules e x pressed as
.
,

form ulas would be :

,

’
/ a nd P
P
,

i n whi ch P di ametral pi tch an d ,

P = ci rcular pi tch
’
.

Assume as an exa m ple that the di ametral pi tch

222
2 24 SEL F -T AUG H T ME C H A N I CA L D R AW I NG

Assume for an example that the number of

, ,

teeth i n a gear equals 35 an d that the pi tch diam

eter i s 3 3 i nches What i s the di ametral pi tch
.
?

I f w e i nsert the known values i n the gi ven for

mula we have :
,

10 diametral pi tch .

Fi nally i f the diametral pi tch an d the number

,

of teeth are known the p i tch diameter i s foun d

,

by di vi ding the number of teeth by the di ametral

pi tch whi ch rule e x pressed as a formula would be :
, ,

As an e x ample assume that the number of teeth

,

i n a gear i s 58 and the di ametral p i tch 6 What i s .

f
the pi tch diameter o thi s gear ?

B y i nserti ng the kno w n values i n the f ormula ,

we fin d :
9 667
. i nches .

i t now be requi red t o fin d the outsi de di am

If
eter Of the gear that i s the di am eter O f the gear
, ,

blank w e m ake use of the f ollow i ng rule : T h e

,

outsi de diameter equals the n umber Of teeth plus

2 di vi ded by the di ametral pi tch
, E x pressed as .

a formula thi s rule IS ,

'

i n whi ch D outsi de diameter of gear an d N

’
,

a n d P have the same S ign ificance as before .

As an e x ample assume that the number of teeth

,
 CA L C U L A T I N G T HE D I ME N SI O N S OF G E A R S 2 25

i s 58 an d the di ametral pi tch 6 B y i nserti ng these

.

values In the fo rmula we fi nd the outsi de di ameter :

,

58 2 60
10 I nches
6 6
.

Wh en the pi tch di ameter an d the diam etral pi tch

are kno w n th e outsi de di a m eter i s fo un d as
,

follo w s : Add the q u oti e n t o f 2 di vi ded by the

di ametral pi tch to the pi tch di am eter ; the s um i s
the outsi de di ameter Thi s rule expressed as a .
,

formula i s : ,

’
D = D +

i n wh i ch the letters have the same si gn ifica n ce as

before .

Assume that the pi tch di am eter of a gear i s

i nches an d the dia m etral p i tch 6 Fi n d the out
,
.

s i de di ameter .

B y i n serti ng the g i ve n values i n the f orm ula w e ,

have °

2
D
’
= 10 i n ches .

6
By a transposi ti on Of the rule a n d form ula j ust
gi ven we fin d that the pi tch di am eter equals the
,

outsi de di a m eter mi nus the quoti ent of 2 di vi ded

by the di ametral pi tch Thi s rule wri tten as a .
,

formula i s ,

’ 2
D = D
P
Assume that th e di am etral pi tch Ofa gear i s 8 ,

an d the outsi de di ameter 1 2 i n ches . What i s the

pi tch di ameter ?

D 12 12 f 112 i n ches .
226 SEL F -T AUG H T ME C H A N I CA L DR AW I NG

When the number of teeth a n d outsi de di am e te r

are know n the diametral pi tch may be foun d by
,

addi ng 2 to the number of teeth an d di v i di ng t h e

sum by the outsi de di ameter ; or e x pressed as a ,

formula :

I f the number of teeth i n a gear i s 96 an d t h e

Outsi d e diam eter i s 1 4 i nches what i s the di ame
,

tral pi tch ?
I f the kno w n values are i n serted i n the g i ve n
form ula we have :
,

98
7 d l a m e t r a l p I t ch
14 14
.

When the outsi de diameter a n d the nu m ber Of

teeth are k n own the pi tch di am eter may be foun d
,

by multi plyi ng the outsi de di a m eter by the number

of teeth an d di vi di ng t h e product by the sum of
,

2 added to the number of teeth ; or as a formula : ,

Fi n d the pi tch d i ameter for the gear hav i ng 96

teeth an d an outsi de di ameter of 1 4 i nches .

14 X 96 1 344
1 3 714 1 n ch e s
96 2 98
. .

When i t i s requi red to fin d the center di stan c e C

between two gears i n mesh wi th each other w e ,

must fi rst know the pi tch di ameters O f or the ,

number of teeth i n the t w o gears The cente r

, .
2 28 SEL F -T AUG H T ME C H A N I CA L DR AWI N G

What i s the adde

dum or height above the p i tch
n

l i ne of a 5 diametral pi tch gear tooth ?

0 2 1 n ch .

5
.

The dedendum ( see Fig 1 6 0 ) equals the . ad

de n dum .

The cleara n ce c equals , , di v i ded by the

di ametral pi tch or : ,

Whati s the cleara n ce at the bottom of the gear

tooth ( see Fig 1 60) of a 4 dia m etral pi tch gear ?
.

0
61
57
i n ch .

The full depth Of the tooth equals the sum Of t h e

adden dum deden d um a n d clearance or
, , ,

1
P P P

in w hi ch d f ull
de p th O f gear t e e t h .

What i s the f ull de p th of a 4 di am etral pi tch

tooth ?

i n ch .

Th e
thi ck n ess O f a cut gear tooth at the pi tch
li ne equals di vi ded by the di am etral pi tch ;
o r as a form ula :
,

i n w hi ch T thi c k n ess O f tooth at pi tch l i ne .

 CA L CU L A T I N G T HE D I ME N SI O N S OF G E A R S 2 29

What i s the thi ckness at the pi tch l i ne of a 4

di ametral pi tch gear tooth ?

15 08
2 i n ch .

As a general exa mple let i t be requi red to de

,

term i ne the vari ous dime n si o n s f or a p ai r of gears ,

the one hav i n g 36 a n d the other 27 teeth The .

gears are O f 8 di a m etral pi tch .

By usi n g the f or m ulas gi ven w e have : ,

F or the larger gear :

N 36
Pi tch di ameter i n ches
P 8
.

N 2 36 2
O utsi de di ameter
g g i nches .

F or the smaller gear :

g
2
Pi tch di am eter
j" ,
i n ches .

2 27 2
; g
n r
O utsi de di ameter — i n ches .

F or both gears :
Adde n dum i n ch .

D eden du m i nch .

Cleara n c e i nch .

l
r

gi
2
Full depth Of tooth i nch .

Cen ter d i stan ce

N
2 ?
” 3 + 27
;X 8
63
16
H nch , i .
23 0 SEL F -T A U G HT ME C H A N I CA L D R AW I NG

Thi s concludes the requi red calculati on s n e ce s

sary for a pai r of spur gears .

— B evel gears are used f or t ra n s

Be v e l G e ar s
mi tti ng moti on between shafts whose shafts a r e
n ot parallel but whose cen ter l i nes form an angle
,

wi th each other I n most cases thi s angle i s a

.

FIG . 1 7 3 —D i a g r a m f o r Ca
. l cu l a t i o n of B e v e l G e a ri n g .

right or 90 degree angle

,
- The formulas f or th e
, .

dimensi ons of bevel gears a r e not as si mple a s

those for spur gears an d an understandi ng of the
,

trigonometri cal fu n cti ons explai ned i n Chapter ,

V I I i s necessary as well as the use Of t r i g on ome t

, ,

r i c a l tables As bevel gears w i th a 90-degree angle

.

between thei r center li nes are the most common ,

232 SEL F —
T A U G H T M E CHAN I CA L D R AW I NG
Angles a , an d a 2 can be determi ned i f e i ther the
numbers of teeth or the pi tch dia m eters of both
gears are kno w n The tangen t f or these angles
.
,

the pi tch cone angles equals the number Of teeth

,

i n on e gear di vi ded by the nu m ber of teeth i n the

other or the pi tch di am eter i n one gear di vi ded by
,

the pi tch dia m eter i n the other accordi ng to the ,

follo w i ng form ulas :

ta n a ,
=

tan a2=

Angle a 2 also equals 90 a,

0
.

The outsi de diam eter equals the pi tch di ameter

plus the quoti ent Of 2 ti m es the cosi ne of a or a , , ,

respecti vely di vi ded by the diametral pi tch or

, ,

2 cos a1
= O, D,+
P

O = D +

Angles d an d e are determ i n ed by the formulas :

ta n e

Angles b, , c ,, b2 an d 62 are determi ned by the

formulas :

C, = a — 6
,

b2 = a2 + d
Cg :
6
 CA L C U L A T I N G T HE D I ME N SI O N S OF G E A R S 23 3

The number of teeth for w hi ch the cutter for

cutti ng the teeth should be selected i s found as
follows :

Fi nally the adden dum dedendum an d clearan ce

,

are foun d as i n spur gears .

As a practi cal exam p le assu m e n ow that t w o,

bevel gears are re q ui red 8 di ametral pi tch w i th

, ,

24 an d 3 6 teeth res p ecti vely

, Fi n d the vari ous .

di mensi on s .

i nches .

3 i nches .

IV
32
°
tan a a 56
,
N; ,

"
%f it;
°
ta n a , a2 = 33
{

i n ches .

02 = D2+ 3 i n ches .

d
°
2

si n a, X
05 3 ;
0
e =
3
36
23 4 SEL F -T AUG H T ME C H A N I CA L DR A W I N G

’ °
59
°
d + 2 40
°
20
’
a, = 56
°
56 20
’
e =
°
a2 d = 33
°
40
’ -
36
’
33 40
°
e =

Z Vi 36
65 approxi mately .

CO S a l 0 5 54

29 approximately .

c os 0 832 .

1 1
i n ch .

P 8

i nch .

1 1
Whole depth of tooth
2
)
1 )

0 26 9 6
. i nch .

Worm G e ar i n g Worms
an d worm gears are
.
-

used for transmi tti ng power i n cases where gre a t

FIG . 1 74 .
-W ori n .
'

reducti on i n veloci ty an d smoothness of acti on are

desi red They are also used w hen a self-locki ng
.
 EL F -T A U G H T ME C H A N I CA L DR A W I NG
23 6 S

of teeth an d di vi di ng the result by

,
or , as
a formula :

The outsi de diameter of the worm 0 2 i s usually , ,

assumed T o fin d the pi tch di ameter of the worm

. ,

the adden dum must first

be found T h e adden dum .

equals the pi tch of the

worm thread multi pl i ed
by or :
A PX
Now the pi tch di ameter
of the w orm equal s the
outs i de dia m eter mi nus 2
ti m es the adden dum or : ,

D2 02 _
2A .

The root di ameter of

the worm can be foun d
first after the full depth
of the worm -wheel thread

has been foun d The full.

depth Of the worm wheel

-

thread equals the pi tch

multi pli ed by on

d P X

Now the root di amete r

of the wor m thread equals
F I G 1 75
. . W o rm -w he e l
-
.

the outsi de diameter of

the w orm m i nus 2 times th e depth of the thread or : ,

DR 0 — 2d .
 CA L CU L A T I NG T HE D I ME N SI O N S OF G E A R S 23 7

The t h r e a t di ameter of the worm -wheel i s found

by addi ng 2 ti m es the addendum of the worm
thread to the pi tch di ameter of the worm -wheel or : ,

DT = D 1 + 2A .

'

The r a di us of
the worm w heel throat i s f ound -

by subtracti ng 2 ti mes the adden dum from the

outsi de di ameter of the worm di v i ded by 2 or : ,

The outsi de di ameter of the w orm -wheel ( to

sharp corn ers ) i s fou n d by the f orm ula below °

— —
01 D + 2 (R R
_
T CO S
2
The angle a i s usually 7 5 degrees .

Fi nally the center di stan ce between the center

,

of the w orm an d the center of the worm -wheel

-

equals the sum of the pi tch di ameter O f the w orm

plus the pi tch di ameter Of the worm gear an d thi s ,

sum di v i ded by 2 or : ,

Fi n d for an e x ample the requi red di mensi o n s

, ,

f or a worm an d w orm wheel i n whi ch the w orm

-
,

wheel has 3 6 teeth the pi tch of the w orm thread

,

i s 3 i n ch an d the outsi de di ameter of the worm i s

,

3 i n ches We have gi ven P 3 ; N 36 ; 0 2 3

. .

3 1416 .

A P X f X i n ch .

D2 02 2A 5
3 i nc h e s .
238 SEL F - T A U G H T ME CH AN I CA L DR AWI NG
P X 3 X 0 6866 . i nch .

02 2d 3 0 68 6 6
. i nches .

D, 2A i n ches .

9 A
3
2
2 i n ch .

O, = D T 2 (R R cos 2 x
°
c os 37 i n ches .

D , + I) ,
C 4 20 5 8 I n ches
2 2
. .
240 SEL F -T AUG H T ME CH AN I CA L DR AW I N G
the same way on the cones w ould produce undue ,

tensi on on the belt I f a crossed belt i s used on

.

such cones thei r faces would be made strai ght as ,

the belt would be equally tight i n any posi ti o n .

Thi s may be seen by an i nspe cti on of Fi g 1 79 .

,

where ci rcles A an d B represent secti on s Of such

cones on on e l i ne an d ci rcles C and D represent
,

secti ons on another li ne I f the cones have th e .

FI G . 1 79 — fl
D i a g r a m Sh ow i n g re l a t i v e I n u e n ce
Cro s s e d B e l t on P u ll e y Si z e s

same taper i t i s evi dent that the ci rcle D wi ll be

.
of Ope n an d

as much larger than B as C i s s m aller than A the ,

gai n i n on e di ameter bei ng Off set by the loss i n the

other Then as the ci rcu m feren ces O f ci rcles vary
.
,

di rectly as thei r di ameters ( the ci rcum f eren ce of

a ci rcle havi n g tw i ce the diameter of another for ,

i nstan ce wi ll be twi ce as long as the ci rcumfer

,

ence of the other ) whatever i s gai ned on on e ci r

,

c um f e r e n c e w i ll be lost on the other For a crossed .

belt then i t i s only necessary that the con es have

,

the same tap e r .

When however an open belt i s used i t becomes

; , ,

necessary to have the cones sli ghtly bulgi ng i n t h e

 CON E PU LLEY S 24 1

m i ddle as shown i n F i g 1 77 B y aga i n i nspecti ng

. .

Fi g 1 7 9 i t w i ll be seen that i t i s only when the

.

belt i s crossed that on e con e gai ns as fast i n si ze

as the other loses because i t i s only when the belt
,

i s crossed that the arc of contact of the belt on the

pulleys i s the sa m e on all steps O f the co n e .

I n practi ce these co n es are usually re p laced by

stepped or co n e p u lleys as sho w n i n Fig 1 7 8 so as .
,

to avoi d the troubles w i th the belt previ ously

menti on ed .

Applyi ng the pri n ci ples menti oned to cone pul

leys we see that when a crossed belt i s used all
,
‘
,

that i s n e c e s s a r y i s that the sum of the di ameters

Of a n y pai r of steps shall be equal to the s um of
the di am eters of a n y other pai r of ste p s For .

i nsta n ce the s u m Of the dia m eters O f steps 1 a n d

,

1 must be eq u al to t h e s um of the dia m eters Of

’
/

steps 2 a n d Whe n however an open belt i s

, ,

used as i s usually the case the sum Of the diam

, ,

e t e r s of the ste p s at or near the mi ddle of the cone

w i ll have to be so m e w hat greater than the sum Of

the di am eters of those at or near the end s .

What i s generally con si dered to be the best

method Of determ i n i n g the S i ze of the vari ous
steps Of cone pulleys i s that gi ven by Mr C A
‘

. . .

“
Smi th i n the T ran sacti o n s of the Am eri can Soci ety
Of Mechan i cal E ngi neers Vol X page 2 6 9 Make ,
”
.
, .

the di stan ce C Fi g 1 8 0 equal to the di stance

, .
,

between the centers of the shafts an d draw the ,

ci rcles A an d B equal to the diameters of a known

pai r of steps on the cones At a poin t mi dway .

between the shaft centers erect the perp en di cular

ab . Then wi th a center on a b at a di stan ce from
,
242 SEL F - T A U G H T ME CH A N I CA L DR AW I NG
a e qual t o th e length of C multi pl i ed by draw
the a r c c tangen t to the belt li ne of the gi ven pai r
of steps . The bel t l i n e Of any other pai r Of steps
wi ll then be tangent to thi s arc .

I f the angle whi ch the belt makes w i th the l i ne

of centers de e x ceeds 1 8 degrees however a
, , , ,

slight modificati on Of the above i s made as follows :

D raw a l i n e ta n gen t to the arc at c at an angle
of 1 8 degrees wi th de ; an d wi th a center on a b a t ,

F I G 1 80 — M e t
. h od o f L a y i n g ou t Con e Pu ll e y s .

a di stance from a equal to the length C multi pl i e d

by dra w an arc tangen t to thi s 1 8 -degree
li n e.

Al l belt l i nes whi ch make an angle w i th de

greater than 1 8 degrees are made tangent to th i s
n e w arc .

The si zes of the steps SO Obtai ned may be veri fied

by measuri ng the belt lengths of each pai r F or .

thi s purpose a fine wi re may be used the w i re ,

bei ng held i n place by pi ns placed at close i nterval s

on the outer half ci rcumference of each pulley of
the pai r .
244 SEL F -T A U G H T ME C H A N I CA L DR AW I N G

i n the cast i ron A tapped hole i n cast i ron i s to

.

be avoi ded i f possi ble as on account of the bri ttle

, , ,

nature Of the materi al the threads are l i able to

,

crumble or wear away easi ly .

I n many cases however i t i s not practi cable to

, ,

avoi d tappi ng holes i n cast i ron or questi on s of ,

appearan ce may make the broad flange wh i ch i s

necessary when through bolts are used u n desi rable , .

I n such cases studs Should be used A stud con si sts .

O f a pi ece of round stock threaded on both en ds ,

and hav i n g a plai n porti on

i n the mi ddle The studs .

are screwed firm ly i n to the

tapped hol es w hi ch should ,

be deep en ough to p revent

the studs from bottomi ng
i n the m the studs i n stead ,

bi ndi ng or comi ng to a
beari n g at the en d Of the
threaded p o r t i o n The .

F I G 1 8 3 — C a p Sc re w u s e d
. .
loose pi ece i s then p ut on
f or Cl a m p i n g Pu rp os e s O V e I the studs an d i s held
.
‘

,
.

i n place by the nuts B y .

usi n g studs any further wear O f the ta pp ed h ole

,

i s avoi ded as w he n remov i ng the loose part the

, , ,

nuts o n ly are taken O ff the studs bei ng left i n,

the body pi ece .

When the materi al of the parts whi ch are bei ng

clam ped together i s of such a nature that threads
formed i n i t are not l iable to crumble o r to rapi d
wear , then cap screws Fi g 1 83 may be used to , .
,

advantage . They gi ve a neat appearan ce to a

pi ece Of work an d th e nut i s enti rely el imi nated
, .
 BO L T S , STU D S AN D SCR EW S 24 5

U ni t ed Sta t es Thre a d The St andard Scre w —

m ost commonly used Of all screw threads i s the

U n i ted States stan dard thread A secti on i n di ca t .
,

i ng the form Of th i s thread i s shown i n Fig 1 8 4 , . .

The thread i s not sharp nei ther at the top nor at

the bottom b u t i s provi ded wi th a flat at both of
,

these poi n ts the w i dth O f the flat bei ng on e -eighth

,

of the p i tch O f the thread T h e si des of the thread .

F I G 1 84 — . F orm of th e U ni te d St a t e s St an d a r d Th re a d .

form a n a n gle of 6 0 degrees w i th each other The .

“
pi tch an d the n u m ber of threads per i nch
” ”

shoul d n ot be con fused The pi tch i s the di stance .

from the top of on e thre a d to the top of the next .

I f the number Of threads i s 8 per i n ch then the ,

pi tch would be 3 i n ch ; an d the flat on the t op Of ,

a U n i ted States standard thread whi ch as men , ,

t i on e d i s on e -eighth Of the pi tch would be 1 -64

, ,

i n ch I f the number Of threads per i n ch i s know n

.
,

the pi tch may be fou n d by di v i di ng 1 by the num

ber Of threads per i nch or ,

1
Pl t Ch
NO . of threads per i n ch .

If agai n the pi tch i s known an d the number Of

’

, ,

threads per i nch requi red then ,

N O Of threads per i nch

.
24 6 SE L F -T AUG H T ME C H A N I CA L DRA W I N G

U . S . T AN D A R D
S SCR EW T H R E AD S .

S TH A S HX
E NU T S AN D
B O LT AN D RE D
H A
E DS .

4 20 4
5
4 4 18 0 2 40 0 0 074 0 07 7
4 16 0 29 4 0 0 07 8 44
44 14 0 34 4 0 008 9 44
3 13 0 4 00 0 0 096 0 106 4
9 12
44 414
4 11 0 50 7 0 0 1 13 0 2 12 14 4 1
4 10 0 6 20 0 0 1 25 14 1
4 9 0 731 0 0 1 38 0 42 1 1 474 1
1 8 0 8 37 0 0 156 0 785 14 1
14 7 0 9 40 0 0 1 78 0 9 04 1 44 1
14 7 1
13 6 2 3
0
2
14 6 1 2 34 0 0 2 08 24 2
14 5 4 1 3 39 0 0 22 7 2 0 74 1 5 15 2 514 2
12 5 1 4 91 0 0 250 2 4 05 6 24 2
14 5 1 0 16 0 0 250 2 761 2 05 1 24 24
1
2 3 4 34 4
24 4 4 1 0 62 0 0 2 77 34
24 4 2 1 76 0 0 312 3 4 3 44
24 4 2 426 0 0 312 4 4 4 44
3 3 4 2 629 0 0 35 7 4 4 44 4 9

34 3 42 8 79 0 0 35 7 4 44
34 3 4 3 1 00 0 0 38 4 5 4 54 4 5

34 .
3 5 4 5 44
1
4 3 64 64 4
44 2 4 3 7 98 0 0 4 3 5 1 4 1 8 6 1 1 32 ; 64
44 2 44 0 28 0 0 4 54 1 5 0 04 1 2 7 5 3 6 4 6 44
44 74
5 74
54 7 44
54 24 84
54 8 4 8 44
1
6 9 4 94 4
24 8 SEL F - TA U G H T ME C H AN I CA L D R AWI NG
CAP SCR EW SI Z ES .

( F r om ca ta l og o f B os ton B ol t Co .
)

Si z e Of Sc r e w 1 3
5
4 5
“ “
9
T6
“
5
3

W i dt h A c r oss Fl a t s 7 1
He x H e a d
1
_ _9_ 3 44
T6 2 1 6 I 1 6 8

W i dt h A c r oss Fl a t s 44
Squ a r e H e a d
4
8 1 ° 4

—
Ch e c k or L oc k Nu t s When a bolt i s subj ected
to constan t vi brati ons there i s a tenden c y for the
nut to work loo s e To overcome thi s te n den c y i t
.

i s customary to emplo y a secon d nut called a check ,

or lock nut whi ch i s screwed down upon the first

,

on e as shown i n F i g 1 85 When the fi rst nut i s

. .

screwed down to a bear

i ng the upp er surfaces of ,

i ts thread are i n contact

wi th the un der surfaces
of the b olt thread When .

the check nut i s screwed

down however i t forces , ,

the first nut down so that

F I G 1 85
.
—Cor r e c t Ar r a n g e
.
the un der surfaces O f i ts
m e n t wh e n U s i n g C h e ck thread come i n to contact
or Lo c k N ut . wi th the upper thread sur
faces of the bolt Thi s .

means that the check nut has to bear the enti re load .

When therefore the two nuts are of unequal

, ,

thi ckness as i s frequen tl y the case the thi c k

, ,

nut should be on the outsi de

B ol t s t o Wi t hs t and Shoc k — When a bolt whi ch
.

i s subj e c ted to shocks fai ls i t breaks of course , , ,

 B O LT S, S T UD S AND SCR E WS 249
’

at the part havi ng the least cross secti onal area ,

that i s at the bottom of the thread I f now the

, .

bod y of the bolt be redu c ed so that i ts cross secti on

i s o f the same area as the area at the bottom of
the thread a sl ight element of elasti ci ty i s i ntro
,

du c e d an d the bolt i s li kel y to y i eld somewhat

,

i n stead of break i ng Thi s i s consi dered very i m

.

portant i n some classes of work The reducti on of .

area m a y be accompli shed b y turn i ng down the

bod y of the bolt or accordi ng to some authori ti es
, , ,

the same obj ect i s attai ned b y removi ng stock from

the i nsi de b y dri lli ng i nto the bolt from the head
en d.

E i ther metho d i t i s stated gi ves the same degree

-
,

of elasti ci t y t o the bolt but as the dri ll ing method ,

takes the stock from the cen ter the bolt i s left ,

sti ff er to resi st b e n di n g or twi sti ng than when the

stock i s taken off the outsi de b y turn i ng .

W ren ch Ac t io n When bolts or a n y form of

—

screws are used to hol d machi ne parts together ,

the y must be strong enough n ot onl y to wi thstand

the strai n whi ch i s put upon them b y the operati on
of the machi ne but also to wi thstan d the strai n
,

wh i ch i s put upon them b y the wren ch i n setti ng

or screwi ng t h em up I n the case of a c y lin der
.

head for i nstan ce the strai n upon the bolts due to

, ,

the work i ng of the engi ne wi ll be the exposed area

of the head multi pl i ed b y the pressure per square
,

i n ch . Thi s di vi ded b y the number of bolts used

wi ll gi ve the proporti onal part of thi s strai n whi ch
each bolt must sustai n B ut i n order to i nsure a
.

tight j oi n t i t i s n ecessary that the bolts be not

,

merel y brought up t o a beari ng but that the y b e ,

 SE L F -T AU GHT ME CH AN I CA L DR AW I NG
'

25 0

set up hard enough s o as t o press the c y l i nder an d

’

c y l i nder head surfaces firml y together The force .

whi ch the wrench exerts i n doi ng thi s work wi ll

be e q ual to the ci rcumference of the ci rcle through
wh i ch the hand moves i n turn i ng the wren ch
through on e r e volut i on multi pl i ed b y the force i n
’

pounds exerted at the han dle an d thi s product ,

di vi ded b y the di stan ce through whi ch the nut

advances i n on e revoluti on that i s b y the lead of
’

, ,

the screw T hi s theoreti cal result i s of c ourse

. , ,

modified b y the fri cti on between the nut an d the

bolt an d between the nut and washer I n addi ti on
,
.

to thi s di rect strai n there i s also a twi sti ng strai n

,

i n the bolt caused b y the fri cti on between the bolt

,

an d nut .

To i nsure the bolts bei ng suffici entl y strong to

resi st these vari ous forces i t i s customary to make ,

them somewhat more than double the strength

that would be necessary to enable them to safel y
resi st the pressure of the steam or other flui d i n
the c y l i nder ; that i s the y are made about double
,

strength to enable them to resi st the di rect strai n

of the wren ch acti on an d then thi s amoun t i s i n
,

creased about 1 5 or 20 per cent t o allow for the .

twi sti ng acti on of the wren ch Allowi ng that a .

factor of safety of 4 woul d be suffici en t to allow

for the steam pressure onl y a fact or of safet y of ,

n ot less than about 9 or 1 0 woul d therefore be used

to provi de for the added strai n on the bolt due to

the wrench acti on I n t h e case of small bolts
.
,

where the workman mi ght set them up much harder

than i s reall y necessar y a fa c tor of safet y of about
,

1 5 ma y be used .
25 2 SE L F -T A U G HT ME CH AN I CA L DR AWI NG
—
F i g 1 87 i s In
Sc r ew s for P o w er Tr an smi ssion . .

shown a square threaded screw such as i s generall y

used for power tran smi ssi on I n such a screw the
.

depth of the thread i s made o e half of the pi tch

n - .

The si ze of the bod y of the screw assumi ng that ,

the work whi ch the s c r e w i s doi ng bri ngs a ten

s i on a l stress on the screw wi ll be determi ned b y
,

the tensi le strength of the materi al of wh i ch i t i s

made an d the factor of safet y whi ch i s used As .

a screw whi ch i s used for power transmi ss i on i s

subj ected to constan t wear when i n use the ques ,

ti on of t h eproper amoun t of beari ng surface i n the

threads of the nut i s of first i mportan ce i n order ,

that i t m a y n ot wear out too rapi dl y The area of .

the thread surface i n the nut on whi ch the pressure

bears wi ll be equal to the diff eren ce i n area of a
ci rcle of a diameter equal to the outs i de di ameter
of the screw an d on e of a diameter equal to the
,

diameter at the root of the thread of the screw ,

multi pl i ed b y the number of threads ; or letti ng D ,

represent the outsi de di ameter of the screw an d d ,

represent the di ameter of the bod y the area w i ll be :

,
2 ?
(D d ) X X N o of threads i n the nut
. .

The allowable pressure per square i n ch of work i ng

surface w i ll va ry wi th t h e nature of the serv i ce
requi red whether fast or slow an d also wi th the
, ,

lubri cati on an d wi th the materi al used Where

, .

the spe e d i s slow s a y not over 50 feet per mi nute

, ,

an d the serv i ce i s i nfrequent as i n l i fti ng screws

, ,

a pressure of 25 00 pounds for i ron or 3000 poun d s

f or steel i s allowable whi le for more constan t
,

servi ce some authori ti es l i mi t the pressure to

about 1 000 pounds per square i n ch even when the
 B O LT S, S T UD S AND SCR EW S 25 3

lubri cati on i s good F or h igh speeds a pressure of

.

about 20 0 or 25 0 pounds i s con si dered to be as

much as shoul d be allowed .

F or a screw whi ch fitti ng loosel y i n a w e l l l ub r i

,

c a t e d nut i s to sustai n a load wi thout danger of

,

runn i ng down of i tself the pi tch of the screw ,

shoul d not accordi ng to P rofessor Smi th be greater

, ,

than about on e -tenth of i ts ci rcumferen ce .

E ffi cien c y O f Screw s — A square -threaded screw

has a greater effici enc y than a V threaded on e as
-
,

the slopi ng i des of the V thread cause an i ncrease

S -

O f fri cti on Square threads are therefore preferable

.

for power tran smi ssi on E xperiments Show that .

i n the case O f bolts used for fasten i ngs the fri ction ,

O f the nut on the bolt an d washer m a y absorb 90

‘

per cen t of the power appl i ed to the wrench

.
,

leav i ng onl y 1 0 per cen t for produci ng di rect com

.
[

pressi on F or square -threaded screws an e ffici en c y

.

O f about 5 0 per cen t i s consi dered fai r i f the

.
,

s c rews are well lubri cated .

—
A cme St a ndard Thread Wh i le the square thread
gi ves the greatest effici en c y i n a screw i t i s not as
strong as on e havi ng slopi ng si des F i g 1 8 8 shows . .

a secti on of a screw thread called the Acme or 29

degree thread whi ch i s O ften used f or replaci ng
,

the square thread for man y purposes such as i n ,

screws f or screw presses valve stems an d the , ,

l i ke The use of such a screw permi ts the emplo y

.

ment of a spl i t nut when such constructi on i s

,

des i rable wh i ch w ould n ot be practi c able wi th a

,

perfectl y square thread an d for thi s reason as , ,

well as for the reason that i t can be cut wi th

greater ease than the square thread i t has of late ,
25 4 SE L F -T A U GHT ME C H A N I CA L DR A W I NG
become wi del y used I n the Acme stan dard thread
.

s y stem the threads on the screw an d i n the nut are

n ot exa c tl y al i ke A clearan ce of
. i n ch i s
provi ded at the top an d at the bottom O f the thread ,

so that i f the screw i s 1 i n ch i n di ameter for ,

examp l e then the largest diameter of the thread

,

i n the nut would be i n ch I f the root di am .

eter of the same screw were i n ch then ,

the smallest di ameter of the thread i n the nut

would be i n ch The si des of the threads
. ,

however fit perfectl y
,

The depth of an Acme thread equals on e half the-

pi tch of the thread plus i n ch The Wi dth .

FIG . 1 88 .
-
Sh a p e of A c m e Sc r e w Thr e ad .

of the flat at the t op of the screw thread equals

times the pi tch ; an d the w i dth of the flat
at the bottom of the thread equals ti mes the
pi tch mi nus i nch .

Mi scellaneou s Scre w Thread Sy s t e m s B esi des

—

the screw thread s y stems alread y menti oned a ,

great man y oth er s y stems are i n more or less

common use L eadi ng among these i s the sharp
.

V_ -thread wh i ch previ ous to the i ntroducti on of the

, ,

U n i ted States standard thread was the most com ; ,

m on l y used thread i n thi s countr y Th i s thread .

i s theoreti c all y at least sharp at both the top an d

, ,

the bottom of the thread the angle between the ,

2 56 SE L F -T A U G HT ME CH AN I CA L DR AW I NG
ard Whi ch i s the older of the t w o i s to be foun d
, ,

i n the fact that i t i s more difficult to produce than

a 60-degree thread wi th flat top an d bottom Th e .

Whi tworth form of thread i s used i n thi s country

mostl y on special work an d on sta y bolts f or loco
-

moti ve boi lers .

A thread perhaps more commonl y used than a n y

of the others wi th the excepti on of the U n i ted
,

States standard thread i s the B ri ggs stan dard ,

pi pe thread whi ch i s used as the name i n di cates

, , ,

for pi pe fitti ng s Thi s thr ead i s simi lar to the .

sharp V-thread havi ng an angle of 6 0 degrees ,

between the Si des an d nearl y sharp top an d bottom ; ,

i n stead of bei ng exactl y sharp at the top an d bot

t om however i t i s sl i ghtl y rounded off at these
, ,

poi nts The di ffi culty of produci ng these sli ghtl y

.

roun ded surfaces has brought about a modificati on ,

at least i n the U n i ted States so that a small flat i s ,

made at the top an d the thread made to a sharp ,

poi nt at the bottom I t appears that a thread cut .

wi th these modificati on s serves i ts purpose equall y

as well as a thread cut a cc ordi ng to the ori gi nal
thread form .

B esi des these s y stems there are the metri c screw ,

thread s y stems These use the same form of thread

'

as the U n i ted States stan dard s y stem but t h e ,

thread di ameters an d the correspondi ng pi tches

are of course made accordi ng to the metri c s y stem
, ,

O f measurement .

Ot her Commerci a l F orm s of Scr e w s —

S s c rews
e t - .
,

shown i n F i g 1 89 are usuall y made wi th square

.
,
~

heads an d have ei ther roun d or cup -Shaped poi nts

, ,

an d are generall y c a s e hardened The y are use d .

 B O LT S, ST UD S AN D SCREW S 257

for such work as f asten i ng pulle y s onto shafts ,

etc Some set screws are made headless an d are

.
-
,

Slotted for use w i th a screw dri ver i n places where -

i t i s un desi rable that the

'

screw proj ect s be y on d the

work .

T he term machi ne screws

covers a number of sty les of
small screws made f or use
—
w i th a screw dri ver F i g .

1 9 0 Shows the pri n ci pal st y les

Machi n e screw si zes are usu F I G 1 8 9 — Fo r ms o f .

all y desi gnated b y numbers Se t s c r e ws ,

-
.

the si ze an d the number of

threads per i n ch bei ng usuall y gi ven together wi th ,
“ ” —
a dash between ; thus a 1 0 24 screw would be a
number 1 0 screw w i th 24 threads pe r i nch There .

ar e two standard s y stems for mach i ne s c rew

FIG . 1 90 — Fo r ms of Ma c h i n e Sc r e ws .

threads the O l d wh i ch unti l recen tl y was the onl y

, ,

s y stem an d the n ew w h i ch was approved i n 1 908

, ,

b y the Ameri c a n Soci ety of Mechan i cal E ngi neers .

The standard thread form of the old s y stem was

the sharp V-thread wi th a l i beral but arbi trari l y
,
258 SE L F T A U GHT ME CH A N I CA L DR AW I N G
-

selected flat on the top Th e basi cthread form

.

O f the n ew s y stem i s that O f the U n i ted States

stan dard thread .

The accompanyi ng tables gi ve the numbers an d

corr e s p on di ng diameters an d num ber O f threads
per i nch of the O l d as well as the n e w s y stem for
machi ne screw threads .

MA C H I N E SC R E W TH R E A D S O LD SY ST E M
,
.

N umb e r .

MA C H I N E SC R E W TH R E A D S N E W SY ST E M
, .

u
N mbe r . D i am e t e r .
260 SE L F -T A U G HT ME CH A N I CA L D R AW I NG
prov i ded wi th a guard b y havi ng the ri m on the
outer edge of the flange made deep as shown b y
the dotted l i nes on on e si de Thi s con structi on
.

also allows the c oupl i ng to be used as a pulle y i f ,

necessary I n a coupl i ng of th i s k i n d the ch i ef

. ,

problem i s to get the bolts of such Si ze that thei r

combi ned strength to resi st the Sheari ng acti on
to wh i c h the y are subj ected equals the twi sti ng

FI G . 1 91 —
. F 1an ge Cou p l i n g .

strength of the Shaft L etti ng d represen t the

.

diameter of the Shaft i n i n ches i ts i nternal resi st

,

an c e to twi sti ng i s gi ven by the formula

3
d S

i n whi c h T equals the i nternal re s i stan ce to twi st

i ng or the twi sting momen t an d S the Sheari ng
, ,

strength per square i n ch of area i n poun ds .

Regardi ng the Sheari ng strength of mater i als

Kent say s The ultimate torsi onal Sheari ng r e
s i s ta n c e i s about the same as the di rect Shearing

resi stance an d m a y be taken at

, to
poun ds per squ a re i n c h for c ast i ron poun ds ,
 C O UP L ING S AN D C L U T C HE S 26 1

for wrought i ron an d 5 0 000 to

, ,
poun ds for
steel according to i ts carbon an d temper .
”

The torsi onal an d di rect sheari ng resi stan ce being

the same th i s quanti ty m a y be neglected i f the
,

Shaft an d coupl i ng bolts are of the same material ,

an d
3
d

the i n ternal resi stance fac tor or torsion modulus

of the shaft shoul d be equal to the product of the
,

radi us O f the bolt ci rcle of the coupli ng the number ,

O f bolts used an d the area of each bolt

, O r letti ng .
,

a represen t the area O f each bolt R the radi us of ,

the bolt ci rcle of the coupl i ng an d n the nu mber ,

of bolts used we woul d have :

,

( R X

—
E xa mp le R equi red the si ze of the b olts for a
flange coupli ng f or a 2 i n ch Shaft The radi us of
- .

the bol t ci rcle i s 3 i n ches four bolts bei ng used

,
.

U s i ng the notati on i n the formula g i ven our ,

known values are :

d 2 i nches ,

R 3 i nches ,

71 4 bolts
, .

I f we i nsert these values i n the formula we have :

8
(3 X 4) square i n c hes .

Thi s area c orrespon ds to a di ameter of about 7

1 3

of an i n ch To allow f or the strai n on the bolt

.

caused b y the a c ti on O I the wren c h the next si z e ,

26 2 SE L F T A U GHT ME C H A N I CA L DR AW I N G
-

larger bolt at least or a

,
i n c h bolt w i ll be se
, ,

le ct e d
. The capaci ty of the bolt to re s i st Shear
ing wi ll be con si derabl y i n creased b y havi ng the
corners of the holes at those faces O f the flanges
whi ch com e together somewhat roun ded I f thi s , .

i s n ot done the acti on of the flanges on the bolts

,

wi ll be li ke that of a pai r of sha rp shears E x p e r i .

ments have shown that wi th the corners roun ded ,

the capaci t y of the bolt to resi st sheari ng ma y be

i n c reased 1 2 per cent .

I f the shaft and bolts are of diff erent materi als

then the modulus
d

shoul d be mul ti pl i ed b y the sheari ng strength O f

the shaft i n pounds p e r square i n c h an d the product

FI G . 1 92 .
-
C l am p C ou p l i n g .

R X hould be mult i pl i ed b y the sheari ng strength

n S

of the bolts per square i nch before di vi di ng i n ,

the formula to get the bolt area .

I n F i g 1 92 i s shown another form of coupl i ng

.

much used I t consi sts o f two parts bolted together

.

over the j oi n t i n the shafti ng a k e y an d ke y wa y ,

be i ng provi ded to preven t the Sl i ppi ng O f the shafts .

26 4 SE L F -T A U G HT ME C H AN I CA L DR AW I N G

enteri ng i nto an d bei ng ke y ed i n a Sleeve SO as

to preven t i n dependen t rotat i on but y e t permi t ,

a sl i di ng acti on then the two Shafts,

A an d C m a y
move i ndepen dentl y O f each other wi thi n certa i n
l i mi ts the di stance between thei r ends bei ng
,

c apable of vari ati on The arrangemen t Shown i n .

F i g 1 94 i s used on vari ous machi ne tools notabl y

. ,

on mi lli ng machi nes flange dri lli ng machi nes et c

, , .

Man y desi gns of flexi ble shafts are reall y onl y a

c ombi nati on of a great number of un i versal j oi nts .

F IG . 1 94 .
—A l
pp i c a t i o n of U n i ve r s a l J oi nt s an d T e l e s co pi n g
Sh a f t .

When thi s coupl i ng i s employ ed for dri vi ng onl y

on e shaft at an angle wi th another as i f shaft ,

A Simpl y drove sh a ft B whi ch O f course i s the , ,

fun damental t y pe of un i versal coupl i ng then i f , ,

th e dri vi ng shaft has a un i for mmoti on the dri ve n ,

shaft wi ll have a vari able moti on an d so cannot b e ,

used i n such cases where uni formi ty of moti on of

the dri ven Shaft i s necessar y ; but where there are
three shafts as Shown i n the i llustrati on A wi ll
, ,

impart a un i form moti on to C p rovi ded the axes of

A an d C are parallel wi th each other as Shown ; f or ,

i f A hav i ng a regular mot i on i mparts an i rregula r

, ,
 C O UP L IN G S AN D C L U T C HE S 26 5

moti on to B then i f B wi th i ts i rregular moti on

, , ,

i s made the dri ver i t wi ll i mpart a regular moti on

,

to A an d as C i s parallel wi th A i t wi ll also impart

,

a regular moti on to C .

Thi s form of coupli ng does not work very well

i f the angle a i s more than 4 5 degrees .

Cl u t che s are O f two general classes toothed ,

clutches a n d fri cti on clutches An example of a .

toothed clutch i s shown i n Fi g 1 95 I n thi s clutch . .

the part at the left i s fastened to i ts shaft ; the

part at the right i s free to sli de ba c k an d forth upon

FIG . 1 95 .
—
A s i m p l e Fo r m Of T oo t h e d Clu t c h .

i ts shaft but i s preven ted from turn i ng on the

,

shaft b y a k e y The sli di ng moti on f or engagi ng

.

or di sengagi ng thi s part of the clutch i s a e com

p li s h e d b y mean s of the forked lever and j oi nted

ri ng shown at the right whi ch latter engages i n
, ,

the groove A Such a clutch whi le gi vi ng a p os

.
,

i t i ve dri ve can not of course be thrown i n or out

, , ,

whi le the dri vi ng shaft i s runn i ng at a high rate

O f Speed . B y havi ng the back faces of the teeth
bevel e d O ff as Shown b y the dotted li nes thi s di ffi ,

c ul t y i s pa r tl y overcome although the shock caused

,

b y the sudden engagi ng of the teeth st i ll renders

2 66 SE L F T A U GHT
- ME C HANICA L D R A W IN G

the clutch unsui table for operati ng at very h i gh

speed To faci li tate uncoupli ng the dri vi ng fa c es
. ,

ma y also be gi ven an angle of about 1 0 or 1 2

degrees .

Fri c t io n Clut c h e s are generall y made i n on e O f

the two sty les shown i n F i gs 1 96 and 1 97 The . .

power whi ch a clutch of the t y pe Shown i n F i g 1 96 .

wi ll transmi t depen ds upon the powe r whi ch i s a p

,

p l i ed to force the sli di ng part agai nst the fixed part ,

FIG . 1 96 — F ri cti on Di s k C lu t ch .

an d the effici enc y of the fri cti onal force between

the rubbing surfaces As to the effici en c y of the
.

clutch therefore much depen ds upon the nature of

, ,

the engagi ng surfaces whether metal comes i n ,

contact wi th metal or whether on e of the surfaces

,

has a faci ng of leather or wood The e ffi ci en c y i s .

,

of course much i n creased b y ei ther a leather or

,

wood facing P r ofessor Smi th gi ves the e ffi ci en c y

.

of these diff eren t surfaces as follows : Cast i ron on

cast i ron 1 0 to 1 5 per cen t ; cast i ron on leather

, .
,
26 8 SE L F T A U GHT
- ME C HANICA L D R AW I N G

The values to be i n serted i n the formul a wh i ch ,

ar e gi ven i n th i s problem are as follows : ,

18
foot ,
12
n 250 revoluti ons ,

P 5 0 pounds ,

f
I nserting these values i n the formula we have :
X X 25 0 X 50 X

The formula gi ven m a y be transposed i n vari ous

wa y s accordi ng to the requi rements of the problem ;
i f f or i nstan ce i t i s desi red to know what pressure
, ,

must be appli ed to tran smi t a g i ve n horse power

-
,

then :
HP . . X
D ( i n feet ) x X n X f .

I f th epressure i s known an d i t i s requi red to ,

fin d What di ameter the clutch must be made to

transmi t a gi ven power then : ,

3 1 41 6 X
. n X P X f .

If the pressure an d diameter are both known ,

then the number O f revoluti on s whi ch the clutch

must make per mi nute to tran smi t a gi ven horse
power wi ll be :

D ( i n feet ) X P X f .

I t m a y be sai d that the capaci t y of the clutch

to transmi t power i s i ndepen den t of the area of the
 C O UP L IN G S AND C L U T C HE S 26 9

fr i c t i o n surfa c es ; f or i f the fr i c t i on surfa c e i s

,

i n creased the pressure whi ch i s appli ed to for c e

t h e two parts O f the clutch together i s Simpl y di s
tr i buted over a mu c h greater area gi v i ng a s maller ,

pressure per square i n ch The durabi l i ty would be

.

i n c reased b ut the horse power c apa c i ty would r e

,
-

ma i n un ch a nged .

The c on i c al clut c h shown i n F i g 1 97 ma y be .

ma d e to run metal to m etal or the hollow part ma y ,

FIG . 1 97 . F r i c t i o n C o n e C lu t c h
-
.

b e ma de larger to allow of
the i nserti on of wooden
b lo c ks Thi s woul d i n crease the effici en c y but at
.
,

the expense of the durabi li t y The p r i nci ple of .

th i s form O f c lut c h ma y be explai ned b y referri ng

t o the diagrammati c al Sket c h at the r i ght of F ig .

1 97 Where the angle ACB represents the angle

,

wh i ch the opposi te Si des O f the clutch make wi th

ea c h other the li ne D C representi ng the a x i s O f
,

the shaft I f n ow l i ne bd of the small triangle

.

a bd b e c o nsi d e re d as re presen t i n g the ma g n i t ude

2 70 SE L F -T A U GHT ME C HANICA L DR AWING

of th eforce acti ng i n the di re c ti on of t h e a xi s

‘

fl
of the shaft to force the t w o parts of the clut c h

together then i f a b i s at ri ght angles to AC a b

, ,

wi ll represent the resultant magn i tude O f the force

acti ng on the face of the clutch at right angles to
i ts surface a cc ordi ng to the pri n ci ples explai ned
,

i n the chapter on the elements of me ch a n l c s The .

e ffici enc y of the clutch wi ll therefore be as mu c h

greater than that of a a t faced clutch as a b i s -

greater than Oct T he horse -power of such a

.

clutch usi ng the same notati on as before would

, , ,

therefore be ,

D ( i n feet ) x n XP ab

bd .

B ut
from the chapter on the soluti on of triangles
we know that

S i ne O f an g le ba d .

Hence
ab 1
bd si n ba d .

B ut a n gle ba d equals angle a: the angl e wh i ch

the con i cal surface of the clutch makes wi th the
axi s of the shaft .

Therefore
ab 1
bd S i n a:

and our ori gi nal formula takes the form :

D fi fi feet
n — ) _ v u a
X n X P X t
X s i n 93 .
 CHAP T E R X V I I

SHA FTS ,
B E LT S AN D PU LL E Y S
—
Shaft s The twi sti ng strength of a shaft as
”

stated i n the precedi ng chapter i s gi ven b y the ,

formula

whi ch T twi sti ng moment or for c e whi ch

,

acti ng at a di stan ce of on e i n ch
from the center of the Shaft would
produce i n i t a torsi onal Sheari ng
stress of S poun ds per square i n ch ,

di a meter of Shaft i n i n ches ,

torsi onal sheari ng stress i n poun ds

per square i nch .

E xpressi ng thi s formula i n words we ma y s a y

that the cube of the diameter i n i nches multi pli ed
b y the torsi onal She a ri ng stress an d thi s product
,

di vi ded b y gi ves the force whi ch acti ng at a

di stance of on e i nch from the center of the shaft
woul d produce i n i t the gi ven torsi onal Sheari ng
stress.

T h e twi sti ng moment T equals therefore the , ,

force F acti ng at a di stance of on e i n ch from

the center of the Shaft ti mes 1 ; i t also equals a n y
,

oth e r force F exerti ng a twi sti ng acti on on t h e

272
 SHA F TS ,
B E LT S AN D PU LL E Y S 27 8

Shaft multi pli ed b y i ts di stan ce from th e center of

the shaft The formula gi ven can hen c e be wri tten
.

—
T F X r

in wh i ch F a n y force acti ng at a di stan c e r from

the cen ter of the shaft .

Tran sposi ng thi s formula to obtai n the di s tance

from the cen ter ( r ) at whi ch a gi ven force would
have to act to set up a torsi onal Sheari ng stress S
i n the Shaft we woul d have :
,

The force whi ch would be necessary to set up

a stress S i n the shaft when acti ng at a gi ven
di stan ce would be :

The di ameter of Shaft to resi st a g i ven force

a c ti ng at a gi ven di stan ce would be :

The torsi onal sheari ng strength of ordi nar y

shafti ng i s about pounds to the square i n ch ,

an d of steel shafti ng from about to

poun ds accordi ng t o i ts quali ty ; these figures
,

shoul d be di v i ded b y five or si x to gi ve a safe

work i ng stress .

The above formulas however are based on the

, ,

assumpti on that the force acti ng i s of a purel y

27 4 SE L F -T A U G HT ME C HANICA L D R A W IN G

twi sti ng nature as i f a han d -wheel were put onto

,

the en d of the Shaft an d the ten den c y t o ben d the

,

shaft caused b y the pull Of on e han d were c ounter

, ,

acted b y the push O f the other han d I n the c as e .

o f a Shaft actuated b y a rocker arm as someti mes ,

occurs i n machi nes the tendenc y to bend the shaft

,

caused b y the push on the arm could be provi ded

f or b y usi ng a somewhat hi gher fa c tor of safet y .

I f the arm were placed at some di stan ce from the

beari ng however the ten den c y to ben d the shaft
, ,

mi ght be greater than the twi sti ng e ff e c t .

The methods of calculati ng the s i ze of shafts f or

transmi tti ng a gi ven power so as to take i n to ,

account both the twi sti ng an d ben di ng e ff e c ts pro

du c e d b y the pull O f the belt are qu i te compl i c ated ,

an d the begi nner wi ll ordi nari l y find i t best to use

some of the empi ri cal formulas f or that purpose
whi ch are i nten ded to take i nto a cc ount both of
these eff ects .

The followi ng rules b y Thurston are consi dered

to aff ord ample margi n for strength f or shafts
whi ch are well supported agai n st spri ngi ng :
To fi n d th e di a me ter of a c old r ol l e d i r on s h af t to
’

tr a n s mi t a gi ven h or s e-p ow er , mu l ti p ly th e h or s e
p ow er to be tr a n s mi tte d by 75 , a n d di vi de th e p r odu c t
by th e n um ber of r evolu ti on s p er mi n u te th a t th e
sha ft is to m a k e Th e cu be r oot of th i s qu oti en t w i l l
.

be th e di a m e ter of th e s h af t .

If the Shaft i s to be of turned i ron pro c eed as ,

above except that the horse -power to be tran s

,

m i t t e d i s to be multi pl i ed b y 1 25 i nstead of 7 5 .

“
Thi s rule i s for head Shafts supported b y be a r ,
27 6 SE L F -T A U G HT ME C HANICA L D R A WIN G

i n wh i ch P pull on belt or push on gear teeth i n

poun ds ,

D diameter of pulle y or pi tch d i ameter

of gear i n i n ches ,

N nu mber of revoluti ons per mi nu te of

pulle y or gear .

Be lts — The theoreti cal horse power wh i ch a belt -

wi ll transmi t i s equal to the pull whi ch the belt

exerts i n pounds multi pli ed b y i ts veloci ty i n feet
,

per mi nute an d thi s product di vi ded b y

,

The questi on then ari ses as to what i s the allowable

stress to be put upon a belt .

A common rule of practi ce f or ordi nary belti ng

i s that for Si ngle thi ckness belts the horse power -

transmi tted equals the breadth of the belt i n i n c hes ,

multi pl i ed b y i ts veloci t y i n feet per mi nute thi s ,

product bei ng di vi ded b y Thi s rule assumes

a belt pull of 33 pounds per i nch of Wi dth Man y .

authori ti es however would allow a much hi gher

, ,

tensi on The higher the tensi on however the

.
, ,

narrower the belt for a gi ven horse -power an d ,

the greater the stret c h the more frequen t the

,

necessi ty f or relaci ng an d the shorter the l i fe of

,

the belt .

Allowi ng 33 pounds tensi on per i n c h i n wi dth for

the thi nnest commercial si ngle belt an d allowi ng ,

the ten si ons f or i ncreased thi cknesses gi ven b y a

large belt manufacturing concern woul d gi ve the ,

followi ng formulas for the tran smi ss i on c apa c i t i es

O f gi ven belts :
 SH A FTS , B E LT S AN D PU LL E Y S 27 7

Si n g l e be lt , 93 i nc h t h i ck HP
, . .
dh
B re a t ve lo c i t y .

1 000

Si n g l e be lt , i nc h t h i ck HP dh
B re a t ve lo c i t y .

, . .

8 00

L i g h t dou b l e , i nc h t h i c k HP dh
Bre a t ve lo c i t y .

, . .

7 33

H e avy dou b l e , 5 2
9
i nc h t h i c k HP
, . .

H e avy dou b l e {6 1
i nc h t h i ck HP dh
Bre a t ve lo ci t y .

, , . .

66 0

H e avy dou b l e h k HP dh
Bre a t ve l oc I t y
g i nch t ic
.

, , . .

55 0

H e avy dou b l e 1 —
3
i nc h t hi c k HP dh
B re a t ve lo c i t y .

, 3 2 , . .

5 00

In these formulas the breadth of the belt i s

understood to be i n i n ches an d i ts veloci ty i n feet ,

per mi nute the letters HP mean i ng horse power

,
- . . .

Tran sposi ng the above formulas to ascertai n the

breadth of belt requi red to transmi t a gi ven power ,

we woul d have :
h k HP X 1 00 0
Si n g l e be lt fig i n c h t ic B re a tdh . .

, ,
V e lo ci t y
H P X 800
Si n g l e be lt 1 i nch h
t i ck , B r e a t dh . .

V e lo c i t y
, 7

L i gh t 1 7
i n c h t h i ck , B r e a d t h
H P X 733
doub l e ,
. .

6 ;f
V e lo c i t y
h t hi ck dh H P X 68 7
H e avy dou b l e inc B re a t
. .
9
, 3? ,
V e lo c i t y
h t hi ck dh H P X 660
H e avy dou b l e i nc B re a t
. .
5
, T3 ,
V e lo c i t y
H e avy dou b l e i nc h t hi ck Bre a t dh H P x 5 50
. .
/

, ,
V e lo c i t y
H e avy dou b l e i nc h t hi ck Bre a t dh H P X 5 00
. .

, ,
V e lo ci t y
2 78 SE L F T A U G HT
- ME C HANICA L D R A W IN G

These formulas are all for la c ed b elts A belt .

made endless b y bei ng lapped an d c emente d or

ri veted i s consi dered to be nearl y 5 0 per cen t .

stronger than a laced belt an d i s thus capable of

,

transmi tti ng nearl y 5 0 per c ent more power ; or .

the breadth of an endless belt to transmi t a gi ven

power woul d not need t o be more than between
t w o thi rds to three quarters of the breadth of a
- -

laced belt Metal fasten i ngs are not con si dered to

.

make as strong a belt as laci ngs .

I f the foregoi ng formulas had been made on the

basi s of an allowable stress of 4 5 poun ds f or each
i nch i n wi dth of a si ngle belt a figure whi ch man y
,

c onsi der perfectl y safe for a belt i n good condi ti on ,

the y would have shown the belts as bei ng capable

of transmi tti ng on e -thi rd more power than at 33
poun ds stress per i nch ; to tran smi t a gi ven power
a belt would then need to be n ot more than three
quarters of the wi dth .

I t wi ll be seen from these formulas that the

power transmi tti ng capaci t y of a belt depen ds upon
i ts breadth ( a wi de belt allowi ng an i n creased
tensi on ) or on i ts veloci ty I n creasi ng the wi dth
.

O f the belt wi thout i n creasi ng the tensi on to c orre

s p on d would not gi ve a n y i ncrease of power tran s

mi tti ng capaci t y as the gi ven tensi on woul d s impl y

,

be di stri buted over so mu c h more pulle y surface ;

but a tight bel t mean s more si de strai n on Shaft
and j ournal Therefore accordi ng to G ri ffin from
.
, ,

the stan dpoi nt of effici en c y us e a n a r r ow be l t u n d er

,

l ow ten s i on a t a s h i g h a s p e e d a s p os s i bl e The de .

si red high speed i s of course secured b y si mpl y

, ,

putti ng on large pulle y s .

280 SE L F T A U G HT
- ME C HANICA L D R AW IN G

run of the belt should be made the worki ng part ,

SO that the sag of the upper run wi ll i ncrease the

arc of conta ct .

I n the locati on of shafts that are to be connected

wi th each Other b y belts care shoul d be taken to ,
°

secure them at a proper di stan c e from on e another .

I t i s not eas y to gi ve a defin i te rule what thi s di s

tance shoul d be Some authori ti es gi ve thi s rule :
.

L et the di stance between the shafts be ten ti mes the

diameter of the smaller pulle y ; but whi le thi s i s
correct for some c ases there are man y other c ases
,

i n whi ch i t i s not corre c t Ci rcumstances generall y

.

have much to do wi th the a rrangement ; an d the

engi neer or machi n i st must use hi s j udgment mak ,

i ng all thi ngs conform as far as ma y be to general

, ,

fl
pri nci ples The di stan ce should be such as to allo w
.

a gentle sag to the belt when i n moti on The P age .

B elti ng CO states that i f t oo great a di stan ce i s

.

attempted the weight of the belt wi ll produce a

,

very heav y sag drawing so hard upon the Shafts

,

as to produce c onsi derable fri cti on i n the beari ngs ,

whi le at the same time the belt wi ll have an un

stead y, a p p i n g moti on whi ch wi ll destro y both
,

the belt an d the machi nery .

A s belts i ncrease i n Wi dth the y should be made

thi cker I t i s advi sable to use double belts on
.

pulle y s 1 2 i nches i n di ameter an d larger I f thi n .

belts are used at very high speed or i f wi de belts ,

are thi n the y almost i nvariabl y run i n waves on

,
“ ”
the slack Si de or travel from Si de to si de of the
,

pulle y s especi all y i f the load c hanges suddenl y

, .

Thi s wavi ng an d snappi ng that occurs as the belts

strai ghten out wears the belts very fast an d
, ,
 SH A F TS , B E LT S AN D PU LL E Y S 281

frequentl y causes the spl i ces to part i n a very Short

ti me all of whi ch i s avoi ded b y the emplo y ment of
,

sui table thi ckness i n the belts The P age B elti ng .

Co states that dri v i ng pulle y s on whi ch are to be

.

run Shi fti ng belts should have a perfectl y flat sur

face Al l other pulle y s Shoul d have a convexi ty i n
.

the proporti on of about 7 3 O f an i nch to one foot

3

i n wi dth The pulle y s shoul d be a l i ttle Wi der than

.

the belt requi red f or the work .

P u lle y Si z e s — The si zes of pulle y s t o gi ve a r e

qu i red speed or the Speed wh i ch wi ll be O btai ned
,

w i th gi ven pulle y s m a y be readi l y foun d from the

fact that the prod u ct of the speed of the dri vi ng
shaft i n revoluti ons per mi nute an d the diameters
, ,

of all dri v i ng pulle y s on the mai n an d on counter ,

shafts multi pl i ed together w i ll b e equal to the

, ,

product of the di ameters Of all d ri ven pulle y s an d

the speed of the last dri ven Shaft i n revoluti ons ,

per m i nute multi pl i ed together ; so that i f the Si ze

,

O f on e dri ven pulle y for i nstan ce i s requi red i ts , , ,

Si ze m a y be foun d b y di v i di ng the product of the

speed of the dri v i ng shaft an d all dri vi ng pulle y s

multi pl i ed together b y the product of Speed of the
,

final dri ven shaft an d the diameters O f such dri ven

pulle y s as are gi ven multi pl i ed together The r e ,
.

sult wi ll b e th e requi red p ulle y si ze .

E xa mp le — A Shaft mak i ng 200 revoluti on s per

mi nute has mounted on i t a pulle y 1 8 i n ches i n
diameter whi ch belts onto a 6 -i n ch pulle y on a
countershaft The countershaft has moun ted on i t
.

a 2 0-i n c h pulle y whi ch belts to a pulle y on the

spi n dle O f a machi ne wh i ch i s t o make 3 000 r e vol u
t i on s per m i nute What Si ze pulle y wi ll be requ i re d
.

on the Spi n dle .

28 2 SE L F T A U GHT
- ME C H ANICA L D R A W IN G

P laci ng the speed of the dri v i ng shaft an d the ,

si z es O f all dri vi ng pulle y s on on e S i de of a verti cal

li ne for conven i ence sake an d the S i zes of al l
, ,

dri ven pulle y s an d the speed of the last dri ven

Shaft ( or spi ndle ) on the other si de an d letti ng 50 ,

represent the requi red si ze we would have :

Sp e e d of Sh a f t D r i ve n pull e y on c ou n
Pull e y on sh a ft te rs h af t .

D r i v i n g p ull e y o n u d s i e O f p ull e y
Re q i re z

c ou n t e sh a f t
r o n s p i n dl e .

3 0 00 Sp e e d of s p i n dl e .

2 00 X 1 8 X 20
6 X 3000

The diameter of the pulle y on the spi n dle would

therefore have to be 4 i n ches I f t hi s Si ze had .

been gi ven an d the speed O f the Spi n dle had been

,

requi red as might have been taken to represen t the

,

r e q u I r e d speed when the same process would have

,

gi ven the desi red i n formati on .

Tw i s t e d an d U nu sual Ca ses of B e l t i n g — It .

frequen tl y happen s that i n tran smi tti ng power , ,

condi ti ons presen t themselves i n whi ch ordi nary

straight belti ng ei ther open or crossed wi ll n ot
, ,

serve the purpose and recourse must be had to

,

some form of twi sted belti ng ei ther quarter turn ,

belti ng or belti ng gui ded b y i dl e r p ul l e y s I n the o

.

following are gi ven some of the pri n c i pal con

d i t i on s .

F i g 1 98 shows a quarter turn belt

.
, b y wh i ch
power can be transmi tted from on e shaft to another
at ri ght angles to i t The con di ti on n ecessar y for
.
28 4 SE L F -T A U G HT ME C HANICA L D R A W IN G

nati on of both the plan an d elevati on v i ews w i ll

make thi s clear .

Wh i le thi s i s the simplest arrangemen t for th i s

purpose i t has several drawbacks The e dgewi se
,
.

stress on the belt as i t i s leav i ng ei ther pulle y i s

very severe on the belt I t also causes a c onsi der
able loss of contact wi th the pulle y face W
.

i th ,

correspon di ng loss of power tran smi ssi on capaci t y .

The edgewi se stress also makes i t necessary i f ,

durabi li t y i s to be consi dered to have the bel t ,

relati vel y narrow I n ci dentall y also a n y reversal

.
, ,

o f the moti on wi ll cause the belt to i mmedi atel y

run off the pulle y s .

F i g 1 99 Shows another arrangemen t for trans

.

mi tti ng power from on e shaft to another at ri ght

angles to i t whi ch overcomes all O f the O bj ecti ons
,

menti oned to the arrangement shown i n F i g 1 98 .

,

but at the expense of a double length belt an d an

extra pai r O f pulle y s .

AS Sh OWn i n the i llustrati on A an d B are tight

‘

pulle y s an d C an d D are loose pulle y s The belt

, .
,

as i t leaves the ti ght pulle y A passes do wn un der ,

'

the loose pulle y D up over the loose p ulle y C down

, ,

under the tight pulle y B an d then up over the ,

tight pulle y A maki ng a complete ci r c ui t The

, .

loose pulle y s i t wi ll be seen revolve i n an opposi te

, ,

di recti on to the Shafts on whi ch the y are mounted .

F i g 2 00 shows an arrangemen t b y whi ch b y

.
,

emplo y i ng loose gui de pulle y s power ma y be trans ,

m i t t e d from on e shaft to another so c lose to i t as

to prohibi t di rect belti ng I f the mai n pulle y s are .

of the same si ze an d thei r shafts are i n the same

,

plane the gui de pulle y s ma y be mounted on a

,
 SH A F TS , B E LT S AN D PU LL E Y S 28 5

si ngle straight Shaft at r i ght angles to a plane

passi ng through the axes of the Shafts on whi ch
the mai n pulle y s are mounted I f however the .
, ,

ma i n pulle y s are of une q ual Si ze as Shown i n the ,

i llustrati on the gui de pulle y s wi ll have to be i n

,

c l i n e d to such an angle that the center of the face

F I G 200 — A r r a n g e m e n t of B e l t T r an sm i ss i o n U s i n g
.

L oos e G u i de Pull e y s .

Of th e pulle y toward whi ch the belt i s advan ci ng

Shall be i n l i ne wi th the edge of the pulle y that
the belt i s leav i ng the same as i n the c ase of the
,

quarter turn belt shown i n F i g 1 98 . .

I t i s not necessary that the shafts on whi ch the

mai n pulle y s are mounted be i n the same plane ;
the i r d i re c ti on may be su c h th a t thei r relati on t o
28 6 SE L F T A U GHT
- ME C H ANICA L D R AW IN G

each other i s Si mi lar to that of those Sh ow n i n

F i g 1 98 or at a n y i ntermedi ate angle
.
, .

Aga i n i f the y are i n the same plane i t i s not

, ,

necessar y that the y should be parallel wi th ea c h

other ; the y ma y be at a n y angle wi th each other
W
.

F i g 20 1 Shows a case
. hi ch i s a modi fi c ati on of
F i g 200 The mai n s h afts ar e at ri ght angles to
. ,
2 88 SE L F -T A U G HT ME C H ANICA L D R A W IN G

F i g 203 .
hows
S a case whi ch i s si mi lar to F i g .

200 i n that i t permi ts the belti ng together O f shafts

whi ch are at angle to each
other but accompli shes thi s
,

result by the use of onl y on e

gui de pulle y The shafts
. ,

though at an angle to each

other are i n the same pla n e
,
.

Thi s however i s not n e ce s

, ,

s a r i l y so. The Shafts m a y

be twi sted aroun d unti l the y
are at right angles to each
other a s i n F i g 1 98 As
,
. .

shown i n F i g 200 the belt

.
,

m a y be run i n ei ther di r e c
ti on as long as the Shafts are
i n the same plane ; but as
shown i n F i g 203 i t i s nec
.
,

essary that the belt should

be run i n the di recti on i n
di ca t e d b y the arrows .

Anexami nati on O f t h e e n
grav ings wi ll Show that the
F I G 2 03 — An A r r a n ge
condi ti on n ecessar for the
. .

m e n t i n W hi c h b u t O ne y
G u i de Pull e y i s U s e d .
proper worki ng of gui de
pulle y s i s that the Shaft on
whi ch the gui de pulle y i s mounted shall be at right
angles to a l i ne drawn from the edge of the pulle y
that the belt i s leavi ng i n i ts advance toward the
gui de pulle y t o the m i dd le Of the gui de pulle y
,

f ac e .
 CHA P TE R X V II I

F L Y WHE E L S - F OR PR E SSE S PU NC HE S
, , E TC .

I N a great man y diff erent classes of machi nery ,

the work that the machi ne performs i s of a variable

or i n termi ttent nature bei ng done i n the case for
, , ,

example of punches an d presses duri ng a small

, ,

part of the time requ i red f or the dr i vi ng shaft or

spi n dle O f the machi ne to make a complete revol a
ti on. I f th i s work could be di stri buted over the
enti re peri od of the revoluti on a co mparati vel y nar
,

row belt would be suffici ent to dri ve the machi ne ;

but a ver y broad an d heav y belt would otherwi se be
ne c essar y to overcome the resi stance i f the belt ,

onl y be depen ded on to do the work I t i s of .

,

c ourse i n a sense i mpossi ble to di stri bute the work

, ,

fl
O f the ma c hi ne over the enti re peri od of revoluti on

of the dri v i ng shaft of the machi ne but b y placi ng ,

a large heav y rimmed wheel a f ly w h ee l on the

-
, ,
-
,

fl
shaft the belt i s gi ven an opportun i ty to perform
,

an almost un i form amount of work duri ng the

whole revoluti on D uri ng the greater part of the
.

revoluti on of the dri vi ng shaft the power of the

belt i s devoted to a c celerati ng the speed of the y
wheel D uri ng that bri ef peri od of the revol uti on
.

O f the Shaft when the work of the machi ne i s bei ng

don e the energ y thus stored up i n the y wheel i s

,
-

gi ven out at the expense O f i ts velo c i ty The .

289
stan dsti ll would be ( neglecting the weight of the
arms an d hub as the e ffi c i e n cy of t h e wheel depends
‘

chi efl y on the weight of the ri m ) expressed i n .

foot pounds equal to the weight of the ri m i n

-
,
.

pounds multi pl i ed b y the square of i ts veloci ty at

i ts mean di ameter i n feet per secon d an d th i s ,

fl
product di vi ded b y t h e s a m e as i n the case

flfl
of a falli ng bod y mov i ng at the same veloci t y as ,

explai ned i n the secti on on mechan i cs .

E xpressed as a formula thi s rule i s :

Wv 2

fl
i n whi ch E total en erg y O f y wheel -
,

W weight of y -wheel ri m i n pounds ,

v veloci t y at mean radi us of y wheel

-

i n feet per second ,

g accelerati on due to grav i t y 32 1 6

= . .

If the speed O f the y wheel i s onl y reduced the

‘
-
,

energy whi ch i t would gi ve out would be equal t o

‘

the diff eren ce between the en ergy whi ch i t woul d

gi ve out i f brought to a full stop an d that wh i ch ,

i t would sti ll have stored up i n i t at i ts redu c ed

veloci ty Therefore to fi n d th e en e r gy i n f oot
.
,

p ou n ds w h i ch a f ly w h ee l w i l l gi ve ou t w i th a n
-

a ll ow a bl e l os s of s p e e d subtract the square of the

,

veloci t y of the rim i n feet per secon d at i ts redu c ed

s peed fr om the square O f i ts velo c i t y i n feet per

secon d at full speed multi pl y thi s di ff eren c e b y

,

the wei ght i n poun ds an d di v i de the product b y

,

The result wi ll gi ve the l oss Of energ y i n

foot-pounds .
292 SE L F T A U GHT
- ME C HANICA L D R A W IN G

machi ne there i s an opportun i ty f or a wi de range

,

i n t h e weight from a wheel heav y enough when

fl
, ,

O n ce i t has been brought to i ts full Speed to do b y , ,

means of the energy stored i n i t the work w i thout ,

assi stance from the belt the belt bei ng onl y j ust
,

wi de enough to restore the speed of the wheel i n

time f or the next O perati on to a wheel where the ,

belt i s wi de enough to do the most of the work

di rectl y the stored energ y i n the y wheel merel y
,
-

a s s I s t i n g i t somewhat P erhaps the best w a y would

.

fl
be to have the wheel heav y enough so that i ts
stored energy could do the bulk O f the work the ,

belt assi sti ng i t an d at the same ti me have the

,

latter wi de enough to qui ckl y restore the speed of

the wheel SO that i n case i ts veloci ty should be
, ,

reduced be y on d that calculated there would be a ,

margi n of avai lable power i n the belt .

E xa m p l e —
L et i t be requi red to design a y
wheel for a press to cut O ff on e -i n ch roun d bar
steel the press maki ng 3 0 strokes per mi nute
, .

Soft steel hav i ng a Sheari ng resi stan ce of about

pounds per square i n ch an d a one -i nch bar ,

havi ng an area of cross secti on of -

square
i nch the Sheari ng resi stan ce O f the bar wi ll be
,

X poun ds or practi call y ,

pounds Thi s r e s i s t a n ce va r i e s however

'

.
, ,

duri ng the process of Shearing bei ng greatest n ear ,

the begi nn ing O f the cut an d decreasi ng as the ,

cutti ng progresses I n the case of a roun d bar i t

.

could not decrease un i forml y because of the Shape ,

f
o the cross secti on -
F or the sake of getti ng the
.

decrease i n resi stan ce as nearl y un i form as possi ble ,

we wi ll assume that the work of c utti ng Off a on e

 F L Y WH E E L S
-
293

i n ch roun d b ar i s the same as the work of cutti ng

O ff a square bar of the same area ; though thi s m a
y
not be qu i te exact i t woul d probabl y not be far
,

out of the w a y The length of the Si des of a square

.

O f the same area as a gi ven ci rcle i s equal to the ,

di ameter of the ci rcle multi pl i ed b y There

fore our equi valent square bar wi ll be
, of

an i n ch square The mean resi stan c e to cutti ng

.
,

assumi ng that the resi stance decreases un i forml y

fl
as the cutti ng progresses would be 2
,

poun ds As the cutti ng O perati on c onti nues

.

through a Space O f of an i n ch the power ,

fl
requi red would be X i nch
poun ds or , foot poun ds L et us plan to have
-
.

the belt do one fi f t h of the work of cutti ng di rect

-

l y leav i ng four-fif t h s to be done b y the stored up

,

fl
en erg y of the y wheel O n e -fif t h of
-
equals
.

Subtracti ng th i s from leaves

foot poun ds t o be suppli ed b y the energy of the
-

y
-wheel A s a prel imi nary calculati on let us find
.

what woul d have to be the wei ght of the wheel i f

i t were to be placed upon the crank shaft the Shaft
-
,

wh i ch operates the plunger O f the press Assumi ng .

fl
the mean di ameter of the y wheel ri m to be 4 -

feet the ci r c umferen ce would be 4 X

,

feet an d as the shaft makes 30 revoluti ons per

, ,

mi nute the velo c i t y O f the r i m i n feet p er s econ d

,

would be :
X 30
6 28 feet .

60
.

If we e x pe c t the y
-wheel to su ff er a loss of ,

s a y 1 0 per cen t whi le doi ng i ts work

,
. then i ts ,

velo c i t y at i ts reduced Speed wi ll be

29 4

,
SE L F -T A U G HT ME C HA NICA L

feet The weight of the y wheel to gi ve out

gi ven :
.

foo t-pounds un der these c ond i ti ons wi ll then

be according to the rule and formula alread y
fl -
D R AWING

X 75 ,
2—
5 65
2 —
3 9 44 3 1 9 2
62 8
nearl y .

A wheel weighi ng pounds would of course , ,

be out of the questi on ; but as the energ y i n c reases

as the square of the veloci ty the weight m a y be ,

very rapi dl y reduced b y mounti ng the wheel upon

a higher— speeded secondar y shaft c onnected wi th ,

the crank shaft b y reduci ng gears I f the speed

- .

of the secondary shaft i s to the speed O f the crank

shaft as 6 to 1 the weight of the wheel i f the

, ,

mean diameter be kept the same wi ll need to b e ,

onl y about on e thi rty si xth of what i t would n eed

-

to be i f mounted on the crank -shaft At t h i s ih i g h e r .

speed however i t might be desi rable to somewhat

, ,

reduce the di ameter of the wheel L et us assume .

that the mean di ameter be made 3 feet I f the .

rati o of speeds i s 6 to 1 the wheel wi ll make 1 8 0 ,

revoluti ons per mi nute and the velo c i ty of the r i m

,

i n feet per secon d wi ll be :

3 X X 1 80
fee t
60
.

I f the wheel suff ers a loss of 1 0 per c ent I t s

velo c i ty at i ts reduced speed wi ll be
nearl y The weight of the wheel wi ll then
.

be :
X
504 poun ds .
296 SE L F T A U G HT
- ME C HANICA L D R AW I NG

per mi nute the same belt at 8 48 feet per mi nute

,

Wi ll transmi t 95 6 7, as much or
4—8
X ,

foot-pounds The wi dth O f belt ne c essary

.

to transmi t foot poun ds per mi nute at thi s

-

speed wi ll then be i n ches .

NO accoun t has so far been taken of the power

fl
necessary to dri ve the mach i n e i tself To allow .

fl
for thi s the belt Should ev i dentl y be not less than
1
23; i n ches wi de A 3 i n ch belt woul d allow con s i d
-
.

e r a b l e of a margi n of safet y an d further cal c ulati on

,

wi ll Show that such a belt would develop duri ng ,

about on e -thi rd O f a revoluti on O f the crank the ,

amount of energy whi ch the y-wheel had lost so ,

that as the cutti ng operati on takes about on e s i xth

,
-

O f a revoluti on the y wheel woul d be run n i ng at

-
,

full speed for about on e -half of a revoluti on O f the

crank prev i ous to the begi nn i ng of the cut pro
, ,

v i de d that i t had n ot suff ered a n y greater redu c ti on

of veloci ty than the 1 0 per cen t plann ed f or . .

I f the press was emplo y ed doi ng pun chi ng the

same method O f proced u re would be emplo y ed i n
the calculati ons the area i n Shear i n such a case
,

bei ng equal to the ci rcumferen ce of the hole mul

t i p l i e d b y the thi ckness of the plate The en d O f a .

pun ch i s usuall y made slightl y con i cal or Sl ightl y

bevel ing the eff ect i n ei ther case bei ng to i n crease
,

the sheari ng acti on an d make the w ork of pun ch

,

i ng easi er .
 CHAPT E R X I X

T R AIN S OF ME CHANI SM

FOR obtai n i ng high speeds wi thout the use of

un dul y large dri v i ng pulle y s or gears for securi ng ,

gai n i n power b y sacri fici ng speed for securi ng ,

reversal of di recti on or for obtai n i ng some par

,

t i cul a r veloci t y rati o between the dri ver and some

part O f the mechan i sm pulle y s gears worm -g ears
, , , ,

or t h e l i ke m a y be substi tuted for di rect acting

,

dri v i ng mechan i sms .

—
T 0 Secure I n crease of Spee d L et a Shaft making
1 00 revoluti ons per mi nu t e be requ i red to dri ve the
spi n d le of a machi ne at 2 000 revoluti ons per mi nute ,

the pulle y on the Spi n dle bei ng 3 i nches i n diam

eter I f a di rect dri ve were to be used the pulle y
.
,

on the Shaft would have to be as man y times greater

than the pulle y on the spi ndl e as 2000 i s greater

than 1 00 or 2 0 ti mes
, .

Thi s woul d mean a pulle y on the Shaft 6 0 i nches

i n di ameter P racti cal consi derati ons such as the
.
,

weight of the pulle y si ze O f hangers an d the l i ke

,

woul d make such a pulle y out of the questi on .

B y i n terposi ng an i n termedi ate countershaft be

tween the first Shaft an d the spi ndle of the machi ne ,

however havi ng pulle y s of such Si ze th at the

,

product O f the rati o of the pulle y on the first Shaft

an d the on e to whi ch i t i s belted on the counter
shaft mult i pl i ed b y the rati o of the se c on d pulle y
,

2 97
298 SE L F -
T A U GHT ME C HANICA L DR AWING

on the countershaft and the pulle y on the spi ndle

to whi ch i t i s belted i s equal to the rati o wh i c h
i t i s desi red to have between the first shaft an d
the spi ndle the same speed m a y be secured b y the
,

use of pulle y s of conven i ent Si ze Thus i f the .

,

rati o between the pulle y on th e first shaft an d the

on e on the coun tershaft I s as 1 to 4 an d the rati o ,

between the dri vi ng pulle y on the countershaft

an d the on e on the spi n dle of the mach i n e i s as
1 to 5 the product of these t w o rati os 1 to 4 an d 1
, ,

to 5 i s 1 to 20 an d the arrangemen t wi ll gi ve the

, ,

FI G . 204 — R e ve r
. s al Of D i re cti on O b t a i n e d b y C r oss e d B e l t .

requi red speed The pulle y on t h e spi ndle bei ng 3

.

i nches i n di ameter the dri vi ng pulle y on the coun

,

t e r s h a f t wi ll be 1 5 i nches i n di ameter an d i f the ,

dri ven pulle y on the countershaft i s 4 i n ches i n

di ameter the pulle y on the first Shaft to whi ch i t i s
belted wi ll be 1 6 i n ches i n di ameter i n stead of 60 ,

i nches as would be requi red wi th di rect belti ng

, .

I f the spi n dle of the machi ne i nstead of bei ng ,

dri ven were made the dri ver as i t woul d be i f i t ,

were the armature Shaft of a motor then th i s ar ,

rangement would g i ve gai n i n power wi th c on

sequent loss O f speed
T o Se cur e R evers a l O f Dir e c t io n —
.

I n cases where s

Shafts are belted together reversal of di recti on o f ,

800 SE L E -TAUG HT ME CH A NIC AL D R A W IN G

even number of gears the first an d last members,

rotate i n opposi te di recti on s ; but when the trai n i s

composed of an odd number of gears the first an d
.
,

last members rotate i n the same di recti on .

I n Fi g 207 i s shown the mechan i sm used i n

.

engi ne lathes to secure ei ther di rect or reversed

moti on b y hav i ng the work i ng trai n con si st of
,

ei the r an even or an O dd num b er of gears I n thi s .

FIG . 2 07 —
. P r i n c i p l e of T um FIG . 208 — P r i n c i p l e of Com
b l e r G e ar .
p ou n d I dl e r .

arrangement A i s a gear on the head stock spi ndle -

,

an d B i s a gear on a stud below P i voted on the .

axi s of B i s a triangular pi e c e O f metal or bra c ket , ,

shown i n dotted l i nes whi ch can be swung back ,

and forth b y the han dle E Mounted on th i s .

bracket are the i dler gears C an d D C bei ng con ,

s t a n t l y i n mesh wi th B an d D bei ng i n mesh wi th

,

C When i t i s requi red that B shall rotate i n the

.

same di recti on as A the handle E i s lowered unti l

,

C meshes wi th A The work i ng trai n then c onsi sts

.
 T R AIN S OF ME C H ANI SM 301

Of three gears A C an d B D bei ng out of mesh wi th

, , ,

A revolvi ng b y i tself but not formi ng a part of

, ,

the work i ng trai n W hen i t i s desi red that B shall

.

rotate i n the opposi te di recti on to A the handle E ,

i s rai sed un ti l D meshes wi th A C bei ng thrown ,

out O f mesh w i th i t The worki ng trai n then con

.

si sts of four gears A D C an d B an d the desi red

, , , ,

reversal i s secured .

—
Th e Compound I dler I t has been shown that .

when a trai n consi sts of Si mple gears the relati ve

rates of rotati on of the first an d last me mbers r e
mai n un changed regardless O f the number or si ze
,

of the i dlers that m a y be i nterposed When i t i s .

desi red to Secure a diff erent rate of rotati on b e

tween two members of a trai n than that whi ch
the y would have i f meshi ng di rectl y together a ,

compoun d i dler i s used a S s h ow n i n F i g 208 Such ,

’

. .

a gear i s used on man y screw cutti ng lathes F or .

cutti ng threads up t o a certai n number per i nch

the screw cutti ng trai n con si sts of si mple gears .

A compoun d i dler m a y then be i ntroduced i nto

the trai n when wi thout other change addi ti onal
,

threads ma y be c ut I f wi th screw cutti ng trai ns

.

O f S imple gears a lathe wi ll cut all whole numbers

of threads up to 1 3 threads per i n ch then b y addi ng , ,

a compoun d i dler to the trai n havi ng i ts two steps ,

i n the rati o O f 2 to 1 threads from 1 4 to 26 per i nch

,

( except O d d numbers ) m a y be cut wi th the same

gears as prev i ousl y used for cutti ng up to 1 3 threads
per i n ch I f t h e com p oun d i dler forms an addi ti onal
’

member of the trai n the reversal of di recti on of,

rotati on whi ch would take place i n the moti on

”

O f the lead -s c rew of the lathe ma

y be taken c are O f
302 SE L F -T A U G HT ME C H AN ICA L D R A WIN G

by the reversi ng gears between the spi n dle o f the

head -stock an d the stud previ ousl y descri bed an d , ,

shown i n F i g 207 . .

—I n F i g 2 09 i s shown
Th e Sc r e w Cutt i n g Tra i n . .

the screw c utti ng mechan i sm foun d on engi n e

la thes The .
revers i ng me c han i sm shown i n Fi g .

FIG . 2 09 . FI G . 21 0 .

F I GS . 209 and 21 0 — A r r a n ge m e n t of L a t h e C h a n ge G e ar i n g .

—
207 i s reproduced enti re and these gears the gear ,

A on the lathe spi ndle the gear B on the stud ,

i
,

whi ch i s connected wi th A b y the i dl e r s C an d D

are all permanent gears These gears are usuall y .

on the i nsi de o f the head stock as Shown i n F i g

-
.

1
2 0 . T he stud reaches through the head -stock an d ,

on i ts outer en d i s the change gear F connecti ng ,

wi th the change gear G on the lead screw of the

-

lathe b y mean s of the i ntermedi ate i dler H The .

i dler H i s moun ted on a slotted swi ngi ng arm as

s h own so as to allow of g ears F an d G bei ng
,
3 04 SE L F -T A U GHT ME C HANICA L D R A WIN G

Of the numbers on on e Si de of th e l i ne multi pl i ed

together w i l l e q ua l the product O f the numbers on
‘

the other si de of the li ne multi pli ed together T he .

Spi n dle of the lathe i s of course the first dri vi ng , ,

member O f the trai n an d the lead screw i s the

-
,

last dri ven member As the spi n dle i s to make 23 .

revoluti on s whi le the lead screw makes 9 rev ol a -

ti ons 23 wi ll be the first number on the Si de of the

,

li ne on whi ch the dri vi ng members are placed an d ,

9 wi ll be the last number on the si de of the li ne on

whi ch the dri ven members are placed N ext as .
,

the rati o between the S i zes of the dri v i ng gear on

the lathe Spi ndle an d the fixed gear on the stud
below whi ch i t dri ves i s as 3 to 4 these numbers ,

wi ll be placed agai nst each other on opposi te si des

of the l i ne .

The rati o between the numbers of teeth or si zes

of the two change gears F and G whose S i zes i t , ,

i s requi red to find bei ng unknown m a y be sai d to , ,

be as 1 to the unknown number at These numbers .

,

1 an d a are n ow placed on thei r proper S i des of

,

the li ne an d the problem appears as Shown below

, .

The Si ze of the i dler gear Hdoes not en ter i nto the

questi on because as has been prev i ousl y shown a
, , ,

simple i dler gear does not affect the relati ve rates

O f rotati on of the gears between whi ch i t transmi ts

moti on .

Sp e e d O f Sp i n dl e 23
R a t i o of s i z e of s p i n dl e ge a r 3 4 to si z e Of fi x e d s t ud g e a r .

R at i o Of n um b e r Of t e e th
in c h a n ge ge a r F 1 x to num b e r of t e e t h in
ch an ge ge a r G

9 Sp e e d of l e a d s c r e w
-
.

69 3 690
 T R AIN S OF ME C HANI SM 305

Multi pl y i ng together the umbers

both Si des
n on

of the l i ne gi ves the equati on 69 I t i s evi

den t that i f 69 equals 3 6a 90 must be equal to 69 ,

di v i ded b y 3 6 or g%
,
The rati o between Si zes of
.

the gear F an d the gear G i s then as 1 to 33

E l i mi nati ng the fracti on b y multi pl y i ng both terms
o f the rati o b y 3 6 gi ves the rati o as 36 to 69 If .
,

then F has 36 teeth an d G has 69 teeth the lathe

, , ,

w i ll c ut the req ui red number of 23 threads per

i n ch .

I n F i g 2 1 1 i s Shown how a compound i dler gear

.

i s someti mes used i n a screw c utti ng trai n The .

FIG . 21 1.
— C om p ou n d G e ar i n g .

c hange gear G and the i dler H have long hubs on

O n e Si de W hen i t i s desi red to cut finer threads
than what the gears E and G wi th the i dler Hwi ll
.

g i ve H an d G are put on wi th the long hubs

, ,

toward the lathe throwi ng them

,
ou t of li ne wi th
E The gear E then meshes i nto the large step of
H H
.

I,
the s m all step of I meshes i nto an d meshes ,
3 06 SE L F -T A U G HT ME C HA N ICA L DR AWIN G

i nto G The rati o between the large an d the small

.

ste ps of I must then be taken i nto accoun t i n the

c alculati on F or c utti ng the coarser threads Hand
.

G are put on wi th the Short hubs toward the lathe ,

bri ngi ng them i nto li ne wi th E The i dler I i s also.

turned over so that i ts large step i s on the outsi de

an d out of li ne wi th E an d H I t i s then swung
,

'

back out of the w a y .

When the geari ng i s full y compoun ded the two

gears at I are separate from each other but ke y ed
together on the same stud an d mounted i n the
same manner as shown i n F i g 2 1 1 B y vary i ng . .

the Si zes of these gears almost a n y screw thread ,

may be cut wi thi n reasonable limi ts I n thi s case .

,

of course there are four gears to be determi ned i n

,

our calculati ons Simpli fied rules are gi ven i n the

.

followi ng for thi s case as well as for the regular

,

simple trai ns .

L arge lathes are provi ded wi th change gears f or

cutti ng threads from about 2 to about 2 0 threads
per i nch smaller lathes bei ng provi ded wi th gears
,

for cutti ng from about 3 or 4 to 4 0 or 50 threads per

i nch i n ei ther case i n cludi ng a pai r of gears for
,

cutti ng 1 1 3 threads per i nch thi s bei ng the stan d ,

ard thread for i ron pi pes from on e to two -i n ch s i zes

i nclusi ve The smaller lathes would also naturall y
.

be provi ded wi th gears for cutti ng 27 threads per

i nch thi s b e I n g the number O f threads on é -i n ch
,

i ron pi pes .

Simplifie d R ules for Cal cu lat ing L at h e Ch an g e

G ear s — The followi ng rules f or calculati ng c hange
gears for the lathe have been publi shed b y Ma
c h i n er y ( R eferen c e Seri es B ook N o 3 5 T a bles .
,
308 SE L F T A U G HT
- ME C HANICA L D R AW IN G

numerators are dri vi ng gears an d those i n the ,

denomi nators dri ven gears .

Two examples Showi ng the appl i cati on of these

,

rules wi ll be gi ven i n the followi ng

,
.

E xa mp le 1 — Assume that 20 threads per i n ch are

.

to be cut i n a lathe havi ng a screw cutti ng con -

stant as foun d b y the method explai ned i n R ule

,
”

1 equal to 8
,
The numbers of teeth i n the avai l
.

able change gears f or thi s lathe are 2 8 32 3 6 4 0 , , , ,

4 4 etc I n creasi ng b y 4 up to 9 6
,
.

B y appl y i ng Rule 2 we have then : ,

s 32
20 so

B y multi pl y i ng
both numerator an d denomi nator
b y 4 we O btai n two avai lable gears hav i ng 32 an d
80 teeth —
The 3 tooth gear goes on the Spi n dle
2
.

stud an d the 80-tooth gear on the lead screw I t -

.

wi ll be seen that i f we had multi pl i ed b y 3 or b y 5

i nstead of b y 4 we would not have O btai n ed avai l
,

able gears i n both numerator an d denomi nator as ,

8 X 3 would have gi ven 24 an d 20 X 5 would have

gi ven 1 00 both of whi ch gears are not i n our gi ven
,

set of gears The proper number b y wh i ch to

.

multi pl y can be foun d b y trial onl y .

E xa mp l e 2 —
Assume that 2 7 threads per i n ch are
.

to be cut on the same lathe as assumed i n E xample 1 .

I n thi s case the calculati on must be made for

compoun d geari ng as so fine a pi tch could n ot be ,

cut b y S imple geari ng i n thi s lathe B y appl y i ng .

R ule 3 we have :

8 2 x 4 123 20) 4 0 x 32
27 3 x 9
 T R AIN S OF ME C HANI SM 3 09

The four numbers i n the last fracti on gi ve the

numbers of teeth I n the requi red gears The gears .

dri ven gears .

I t makes n o diff ere n ce wh i ch on e of the dri vi ng

gears i s placed on the spi n dle stud or whi ch one of
the dri ven gears i s placed on the lead screw -
.

B ac k G ear s —
-
N earl y all engi ne lathes and man y
other mach i ne tools are provi ded wi th a set O f r e

F I G 212
.
— P r i n ci p l e of B a c k -G e a r i n g .

duc i n g gears called ba ck gea r s b y means of whi ch

,
-
,

double the range of Speeds that can be obtai ned b y

di rect dri v i ng m a y be gi ven to the s p I n dl e of the
machi ne F i g 21 2 i llustrates such a set of gears
. .
,

an d the method of appl y i ng them to the ma c hi ne .

The large gear A i s fastened to the Spi n dle of the

mach i ne but the cone pulle y wi th the gear B
, ,

atta c hed to i t i s loose on the Spi n dle The ba c k

, .
31 0 SE L F -T A U GHT ME C H A NICA L DR AWIN G

gear shaft wi th gears C an d D i s moun ted i n

brackets on the back si de of the head stock an d
-
,

i s provi ded wi th eccentri c beari ngs b y mean s of ,

whi ch the gears on i t c an be thrown i nto or out of

mesh wi th the gears on the head stock spi n dle .

When di rect dri vi ng i s desi red the back g ears are

— ,

thrown back out of the w a y an d the cone pulle y

, ,

and the large gear are clamped together b y means

of a screw pi n or stud passi ng through the gear

i nto the cone The y then revolve together as one

.

pi ece .

L et us assume the case of a lathe hav i ng a cone

wi th four steps the largest step bei ng 6 i n ches i n
,

diameter an d the smallest 4 i n ches i n di ameter

, ,

wi th the i ntermediate steps i n proper proporti on .

I f the cone pulle y on the countershaft i s of the

same si ze as the on e on the Spi ndle then i f the , ,

countershaft runs 3 00 revoluti ons per mi nute di rect ,

dri vi ng wi ll gi ve about the followi ng Speeds to the

spi ndle : 4 50 34 5 2 60 an d 200 Le t i t n ow be
, , .

requi red to fin d the si zes of gears to be used so

that wi th the back gear dri v i ng a proporti onatel y
-
,

slower rate of Speeds m a y be O btai ned W e ma y .

solve t h e problem b y gi vi ng to the gears some

arbi trary S i zes and fin di ng what speeds such Si z es
,

will gi ve an d then modi fy these si z es unti l the

,

requi red speeds are O btai ned F or tri al purposes .

let us make the pi tch di ameter of the gear A the

same as the di ameter of the large step of the cone
pulle y or 6 i nches an d the pi tch di ameter of the
, ,

gear B the same as the diameter of the small step

of the con e pulle y or 4 i n ches Arrangi ng dr i v i ng
, .

and dri ven members on opposi te Si des of a verti cal

31 2 SE L F -T A U G HT ME C HANICA L D R A W IN G

A speed O f 1 53 revoluti ons per m i nute for the

fastest back -gear speed follows qui te regularl y the
seri es of speeds whi ch the di rect dri ve gi ves .

I nstead of usi ng the pi t c h diameters of the gears

i n maki ng the calculati on s the number of teeth
whi ch the gears would have the pi t c h bei ng first
,

deci ded on might be used I n thi s manner i t i s

, .

possi ble to make Slight changes i n the di ameters of

the gears wi thout bri ngi ng troublesome fra c ti on s
i nto the calculati ons.

Man y lathes an d other machi n e tools have trai n s

of mechan i sm much more compl i cated than a n y

here shown but the method of procedure here

,

outli ned c an be appl i ed to all of them .

 CHAP T E R XX

Q U ICK RE T URN MO T I O N S

I N a large class machi n er y the work i s don e

of

duri ng the forward moti on of a reci procati ng part ;

the return of the part to i ts starti ng poi nt i s then
a questi on of ti me T he qui cker the part can be
.

returned to i ts starti ng poi nt the more effici ent ,

becomes the machi ne When the stroke i s long as

.
,

i n the case O f the bed of an i ron planer for large

work th i s rapi d return moti on i s usuall y O btai ned
,

b y mean s of shi fti ng the dri vi ng belt onto a return

pulle y s o arranged that a higher rati o of speed i s
p rocured ; but i n other cases where the r e
, c i p o
r

cati ng moti on i s shorter an d the stroke i s actuated

,

b y mean s of a crank the actuati ng mechan i sm i s

,

made su c h that the crank gi ves a slow forward

an d a qui ck return moti on to the reci procati ng
part I ron planers f or small work shapers an d
.
, ,

the l i ke an d some classes of engi nes an d pumps

, ,

use such qui ck return moti ons B elow are descri bed
.

the pri n ci pal devi ces used f or such purposes .

F i g 2 1 3 shows a method of securi ng a qui ck

.

return b y havi ng the axi s of the crank outsi de of

the path of the re c i procati ng en d of the c onne c ti ng
rod L et A be a crank the c rank pi n of whi c h a
. ,
-
, ,

a c t i ng upon the conne c ti ng rod B represented by

-

the heav y li ne causes the block b to move ba c k an d

,

313
314 SE L F—
T A U GHT ME C HAN ICA L D R A WIN G

forth i n the path CD When the crank i s i n the

.

posi ti on shown the bloc k i s at the extreme left of

‘

i ts stroke the connecti ng rod an d crank bei ng i n

,
-

the same straight li ne the c enter li n e of the con

,

n e c t i n g -rod coi n c i di ng wi th the axi s of the c rank .

AS the crank swi ngs downward the block b i s ,

dri ven to the ri ght ; but an exami nati on O f the

i llustrati on wi ll show that the c rank must make

FI G . 2 1 3 — Si mp l e Qu i ck Re tur n Mo t i o n .

more than a half revoluti on before i t agai n forms

a strai ght l i ne wi th the connecti ng -rod wh i ch i t ,

wi ll do when the block has reached i ts extreme

posi ti on to the ri g ht AS therefore the block
.
, ,

makes i ts movement to the right wh i le the crank

i s swi ngi ng th rough the lower angle i n c lud ed b e
tween these t w o posi ti ons an d as i t makes i ts
,
31 6 SE L E-T A U G HT ME C HANICA L D R AW IN G

s h ow n i n F ig 2 1 4 then letti ng a represen t th e

.
, ,

length of the c on ne c ti ng r od an d y the length of -

the crank we would have x y 2 1 i n ches an d

, ,

x y 1 0 i n ches A ddi ng the left

.
-
han d an d the
right -han d members respecti vel y of these two , ,

equati on s we woul d have a: y a

, y 2 1 1 0
3 1 i nches As y
.
y
= 0 w e m a y el i mi nate
these expressi on s an d the equati on wi ll read 243
,

3 1 i nches an d x the length of the conne c ti ng rod

, ,
-
,

wi ll thus be 1 5 3 i nches The length of the crank .

wi ll then be 2 1 i nches ( the length of bf ) mi nus 1 5 3

i n c hes or 5 3 i n ches
, .

I t wi ll be seen that i f the length of the stroke i s

m ade vari able by havi ng the crank pi n a adj ust
’

-
, ,

able to differen t posi ti ons on the crank A F i g 21 3 , .

,

the di ff eren ce between the time of the forward

an d of the return stroke of the Sl i di ng block b wi ll
be lessened because the t w o posi ti on s wh i ch i t
,

wi ll o c cup y at the extremes of i ts stroke wi ll be

‘

nearer together an d the lower an d upper angles

,

whi ch the crank passes through i n gi v i ng to the

block i ts forward an d return movements wi ll be
more nearl y equal .

F i g 2 1 5 Shows a q ui ck return moti on dev i c e

.

especiall y adapted t o cases where the hori zon tal

space i s l imi ted and wh i c h i s mu c h used on shapers
, .

The i llustrati on shows a shaper i n outl i ne The .

ram of the shaper i s gi ven i ts forward an d return

moti on b y means of the ro c ki ng a r m A whi ch ,

swi ngs on a fulcrum at B The ro c ki ng arm i s .

gi ven i ts moti on b y mean s of a c rank -pi n on the

di sk C the pi n engagi ng i n a sl i d i ng b l oc k wh i c h
,

t ravels i n a Slot i n the arm A .

 Q UICK RE T UR N MO T I O N S 31 7

L et BC an d B D F i g 2 1 6 represen t the extreme

, .
,

posi ti on s of the rocker arm A D raw the li nes OF .

an d 0 G from the cente r of the c rank di sk at O at

ri ght angles to B C an d B D I t I s ev i dent that i n
.

order that the c rank on i ts upper sweep sha ll

, ,

FI G . 21 5 —D i agr a m of Q u i ck R e tur n Ar r an ge m e n t
i n a Sh a p e r .

move the ro c ker arm from C to D i t must move ,

through the a r e F AG whi le to return th e a r m

,
‘

from D to C on i ts lower sweep i t must move onl y

, ,

through the lower arc F G The ti me of the return

.

moti on wi ll therefore be to the ti me of the forward

m oti on as the l ower a r e or angle F G i s to th e a r c
318 SE L F T A U GHT
- ME C H ANICA L D R A W IN G

or angle F AG I f the crank i s shortened so as to

.

gi ve a Shorter stroke to the ram O f the Shap er

'

then th e rocker arm wi ll swi ng through a smaller

angle from H to I an d l i nes drawn from O at
, ,

F I G 21 6 — D i a g r a m
. of Sp e e d R a t i os i n Sh a p e r Mo t i o n .

righ t angles t o HB a n d [ B wi ll be more nearl y i n a

straight l i ne than OF an d C C There wi ll there .
,

fore be less diff eren ce between the ti me of forward

,

an d return moti ons on short strokes than on long

ones .
3 20 SE L F -T A U G HT ME C HANICA L D R A WIN G

upper angle a; or through the lower angle y so as ,

to form agai n the same angle wi th the c enter l i ne

cd but at the right of i t as i t i s now shown form
, ,

i ng wi th i t at the left The forward an d return

.

moti on s wi ll therefore be to each other as the

, ,

angle a: i s to the angle y To design a qui ck return

.

moti on of thi s ty pe i t i s therefore necessary to

, ,

first la y out the angles a an d y O f such relati ve

S i z es that x i s as man y times greater than y as the

time O f the forward moti on i s to be greater th an

the time of the return moti on h avi ng them of , ,

course central on the l i ne cd The di stan ce apart

,
.

of the fulcrums of the crank C an d of the revolv i ng

arm A wi ll be partl y determi ned b y the Si zes of

thei r shafts The locati on of the crank -pi n de
.
,

t e r m i n i n g the length O f the crank wi ll then be at ,

the i ntersecti on O f the hori zontal center l i n e of the

revolvi ng arm A wi th the di vi di ng li ne ef between
the angles a an d y The length of the crank must
.
,

of course be su ffici ent so that the crank pi n wi ll

,

swi ng under the hub of the arm A an d the length ,

O f the crank -pi n slot i n A must be suffi c i en t for

the moti on O f the pi n relati ve to the arm

'

I t wi ll be noti ced that unl i ke the two precedi ng

,

qui ck return devi ces vary i ng the stroke O f the

,

reci procati ng parts does not alter the relati ve ti me

of the forward and return moti ons ; f or such change

does not aff ect the angles a; an d y upon wh i ch the

time of the forward an d return moti ons depen ds .

I f however the length of the crank C i s vari ed

, , ,

then the angles a an d y are altered an d the ti me

, ,

O f the forward an d return moti ons wi ll be aff ected .

I t wi ll be seen upon exam i nat i on that w i th the

 Q U IC K RE TURN MOT I ONS

c on structi on shown the revolvi ng arm A must be

made i n two parts on e at each en d of i ts shaft i n
, ,

order to avoi d i nterference of the parts O f the

mechan i sm wi th on e another as the y revolve Thi s .

trouble i s overcome b y replaci ng the crank C wi th

a crank di sk whi c h fits over an d revolves upon a
fixed stud or hub large enough to recei ve the stud
at B upon whi ch the arm A revolves .

Th e E llipt i c G e a r Qui c k R e t urn — I f t w o ell i pses

of equal si ze F i g 2 1 8 hav i ng foci at w and x an d
, .
,

F I G 218 —
. Qu i c k Re t urn Mo t i o n by Me an s of ll
E i pti c G e ar s .

at y an d z be placed i n contact wi th each other

,

wi th thei r long di a m e t e r s f or m i n g a conti nuous

straight l i ne as Shown ; then i f the elli pses are
caused to revolve freel y upon thei r correspond
i ng foci w an d y the y wi ll roll upon ea c h other
, ,

perfectl y wi thout Sli ppi ng F rom the nature

,
.

of an elli pse as shown b y i ts constructi on wi th a

thread an d pen c i l ( see Chapter I I I P roblem 1 3 ) i t ,

w i ll b e seen that i f the elli pse at the left were

bei ng formed i n thi s manner an d the pen ci l were
at D the i nterse c ti on of the c i rcumferen ce of the
,
322 SE L F - TAU G HT ME CHANICA L D R A WIN G

elli pse wi th the long di ameter the length of the ,

thread would be equal to the sum of the di stan ces

w D an d Doc B ut the di stan ce D an i s the same as
.

the di stance D y ; therefore the length of the thread ,

woul d be equal to the di stan ce w y the di stan ce ,

between the foci upon whi ch the ell i pses are r e

volving I f now the elli pses are revolved unti l
.
, ,

the poi nts A an d B verti call y over the fo c i x an d

,

y,
are i n contact wi th each other the sum of the ,

di stan ces w A an d B y wi ll be equal to the di sta n ce

between the foci w an d y f or thei r sum i s equal to ,

the length of the thread an d the length of the ,

thread i s equal to w A plus A90 an d Ar i s equal to ,

B y as poi nts A an d B are both verti call y over the

,

foci of the ell i pses I n a Simi lar manner a n y pai r

.

of poi nts m a y be selected on the two elli pses equall y

di stan t from the poi nt D The di stan ce from the .

poi nt on the elli pse at the left to the focus w w i ll , ,

be equal to the length of the thread at the left of

the pen ci l an d the di stan ce from the poi n t on the
,

ellipse at the right to the focus y wi ll be equal to

, ,

the length of the thread at the ri ght of the pen ci l ,

an d thei r sum wi ll be equal to the di stan ce between

the foci w an d y Thi s di stan ce between the foci
.

w an d y wi ll be seen on further exami nati on to be

equal to the long axi s of the elli pse Thi s property .

of the elli pse has been taken advan tage of to sec ure

a qui ck return moti on to a reci procati ng part of a

machi ne I f i n F i g 21 8 the two ell i pses represen t
. .

the pi tch l i nes of ell i pti c gears ; w i th the gear at

the left as the dri ver wi th a u n i form moti on the ,

one at the ri ght wi ll have an unun i form moti on .

I f n ow a crank i s moun ted on the same Shaft as

, ,
324 SE L F T A U G HT
- ME C H ANICA L DRA WIN G
Of w A wi llbe to Act as 1 i s to the si ne of the angle
Aw ee D i v i di ng the long axi s of the elli pse i n to
.

t w o parts i n thi s proporti on gi ves the length of w A

—

an d A90 The length of w e wi ll then be equal to

.

the length of Aw multi pl i ed b y the c osi n e O f the

angle w Then to fin d the short axi s O f the
.

elli pse di vi de the di stan ce w x i n to two equal parts

,

and construct the triangle w gh The length w h .

wi ll be half of the di stan ce between the foci an d ,

the length of w g wi ll be half of the long axi s The .

length gh half of the short axi s m a y then be found

, , .

Calculati on s made i n thi s manner gi ve the follow

i ng proporti ons to elli pses f or qui ck return rati os
as i ndi cated i n the first column :
D i s ta n c e B twe een
F oc i .

There appear to be t w o difficulti es w i th ell i pti c

geari ng The first i s that i f a hi gh qui ck return
.

rati o i s attempted SO as to make con si derable di f

,

feren ce between the long an d the short axes the ,

obl i qui ty O f the acti on of the teeth upon each

other an d the consequen t great amount O f fri cti on
,

between the teeth as th e y come together becomes ,

SO great as to be troublesome Thi s ma y to a con

.
,

s i de r a b l e extent at least be overcome b y usi ng a

,

trai n of gears each gear but sl i ghtl y ell i pti c i n

, ,

p la ce of on e pa i r O f de c i dedl y elli pti c form Thus .

 Q U ICK RE T UR N MO T I O N S 325

a tra i n O f three gears hav i ng thei r long an d shor t

axes i n the proporti on requi red to gi ve a qui ck
return of 3 to 1 wi th on e pai r of gears wi ll gi ve
, ,

a qui ck return of 9 to 1 I f three gears of the 4 to

.

1 proporti on are u s e d a qu i ck return of 1 6 to 1

, .

w i ll result .

The se c on d di ffi c ulty i s that of c orrectl y cutting

the teeth To work properl y the teeth should be
.
,

c ut on a mach i ne havi ng a special elli pti c gear

c utti ng at tachment otherwi se the gears are li kel y
,

to be expen si ve an d unsati sfactory Such an e l li p .

ti c al gear cutti ng arrangement i s described an d ,

the subj ect of ell i pti c geari ng i s qui te full y di s

cussed i n G rant s treati se on geari ng Not bei ng
,
’
.

wi th i n the terri tory of thi s elementary treati se on

machi ne desi gn the subj e c t c annot here be dealt
,

w i th i n deta i l .
 C HA P T E R X XI
T HE TE CHNI Q U E OF M E C HAN I C A L DR A F TIN G
By C. WR
. ei n h a r dt

T HE p reced i n g chapters form as i t were a well

roun de d o utl i ne of a treatise o n the sub j ect O f ‘

M echani cal D rawi n g a n d M achin e D esi gn The .

di ff erent b ranches as desi gnated b y ch a p ter head

i n gs are c ompactl y y e t q uite com p rehensi vely
,

han dled T o the writer i t appe a rs however as i f

.
, ,

the i llustrat i ons were n ot exactl y d one j ustice t o ,

as i f i n some w a y t h e text m atter were i n deed wel l

han dled b ut that the accompan y in g i llustrat i ons
,

were more or less i n di ff erentl y treated an d s o me

what Sl i ghted . I n say in g t hi s the writer woul d
,

not at a l l t r y to i mpl y that the drawin gs i n q ues

t i o n were not correctly drawn He woul d o nl y
.

state that these i llustrations coul d i n every case

h a ve b ee n presented the same Size b ut a diff erent ,

treat m en t woul d enhance their le gib ilit y an d

g reatl y i m prove t h eir appearan ce I nstea d o f .

en graved lines an d p rinted letters an d nu m erals ,

each ou t shoul d co n sist of a redu ced facsi m i le O f

a n actual dr a w m g ; li n es drawn i n the i r relat i v e

thickness the letterin g also done b y han d as i t

, ,

shoul d b e o n a real drawi n g T O th i s st a tement

.

the O b j ectio n mi ght be ra i sed that the ord i nary

,

full Size drawin g does n ot len d itself read i l y f o r the

-

p urpose O f b oo k i llustrat i on Wh i le this m i g ht b e

.

32 6
3 28 SE F T A U GHT M E C HANICA L
L - DR A W ING
contrasted w i th F i g 2 2 0 where the Sha d e l i n es a r e
.
,
-

om i tted ; y e t the v is i b le out l i nes r e c e i v e q ui t e a

heav y ren deri n g SO as t o Show su ffic i e n t dI ff e r e n ce
o

between these an d the other class O f l i n es .

A warn i n g Shoul d b e gi ven here O r d in ary .

l i ght o utl i n es Shoul d never b e d rawn t oo l i g ht ;

alway s remember that n o matter h ow th i n the
,

line a sol i d ri d ge o f b lac k i n k Shoul d b e on t op of

,

it. N ever screw u p the rul i n g p e n s o t i ght tha t ,

the i n k will b e forced ou t u n dern eath the n i bs ,

thus c aus i n g gray l i nes whi ch w i l l n ot p ro p erl y

,

bluepri n t o r photo graph Av o i d als o l i nes Shown

.

u n der F i g 2 2 1
. . T he broke n l i nes Shoul d alway s

FI G . 22 1

co n si st of re gularl y Si z ed dashes or d ash -an d -d ots

wi th re gular s p aces b etwee n I n th a t r es p e c t
.
 T E CHNI Q U E OF ME C HANI CAL D RA F TI N G 3 29

th e careless draftsma n i s si n ni n g the most N ote .

F i g 2 22 As alread y stated o utline Shadin g c a n

. .
,

b e u sed o n asse m bled draw i n gs w i t h advanta ge as

i t ass i sts t h e e y e i n readi n g such a Sheet more

I n cor r e ct

Cor r e c t

FI G . 2 22

r ap i dl y . Shade li n es ,
ru l e shoul d be con
-
as a ,

Si d e r e d a substitute for actual Shadows c a st If .

th i s maxi m i s b orne i n min d i t wil l b e easy t o ,

determ i n e the locat i o n O f such li n es T he sh a de .

l i nes w i ll therefore b e alw a y s located on the o u t

, ,

s i de O i a n O b j ect whic h ord i naril y woul d cast a

,

s hadow Se e F i g 2 2 3
. Shadin g o f circles a n d
. .

Sh a de Li n es Sh a de Li n e s
Cor re ct Inc orre ct
FI G . 22 3

c i r c ular arcs m a y b e e ffected b y Sh ift i n g the centers

“
o f the c om p ass o r b o w p e n a tr i fle to the south
east as i n d i cated b y m i n ute c i rcles i n F i g 2 24
”
.
,

A an d B .
—
T a p eri n g Shade l i ne s are Shown some
what exa gg erated i n F i g 2 2 5 , Y Y wh i ch i s .
, ,

r eal ly elf ex p lanatory

s -
.

O bj ects wh i c h for so m e reaso n are

,
hown
S
3 30 SE L F - TAU GHT ME CHANI CA L DR AW ING
b roken cut ope n , s o as t o reveal i n teri o r p ar t s
or

an d arran gements , Shoul d b e co n s i ste n tl y s ect i o n

l i n ed. Sect i o n l i ne rulin g s houl d Show somewha t
-

th i n n er than ord i nary outl i nes a n d Shoul d further ,

more b e n ot drawn t o o close Some very c on .

_

v e n i e n t s y m b ols a n d sta n da r ds f o r s ect i o n -l i n i n g

FIG . 2 24 FI G . 22 5

’
are c onta i ned on P lates I to V of R e i nhar d t s
“
Ki nks an d Wrinkles
”
T here a complet e s e t
.

O f draftsman s s tan dards f or that class O f wor k i s

’

shown as well as d i rections for freehan d sect i o n

,

i n g where su ch i s needed as f or i nst an c e t o i n

, , ,

d i c a t e woo d earth rock gravel etc

, , , ,
.

Where thi n p arts of metal are i n di cated i n

section the same m a y b e s hown i n sol i d b lac k , as
,

a matter o f convenie n ce T h i s i s the ru l e i n .

structural draftin g L ar ger s urfaces i n c on junc

.

tion with these b lac k sect i ons are neverthel e s s

sect i o lined i n the re gular w a y
n -
.

C urved surface or c y l i n der Sha di n g m a y s o m e

t i mes b e u sed t o a dvanta ge e i ther f or a s pe c i al ly ,

fini shed drawi n g o r else t o denote roun de d s ur

,

faces O u a drawi n g wh i ch otherwi se cou l d n ot wel l

,
 CHAP T E R X XII
FR E E HAN D L E TTE R I N G FOR WO R K ING DR AWING S
T HE su bj ect letteri n g for Worki n g D rawi n g
of

has duri n g the last twent y y ears rece i ve d an

u nusual amount o f atte n tion T he co n sensus of
.

o p i nion as advanced b y a score o f text b oo k s u p on

,
-

t h e s ub j ect i s that the s o called on e stroke s t y le

,
- -

O f letterin g ori gi nall y devised an d p u b l i shed i n

,
“
R ei n hardt s L etterin g
’
i s the most p ract i cal
,
”

a n d eas i est constructed I n the p resent there

.
,

fore we Shall c on si der thi s on e st y le O f s c r ip t

,
.

F or a com p lete treat i se u po n the sub j ect we woul d , ,

of course refer the reader t o ab ove -men t i one d

,

b ook as l a ck o f Space forb i ds the p rese n tat i o n O f

,

an y thin g more tha n fra gme n tary i n ch a racter I t .

i s O f co urse u n derstoo d that g oo d l etteri n g o n a

, ,

p oorly executed drawi n g m ay b e a redeemi n g

feature a n d will make the Sheet p rese n ta b le
, ,

where a s o n t h e o ther han d a p oorl y lettere d draw

,

i n g n o matter h ow wel l executed otherwi se w i l l

, ,

surel y b e marred i n appearance SO i n o rder t o .

fac i l i tate the p roper p rac t i c e i n f orm I n g letters the ,

author d ev i se d a s y stem o f ar r ows a nd n u m erals ,

denot i n g d irect i o n as wel l as se q uen c e O f s tro k e ,

o n each letter or numeral B y follow i n g these

.

“
hi n ts faithfull y a g oo d han d i n l etter i n g w i l l ”

v ery soo n b e developed b y the stu de n t

We n atura lly woul d use p enc il g u i de-l in es for

.

3 32
 L E TTE R ING FOR WO R K I N G DR AW INGS 33 3

letter i n g ; for worki n g on transpare n t material ,

such as trac i n g p ap er or cloth w e emplo y ruled ,

cross sect i o n p a p er wh i ch woul d gi ve the Si zes O f

-
,

l etters as well as the vert i c a l Spac i n g T he .

g over n i n g p ro p ort i ons f or t hi s s ty le o f letteri n g are

3 t o 5 , i e , the s maller l ower-c ase letters such as
. .
,

r o r 11 Shoul d b e 3 u n i ts h i gh as a g ai n st the he i ght

, ,

o f t h e hi g her l ower— c ase s uch as l or h as well as , ,

the c a p i tal letters wh i ch are sup p osed to b e 5 uni ts

,
.

O rd in a ry l etteri n g o n a worki n g draw i n g Shoul d ,

as a m atter of fact never b e made less i n he i ght

,

tha n 1 3 i n ch f or s maller lower-case letters ; w h e r

1

ever p oss i ble however t hi s s i ze Shou l d b e doubled

, , ,

s o as n ot t o m a k e l etter i n g a p pe a r t o o cram p ed .

T h e s lant of t h e l etters Shoul d b e 1 hori zo n ta l to

2 % vert i cal .

We hav e arran ged the fol l owin g l etters i n

g ro up s SO as t o g i ve a p ro gress i ve arran g emen t as

fl
r e g a rds case i n c o n struct i on T he d ir ect i o n an d .

s e q ue n c e O f strokes i s i n di cate d b y arrows an d

n u merals . T h e downstroke O f letters Sh oul d

n e ver b e exactl y stra i g ht , b ut a very sli g ht reverse

A n m h r /p 4 7 k
4 7?
”5
3
"
Z? /f
Il
' Ua
"

44 7
1

FI G . 2 28

c e s d
/l @/
W
f t h z

0 5 25 3;
f

5 f
« 1
e
FI G . 2 29 FI G . 2 30
3 34 SE L F TAU GHT
-
M E CHAN I c AL D RA WING
curve suc h as Shown i n F i g 2 2 9 I n the next . .

g roup F i g 2
,
3 0 the g eneral
. Slant
,
o f the el l i p ses O f
the O c e an d O f the a an d d should b e contrasted
, , ,
.

°
The axes of the latter t w o are at a n an gle O f 4 5
wi t h the hori zo n tal whereas the axes O f the
'

f ormer are p arallel wi th the downstroke or 2 2 1

,

to 1 .C are Shoul d b e take n t o hav e the b as es o f

the a a n d d spread s u ffic i entl y SO as to gi ve a p ,

parent s ta b i l i t y I n grou p Fi g 2 3 1 the n umerals

. .
,

ggp b P J i t W

A M y ?

E IG . 23 1

Shown d eserve spec i al attention as the y are o f ,

so mewhat u n usual Shap e an d they shoul d b e v ery

carefully stu died an d practiced fa i t h full y u n t i l ,

stu dents work com p a r es well w i th ori g i nal s ho w n

’

here . T he capit a l letters Sho wn u n der F i gs 2 3 2 .

,

2 3 3 , 2 34 are q u i te easy t o i mitate an d p resen t n o

, ,

/L T f f 7 t K N hh 4
/ /
2 z

7 Vf
'

45
' - r
s

FIG . 232

V WX Z U YJ D B R
u W x22 /
f r y a :
3 as
FI G . 2 33
3 36 SE L F- AT U GHT M E CHANI CAL DR AWING

either vert i c al or slant i n g a c co n g ,

r di to i n d i v i d ua l
p reference .

T h e vert i cal l etteri n g F i g 2 3 7 i s c onstructe d

,
.
,

muc h after t h e s ame m anner as the i n cl i ned s t y le

in re g ard t o d i recti o n an d s e q uen ce O f s tro k e AS .

most draftsmen fi n d i t rather d i ffi cult t o eas i l y

draw t h e vertical letteri n g ( letters i nv ari abl y are
lean i n g forward to the ri ght i n stead of stan d i n g
, ,

a b c d e f g h l
j pqk l m n o r

s t u v w x
y z . 25 4 5 6789 0

AB C D E F G I J K LM N O P Q H
R S T U V WXYZ
F I G : 237

upri ght ) w e woul d advise to form the hab i t of

h a vi n g them le a n b ackwards ( to the left ) j ust a
tri fl e . T h e axis of the O i n th i s al p habet i s
absolutel y vert i cal ; same rule ap p l i es also to
letters b d g p q , , A Sim i lar s afe g uar d f or
, , .

g ettin g c lear Shar p corners

,
for the upr i g ht cap i tals ,

as i llustrated i n a p reced i n g fi gure woul d b e

to Sli ghtl y b en d the stems o f the letters esp e c i all y
the B D E F H L etc outward Where th i s
,

, ,
.
, , , , , .

i s ne glected some very p oor Shapes O f letters w i l l

result .

L etteri n g on worki n g drawi n gs Shoul d b e b ol d ,

clear an d uniform i n s ize an d the letterin g Shoul d ,

if p ossible , be ke p t cle ar O f t h e drawin g, th a t i s t o

 L E TTE R ING FOR WO R K I N G D RA WI N G S 3 37

s ay , the letteri n g shoul d never b e allowed t o r un

i n to the draw i n g or across i t
, . Thi s letterin g
shoul d b e s o p laced as to read from the b ase or
the ri ght han d Si de o f a drawi n g .

D i mens i ons Shoul d alway s be placed b etween

ce n ters O f d i me n s i o n lines a liberal space h a vin g
,

b een left O p en f or such Where however the .

, ,

Sp ace f or a d i mens i o n i s t O O sm a ll same should

,

b ol dl y b e placed outsi de an d a reference li n e

fro m i t r u n t o the resp ect i ve s p a ce .

Letteri n g o f t i tles i s usuall y do n e i n a somewhat

b ol der s t y l e tha n the ordi n ary descriptive m a tter
o n a drawi n g T h e r e lat i ve i mportance O f p ortions
.

of s u c h t i tles Shoul d b e b rou ght ou t b y so m ewh a t

lar g er an d heav i er letters as m a y be re q uired

,
.

I n n earl y every case a title Shoul d b e arr a n ged

,

sy mmetri call y aroun d a vertical center line

”
.

After the l ocati o n o f such a li n e hei ght an d ,

spac i n g o f the d i ff erent lines o f letters havin g b ee n

determ i n ed t h e s p aces e q u a l to the w i dth o f the
letters m a y b e m arked O ff wi th p encil o n the ed ge
o f a str i p O f p a p er an d the ce n ter o f a stri p p l a ced

on the v ert i cal ce n ter l i ne o f the title w i th i

,
t s

ed ge j ust b elow the line O f letters t o b e sketched .

T e l
h etters c a n the n b e p enc i led i n very ra p i dl y .

I f after all the s p ac i n g O f a li n e o f letters needs

, ,

read j ustment after the l etters are p encil ed i n the ,

ma tter m a y e a s i l y b e rectified b y workin g first

to t h e l eft ,
the n t o the r i ght o f the center .

In re g ar d to sp a c i n g o f letterin g s evera l m etho ds

hav e b ee n a dva n ced T h e writer however firml y
.
, ,

b el i eves i n tra i n i n g the dr afts m a n s e y e t o th a t

’

en d , a matter to b e accom p lished b y placin g

3 38 SE L F TAU GHT
- M E C HANI CAL WIN G
D RA

letters compos i n g a wor d as closel y as p oss i b le

a g ai nst eac h other an d liberal s p aces b e i n g al lowed
between words T he o p t i cal eff e c t of such a
.

li n e m a y b e stu d i ed b y hol d i n g the sheet so me

distance away Whe n p arts ap p eari n g t oo dar k i n
,

a word m a y b e rel i eved o r l i ghtened b y s p a c i n g

respect i ve letters a trifle fu r ther a p art I n th i s

.

w ay a sense o f self cr i t i cis m wil l b e devel o p ed an d

, ,
-

a hab it o f correctl y spac i n g the letters formed .

F or s pecimens o f t i tles the reader i s a gain

,

referred to a b ove ment i oned p ublicat i o n

- .
34 0 IN D E X
C ase f or ra d wi n g i n s t ru C o p p e r s t r e n g t h of c a s t 1 62 ,

fl
,

m e nt , 4 s C os e c a n t of a n an g l e 1 02 ,

C a t i r n , t r e n gt
s o s h of ,
1 57 C os i n e of a n a n g l e 1 01 ,

C a t i n g t r e e i n , 1 62
s s s ss s
,
C os i n e s t a b l e of 1 05
, ,

C a n ge ge a r , f o r c r e 0
h s s w C o t an ge n t of a n a n g l e 1 02 ,

t i n g , 302 C o t an ge n t s t a b l e of 1 07
C ou p l i n g Hook e s 263
, ,

C e c k o r c k n t , 24 8
h lo u s ,
’
,

ho d of
C r l d ci r c e , o of
e fini t i n ,
C ou p l i n g s 2 59 ,

12 C ou p l i n g s c l a m p 26 2
, ,

l
C i r c e , a r e a and ci r c umf er C ou p l i n g s a n ge 2 60
, ,

e nce of
,
92 C r a n k mo t i o n qu i c k r e turn
, ,

l of
C i r c e , a r e a , 83 31 3
l
C i r c e , ci r c umf e r e n ce of , 8
0 C r oss s e c t i o n i n g de vi ce 7
-
,

l d
Ci r c e e fini ti n , 1 1
,
o of C r oss s e c t i o n s of b e a ms 1 5 6
-
,

l
C i r c e , t o fi n d ce n t e r of a, C u b e p r o j e c t i o n s of a 39
, ,

19 C u b e r oo t 8 2 ,

l s
Ci r c e , ci r c ums
cri be d an d i n C u b e volum e of 94
, ,

s cr i be d20 ,
C u t t i n g s c r e w t h r e a ds g e a r ,

l s o
Ci r c e , c n ce n t r i c, 1 0 i n g f o r , 3 02
l s som
Ci r c e i n i e t r i c p r oje c l d o
Cy i n e r an d c n e , i n t e r e c t s
o
ti n , 48 i n g , 44
ul h
C i r c a r p i t c , 2 05 l d
Cy i n e r , volum of e , 94
ul s o of
C i r c a r e c t r , a r e a , 93 l d s s g
Cy i n e r , i n t e r e c t i n , 4 3
C i r c a r e g e n t , a r e a , 93
ul s m of lo d d o of
Cy c i , e fin i t i n , 1 5
C a p c p i n g , 2 62
l m ou l lo d d w
Cy c i , t o r a a , 27
lu h s f o o
C t c e , r i c t i n c n e , 26 9 lo d l g h
Cy c i a e a r t e e t , app r ox
C t c e , r i c t i n i k , 26 6
lu h s f o ds i m at esh of
a pe , 2 09

lu h s oo h d
C t c e , t t e , 26 5
om ss s
C pa e , 3
C p e e n t an g e , e fi n i t i n
om l m l d o
of , 1
1
om os o of fo s
C p i ti n r ce , 1 2 0 d dum of
De en ge a r t e e t , 1 93
h
C p n i e r ge a r 30 1
om ou d dl , o s of ms
D e fin i t i n te r , 10
C p n ge a r i n g f or c r e
om ou d s w D e gr e e , e fi n i t i n
d o of , 96

c t t i n g , 305
u D e t aild w s
ra i n g , 53
om ss o o f m h
C pr e i n ac i ne m l h
D i a e t r a p i t c , 20 7
p asr t ,
1 5 4 ff l ull s
D i e re nt i a p e y , 1 34
C p r e i ve t r e n gt
om ss s h of ma D i k c t c e , r i c t i n , 2 66
s lu h s f o
t e r i a l s , 1 58 D i e n i n on r a i n g , 56
m so s d w s
o
C n ce n t r i c ci r c e , 1 0 l s D ou l b e ca ms w h os it p i t i ve
o l d
C n e an d cy i n e r i n t e r e ct s u
r e t r n , 1 73
i n g , 44 D r a i n g , a e b y , 52
w s ss m l
C n e c t c e , an g e , 27 1
o lu h s l of D r a i n g b ar , 1
w o d
o lu h s f
C n e c t c e , r i c t i n , 2 69 o D r a i ng , c a e
w s l ss s of l s i n e on ,
o
C n e p e y , 2 39 ull s 55
o
C ne p ey ull s m hod of
,
et l ay D r a i n g , e t a i , 53
w s d l
i n g ou t , 242 D r a i n g , i e n i n o n , 56
w s dm so s
C on e , su r f a ce d e ve lo p m e n t D r a i ng i n tr
w s um se nt , 1
of a, 40 D r a i n g p ape r , 8
w
 IN D E X 34 1
D r a i n g pe n , th e use
w s of 7 , F r i c t i on d i s k c lu t c h e s 26 6
D r a i n g , e c t i n a vi e
w s s o l ws on
,

, Ful c um de fi n i t i o n of 1 26
r , ,
66 F l y Wh e e l e n e r gy of 2 90
-

D ra i ng ,
w r k i n g, 50
s wo
, ,

fl
F l y wh e e ls
-
f or pre sse s ,

pun c h e s e t c , 28 9
.
,

F l y wh e e l w e i g h t of 2 91
-
, ,

of s ws
E ffi c i e n c y cr e , 25 3

l o d o of
E e vat i n , e fini t i n , 33

fl
ll s
E i p e , are a of , 95
G e a r , c om p ou n d i dl e r , 3 01
ll s d
E i p e , e fini ti no of ,
14
G e a r , i n u e n ce of t h e i dl e r ,
ll s
E ip e , to ra d w an , 2 1
2 99
E i p t i c ge a r q i ck r e t r n
ll u u
mo ot i n , 321
G e ar q ic u k re t rn u mo o
ti n ,
E i p t i c ge a r r e t rn
ll u mo o ti n,
ll
e i p t i c , 32 1

l of
t a b e f o r l a y -ou t 324
h
G e ar te e t , a p p r i ox m
a t e

E n e r gy a n d wo rk , 1 46
,
sh ape ,
of2 09
E n e r gy of wh l
-
e e , 29 0
h l
G e a r t e e t , ay i n g
ou t i n v o
y lu te , 21 0
E n gi n e ,s ho s ow r e -p of er
Ge ar te e t , Le i h w s fo mul
’

s m
te a , 81
s
f or t r e n t g h of
r a

, 21 8
lo d d o of
E p i cy c i , e fi n i t i n ,
15
G e ar te e t , pi t c h h of 2 05
E p i cy c i a ge a r i n g , 1 9 1
lo d l ,

lo d l
E p i cy c i a an d olu i nv te
h o o o s of
G e ar t e e t , p r p r t i n ,

2 07
s s ms of
y te ge a r , c p a r i
s om h s
G e ar te e t , tre n t g h of , 21 3
s on b e t w e e n , 1 99
G e ar t e e t h s s ms om
E r a ing
s sh ld
ie , 9 y te ,
c p ari
s on et b w e e n , 1 99
G e ar t t , oo h hu g
n t i n , 2 09
oo
G e ar t th te r ms d fi o s
, e ni ti n
of , 1 93

F a c t o r of s a fe t y 1 5 1 , G e ar , t um b le r , 3 00
F a ll i n g b odi e s 1 4 2 , g b k
G e a r i n , a c , 3 09
F i n i sh i n g m a r k s on d r a w i n g s , g l ul
G e a r i n , c a c at i n g b
e ve , l
63 23 0
Fl a n ge c ou p l i n g s 2 60 , g l ul
G e ar i n , c a c at i n g
di m e n
Foo t p oun d de fi n i t i o n of 1 4 6
-
, , s o s of
i n ,
222
Fo r ce o f a b low 1 4 7 , g l ul
G e ar i n , c a c ati n g s u
p r ,
Fo r ce s o b l i qu e 1 24
, ,
222
Fo r c e s o p p os i n g 1 2 5
, , g
G e ar i n , c a c ati n l ul g wo m
r ,

Fo r ce s p a r a ll e l 1 23
, , 23 4
Fo r c e s r e sul t a n t of 1 20
, , g lo d l
G e a r i n , e p i cy c i a , 1 9 1
Fo r c e s r e solu t i on of 1 2 3
, , g s l of
G e a r i n f o r r e ve r a di r e c
Fo r mul a s a l ge b r a i c 7 9
, , o of mo o
ti n t i n , 2 99
Fo r mul a s t r an s p os i t i o n of 88
, , g
G e ar i n s w u
f or cr e c tti n , g
Fr e h a n d le t t e i n g f o r wo ki n g
e r r 3 02
d wi n gs 33 2
ra ,
G e ar i n , g g e ne r a l
pr i nci p e l s
F r i c t i o n c o n e c lu t c h e s 2 69 , of , 1 90

F r i c t i o n d i s k c lu t c h ho r s e , G e ari n , g wo m r , 2 04
p ow e r o f 26 7, s b l
G e a r , e ve , 202
34 2 IN D E X
G e ar s , i n t e r e r e n ce i n inf I n s t r um e n t c as e 4 ,

v olu t e , 1 98 I n v olu t e an d e p i cy c lo i d a l Sy s

fl
G e a r s , i n v olu t e , 1 96
'
t e ms of ge a r s c om p a r i so n ,

G e a r , k n c k e , 1 90
s u l b e t w e e n 1 99 ,

s m hod of d w i n g, 68 I n volu t e de fi n i t i o n of 1 5

fl
G e ar , et ra , ,

s o o o s of
G e ar , p r p r t i n , 2
13 In volu t e g e a r s 1 96 ,

G e ar , s sh oud d
r e , 2 01 I nvolu t e g e a r s i n t e r fe r e n c e ,

s s d
G e a r , pe e r at io of ,
22 0 i n , 1 98
s w
G e ar , t e nty d e g r e e i n vo I n volu t e g e a r tee t h l ay i n g
,

lu t e , 2 01 210
ou t ,
sw h d l
G e ar s
it ra ia an k , 1 95 olu
Inv te e ar g s ,
t we n t y de
sw h
G e ar it s t r e n g t h e n e d g
r e e , 20 1
a n k , 1 95
s ’

I n volu t e r ac k te e t h mod i fi e d
,

Ge om l o l ms
e t r i c a pr b e ,
17 fo r m of 1 9 7 ,

G r ve e ge c a
oo d d ms ,
1 72 I nvolu t e t o d r a w a n 2 7
, ,

u d ull s
G i e p l s
ey f o r b e t , 2 85 I r o n w i r e s t r e n g t h of 1 58
, ,

I som e t r i c p r o j e c t i o n 4 8 ,

H a r mo n i c mo t i o n c am c u r ve ,

1 81 Ki r k a l dy s s on s t r e n gt h
’
s te t
He i lx ,
to dr aw a, 47 of m a t e r i a ls 1 5 7
H e p t a g o n a r e a of
,

, ,
94 Kn u c k l e g e a r s 1 90
H e x a go n a r e a of
,

, , 94

H e x a go n d e fi n i t i o n of 1 4
, ,

H e x a go n t o d r a w a 1 9, ,

H o i s t i n g p ull e y s 1 32
Hook e s c ou p l i n g or u n i ve r s a l
,
’
L a t h e b a c k ge a r i n g 309 ,

j o i n t 263
, La t h e h an g g s
c e e a r , 3 02
H o r s e p ow e r 1 4 9
-
,
L a t h e c h an g g s s m l e e ar i p i .

H o s e p ow e r of b e l t i n g 2 77
r -
,
fi e d r ul e s l ul g f or c a c a t i n ,
H o s e p ow e r of f r i c t i o n c o n e
r -
306
c lu t c h 2 7 0 ,
L e ve r s 1 2 5 ,

H o r s e p ow e r of f r i c t i o n di s k
-
L e ve r s c om p ou n d 1 28
, ,

c lu t c h 26] , L e w i s fo r m ul a f or s t r e n g t h
’

H o s e p ow e r of sh a ft i n g 2 74
r -
,
of ge a r t e e t h 21 8 ,

H o r s e p ow e r of s t e a m e m
- L i n e de fi n i t i o n of 1 0
, ,

gi n e s 8 1 L i ne t o b i se ct a 1 7

fl
, , ,

H u n t i n g t oo t h 209 L i e s on d r a w i n g s c l a ss e s of
g5
, , ,

H yp o cy c lo i d de fi n i t i o n of 1 5, ,

H y p o t e n us e d e fi n i t i o n of 98, , L o ck or c he c k n u t s ,
24 8

I dl e r ge a r c om p ou n d 300 , ,
Ma c h i n e par t s sh a p e of 1 54
, ,

I dl e r ge a r i n u e n ce of t h e , , Ma c h i n e s c r e ws 25 7 ,

299 Ma c h i n e s t e e l s t r e n gt h of
, ,

l
Inc i n e d p l an e , 1 36 1 58
 fl
34 4 IN D E X
u
Re t rn mo o st i n , q i ck 3 1 3 u , Sh a r p V t h r e a d 2 5 4
-
,

s l of d
R e ve r a i re cti n o of mo Sh e a r i n g s t r e n g t h of m a t e
o s u
t i n , t o e c r e , 2 98 r i a ls 240 ,

R i g t - an g e t r i a n g e , 9 7
h l d l s Sh e a r i n g s t r e n g t h of sh a ft
i n g t o r s i o n a l 27 3
, ,

Sh e a r s y wh e e ls f o r p ow e r
,
-
,

28 9
Sh r oud e d g e a r s 201 ,

Sa fe t y f a c t o r of , 1 5 1
,
Si n e of a n a n g l e 1 01 ,

Sc a l e s , 2 Si n e s t a b l e of 1 04
, ,

Sc r e w c u t t i n g , g e a r i n g f or , Sol i d d e fi n i t i o n of, 1 0
,

302
Sc r e w , d i ff e r e n t i a l , 1 38
Sc r e w , i n m e c h a n i c s , 1 3 8
Sc r e w t h r e a d A c m e s t a n d
Sp e e d of b e l t i n g , 27 9
Sp e e d r a t i o of g e a r s , 22 0
Sp e e d r a t i o o f s p r o c k e t
,
wh e e ls 1 8 9 ,

a r d, 253 Sp e e d , t o s e cu r e i n c r e a s e of ,
Scr e w t h r e a d , fo r m of m e t 297
ri c, 2 56 Sj l l e r e , a r e a a n d v olum e of ,
Sc r e w t re a , h d sh a r p V 254 ,
gél
Sc r e v t re a h d W h i t wo r t h Sp h e r i c a l s e c t o r , v olum e of,
g
, ,

2s g4
Sc r e w t h r e a ds d r a w i n g , 74 , Sp h e r i c a l s e g m e n t , volum e
Sc r e w t h r e a ds t a b l e o f , of , 95
U n i t e d St a t e s s t a n d a r d , 24 6 Sp i r a l , t o d r a w a , 2 6
Scr e w t h r e a ds U n i t e d St a t e s , Sp r o c k e t wh e e ls , 1 8 5
s t an d a r d 24 5 , Sp r o c k e t wh e e ls , g r a p h i c a l
Sc r e w t h r e a ds w r e n c h a c t i o n , m e t hod of l ay i n g ou t , 1 8 7
on , 2 49 Sp r o c k e t wh e e ls , s p e e d r a t i o
Sc r e ws b ol t s a n d s t uds , 24 3
, of, 1 8 9
Sc r e ws d i m e n s i o n i n g , 62
, Spu r g e a r i n g , c a l cul a t i n g ,

Sc r e ws e ffi c i e n cy of 2 5 3
, , 2 22
Sc r e ws f or p ow e r t r a n sm i s Sp u r ge a r s m e t hod of dr a w
,

s i on 252
, i ng , 68
Sc r e ws m a c h i n e 25 7
, , Sq u a r e r oo t , 8 2
Sc r e ws s e t 2 5 6
, , Sq u a r e t h r e a d e d s c r e ws , 251
Sc r e ws s qu a r e t h r e a d e d 251 St c a s t i n g s , s t r e n g t h of ,
fg;
, ,

Se c a n t of a n a n g l e 1 02
’
,

Se c o n d d e fi n i t i o n of 9 7 St l s t re n gt h of m a c h i n e
i 5 fs
, , ae , ,

Se c t i o n s on d r a w i n g s 6 6 ,

Se t s c r e ws 256 St st g t h of s t r u c t u r a l
fgé
-
, , ren ,

Sh a d e l i n e s 7 7 ,

Sh a f t i n g ho r s e p ow e r of 2 74
,
-
, St e e l w i r e , s t r e n g t h of , 1 5 8
Sh a f t s 272 , St e p p e d c o n e p ull e y s , 23 9
Sh a f t s a t r i g h t a n g l e s b e l t , St r e n g t h of g e a r t e e t h 2 1 3 ,

i n g b e t w e e n 28 3 , St r e n g t h of g e a r t e e t h ,
Sh a f t s T hu r s t o n s r ul e f o r L e w i s fo r mul a f or , 2 1 8
’ ’
,

s t r e n gt h of 2 20 , St r e n g t h of m a t e r i a ls , 1 5 1
Sh a p e r s qu i c k r e t u r n mo
, St r e n g t h o f c m a t e r i a l s , Ki r k
t i o n f or 3 1 6 , a l dy s t e s t s on , 1 5 7
’
 IN D E X 34 5

St r e n g t h of m a t e r i a ls sh e a r
, T r an s p os i t i o n of fo r mul a s , 88
i n g , 260 T r i a n g l e a r e a of 9 1
, ,

St r e n g t h of sh a ft i n g t o r , T r i a n g l e s solu t i o n of 96
, ,

s i on a l sh e a r i n g 2 7 3 T r g on om e t r y , l m e n t s of
g
, e e ,
St e i g t h of sh a f t s t w i s t i n g
'

6
é7é
, ,

Tum b l e r ge a r 300 ,

St r e ss e s i n c a s t i n g s 1 62 , T w i s t i n g s t r e n g t h of sh a f t s ,

Stu ds s c r e ws a n d b ol t s , 2 4 3
, 2 72
Su p p l e m e n t a n g l e d e fi n i t i o n
,

of 1 1 ,

Su r f a ce de fi n i t i o n of
, , 10
U n i fo r m mo t i o n c a ms , 1 6 5
Un i fo r ml y a c c e l e r a t e d mo
ti on ca ms , 1 76
U n i t e d St a t e s s
t an dar d s cr e w
T an ge n t de fi n i t i o n of 1 3
, ,
h r e a d 24 5
t ,

T a n ge n t of a n a n g l e 1 0 1 , U n i ve r s a l j o i n t , 263
T a n ge n t t o a c i r c e , t o r a l d w
a, 19
T an ge n t , t ab e s l of
,
1 06
T e c n i q e o f e c a n i ca r a t
h u m h ld f
i n g, 3 26 V -T h r e ad sh a r p 2 54
, ,

so
T e n i n i n b e t , 276 l s V e r t e x of a n g l e de fi n i t i o n

fl
,

Ten i n, so m h
ac i ne p ar t b s su of 1 0
,

j e c t e d t o ,
1 54 V i e ws o n wo r k i n g d r a w i n g s ,

T i ck n e
h ss of l s b e t , 2 77 n um b e r of 5 0 ,

h
T re a , A c d m s e t an a r d d V olum e of sol i ds 94 ,

s cr e w
, 253

T r e a c t t i n g , ge a r i n g f or ,
h d u
30 2
h
T re a , d fo m of m
r e t r i c cr e ,
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 IND E X
Ab r asi ve s a n d Abr a si ve Wh e ls e a h Wo k
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Acci d t s en k o o s
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e L ti e re n
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ti e E n i n e eri n g
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.

n e s M h i ni t
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.

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r e r e en t
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.

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n r n i g ra s
 CATAL O G U E O F G O O D , PRACTI CAL B O O K S

AU T O M O B I L E S
THE MO D E R N GA SO L IN E A U T O M O B IL E — I T S D E SI G N , C O N ST
TI O N M AIN TE NANC E AND R E PAI R B y VI CT O R W PAG E M E
, .
,
T h e la t e s t a d mos t compl e t e t a t i s e t h G asoli e A u t omob i l e e v e i ssu e d
.

n re on e n r
mpl e la guag e b y a e cog n i z d au t ho i t y fam i li a w i t h e ve y b a ch f t h
.

i n Si n r e r r r r n O
mob le d us t y F e e f om t ch i cal t ms E v e y t hi g i e xplai d so
,

i in
t hat a y o e of av e ag
t l l ge c
r r r e n er r n s
ne
m a y gai a comp h e si ve k owl dg e
. .

n i n r e n e i n e n re n n e
g a o h e au t omob le T h e n fo ma t i o up t — dat e a d i clud e s i add i t i o
.

s n i i i r n s - o n n n n
e xpos t o Of p ci pl s of co s t uc t i o n a d d sc i p t i o O f ll t y p s O f aut omobi l
.
.

i i n ri n e n r n e r n a e
t he r c o m p oi t v a l u a b l e mo y sa vi g h i t s o
nen ths ca d p at i o of ne - n n n e re an O er n
ca s p op ll d b y t e al combus t i o
r r e e gi s A mo g som of t h subj c t s t
n
in rn n en ne n e e
gh
e
e me n t o e d T o p e do a d o t h e s y mm t i cal bod y fo m s d s i g d to
m
.

it b i n : r n r e r r e ne
a i r res s t a c ; sl ve valve ot a y v a lve a d o t h t y p s of si l t m o t o s : i c
.

i n e ee r r n er e en r n i
e d e n c y t o favo r wo m g a po w r t a smi ssi o u i ve sal appl i cat i o of m
.

t n r - e r e - r n n : n r n
ign t o : d ve lopm t of aut o m ob i l e l c t i c li gh t i g s y s t m s ; block m o t o s ;
i i n e en e e r - n e r
slu g chass s ; appli ca t i on O f p ac ti cal s lf st a t s ; lo g s t ok e a d off s t c
n i r e -
r er n r n e
mo t o s ; lat e st au t omat i c lub i ca t i o s y st m s ; s i l e t chai s f o valv O p at i
r r n e n n r e er
cha g e sp e e d g e ari n g ; t h e u e of f o t w h l b ak s a d ma y o t h e d e t ai l fi e
n -
s r n ee r e n n r re n
B y a ca ful s t ud y of t h e pag e s O f t h i s book
re c gai p ac t i cal k owl dg e on e an n r n e 0
mob le co s t r uc t o t hat wi ll sav t i m e mo y a d wo y T h book t lls y
i n i n e ne n rr e e
what t o do h o w a d wh e n t o do i t N o t hi g has b e omi t t e d o d t ai l ha
, .

n n en n e
E v y pa t of t h e au t omob i l qui pm t acc e sso i s t ools u
. .
,

s h gh t ed it er r e, s e en r e s
spar e par t s e c ssa y e t c have b di scuss d comp e h e si v ly I f y o u
.
, , ,

n e r een e r n e
i t e d t o b ec om e a mo t o i s t s t e d i t h e mod G
, .
, .

n n o i a y w y i t r r a re n n a n ere n e rn
A u t omob l t hi s i a book y ou ca o t aff o d t o b e w i t hou t 1 0 3 2 pag s
,
.

i e, s nn r e
mo e t ha w a n d sp e ci all y m ad d t ai l i llus t a t i o s as w e ll as m a y f u
.

r n ne e e r n n
a d d o u b 1e pag pla t e s show i g all pa t s of t h e au t omobi le I clud i n g 1 2
,

n - e
_ n r n
foldi n g pla t e s N e w E di t i o P i ce
, .

. n . r

WHA T I S SA I D O F T HI S B O O K
I t i s t h e b e s t b oo k o t h e A u t omob i l e s up t o dat e — J H P i l e A ssoci at e n een . . . ,

A u tomobi l e T r a d e J ou a l rn .

E v e ry A u t omob i l e O wn e r has u s e f or a b ook of t hi s cha ac t e r

“
T h e T r a d es n r .
-

T hi s book i sup i o t o a y t e a t i h e e t of o e pub l i sh e d on th e sub j e c t ’

s er r n r se r r .

I n ve n ti ve A ge .

We kn ow O f o o t h e r volum e t hat i so compl e t e i n a l l i t s d e par t m e t s

n d i s n an n
t h e wi d e fi ld of au t omob i l e co s t uc t i o wi t h i t m cha cal—i t i caci e s i so
,

e n r n s e ni n r s
ha dle d bo t h i t h e t e x t d i n t h e mat t of i llus t at i o s
n . n T h e M oto i s t an er r n . r .

T h e boo k i s v e y t ho ough a ca e ful xami a t i o fai l i g t o d i sclos e y p

r r r e n n n an
e cz t i o n wi t h t h e a u t omob i l e i t s ca e pa i r t o hav e b e e n ov er look
,

d
gron /l ge
o nn , re an r ,

M Pa g e has do e a g e a t wo k a d b e e fi t t o t h e A u t omob i l e Fi e ld
r n r r n n
Hasfo d M g Y M C A A u t omob i l e School B os t o M ass
. , .

r , r . . . . . , n, .

I t i j us t t h e ki d of a b oo k a mo t o ri s t n e ds i f h e wa n t s t o u n d e r s t an d h i s 0
s n e
A me r i ca n T h res h er m a n .

T HE M O D E R N M O T O R TR U CK I_T S D E SIGN , , C O N STR U C TI O N , OP

T I O N AND R E PAIR PAG . B y V I CT O R W E . .

J us t off t h p ss n d t e a t s o n all t y p e s of mo t o t uck s a d i n dus t r i al t c t o

e re a r r r n ra
t ai l e s
r I t co s i d e s all t y p s of t ucks gasol i e a d e l c t i c a d all va i
r n r e r n n e r n r e
t r uck bo d i e s T h i s book i w i t t i la guag e e v e y o n e c u d s t a d
. , ,

s r en n n r an n er n

y s s O f t h e wo d a t chn i cal t e at i s e I t i a p ac t i cal volum e t h

.

n ot i n an en e r e r s r
mak e sp e ci al app e al t o t h e t uck d i v w h s e ks t o b e t t e h i posi t i o a n d
.

r r er o e r s n
m e cha i c cha g d wi t h t h e e pai a d upk e e p of t ucks T h e fac t o y o b
n r e r r n r r r l
x e cu t i v w h o wa t s t b t ai a compl e t e wo ki g k owl e dg e of t uck o p
.

e e n o O n r n n r e
p obl e ms wi ll fi d t h s book a f e c wo k f g e at valu T h t uck l
r n i re er n e r O r e e r sa esn
aut omobi l e d e al wi ll fi d t ha t t hi s wo k co t ai s i fo mat i o t ha t m a s
.

er n r n n n r n e n
t o t he m A ll ga ag d s vi c e s t a t i o m should have a cop y O f t hi s b
r e an er n en O
r e fe e n c e b e ca u s e t uck co s t uc t i o d i ffe s f om pass e g e ca d e si g i ma
.

r r n r n r r n r r n n
ta t r sp c t s A y o e w h o e ads t hi s book i i t ouch wi t h all t h p
n re e n n r s n e r
e a t u r es t ha t hav e b n t e s t d out i e al s e vi c e 1 9 2 1 E di t i on C lo t h
.

ee e n r r

9 6 2 p a ges 7 5 0 i ll us t r a t i o n s P ri c e
. .
,

.
,
 CATAL O G U E O F G O O D , PRACTI CAL B O O K S

IE M O D E L T O RD CA R I T S C O N ST R C T I O N ,
O E R A TI O N AND F U P
R E AIR , INC L D ING T HE F O R D SO N AR M TR AC T O R ,
,
P A L IG HT U F F . .

ING AN D STAR T ING SY STE M , O RD M O T O R TR CK B y V I CT O R F U .

W E
. PAG .

T hi s i s th e mos compl
t ete and p ac cal s uc o b ook v publ sh d
r ti i n tr ti n e er i e on t h e Fo d
r

c a r a n d F o rd s on t r ac o A ll pa s of
t r rt F o d od l
th e r M e T c a r a n d F or d s on t r t r ac o
d sc b d llus a d a comp h s v ma co s uc o
.

a re e ri e and i tr te in re e n i e nner The n tr ti n i s

fu a d op a g p c pl mad cl a v o ompl s uc o s
.

ll y t r e t e and er ti n ri n i e e e r t o e er
y ne C e t e i n tr ti n
d v g pa g gv v s d d o ma has b
.

f or r i i n a nd re i ri n are i en T o th e N ew R e i e E i ti n tt er ee n
add d F o d uck ac o o v s o s G u ac o
.

on t h e r Tr and T r t r C n e r i n Se t a n d e n i n e F o r d s on T r t r
full xpla d W
e
A ll pa s d sc b d A ll pa p oc ss s llus a d
.

rt a re e ri e re ir r e e i tr te and y e i ne ri t t e n
so all u d sa d h o gu sswo k vs d la g d d o
.
.

ca n n e r t n — n o t e ry no e r N e w re i e a nd e n r e E i ti n
j us pub sh d lu a o s pag s la g fold g pla s P c
.
,

t li e 1 5 3 i l s tr ti n 4 10
.
e 2 r e in te ri e , , .

T O M O B ILE ST AR T ING L IG HT ING AND I G NI T I O N SY STE M S ,

By .

V I CT O R W PAG E M E .
,
.

T hi s p ac t i cal volum has b e n w i t t

r w i t h sp ec i al r f en c t o t h e e q u i e m en t s of th
e e r en e er e r r e

no t ch i cal
n- e ad d s i i g as i ly u d s t ood xpla a t o y mat t
n re er e e la t i g t
r n all e n er e n r er , r n o

t yp e s of au t omob i l i g i t i o s t a t i g d li ght i g s y s t ms I t c n b e u d s t ood b y

,

e n n r n an n e a n er
a yo v wi t hou t le c t i cal k o w l dg b caus e l m t a y l c t i cal p i n ci pl s a e
.
.

n ne , e en e r n e e e e e en r e e r r e r
co i d e d b fo y a t t mp t i mad t o d i scuss f at u s of t h e vari ous s y s t ms
,

ns er e re an e s e e re e
T h s bas i c p i c i pl s e cl a l y s t a t d d i llus t a t d w i t h s i mpl d i ag am
.

e e r n e ar e A l l th e
r e an r e e r s .

l ea d i n g s y te ms of ta ti n g l i gh t n g a n d i g i t on h a v b n d s c i b d
s s r n d i l l u s t a t d w i th i n i e ee e r e a r e
Wi i g d i ag ams a e
,

th e co p a ti on of th
-o er xp t e mp l o y e d b y th e m uf a ct u er e er s an re s r n r r
how i bo t h t ch i cal d o t c h n i cal fo ms A ll s y mbols full y xplai d I t
.

s n n e n an n n- e r are e ne
i a comp h s i v vi w of mod e s t a t i n g d i gn i t i o s y s t m p ac t i c d i clud s
. .

s re en e re e rn r an n e r e an n e
a compl e t xpos i t i o of s t o ag b t t y co s t r uc t i on ca e d pai A ll t y p e s of
,

e e n r e a er n r an re r
s t a t i g mo t o s g e a t o s mag t os a d all i g i t i on o li ght i g s y s t e m u n i t s a e
. .

r n r en r r ne n n r n r
ful ly xplai d T h s y s t e ms f ca s al ad y i u as w ll as t hos e t hat e t o com e
, , ,

e ne e O r re n se e ar
co n i de d E v y p o i n th a u t m bi l e b u i s eed th i v l ume 5 % 7 l
.

a re s re er er s n e o o s n es n s s o x é
C lo t h 8 1 5 pag s 4 9 2 i ll u t a t i o s 3 fold i g pla t e s N e w e vi s e d a d e l a g e d
. . .

e s r n n r n n r
e di t i o P i ce
. , ,

n . r

SO L INE AN D KE R O SE NE CAR B URE T O R S C O N STR U C T I O N IN , ,

ST ALLAT I O N AN D AD JU ST M E N T B y V I CT O R W PAG E A n e w up . . .

t o-d a t e B oo k on M od e r n C a r b u r e t i o n Pr a c t i ce .

T hi s i a s i mpl e comp e h e si ve a n d aut ho i t at i ve t e at i s e f r pr act i cal m e n e x n

'

s r r r o
plai i g all basi c p i ci pl s p t ai i g t o ca bu t i o showi g how li qui d fu ls a e
, ,

n n r n e er n n r re n, n e r
vapo i z d d t u e d i t o gas f p a t i g all t y p s of i t al combus t i o e gi n e s i
r e an rn n or O er n e n ern n n h
t e d d t o O p at e
n e vapo s of gasoli k os er b zol d alcohol A ll l e adi n g t y p s
on r ne , er en e . en an e
of ca bu t o s d e sc i b d i d t ai l sp ci al at t t i o b e i g g i v t o t h fo ms d vi s d
, .

r re r are r e n e e en n n en e r e e
t h e ch e ap fu ls such as k e os C a bu t i o t oubl s fu l s y s t e m t oubl s
,

t u o se er e r ene r re n r e e r e
ca bur e t o pai s d i s t allat i o l ct i c p i m s d co omi z s h ot spot mani
. , .

r r re r an n n e e r r er an e n er
folds a d all mod ca bu t o d ve lopm e t s co si d d i a t ho ough ma
, ,

n ern r re r e n are n e re n r nn e r
M e t hods O f adjus t i g all t y p s of ca bu t o s full y di scuss e d as w e ll as u gg e
.

n e r re r are s s
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or e r n e n an n e en n r
T hi s book i i valuabl e t pai m st ud t s d mo t o i s t s as i t i n clud s t h e
.

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, , ,

e i n n r en r re r e er s e r n
showi g ca b u t o co s t uct o mad f om accu at e e gi e i g d es i g s d
.
.

n r re r n r i n are e r r n ne r n n an
s how all pa t s of la t e t y p s of ca b u e t o sr 2 1 3 pag s 8 9 i l lus t a t i o s e r r r . e . r n .

AN D T I P S F O R AU T O M O B IL I ST S B y V I C T O R W PAG E . . .

T h e book i i d al f o r t h bus y m s o woma who wa t s t o k ow abou t c r

e e t i on an r n n n
au t omobi l e i i n t Iii g e t l y
a 0 e ra
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n p b e caus of t h co om i e s possi bl wh
ee e e e n e en an s e n
op a t d I t co t ai s ma y mo y savi g hi t s a d a b i e f si m ple e xposi t i o f
er e n n n ne - n n n r n O
l oca t i o m d y O f oads i d e t oubl s a p t t o occu un d e r o r di n a y op e at i n g
.

a d n n re e r r e r r r
c on d i t i o n s P i ce . r 7 5 ce n t s
 CATAL O G UE O F G O O D , PRACTI CAL B O O K S

HO W T O AN AU T O M O B ILE B y VI CT O R W PAGE
R UN . . .

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re es t a t i g d ru m g all mak s of g
e n e n r or r n an n n e
aut omobi l s how t ca f t h m n d g v s d st ct v f at u s of co t ol
e o re or e a i e i in i e e re n r
sc i b s v y s t p f shi ft i g g a s co t olli n g g m t A mo g t h h
.
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co t ai d 1 A ut omobi l P a t s d T h — F un ct o s I I G
.
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n ne are : al St e r an ei r i n e n er
d D i vi g I s t uc t i o s I I I C o t ol Sy s t ms Ca f A u t omob l s T ho
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.

an r n n r n n r e re O i e rr

i llus t at e d 1 7 8 pag s 7 2 i llus t a t o s P c

.
. .

r . e . r i n . ri e

T HE AUT O M O B IL I ST S P O CKE T C O M PANI O N AND E XPE N SE RE C ’

B y V I CT O R W PAGE . .

T hi s b oo k i t o l y valuabl as a co v i t cost co d b t co t ai s mu
s no n e n en en re r u n n
fo mat i o f value t o mo t o i st s I clud s a co d e s d d g e s t O f aut o laws
,

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St at s a lub i ca t i o sche dul hi n t s f or ca e of s t o ag e bat t e r y a n d ca e O f
.

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. .

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a n d ma n y us e ful t abl e s ec i p s of i t e e s t t o all mo t o s t N ot a t e
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book i n n y s e s e O f t h wo d jus t a coll ct i on of p r ac t cal fact s i n mpl e l a n
a n e r e i
.

Si
f or t h e e ve y d y mo t o i s t C o n v e i e n t pock e t z e P ce
.

- Si ri
r a r . n .

AUT O M O B IL E WE LD IN G W I TH T HE O XY-AC E T YL E NE FLAM E .

M KE I T H D U N HAM
. .

E xplai s i a s i mpl e man n appa at us t b e us d i t ca a d how t o o

n n er r o e s re n c n
c ssa y shop q ui pm t P oc ds t h n t t h act ual w ld g of all aut o
, ,

ne e r e en r ee e o e e i n
pa t s i a ma u d s t a dabl b y v y o G v s p c pl s v e t b
.

r n nne r n er n e e er ne i e ri n i e ne r o
got t T hi s book i of ut mos t valu s i c t h p pl x g p obl ms
.
,

en mg s e, n e e er e i n r e a ri s
m t al i h at d t a m lt i g poi n t ful ly xpla n d d t h p op e m e t h
.

e s e e o e n ar e e i e an e r r
ov com t h m shown 1 6 7 pag s F ully i llust at e d P c
er e e . e . r . ri e .

UT O M O B I LE , A V I AT I O N AN D M O T O R C Y CL E CHA
AVIATI N C HAR T L O CATI O N O F AIR
O — PL ANE P O WE R PLAN T TR O U
M AD E E A S B y M JO R V I C T O R W Y . A . PAG E A S ,
. .
,

A la g cha t ou t lir e r ni n g all pa t s O f a t y p i cal a i pla e pow e plan t showi g t h e

r r n r n
wh ubl i t o occu n d sugg s t i g e m di e s f o t h e commo n d fe c t s
,

ere t ro e s apt r a e n r e r e
end ed e sp ci all y f or avi at o s d avi at i o m cha i cs n school a d fi e l r
{ic é
e r an n e n o n
D
r e 3

C H AR T . GA SO LINE E NGIN E TR O UB LE S M AD E E A SY— A C HAR T SH

I NG SE C T I O NAL VI E W O F GA SO L IN E E NGIN E C om p i l e d b y v] .

W PAG E M E .
, .

I t shows cl a l y a ll pa t s of a t y p i cal fou r—

e r cy l i n d r gasol i e e n gi n e of t h e four
r e n
t y pe I t out l i s di s t i c t l y all pa t s li abl t o g i ve t ouble a d also d e t ai ls t
ne n r e r n
a g m t s a p t t o i t e f wi t h smoo t h g i O p a t i o n
.

r n e en n r e re en ne er
V aluabl e t s t ud e t s mo t o i s t s m cha i cs— pai m ga ag e m e n au t omob i l
.

o n r e n re r en, r e
chau ff u s mot o boa t ow s mo t o t uck d t ac t o d i v s avi a t o s
, , , ,

m en , e r r ner r r an r r r er r
c y cl i s t s d all o t h s w h hav t o do w i t h ga ol i powe r pla t s
, , , .

an er o e s ne n
I t s i mpli fi s loca t i o O f all g i t o u b l s d wh i l i t wi ll p ov i n valuabl e
. .

e n en ne r e an e r e
n ov i c b us d t o adva t ag b y t h m o xp t I t shoul d b e o t h w
,

it c e. an e e n e e re e er n e
v e y publi c d p i va t e ga a ut o mo b i l p ai shop lub hous school
.

e r an r r g
e, a e re r c e or
ca i d i n t h au t omob i l pock t w i t h as a d wi l l i n su e aga i s t loss 0
, .

h e rr e e e or e e e, n r n
wh g i t ou b l m i f t i t e l f
en en ne r e an es s
‘

s
T hi s s c t i o al v i w of e g i i a co m pl e t e r e vi w of all mo t o r t oubl e s
.

e n e It i p e
n ne s e r s r
b y a p ac t i cal mo t o i s t f all who mo t o M o i fo mat i on f o t h mon y t h
.

r r or r re n r r e e a
b fo e offe e d N O d e t ai ls om i t t e d Si z e 2 5 3 8 i ch s Se cu e ly mai l e d o r
.

e r r x n e r n
O o o o
. . .

Of 0 0 0 o 0 o o o o 0 0 o o o o

6
 CATAL O G UE O F G O O D , PRACTI CAL B O O K S

C H AR T L O CA TI O N O F F O R D E NGIN E TR O UB LE S M AD E E A SY
. .

p l e d b y V I CT O R W PAG E M E
i .
, .

T hi s shows cl ar s e c t i o al vi e ws d e p i c t i g all po t i o n s O f t h e F o d pow e pla

e n n r r r
auxi li a y g oups I t o ut li s cl a l y all pa t s of t h e g i fu l supply s y s t m
r r ne e r r e n ne , e e
t i o g ou p d cool i g s y s t e m t ha t e a p t t o gi v t oubl d t ai li g all d a g e
.

n r an n ar e r e, e n er n
t hat l i abl t mak e g i e los pow s t a t ha d wo k i g ula l y
,

are e o an en n e er, r r or r rre r

cha t i val uabl e t s t ud t s ow s a d d i v s as i t s i mpl i fi s locat i o f all
.

r s o en n er n r er e n O
faul t s O f g a t adva t a g e as a i s t uc t o f o t h e ovi c e i t b us d qu l ]
, ,

re n n n r r r n ca n e e e a
b y t h e mo xp t as a wo k O f f c vi w I t b ca i d i
. ,

re e d er tl r r e ere n e an re e can e rr e n i
b ox o pock e t wi t h e as d wi ll sav i t cos t i labo l i m i a t d t h fi s t t i m
.

r e an e s n r e n e e r e
t oubl ma i f s t s i t s lf P pa d wi t h sp c i al f c t t h av ag ma '

r e n e e re re e r e ere n e o e er e n s
a p ac t i cal vi e w of all mo t o t oubl s b caus i t i bas e d
.

a d i
n s r re th t r r e e e s on e ac t

pe i of aut omob i l e g i
r e nc e m cha i c wi t h t h m cha i s m t h cha t d
an e n n e e r- e n e e n e r es
I t e abl e s t h
n t ch i cal ow op at o O f a F o d
e n on- e t loca t gi n n er or er r r car o e en
r a g e m e t s b y s y s t e ma t i c s a ch gui d d b y
n n as i ly cog i z d s y mp t o m s i s t ad e r e e re n e n e
gu sswo k I t mak s t h e av e ag ow i d p d t of t h oads i d p i
,

e r e r e ner n e en en e r e re a i
wh n t ou i g M us t b s app ci at d Si z e 2 5 3 8 i ch s P i t
.

e r n to b e een e re e x n e r n
h e avy bo d pap r P i c
. . .

n e . r 35 e

C H AR T L UB R ICA TI O N O F T HE M O T O R CAR C HA SSI S Co m p i l

. .

VI CT O R W PAG E M E .
,
.

T hi s cha t p s t s t h e plan v i e w of a t y p i cal i

r re en c y li d chass i s of s t a da d s x- n er n r

a n d all pa t s a e cl a l y i d i ca t d t ha t d ma d
r r i l also t h f qu c y W t h w h l
e r n e e n O e re en i i c
mu s t b lub i cat d a d t h e k i d of i l t u A p ac t i cal cha t f o all t
,

e r e n n O o se r r r in eres
mot or c r mai t e a c Si z 2 4 3 8 i ch e s P ic
.

- a n n n 35
e . e x n . r e

C HAR T L O CAT I O N O F CAR B UR E T I O N TR O UB LE S M AD E E A SY

.
.

p i l e d b y V I CT O R W PAG E M E .
,
.

T hi s cha t shows all pa t s O f a t y p i cal p ssu

r f d fu l su ppl y s y s t m a d r re re ee e e n
caus e s of t oubl how t locat e d e f c t s d m a s of m d y g t h m S z
r e, o e an e n re e i n e i e

i n ch e s P i ce
.

. r 35

C HAR T L O CA TI O N O F IGNI TI O N SY STE M TR O UB LE S M AD E

.

C om p i l e d b y V I CT O R W PAG E M E .
,
.

I n t hi s d i ag am all pa t s O f a t y p i cal doubl e i g i t i o s y st e m us i g ba t t ry a d m

r r n n n e n .

cu e trr n how a d sugg s t i o s

are S gi v f ad ly fi d g g t o t u b
n n e n are en or r e i n in i ni i n ro

e li mi n a t i g t h e m wh e foun d Si z 2 4 3 8 i nch s P i c
,

n n 35 . e x e . r e

C H AR T L O CAT I O N O F C O O L ING AND LUB R ICAT I O N SY STE M FA

.

C om p i l e d b y V I CT O R W PAG E M E .
,
.

s compos d ag am shows a p cal au omob pow pla us g ump c c

fl
i i
T hi i t e i t y i t i l t r t p e er n n r
wa t e cooli g s y s t e m d t h mos t popula lub ca o m t hod G v s sug g
r- n an e r ri i n e i e e
cu g all ov h a g loss of pow faul s faul ac o of
.

i t i a d e t d ue t t y t t h n r o i n e
f or r n e e r n

or cooli n g g oup S i z e 2 4 3 8
r i ch e s P i c e
.
8 5
x n . r

C HAR T L O CA
.
T I O N O F S T A R T IN G A N D L IG HT ING S Y ST E M FA
The mos t compl e t e cha t y e t d e v i s d sh owi n
g all pa t s f t h e mod ut r e r O ern a Oi
s t a t i n g li gh t i g d i g i t i o s y s t ms g v g s t uct o s f s y st m at c local
,

n an n n e i i n in r i n or e i

all fault s i wi i n g lamps mo t o o g e at o sw t ch s d all o t h u t s I

r ,
,

r r ner r, i e an er ni
n r
abl e t o mot o i st s chauffe u s d e pa m e n S z 2 4 3 8 ch s P c
.

, ,

r ,
35 r an r ir . i e x in e . ri e

C HAR T . M O TO R C Y C LE TR O UB LE S M AD E E A SY . C om p i l e d b y V
W PAG . E, M E .

sh wi s c t i o al V i w of a s i gl c y li d e gasol i e g i T h i s e n e- n r ne n ne

nffi
n

g b
e
g
n
i g all po pla oubl s A s gl c l d mo o sho
.

l
i f w t t y t r- r e i n e- in er r i s
l l t n e O n
s i mpli ci t y I t out li e s d i s t i c t l y all pa t s l abl t g v t ouble d also d e t a
c s a .

n n r i e o i e r an
d e a g e m e t s a p t t o i t e f e w i t h smoo t h e g e op e a t o
.

n n T h s cha t W l l
r er n in r i n i r i

valu n
all hav do w h op a o pa sal of mo o c cl
.

r
w h t i t t h t n e to y e er i re i r or r es
of e t o o e
m d z ch s c
,

d e t ai l s o i t t e S i e 3 0 x 2 0 i n .
P i e 3 5 e . r

7
 A V IA T I O N
B C O F AVIATI O N B y MAJO R VI CT O R W PAG E . . .

T hi s book d sc i b s t h e bas i c p i ci pl s of avi at i o

e t e l l h o w a b alloo n or d i i gi b l e
r e r n e n s r
i mad d w h y i t float s i D sc i b s how n a pla I t show s i n
,

s e th
an i fi n e a r e r e a ir ne i es
d t ai l t h di ff t pa t s of ai pla e what t h y wha h y do Desc b
. .

e e a
e re n d t t r an r n e are n e ri es
all t y p s of ai pla s d how t h y d ff i co s t uct o ; as w ll as d t a l g t h e
.

e r ne an e i er n n r i n e e i i n
adva t ag s d di sadva t ag s of di ff
n e t typ san f a c aft It clud e s a compl t n e e ren e O i r r i n e e
d i c t i o a y of avi a t i o ms d cl a d awi n gs of l ad g a pla s T h ad
.

n t r n er an e r r e in i r ne e re er
w i ll fi d s i mpl i s t uct i o u packi g s t t i g up i gg g a pla s A
.
.

n f e d n r ns or n n e n an r in ir ne
full d sc i p t i o f ai pla co t ol p i ci pl s i gi v d m t hods of fl y i n g a
.
, ,

e r n O r di ne n r r n e s en an e re s
c us s e d t l gt h a en .

T hi s b ook a sw e s v y qu s t i o c n as k a b ou t m d
n a i c aft
r t he i r c n
e er e n on e a o ern r r o
s t uct i o p at i o A s lf duca t o av at o W t hou t qual 2 7 4 pag s
,
o

r d n an O er n e -
e r on i i n i an e e
1 3 0 sp ci all y mad i llus t a t i o s W t h 7 pla t s P c
. . .

e e r n i e . ri e

VI A I
T O N E NGIN E —
S D E SIGN ; C O N STR U C T I O N ; RE PAIR . By MAJO R
V I CT O R W E, A S , . PAG . .

T i h s a s e w i tt e n b y a e cog i z e d aut ho i t y on all O f t h e p act i cal a sp e ct s O f

tre t i r r n r r
al combus t i o e g i n co s t uct i o mai t a ce n d pai fills t h e d s
,

i nt e rn n n e n r n n en n a re r, nee a
o t h book do s T h mat t i logi cally a a g d ; all d sc i p t i v ma t t i
, ,

n o er e e er s rr n e e r e er s
s i m pl y xp e ss e d d copi ously i llus t at d so t ha t a y o c un d s t a d ai pla e
.

e r an r e n ne an er n r n
g e p e at i o pai ve i f w i t hout p vi ou s m e cha cal t a g T h i s
.

en in d O r n an re r e n re ni r i ni n
wo k i i valuabl e f o an y o e d e s i i g t o b com e avi a t o o avi at i o m ch a i c
.

r s n r n r n e an r r n e n
lat s t ot a y t y p s such as t h e G om e M full y
.

Th e e r up p e r a d L Rh e e n o n os o a n e on are
e xplai d as w e ll as t h e ce t l y d e ve lop d V e e d adi al t y p e s T h e subj c t s
, . .

ne re n e an r e
f ca bu t i o i g i ti o cooli n g a d lub i cat i o also e cov d i a t ho ou g h m a e
. .

O r re n n n, n r n ar e re n r nn r
T h e chap t s pai a d mai t e a c a d i s t i ct i ve a d fou d i o t h e book
, , .

er on re r n n n n e re n n n n no r
O n t hi s subj e c t N t a t ch i cal book b u t a p ac t i cal e as i l y u n d s t ood wo k o f
o e n r er r
e fe e c all i t s t d i a o au t i cal sci ce 5 8 9 pag e s 2 5 3 i llus t a t i o s
.
, ,

r f
r n e or n e re e n er n en . . r n .

Pr i ce , ne t

OF AVIAT I O N TE R M S — E NG L I SH -FRE NC H ; FR E NC H
E NGL I SH . By MAJ O R V I C T O R W PAG E A S .
,
. .
, and LI E UT .

PAU L M O N T AR I O L of t h e F h Fl y i n g C p s ,
ren c or .

A compl t glossa y of p act i cal l y all t rms us d i avi at i o havi g li s t s

e e r r e e n n n in bo t h
F ch d E gl sh W t h qu val t s i t h e l g u g
ren an P ic nt i i e i en n ei r an a e . r
,

e , ne

PL IE D AE R O D YNAM IC S . By G . P . T H O M P SO N .

T hi s i a sci e t i fic a n d mat he mat i cal t at i s t hat has a spe ci al app e al t o t h e st ud e n t

s n re e
a d e gi
n who e s e ki g xac t i n fo mat i o o t h e a od y ami cs O f h avi e t ha
n neer ar e n e r n n er n e r- n
a c aft d da t a ai pla e de si g t e s t i n g T hi s book gi v s u p t o dat e p e n
ir r an on r n n e an - -
r se
of t h e e xi s t i n g s t a t e O f A o au t i cal Sci c e I addi t i o t o v y full d i
. v

t at o
'

i n er n en n n a er s
of t h e quali t i e s whi ch d t e mi t h e sp d a d a t of cli mb of a a e opla e
. .

cu s s i on e r ne ee n r e n r n
a d th
—
n m t hod b y wh ch t h e y c a
e e b cal c ul a t d sp ci al a t t e t i o i pai d t o s t ab i l i t y
i n e e e n n s
o w fa l y w ll un d e s t ood co t ollab i li t y — ou k owl e dg of
.

a p b lem re d t n ir e r an o n r r n e
wh ch a t p s n t i n a much mo e l m t a y s t a t ti o di c t e d t t h
.

i i s re e At t i r e e en r e en n s re o e
n um ous d e c t i o s i wh ch fu t he r i n fo mat i o i qui d sp ci ally i t h fo m of
.

er i r n n i r r n s re re e e n e r
ful l scale exp e m t s 3 1 2 pag e s ( 7 x I llus t a t d w i t h ov 1 4 2 D i ag ams
.
- ri en r e er
a d G aph c C ha t s P ic
.
r
n r i r . r e

VI AT I O N C HAR T— L O CA T I O N O F AIR P LANE P O WE R P LAN T TR O UB LE S

M AD E E A SY B y M JO R V I CT O R . A W PAG E A S .
,
. .
,

A la g cha t ou t li r e r ni n g all pa t s of a t y pi cal ai pla pow plan t showi n g t h poi t

r r ne er e
wh e t oubl occu a nd sugg s ti n g m di s f t h common d f c t s I n n s
,

er apt r e i s t
o r e re e e or e e e
de d e sp c ally f av at o s d a vi at o m chani cs n school n d fi e ld dut y
.

ten e i or i r an i n e o a
Pri c e .
.

8
 C HEM IST R Y
O W T O M AKE AND USE A SM ALL C HE M ICAL LAB O R A T O R Y . By
RAYMO N D FR AN CI S YAT E S .

a s e cov r s ll of t h e sse t i als of e l e m e n t a y che mi s t y T h e law o f d e fini t e

T h e tre ti e a e n r r
p opo o s solu t i o s c y s t alloi ds colloi ds l c t ol y si s e t c a e xplai n d T h e
r r ti n n r e e r re e
s co d pa t of t h book i d e vo t d t che mi cal d l c t o che mi cal e xp e ri me t s
.
, , , , ,

e n r e s e o an e e r - n
O l y t h os e xp i m t s t ha t wi ll t d t o b oad e t h e r e ad e s kn owl dg of che mi s t y
.

’
n e er en en r n r e e r
i n g e n e al hav e b e e n chos e n
r P i ce 7 5 ce t s . r n

C O N CR E T E

ST PUB LI SHE D —
C O NC RE TE W O R KE R S R E FE R E NC E B O O K S A ’
.

SE R I E S OF P O PULAR HAND B O O K S F O R C O NC RE TE U SE R S .

Pr e p a r e d b y A A H O U G H T O N . E ach 7 5 ts . . cen

T h e a u th or i n p r ep a r i n g th i s S e r i es h a s n ot on l y tr ea te d on th e u s u a l ty p e s of con s tr u cti on
, , ,

b u t exp l a i n s a n d i l l u s tr a tes m ol d s a n d s y s tems th a t a r e n ot p a ten te d bu t wh i ch a r e e qu a l ,

i n va l u e a n d of ten s u p e r i or to th os e r es tr i cted by p a ten ts T h es e m ol d s a r e ve r y ea s i l y a n d .

ch ea p l y con s tr u c ted a n d e m bod y s i mp li ci ty r a p i d i ty of O p e r a ti on a n d th e m os t s u cces s f u l , ,

r es u l ts i n th e m old ed con cr e te E a ch of th es e T w e l ve book s i s f u l l y i ll us tr a te d a n d th e .

,

s ubj ects a r e exh a u s ti ve l y tr e a ted i n p l a i n E n gl i s h .

N CRE T E WALL F O R M S B y A A H O U G HT O N . . . .

A n e w aut omat i c wall C lamp i i llus t r at e d wi t h wo ki g d r awi n gs O t h t y p es of s r n er

wall fo ms clamps s e pa at o s e t c a e also i l lus t at e d a d e xplai e d
.

r r r r r n n

( N o l of Se r i e s )
, , , .

. 7 5 ce n ts

N CR E T E FL O O R S AND SID E WAL K S B y A A H O U G HT O N . . . .

T h e molds f o mold i g s qua e s h e xago al a n d man y o t h e r s t y l s of mosai c floo r a n d

r n r n e
s i d e wa l k blocks a fu lly llus t at e d a d e xpla n e d ( N o 2 of Se i e s )
,

re 7 5 ce n t s
i r n i . . r

CT I CAL C O NC RE TE SIL O C O N STR U C T I O N B y A A H O U G HT O N . . . .

C ompl e t w k i g d a w i g a d sp e ci fica t i o n s a r e g i v e n f o s e v al s t y l e s of co c e t e
e or n r n s n r er n r
si los wi t h i ll us t at o s of molds f r mo oli t h i c a d block s i los T h e t able s dat a a d
r
O

i n o n n n
i nf o mat i o p t h s book a e of t h e u t mos t v a l u e i plan ni n g a d co s t uc t i g
.
, .
, ,

r t d n res en e in i r n n n r n
a l l fo m of co c los ( N o 3 of Se i e s ) O
_
r s te n re Si 7 5 ce ts. . r n

O LD ING C O NC R E TE C H I M N E Y S SL A TE AND R O O F T ILE S By A A , . . .

H O U G HT O N .

T h e ma ufac t u e of all t y p e s of co c e t e sla t e a n d r oof t i l e i ful l y t e a t d

n r V aluabl n r s r e e
dat a o all fo m s of e i fo c d co c e t e r oofs a r e co t ai n e d wi t hi i t pag s T h e
.

n r r n r e n r n n s e
co s t uc t i o of con c e t e chi mn e y s b y block d mo oli t hi c s y s t ms i full y i llus t at d
.

n r n r an n e s r e
a d d sc i b d
n e A n umb e of o am n t al d e si gn s of C hi m e y co s t uct i o wi t h molds
r e r rn e n n r n
a e sho wn i t h i s valuabl e t e a t i s e ( N o 4 of S r i e s )
.

r n 7 5 ce t r . . e . n s

O LD ING AN D C UR ING O R NA M E N T AL C O NC RE T E B y A A H O U G HT O N . . . .

T h e p op e p opo t i o s of c e m e n t a d agg r ga t e s f or va r i ous fi ni sh s also t h m t hod

r r r r n n e e e e
of t ho oug hl y mi x i g a d placi g i t h e molds a ful ly t e at e d An e xhaus t i v
,

r n n n n re r e
at i s e t hi s subj e c t t ha t e v e y co n c r t e wo k e r w i ll fi n d of da i l y u e a d valu e
, .

t re on r e r s n
l
75 ce n ts

M O N U ME N T S, MAUSO LE UM S AND UR IAL —VA ULTS

"

N CRE T E B . By
A A H O U G HT O N
. . .

Th moldi g of co c e t e mo um t s t i m i t at t h mos t e xp e n si v c u t s t o e i s e x
e n n r n en o e e e n
plai d i t hi s t at s W t h wo k g d w m g of asi ly b ui lt molds C ut t i n g i n
ne n re i e, i r i n ra s e
s c i p t i on a d d s i g n s e also full y t at d ( N o 6 of S ri e s )
.

r s n e 7 5 ce n ts ar re e . . e .
 CATAL O G UE O F G O O D , PRACTI CAL B O O K S

M O LD IN G C O NC R E TE B A THT B S, U AQ UAR IUM S AN D NATAT O R I

By A A H O U G HT O N . . .

Si mpl e molds d i s t uc t i o n a an g i v f moldi g ma y s t y l s of co c t b t

n r re en or n n e n re e a
W m n g pools T h s e molds asi ly b ui l t d p mi t ap i d d succ
.

-
S i I ti n e c e are e an er r an
wo k ( N O 7 of S i s )
, .

r . . er e . 75

C O NC R E TE B R ID G E S C ULVE R T S AND SE WE R S B y A A HO U G I , . . .

A n u mb of o am t al co c t b i dg s wi t h i llust at i o s of molds
er rn en n gi v re e r e r n ar e e
collaps ble c n t i co f b i dg s culv t s d s w s i fully i llus t at d w i
e e r or re or r e er an e er s r e
ta l d s t uc t i o s f bui ldi g ( N o 8 of S i s )
,

i e in r n or n 75 . . er e .

fl
C O N STR U C TING C O NC R E TE P O R C H E S B y A A H O U G HT O N . . . .

A umb of d s i g s wi t h wo ki g d awi gs of molds

n er e n ful l y xplai d so a r n r n are e ne
c n a asi ly co s t uc t d i ff
e t s t y l s of o
n r am t al co c t po ch s wi t ho t t h
e ren e rn en n re e r e u
chas of xp si v molds ( N o 9 of S i s )
e e en e . 75 . er e .

M O LD ING C O NC RE TE FL O WE R -P O T S B O XE S JAR D INIE RE S , , ,

B y A A H O U G HT O N . . .

Th molds f p oduci g ma y o i g i al d si g s of w po t s u s h ow
e or r n n r n e n o e r- rn er
ja d i i s t full y llus t at d d xpla d so t h wo k asi l y
, ,
.

r n ere e c are i r e an e i ne e r er can e c on

a d op a t sam ( N o 1 0 of S s)
, . , ,

n er e e . . 75 e ri e .

M O LD ING C O NC R E TE F O UN T AI N S AN D L AW N O R NA M E N T S .

A H O U G HT O N
. .

T h moldi g of a umb
e of d si g s of law s a t s cu bi g hi t chi g pos t s p gol
n n er e n n e r n n er a
d i als d o t h fo ms of o am t al co c t f t h o am t a t i o of law s
, , .

an er r rn en n re e or e rn en n n an
d s i fu ll y i ll us t at d d d sc b d ( N o 1 1 of S s
en , s r e an 75
e ri e . . e ri e

C O NC RE TE FR O M SAN D M O L D S B y A A H O U G HT O N . . . .

A P act i cal Wo k t a t i g a p oc ss whi ch has h t ofo b h ld as a t ad

r r re n on r e er e re e en e r e
b y t h f w wh e poss ss d i t d whi ch wi l l succ ssfully mold v y d y l
e o e e an e e er an an c
o am t al co c t wo k T h p oc ss of moldi g co c t W t h sa d mold
,

rn en n re e r e r e n n re e i n
ut mos t p ac t i cal valu poss ss i g t h ma fold adva t ag s of a low cos t of
.

th e r e, e n e ni n e l

th as e e d ap i d i t y of op a t i o
e an r p f c t d t ai ls t all o am t al d s i g s d er n er e e o rn en e n

a d i nc as d s t g t h of t h co c t p f c t c i g of t h wo k wi t hout t t
, ,

n re e ren e n re e er e ur n e r a
as y moval of t h molds ga dl ss of a y un d cut t i g t h d s g m y
,

and th e e re e re r e n er n e e i n a

1 9 2 pag s F ul ly i ll us t at d P i c
e . r e . r e

O R NA M E N T A L C O NC R E T E W I TH O U T M O L D S B y A A H O U G . . .

The p oc ss f ma
r k i eg o am t
oral co c t w i t h nu t m l d has
rn lo g b h ] en n re e o o s n een e
c t
se red w f an th fi s t t i m t hi s p oc ss g v n t t h p u b h
no or e r Th e, r e is i e o e e e
v als t h s c t d i t h o l y book pub li sh d wh ch x pla s a mpl p
.

, ,

e e re an s e n e i e in Si e, r
re e
m t hod wh b y t h co c t wo k i
e ere abl d b y mploy g wood d m t a
e n re e r er s en e e i n an e
plat s of di ff e t d si g s t mo l d
eren mod l e co c t n y Co c A o or e
,
i ii n re e an rni e rc
olum P d s al B as P a mo ol h c fo m — gh upo
.
.

C U i i t t t i n
C t n ep e e a r rn or er n n i i r
h s mold d u s blocks h bu l up su
, ,
, .

T m y e e b a i i t e d te n t t tn t h p fi or an en i o i e s e Ci
d ma d d T hi s wo k i full y i ll us t at d wi t h d t a l d g v mg P c
,
.

n e r s r e e i e en ra s ri e
e .
. ,

C O NC R E TE F O R T HE FAR M AND IN T HE SH O P B Y H . .

C AM P B E L L C E E M ,
. .
, . .

A w b ook i llus t at i n g a d d e sc i bi g i plai s i mpl la guag maAmy e

ne r n r n n n, e n e n

n mu ous appl i
er ca t i o s of c o n c e t w i t h n t h e a n
n g of t h hom e wo k r e i r e e r er .

ubj c t s t a t d
s e re e a re :
f i f ci m t hods of p o t c t i g co c t so as t i su p op h e n n re e o n re r er

gfii a d
e r

fig fii llus
n
i
r e n or
z n d m i ; m i x i n g
a b y eha d d mach
xe r i ; fo m co s t uc t o d n an ne r n r i n, os

nd t t b y d a w i
r gs n
e d pho t og aphs ; co r s t uc t o of
n co n c t w al al r n r i n re e
f n c s ; co c t f c pos t s ; co c t gat pos t s ; co
a
n re e en e pos t s ; clo t h s h n re e e rn er e ne
ap e
a bo e
pos s
t ; t a ks ; rt ou g h ; c s t s ; hog w
n ll ows ; f d g floo s
r d s
.

i e rn a ee i n r an
g
a d r
pav m t
e
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enw ll cu bs n d pla t f
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n ; s d wa l ks e r a r in r r i e
con c t ho t b ds d cold f am e s ; co c t slab oofs ; walls f b u ld gs ;
,
y r e .

r n re e r or i in re
e e an
l aks i n t ank s n d c i s t s t e t
re
A numb of co v ern t d p ac t cal e c c er n eni en an r i
e a
p ac cal xampl s also g
.

s t i mat i n g q ua s
,
i
fo r e t i t i a d som t in e v n n e r e e , a re e .

1 4 9 p a g es 5 1 i l l u s t a t i ons P ce
,
.

r . ri
.
 CATAL O G UE O F G O O D , PRACTI CAL B O O KS

O PULAR HAND B O O K F O R C E ME N T AND C O NC RE TE U SE R S B y .

MY R O N H L E WI S . .

T h i s i a co n ci s t e a t i s e of t h e p r i ci pl e s a n d m e t hods e mplo y e d i n t h e man ufac t u e

s e r n r
a n d u e of c e m e t i n all class e s of mod e rn wo r ks
s T h e au t ho r has b r ough t t og e t h e r
n
t hi s wo k all t h e sali e n t ma t t e of i n t e e s t t o t h e u r of con cr e t e a n d t s ma y
.

in r r r se i n
d i v e r s i fi e d p oduc t s T h e ma t t e i p e s e n t e d i n log i cal a d s y s t e ma t c o d e r cl e a r l y
r r s r n i r
w i t t e full y i llus t at d a d f e fr om i n volve d mat h mat cs E ve ry t h n g of value t o
. ,

r n, r e n re e i i
t h e co c t us e i g i v e i clud i g k i ds of c e m t e mplo y e d i n co n s t r uc t o n co n c e t e
.

n re e r s n, n n n en i r
a r ch i t e c t u e i sp e c t i on a n d t s t i g wa t e r p oofi g colo i g a n d pa t ng ules t ables
,

r n e n r n r n in i r
wo ki n g d cos t da t a T h e b ook comp i s e s t hi t y t hre e chap t e s 4 3 0 pag e s 1 2 6
, , , , , .

r an r r - r
i ll u s t r a t i o s P ic
. , ,

n . r e .

AT E R PR O O FI N G C O NC RE TE B y MY R O N H LE WI S . . .

M od er n M e t hods of Wa t p oofin g C o c e t e a n d O t h e r St r uc t ur es A c ond e ns e d er r n r

s t at e m e n t of t h P i n ci pl s R ule s d P e cau t i o s t o b O bse r ve d i n Wa t e rp oo fin g
.

e r e an r n e r
an d D a m p p r oofi n g St r uc t ur e s a d St r uc t u al M a t e i als P ri c e
, ,

7 5 ce n ts n r r .

D I CT I O N A R I E S

TAN D ARD E L E C TR ICAL D IC T I O NAR Y O C O N O R SLO AN E

’
. By T . .

An i n di sp e n sabl e wo k t o all i t e st e d i n e l e c t ri cal sci e n c e Sui t abl ali k e f or t h e

r n re e
s t ude n t a d p ofe ss i o al A p ac t i cal ha dbook of e f c e co t ai ni g d e fin i t i on s i n
.

n r n r n r ere n n n
a bou t 5 0 0 0 di s t i c t wo ds t ms a d ph as e s T h d e fi i t i o s e t e s e a n d co n ci s e
.

n r er n r e n n ar r
a d i n clud e e v e y t e m us e d i e l c t i cal sc i n c e R e c e n t l y i ssu d An e t i r e l y n e w
, .

n r r n e r e e n
e di t i o Sho ul d b e i t h e poss ss i o of all w h o d e s i e t o k p ab as t w i t h t h e p r og r s s
. .

n n e n r ee re e
of t h i s b a ch of sci e c C ompl t co ci s e d co v e i e t N e ar ly 8 0 0 p a g e s N e a l y
.

r n n e e e, n an n n n r
5 0 0 i ll us t r a t i on s N e w R e vi s d a d E lar g e d E d i t i o n P i ce
. . .

. e n n . r

DIES— M E T AL WO R K
IE S : TH E IR C O N STR U C TI O N AND U SE F O R T HE M O D E R N WO R KI N G
O F SH E E T M E TAL S B y J . .

A m o t u s ful book d n whi ch should b i n t h ha ds of a ll e n gag d i n t h p es

s e an o e e e n e e r
wo k g of m t als ; t at i g o t h D si g i g C o s t uc t i g d U of T ool s Fi x t u s
,

r i n e re n n ~
e e n n n r n an se re
a d D v c s t og t h wi t h t h ma whi ch t h y shou ld b us d i n t h P ow
, , ,

n e i e i e er e nn e r n e e e e er
P ss f t h ch ap d api d p oduc t i o of t h g at va i t y of sh t m t al a t i cl es
,

re or e e an r r n e re r e ee - e r
n w
e u
,
It
in d s g d as a g ui d t t h p oduct i o of sh t m t al pa t s t t h
se is e i ne e o e r n ee - e r a e
m m m u m of cos t W t h t h m a i mum of ou t pu t ha d i g d t mp i g of
.

i Th i e x e r en n an e er n
P ss t ools a d t h class s of wo k whi ch m y b e p oduc e d t t h b t dva t ag b y
.

re n e e r a r o e es a n e
th u eof d s n t h pow p ss
se fully t at d I t 5 0 5 i l lus t at i o n s show di
ie
.

i e er re are re e s r es
p ss fix t u s d sh t m t al wo ki n g d vi c s t h d sc i p t i o s of whi ch so cl a n d
. .

re re an ee - e r e e e e r n are e r a
p ac t cal t hat all m t al wo k g m cha i cs wi ll b abl t u d s t a d how t d s i g
,

r i e - r i n e n e e o n er n o e n,
con t uc t d u t h m M a y of t h di s d p ss fi xt u s t at d w
s r an se ith e n e e an re re re e ere e er
con st uc t d b y t h e aut ho u d h i sup vi si o O th s w bui lt b y ski l ful
.

r e r or n er s er n er e re
m e chani cs a n d e i n u i la g sh t m t al s t abli shm e t s an d mac hi n she ps
.

ar se n r e ee - e e n
6 t h E d t on 4 0 0 pag s 5 2 3 llus t a t i o s P ic .
e .

i i . e , i r n . r e

N CH E S D IE S AND T O O L S F O R M AN UFAC T UR IN G IN PRE SSE S

, By
J V W O O D WO R T H
.

. . .

T hi s w k i a compa i o n volum t t h au t ho s l m
or s t a y wo k e n t i t l e d D i s T h e i
n e o e r
’
e e en r r e r
C o s t uc t o I t do s t go i t o t h d t ai ls of d i -mak i n g t t h e x t e n t of
.

n d U
r i n an se e no n e e e o e
t h au t ho p v ous book b ut g v s a comp h si v vi w of t h fi e ld of op at i on
.
.

e r 5 re i i e re en e re e
ca d n b y p ss s A la g pa t of t h i fo mat i on gi v has b n d aw n f om t h e e er s
,

r ri e o re e r e r e n r en ee r r
au t ho —s p so al xp c I t mi ght w ll b t m d a n E n c y clop d i a of D i -M ki ng
.

’ .

r er n e e ri e n e e e er e e e a
Pu ch M ak g D S k g Sh t M t al Wo ki g d M aki n g of Sp e ci al T ool s Sub
.
,
n i n i e- i n in ee - e r n an
v c s d M cha c l C omb i at i o s f P u chi g C ut t i g B d i n g F orm
, , , ,
r es s
e D s e i e an e ni a n n or n n n en
c n g D aw n g C o m p m g d A ss mbli g Sh e t M e t al P a t n d a l o Art i
,

ng P
, , ,
i er i r i res s an e n e - r s a s
cl s of o t h M at als M ach T ools 3 d E di t i on 4 8 3 p ag 7 0 2 i llus t at i o s
, , ,
,
e er e ri i n i ne r es r n
o o o o o o o o o o o o o
. .
, .

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“

C O M M U TAT O R C O N STR U C TI O N B y WM B AX T E R JR
‘

.
. .
,

T h b us i
e ss d of y dy n amo mo t o of t h di c t c u
ne t ty p i th c m
en an or r e re rr e n e s e o
T h i s boo k go s i t o t h d s i g i g bui ld i n g d ma t a c of co m mu t at o s
e n e e n n an in en n e r
h ow t o locat t oubl s n d h o w t m d y t h m ; e v y on who fuss s W t h d y
, , ,

e r e a o re e e er e e i
n e e ds t hi s 5 t h E di t i on . 3 5

C O N STR U C TI O N O F A TR AN SATLAN TIC W IR E LE SS R E C E IVIN G

B y L G PAC E N T a n d T S C U R T I S
. . . . .

A wo k f o t h R adi o s t ud t who d si s t o co s t uct d op at e appa at

r r e en e re n r an er r
wi ll p mi t of t h c pt i o of m ssag s f om t h la g s t at o s n E u op w .

er e re e n e e r e r e i n i r e
a i al of amat u p opo t i o s 3 6 pag s 2 3 llust at o s clo t h P c 3 5
er e r r r n . e . i r i n , . ri e

D Y NA M O B IL D ING F O R A M AT E R S, O R O U U H W T O CO N ST R U
FFI TY-WATT D Y NAM O B y A R T H U R J W E E D , M e . . mb e of N Y E l e r . .

o
S ci e t y .

A p act i cal t a t i s showi g i d t ai l t h co s t uct i o of a small d y amo

r re e n n e e n r n n or me t
e n ti re machi e wo k of whi ch c n b e d o o a small foo t lat h e D i me si o e d w
n r a ne n n n
d aw i gs a g i v f e ach p i e c of machi e wo k a d e ach o p e at i o i
.

r n re en or e n r n r n s
d e sc i b e d T hi s machi wh us e d as a d y amo has ou t pu t of fift y wat t s
,

r ne , en n an
us e d as a mo t or i t wi l l d i v a small d i ll p ss o la t h I t c a n b e us e d t o
. ,

r e r re r e
s e wi n g m achi e o d a ll o d i a y wo k T h e boo k i i ll u s t a t d w i t
.

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.

n r n en r n n n r n er n
A mo g t h co t t s e chap t s
n 1 F i ft y Wa t t D y amo
e n en2 Si d B ar er on : - n e
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. . .

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Hold s 8 C o c t i o B oa d 9 A ma t ur e Shaft 1 0 A ma t u e 1 1 Ar
. . . . . . . . . .

er nn e n r r r r
Wi n d i n g 1 2 Fi ld Wi d i g 1 3 C o n c t i n g a d St a t i g P i c clo t h
. . . . . . . .

. . e n n . . n e n r n . r e, ,

D E SIGN D A TA F O R R AD I O TR AN SM I TTE R S AND R E C E IVE R S

MI LT O N B SLE E PE R . .

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r e n e r e r n
p obl ms e cou t d i pla i g all( t y p s of c i vi g s t s f sho t m di u
,
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lo g wave wo k d spa k coi l t an sfo m d vacuum t ub e t a s mi t t s p
,

n r an r r r er an r n er o e
on 2 0 0 m e t e s T abl s hav b wo k e d u t so t ha t valu s c b e fou d w
, ,

r e e een r o e an n
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.

t e er en er n er n r n
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.

n e o 75 e e ern a n e en e n . r e

D Y NAM O S AND E LE C TR IC M O T O R S AND ALL AB O U T TH E M .

A
E D W R D T R E VE R T .

T hi s volum g i v s p ac t i cal d i c t i o s f bui ldi g a t w o H P D y n amo of t h e

e e r re n or n
t yp e ca pabl of h g h t i g abou t fift y mazda lamps of t h e 2 0 — wat t si z e I ad di t
. .

e n n
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.

CS d l CI O
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in e n in e r e e n r n e c r
bat t y adap t e d f u i g l e c t i c m e t 9 6 pag e s F ull y i llus t a t d w i t h
.

er or r nn n e r e rs
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E LE C TR IC B E LL S . By M . B . SLE E P E R .

A compl t t at i s f t h p act i cal wo ke e s alli n g op e at i n g n d

re e or e r r er in in t r a
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, ,
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b e lls B ot h t h l e c t c an a d t h e xp i m t e wi ll fi d i t hi s book n e w m e
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e e ri 1 n e er en r n n
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.

o ri en r r r
chap t s n W g C alculat i o of Wi e Si z s a d M ag e t Wi di gs U p k
. r er
er o i ri n n r e n n n n
Sy s t e ms a d t h e L ocat i o n of F aul t s f t h e g r e at e s t valu e i n t h e i r wo k
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1 24
F ully i ll us t r at e d Pr i ce .
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PE RI M E N T AL H IG H
L RE Q E NC F U Y APPAR A TU S HO W TO M AKE
AN D USE I T B y T H O M S ST N LE . A A Y CU R T I S .

T h s book t e lls y ou how t o b ui ld s i mpl hi gh f e qu cy coi ls f or e xp e i m e n t al p ur pos e

i e r en r
i n t h e hom e school labo a t o y o o t h e small l e c t ur e pla t fo m Th book all y r r r n r e i s re
a suppl e m e n t t o t h e sam aut ho s Hi gh F e qu c y A pa at us T h e e xp i m n t l
, ,
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.
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small s o ls g vm g up t a n e i ght e i ch s pa k T h book co t ai s valuabl i
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.

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.

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p e fo m e d A mo g t h e co t t s a I duc t i o C oi l O u t fi t s O p e a t d Bat t y
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r r n n en re : n n r e on er
Cu K ck n g C e l A ppa a t us Half K i lowa t t T r a sfo m er O u t fi t P a t s
.

trren O i i i r ne- n r r
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.

etc ri , .
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HFRE Q UE NC Y APPAR A T U S I T S C O N STR U C TI O N

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APP L ICA T I O N B y T H O MAS ST AN LE Y C U R T I S . .

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re n n r r n r
book i e ss e t i all y p ac t i cal i i t t e at m e t a d i t co s t i t ut s accu a t e e co d
.

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re e r e s r r r e er e r r n n
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,

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pa t s T h fi s t t w o chap t e s t e ll t h u i i t i a t e d ad what t h e hi gh f e que cy
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r e r r e n n re er r n
cur t i wha t i t i us d f o d how i t i p oduc d T h s co d s c t i o comp i si g
.

ren s s e r an s r e e e n e n, r n
four chap t s d e sc i b s i d e t ai l t h p i ci pl s of t h e t an sfo m co d s e spa k
, , .

er r e n e r n e r r er , n en r, r
gap d osci ll a t i o n t a sfo m d cov e s t h mai n poi t s i n t h e d s i g
,

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, .

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t h e co s t uc t i o of small hi gh f qu cy ou t fi t s d s i gn d f o e xp i m t al w o k i t h
.

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hom e labo a t o y o i n t h class oom T h fou t h s t i o i d vo t d t o l e c t o
r r r e r e r ec n s e e e r
t h e ap e u t i c a d X R a y appa a t us fift h d sc i b s appa at u f o t h e cul t i vat i o
.

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.

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.

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.

n r, n r r e i r n r r r e
c o s t uc t i o
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n r e r e s n e e e

p ur chas e of t h e e c e ssa y goods Seco d E di t i o i clud e s much e w ma t t

,

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alon g t h e li n e of hom e mad t h ap ut i c ou t fit s f phy si ci a s u s e T h e mat t e
.

’
- e er e or n r on
e l e c t r o pla t cul t u r e has also b e e e labo a t e d upo Se co d R e vi s e d d E la g d
.

n n r n n an n r e
E di t i o 2 6 6 pag e s N e w s e co d e d i t i o F ull y i llus t at e d Pr i c e
.

n . . n n . r .

B O TR I O W IR IN G D IAG R A M S AND SW I T C HB O ARD S B y N E WT O N

HAR R I SO N
.
,
.

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.

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r p s t d a d t h m e t hod
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. ,
’

n n e e e r n n r e s e

i s gi v e a s i mpl e e xpla at i o wi t h f c t wi i g f di ct d l t e a t i
. .

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cu ts
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.

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. .

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~

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i n co c t i o wi t h t h wi i g M oldi g a d co d ui t wo k a g i v ca ful co si d a
.

nne n e r n n n n r re en re n er

t i o ; a d sw i t chboa ds a e s y s t ma t i call y t a t d bui l t up a d i llus t a t d h o wi

~
.

n n r r e re e n r e s n"

t h e p u pos e t h e y s e v f o co c t i o W t h t h e c i c u t s a n d t o sh unt d c m p o u m
, , ,

r r e, r nne n i r i an o
wou d mach i e s T h e s i mpl p i c i pl s of swi t chboa d co s t uc t o t h e d v lo p
, ,

n n e r n e r n r i n e e
m n t of t h sw i t chboa d t h co c t i o s of t h e va i o u s i s t um e t s i clud i g t h
. ,

e e r e nne n r n r n n n e

li gh t n i n g a r r e s t e also plai ly t fo t h
, ,

a r, re n se r .

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r r s r n i r s

calli g f o va i ous s i z s of w i a d a i m pl e w a y of b t a g t h z e s f e gle phas ,

, ’

r e re , n s o i ni n e Si r Si n e
n r
phas h phas c cu s h s o l compl wo k ssu d
. .

i i t T t h e y t e s h OW g n e r i e ir
t wo - e a d t e e n re - r i 18
l g ha should k o abou d c al a cu ng
.

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i g o t W I t ir n rn rr e n i ri .

a ad f c wo k f f om adva c d ch cal s ma h m a cs
0

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.

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uc v comp e
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f h
,

i n tr ti e r e e i e e o n g o r t e e n i ri n i r n, r r .

l c c o v s d la g d pag s llus a t o s
,
3 d di t i i n d n e 3 1 5 ; 1 3 7 t e r e i r i n
or e e t ri a n e n i r e e a r . .
. ,
 CATAL O G UE O F G O O D , PRACTI CAL B O O K S

E CTRI C T O Y M AKING D YNA M O B UIL D ING AND E L E C TR IC M O T O R , ,

O STR
C N T OU C I N B y Pr of T O C O N O R SL O AN E ’
. . . .

T h i s wo k t a t s of t h maki g t hom of l c t i cal t o y s

r re l c t i cal appa a t us mo t o e n a e e e r e e r r rs
d y amos d i s t um t s i g al d s i g d t b i g wi t hi n t h ach of
, , ,

n and i n r en n ener an s e ne o r n e re

y ou g d old t h ma ufac t u of g ui d us ful l c t i cal appl i a c e s T h e wo k

,

n an e n re en ne an e e e r n r
sp c i ally d si g n d f amat u s d y oun g fol ks
.

is e e e e or e r an .

T housa ds of u y ou g p opl n dai ly xp i m t i g d bus i ly gag d i n maki g

o r n e e are e er en n an en e n
l c t i cal t oy s d appa at us of va i ous k i ds T h p s t wo k i j us t what i wan t
,

e e r an r r n e re en r s s
d t o g i v t h much d d i fo mat i o i n a plai p ac t i cal ma wi t h i llus t at i o
.

e e e nee e n r n n, r nn e r , r ns
t mak
o as y t h ca y i g u t of t h wo k 2 ot h E d i t i o
e e 2 1 0 pag s 7 7 i llus t a t i o s
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P ic
. .
, .

r e

E CTRI CI AN S H AND Y B O O K B y Pr of T O CO N O R SL O AN E ’
. . .
’
.

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s n n e or e r e r n
e n t i r e fi e ld of l c t i c i t y i cove d wi t h i i t pag s A mo g som f t h e subj e ct s t e at ed
.

e e r s re n s e n e o r
a e : T h e T h e o y of t h E l c t i c C u e t a d C i cui t E l e c t o C h e mi s t y P r i mary
.

r r e e r rr n n r r - r
B at t e i s St o ag e B at t ri s G e at i o d U t i li za t i o n of E l e c t i c P ow s A l t e r
, ,

r e r e e ner n an r er
at i g C u e t A mat u Wi di g D y amos a d M ot o s M o t o G e a t o s
, , ,

n n rr n r re n n n n r r ner r
O p e at i o of t h e C t al St at i o Swi t chboa ds Safe t y A ppli a c e s D i s t ri bu t i on
, , , ,

r n en r n r n
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, ,

r n er, re e n r n r er r n n n
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,

n e r r n e r r i n
Wi i g E l c t i c P lat i g E l e c t i c H at i g Wi e l ss T e le g aphy t c I t co t ai s n o
, , , , ,

r n e r - n r e n r e r e n n
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, , , , .

r n s o n e n
k n ow abou t e l e c t i c i t y s t a da d wo k pub li she d t h e subj e c t F or t y
.

It i th r s e n r r on
i chap t s 6 0 0 g avi gs N w s t h E di t i o R vi s d d E la g d P i ce
. .

s x er , en r n . e n, e e an n r e . r

E CT RI CI T Y SI M PL IFIE D . By P of r . T . O C O N O R SL O AN E
’
.

The obj c of E le c t i ci t y Si mpli fi d i t o mak t h e subj c t as plai n as possi bl e a d

e t
“
r e
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s e e n
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w co c p t i o of l c t i ci t y i ; t show how t w o plat e s o f ern n e n e e r s o
f
di f e r e n t m t al i mm e s d i aci d s d a m ssag e a ou d t h e glob ; t o e xp l ai n
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how a bun dl of copp e r w i e o t at d b y a s t am g i e c a b t h ag t i li ght i g
, ,

e r r e e en n n e e en n n
ou s t e e t s t
r t ll what t h e vol t ohm a d amp e e
r o a d wha t hi gh
e d low t e si on n r are , n an n
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, ,

n n er e es n r r e n n
e l e c t i ci t y
r 1 5 t h R e vi e d E di t i o
. 2 1 8 pag e s I llus t a t e d P ri c e s n . . r .

E R I M E NT AL WIR E LE SS STATI O N S B y P E E D E LMAN . . . .

T h e t h e o y d e s i gn co s t uc t i o r d op e at i o n i ful l y t e at d i n cludi n g Wi e l e s
n r n an r s r e r s
T e l e pho y V acuum T ub a d qu che d spa k s y s t e ms T h e e w e la g e d di t i on
, ,

n e, n en r n n r e
jus t i ssue d d i s t i ct ly up t o dat e co ct d comple t T h i s book t e ll
, .

is an s r rre an e s
how t o mak appa at us t o o t onl y h a a l l t e l pho d a d t le g aphe d adi o m e
, .

e r n e r e ne n e r r s
sage s b u t also how t o mak si mpl qui pm e t t hat wo ks f o t a smi ssi on ove r e a e e e n r r r n r
b l y l o g di s t a c e s T he t he a hos t of e w i fo mat i o i clude d T h e
, m

s on a n i n n re s n n r n n
fi st a d o ly book t gi v y u all t h e ce t i mpo t a t adi o i mp r ove m e n t s som
.
.

r n n o e o re n r n r e
0 1 wh i ch hav e b pub sh d T hi s volume a t i ci pat e s e ve y e e d of ,

nev
p b f li e e e or een e n r n
t h e r ad e who wa t s t h gi s t of t h e t i t p i ci pl e s si mpli fi d calculat i o s appar a
.

e r n e ar s r n e n
t u di m e si o s d u d s t a dabl e di e c t i o s f o ffici e t op e at i o
, , ,

s n n an n er n r n r e n r n
V acuum t ub e ci r cui t s ; ampli fie lo g di s t a ce s t s ; loop coi l d un d e g oun d
, .

rs n - n e an r r
c i v e s ; t abl s of wav l gt hs capaci t y i duct a ce ; such e a f e w of t h sub
, ,

re e r e e- en n n ar e
j ct p e s n t d i d e t ai l t hat sat sfie s I t i i n d p e n d n t d on e of t h e f e w t h t
«
,

e s r e e n i s e e an
d e sc i b l l mode s y st ms a
.

r e a rn e
E do s e d b y fo mos t i n s t uct o s f o i t cl e a accu ac y p fe d b y l e adi g amat e ur s
.

n r re r r r s r r re rre n
d p dabl d si g s T h xp i m e n t al Wi l ss St at i o s i s su
,

fo r it s e enw e e n e ne e er re e n re
mos t sat i sfact o y f or y ou pu pos s 2 7 chap t e s 3 9 2 pag es 1 6 7 i l lus t a
.

t ob e r r r e r
ti o s P i ce
.
, . r ,

n . r

DIO TI M E SIGNAL RE C E I VE R B y A U ST I N C LE SC AR B O U R A . . .

T hi s w h ook ne A R adi o T i m Si g al R c i v t e lls y u how t o bui ld a si m pl e e n e e er, o

out fi t d e g e d e p e l y f or t h e b gi nn e You c a n bui ld t h e out fi t s i n y our o w
,
.

SI n x r ss e r
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.
O

r n s a e r e er n ne- n r
T h ap p a at us o f such mple d e si g t hat i t m y b e mad e b y t h e ave ag e amat e ur .

e r Is Si n a r
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.

r e
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I 6
 CATAL O G UE o r G O O D , PRACTI CAL BO O KS

ST O R A G E B A TTE R IE S SI M P L IF IE D . BY VI CT O R W PAGE M S A .
,
. . .

A compl a s e o s t o ag e bat t e r y op e at i g p i n e i p l e r e pai s a d appli c

ete tr e ti n r r n r s r n
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,

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m e chani ca l wo k has c e a t e d a de ma d f a book t hat w i l l co s d e t h s
r r n or n
.

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.

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, .

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TE LE P H O N E C O N STR U C TI O N , I N STALL A TI O N , W IR IN G , O PE R A
AND MAIN TE NANC E By W H R AD C L I F F E a n d H C G U SH I N . . . . .

h s book i s i t e n d e d f o t h e amat e ur t h e wi e man o t h

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. i r
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.

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m t s ; I sp ct i o a d M ai t a c of T le h o I s t um e t s ; T l pho
.

en n e n n n en n e e ne n r n e e ne
Wi i g ; T e s t i g T e l e pho e L i e Wi s n d C a b s ; Wi i g d O p e a t i o of E
r n n n n re a e r n an r n
T e l pho e Sy s t e ms e t c
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O
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i ll u St r a t i O I l S
l 0 O 0 0 0 0 O 0 0 0 0 D 0 0 0 0 O 0 0 0

WI RE LE SS TE LE GR APHY AND TE L E P H O N Y SI M P LY E XP L AINE D

A LF R E D P MO R GAN . .

T hi s i u doub t edl y s of th
n mos t compl t e a n d comp h si ble t at i s s on e e e re en re e
s ubj c t v p b h h d a d a clos st udy of i t pag s w i ll abl mas t r
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e e er u s e t n e s e en e on e o e
d t ai ls of t h W l ss t a sm i ss i o of m ssag s aut ho has fill d a lo
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.

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l a guag of t h t h o y a d p ac t i c of Wi l ss t e l g aph y d t l pho y
,

n e e e r n r e re e e r an e e n .

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n e t o y ; Wi n l ss T a smi ss i o
en d R c p t i onre : n r r re e r n n an e e
A i al Sy s t m E a t h C o c t i o s T h T a smi t t i g A ppa a t us Spa k C i
er e r nne n e r n n r r o
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re n e in e r e re e e e ne r
1 5 4 pag s n g av i gs P i ce ,

156 e . e r n . r

WIR IN G A H O U SE H E R B E R T PR ATT . By .

Shows a hous al ad y bui l t t ll s jus t how t o s t ar t a b ou t wi i n g i t ; wh e e t o

e re
’

e r r
w ha t wi r e t o us e ow t o u t acco d i g t I n sur a c e R ul e s ; i fac t j us t t h e i ni
Bi r e ct i ons a p p ly e q ually t o a shop F our t h e di t i on
l r n i r n o n n ,

t i on y ou nee d .
35 .

1 8
 E L E OT R O P L A T IN G

THE M OD E R N E LE C TR O P L A TE R . B y KE N N E T H M . C O G G E SHAL L .

T hs i of t h e mos t comple t e a d p ac t i cal books o e l e ct oplat i g a d

i s on e n r n r n n
r
p oc e t ha t has b
sses publi sh d as a t e t f o t h s t ude t o p of si o al
een e x r e n r r es n
w tt mpl e la guag d e xplai s all d e t ai ls of l e c t opla t i g i a
.

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n n
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of e l e c t c t y a d che m s t y as lat e s t plat i g t he n co si d s shop lay o
.
.

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equ m g v s e c e ssa y i fo ma t i o t o do e l i abl e d p ofi t abl e
,

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plat n g a mod e c o m m
i i n l ma e F ull i s t r uct i o s a g i v e f t h p
rn e r Ci a nn r n n re n or e
e
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.
.

i n ni i n i cl u r an r an r n are n
mak ng l l k ds of plat g solut i o s ma y of t h s havi g b
i a i n t ad se c e t
.

i n n n e e n een r e r
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.

itl i t u ti i n ns ns r c on n n n n er e n r
m e t al fi m h g W ll f d t hi s book a valuabl gui d e n d comple t e man ua of t
.
o

s i n i in e a
C lo t h 1 4 2 i llus t a t i o n s
. 2 7 6 pag e s Pr i c e r . .

F A C T O R Y M A NA G E M E N T , E T C .

MO D E R N M AC H INE SH O P C O N STR U C TI O N E Q UI P ME N T ,
M ANAGE M E N T B y O E P E R R I G O M E . . .
, .

T h e o l y wo k publi sh e d t ha t d sc i b s t h e mod e n mach i

n r shop o m a uf c e r e r ne r n a
pla t f om t h e t i m e t h e g ass i g o wi g
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p r oduc t i shi pp d B y a ca ful s t ud y of i t t hi t y i cha p t s t h e p ac t i c
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.
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m
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n n e n n e e ern
shop o ma ufact u i g s t abli shm t J us t t h book d d b y t hos
, ,

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c t i o of mod e n shop bui ldi gs t h e e bui ld i g a d o ga i za t i o of 0 1
.

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o r t h e i t oduc t i o n of mod n shop m e t hods t i m e n d cos t s y s t ms
,

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w i t t e n a n d i ll us t a t d b y a p ac t i cal shop m a f o p ac t i cal shop m w h
, .

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bus y t o e ad th e i es a d wa t f ts I t i t h e mos t comple t e all a ou d bool
r or n n ac s - r n
ki d e v publi she d I t i a p act i cal book f o p ac t i cal m f o m t h p p
.

n er s r r r en r e a r er
t h e shop t o t h e p e s i d e t i offic e I t m i u t l y d sc i b e s a d i llus t a t s t h
. ,

th r n n e n e e r n r e
s i mpl e a d y e t t h e mos t e ffici e t t i m e a n d cos t s y s t e m y e t d e vi s d 3 8 4 pag
.

n n e e
on
.

i ll us tra t i s. Pri ce

FUEL

CO M B U ST I O N O F C O AL AND T HE PRE VE N TI O N O F SM O KE . B
M . B AR R .

T hi s b oo k has b e e p e pa e d wi t h sp e ci al e f r e ce t o t h e g e at i on of h a t
n r r r e n ner e
c ombus t i o of t h e commo fu ls fou d i n t h e U t d St at s d d als pa t .

n n e n ni e e an e r i
wi t h t h e co d i t i o s n e c ssa y t o t h e e co om i c d smok e l e ss combus t o of b t u
,

n n e r n an i n i

c o a ls i n St a t i o a y a d L ocomo t i v e St am B o i l
n r s n e er .

T h e pre s t at i o of t hi s i mpo t a t sub j e ct i s y s t e mat i c a d p og ss i v T

en n r n s n r re e

r a ge m t of t h e book i a s e i e s of p ac t cal qu s t o s t wh ch
.

n en i pi s n r r i e i n o i a re a
accur at e an s w s w h i ch d e sc i b i n la guag e f e f om t ch cal t s t h
er r e n r e r e ni i ie e
p oc e ss s i volv e d i t h e fur ac e combus t i o of A me ca fu ls ; i t cl a l y t
, , ,

r e n n n n ri n e e r s a

e ss e n t i al e qui s i t e s f o p e f c t combus t i o
r a d p om t u t t h e b s t m t hods f
r f
r e n, n s o e e or
con s t r uc t i o f o ob t ai i g t h g e a t e s t q ua t i t y of h at f om a y g ve q u
n r n n e r n e r n i n a

c oal 5 t h E di t i o n
. N e a l y 3 5 0 pag e s full y i llus t a t e d
. P i ce r ,
r . r
 G AS AN D O I L E N G IN E S

THE G A SO L INE E NGINE O N T HE FAR M : ITS O PE R A T I O N , RE

AND U SE S B y X E N O W P U T N AM . . .

h s a p ac t i cal t a t i s e on t h e G asoli e a d K os e e E g i e i t d d f or t h
T i is r re n n er n n n n en e
wh o wa t s t k ow jus t how t o ma ag e h i e g i e a d how t o apply i t t o all In
n o n n s n n n
fa m wo k t o t h b st advan t ag e
r r e e

T hi s book abo u ds w i t h hi t s a d h lps f or t h e fa m a d sugg e s t i o s f o t h

.

a d hous e w i f
n Th
q u a t e l y d sc i b e i t i
n n n e r n n r e
i so much of valu i t h i s book t ha t i t i i mposs i bl t
e ere s e n s e
such small spac e Suffic e t o y t ha t i t i t h e k i d of
.

e r n sa s n
ve y fa m e wi l l app e ci at e d v y fa m hom ough t t o have I clud s e
.

e r r r r an e er r e n e S
t h e mos t sui t abl g i f o fa m wo k i t mos t co v i t d e fii c i e t i s t al
.

e en ne r r r s n en en an n n
wi t h chap t s t oubl e s t h i e m di s a d how t avoi d t h e m T h e ca
,

er on r e r r e e n o
ma ag e m e t of t h fa m t ac t o i plowi g ha owi g ha ve s t i g a d oad g
, , .

n n e r r r n n rr n r n n r
a e full y cov d ; also plai d i e c t i o s g i ve f o ha dli g t h e t ac t or o t h
, ,

r e re n r n a re n r n n r n e
Sp c i al a t t e t i o i g i v e
e to l i vi g fa m li fe of i t d udg y b y apply i g p o
n n s n re e n r s r er n
t h e d i sag e abl e small t asks whi ch mus t o t h w i s e b e do
r e b y ha d Ma y er ne n n
mad co t i va c s f o cut t i g wood supply i g ki t che ga d e a d ba w i t h
.

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l e a d i g haul i g d u load i g h y d e li v i g g ai bi s t h e f d 1
, ,

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i clud d ; also full d i c t i o s f maki g t h g i m i lk t h e cows chu
, ,

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swe p t h e hous d cl a t h wi dows t c V e y ful ly i llus t a t d w i t h d a w i
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wo ki n g pa t s a d cu t s showi g St at i o a y P o t abl a d T ac t o E g i s d oi
.
,

r r n n n r r e n r r n ne
ki ds of fa m wo k A ll mo y maki g fa ms u t i li z pow L a how t
,

n r r ne - n r e er e rn o
pow b y e adi g t h pag s f t hi s book I t i t h e e sul t g e t t i va
. .

er r ai d t n e e o s an o r er , n
dat fa m e s t ud e t blacksmi t h i mpl m t d e al a d i fac t a
.

t th
o up t e - o- e r r, n e en er n n
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, , , ,

c an r n e e n r n n ne r r r
t ag e 5 3 0 pag e s
. N a l y 1 8 0 e g r avi gs P i ce . e r n n . r .

GA SO L INE E N G INE S : THE IR O PE R A T I O N , USE AND CARE . By A .

VE R R I LL .

T h e s i mpl e s t lat e s t a d mos t comp e h e s i v e popula wo k publ i sh e d o G n r n r r n a

E gi s d e sc i bi g what t h G asoli E g i i ; i t con s t uct i o a d op at i o
,

n ne r n e ne n ne s s r n n er n
t o i s t all i t ; how t s l c t i t ; how t u i t a d how t m d y t oubl s
,

n uo e e o se n o re e r e enco n
I t n end e d f o O w s O p at o s d U s s of G asoli M o t o s of all k i ds
r n er er r an er ne r n
wo k fully d sc i b s a d i llus t at s t h va i ous t y p s of G asoli E g i s u
, .

r e r e n r e e r e ne n ne
M o t o B oat s M o t o V hi cl s
r d St a t i o a y Wo k Th pa t s acc sso i r e e an n r r e r e r e
appli a c s a d e sc i b d w i t h chap t s on i g i t i o fu l lub i cat i o
, .
,

n e re
p ti o r e er n n, e r n, o era
e gi t oubl e s Sp c i al a t t t i o i gi v t o t h e ca op at i o pai of m
, ,

n ne r d e en n s en re er n an re r
wi t h us ful hi t s d sugg e s t i o s m g c y pai s d mak shi ft s A c
.
,

e n an n on e er en re r an e o
glossa y of t ch i cal t e ms d alphab t i cally a a g d t abl of t oubl e s a
.

r e n r an an e rr n e e r no
s y mp t oms fo m mos t valuabl d u i qu fe a t u s of t h i s ma ual
r N a ly e an n e re n e r
i llus t a t i o i t h e book i o i g i al havi g b e mad b y t h aut ho E ve y p
.

r n n s r n n en e e r r
full of i t e s t d value A book wh i ch y ou ca o t aff o d t o b wi t hou t 2 7 5
, .

n er an nn r e
1 5 2 sp e c i al l y mad e e g avi gs P ic
.
.

n r
3 n . r e

GAS, G A SO L IN E , H i s cox AND O I L E N G INE S . B y G AR D N E R D . .

J ust i ssu d 2 3 d e vi s d a d e la g d di t i o — E v y us of a gas e g i n e e e d

e r e n n r e e n er er n n
book S mpl s t uc t i v e a d i ght u p t dat e T h e o ly comple t e wo k 0
, .
.

i e, i n r n r - o n r
sub j c t T lls all abou t t h u i g d ma ag m e n t of gas gaso l i n e a d o i l e
.
, .

e e e r nn n an n e
as d e s g d d m a u f c t u e d i t h U i t d St ate s E xplos i v m e t e f s t at i n n
.
,

i ne an n a r n e n e e rs or
ma a d v h cl pow a ful ly t at d t og t h wi t h i llus t at i o s of t he i
.
O

ri n e n e
i e er re re e e er r n r
d t abula t e d z s also t h e i ca a d u i g i clud d E l e c t i c i g ni t i
,

an Si e r re n r nn n a re n e r
c 0 1 a d j um
p pa k a e full y xpla i d d i llus t at d i cludi g v
, .

n
g d uc t i on 1 n S r r e ne an r e n n a
’

i n fo ma t o t st g f o co om y d powe a d t h e e c t i o of powe pla ,

r th i n on e e in r e n an r n re n r
T h e ul s a d r gul a t i o s of t h e B oa d of F i U d w i t s i n e ga d t o t h e i n s t al
e n re n r re n er r er r r
a d ma ag e m
n t of gasol
n mot o s a e g i ve n i full sugg s t i g t h e safe i s t al
en i ne r r n e n n
of e xplos v e m ot p o w e A li s t of U i t e d St at e s P at e t s i s u d on gas gasol i
,

i or r n n s e n
O l eng s a d t he ad j u c t s f om 1 8 7 5 t o dat e i i n clud e d 6 4 0 pag e s 4 3 5 e
. .

,
i i ne n ir n r s
i n gs Pri c e
. . n
F ol di n g p l a t e s
. .
 HY D R A UL I CS
YD R AULI C E N G INE E R ING H I SCO X . By G AR D N E R D . .

A t r a t i s o n t h p r op t i e s pow
e e a d sou c s of wa t e f o a ll p ur p os e s I n c-ludi n g
e er er , n re r e r r
t h e m e asur e m t of s t e ams t h e flow of wa t e r i n p i p s o c o d u t ; t h e ho r s e pow e r
.
,

en r e r n i s
of falli g wa t er t ur bi n d i m pac t wa t wh e ls wav mo t o s c e t fugal e C p o
,

n e an e r- e e r n ri r i r
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. .

re n re e r- r e e en n i n
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,

ti
e s an en re r re e r n i or an n
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nn n n a r -r e n n en an or r S
t h e w o k i g l i b a y of e v y gi A mo g t h e su b j e c t s t e at e d a e H s t o cal-
,

in r n r r er en nee r n r r : i ri
Hy d aul i cs P op t i s of Wa t M e asu m e t of t h e F low o f St ams : F low g
.

r r er e er , re n re
i g Wa t d N ozzl s ; Flow of Wa t P i p s ; S pho s of V a ous ;
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n Su f a c e O i fi c er i r es an e er n e i n ri
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n n n r n n ne r n r i
Se a Wav e P ow e tc 3 2 0 pag e s P i ce er , . . r

I CE AN D REFRI G E R A TI O N
CKE TB O O K OF R E R IGE R AT I O N
F AN D I CE M AKIN G By A J
WAL
. . .

TAYL O R
L i S- .

T hi s i o e of t h lat s t a d mos t comp e he si v e e f

s n c e books publi she d on t h e
e e n r n r eren
s ubj e c t of e f i g at i o d c ol rs t or ag e I t xplai s t h p op t i e s d e f i g e at i g
r er n an a e n e r er an r r r n
e ff c t of t h di ff t flui ds i ma ag e m t of f i g at i n g machi n y d t h e
.

e u e th
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co s t uc t i o d i sula t i o of cold ooms wi t h t h i e qui d p i p su fac e f o di fi e e t
,

n r n an n n r e r r re e r r r n
d e g e s of cold ; f e zi g mi x t u s d
r e f z i g b i s t mp e at u e s of cold ooms
re n re an n on - r e e n r ne e r r r
f o all ki ds of p ovi s i o s cold s t o ag cha g s f all class s of goods i e maki n g
,

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a d s t o ag of i c da t a d m mo a da f co s t a t e f c b y e f i g a t i g gi s
, ,

n r e e. an e r n or n n r e re n e r r er n en neer
wi t h a l y o e hu d e d t a b le s co t ai i g aluabl e f e c s t o e ve y fac t a d c on
.

ne r n n r n n n v re er n e r n
di ti o q ui d i t i s t allm t d ope a t i o of a f i g e a t i g pla t N e w
n re re n ne n en an r n re r r n n
e d t o n j us t publi sh e d P i ce
.

i i . r

IN V E NT I O N S— PATENTS
V E N TO R S ’
M AN UAL ,
A P A TE N T P A Y HO W T O M AKE .

T h i s i a bo k d i g s d a gui d t i v t o s i n p f c t i g t h i i ven t i on s t a ki n g
o es ne as e o n en r er e n e r n
ut t h pat t s d d sposi g of t h m I t i y s s a P a t t Soli ci t o ,
o ei r en t i an i n '
e s no n an en e en r s
C cula a P a t t B ok s A dv t i s m t N adv t i s m t s of y d sc i p t i on
.

’
ir r n or en r er er e en o er e en an e r
app a wo k I t i a book co t ai i g a qua t of a c t u y s xp i c of a
.

e th r i n e r s n n n r er en r
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succ sful i v n t o t og t h wi t h o t s bas d upon t h xp i n c of ma y o t he r
.
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e r, e er n e e e e er e e n
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A mon g tth subj ct s t at d i n t hi s wo k e How t I v t How t o S cu a

e re e r are : o n en e re
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.

en e n en
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s t C ap t al H w t E s t i mat t h V alu of a P a t t V alu of D s i g P at t
. .
.

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.
.
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e re i n en e n en n e on e n en
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.

Ad
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.

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.
.

rn e i e o e n en
d C n r n en en e an o
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. .
.

r 1 900 C n e rn n en en e n e e
C ou t s of O v 1 0 0 0 0 P opulat i o vi s d d la g d di t i o 1 4 4 pag s
.
.

n N ew er n re e an en
I l lus t at e d P c .
. . r e e n . e .

r . ri e .
 KN O T S
‘
TO T S SPL IC E S AN D R O PE W O R K B y A H YATT VE R R I LL
, . . .

T hi s i a p ac t i cal book g i v i g compl t e a d s i mpl e d i e c t i o n s f o r ma ki n g al l t h e most

s r n e n r
us e ful a d o a m t al k o t s i commo u w i t h chap t s on Spli ci n g P oi nt i n g
.

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.
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.
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kn ot s f y pu pos T h e book i t ho oughl y li able a d p ac t i cal a d i n ot
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.
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. . . . . .

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. .
, , . .

n e n n 1 54 n
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o i g i n a l n g r a vi n g s
r e . r

L A T HE WO R K
H
T E D E SI G N , C O N STR U C TIO N , AN D O P E R A T I O N, WI THPR AC TI CAL
E XA M LE S O F L A TH E P W O R K B y O SCAR E PE R R i G o . . .

A n e w vi se d e di t i o re d t h e o l y compl e t e A m e i can wo k on t h e sub j e ct w ri t t e n

n , an n r r
by a m w h o k ows t o l y how wo k ough t t o b do b u t w h also kn ows h o w
,

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.

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n e ffo t s i n t hi s d i c t i o n t o t h e p e s n t t i m L a t he
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.

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g e ar s a d all t h e e ss e t i al e le m e t s of t h e mod lat he T h classi ficat i o of lat he

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.
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lat h e i s t alla t i o ca e d op a t i o has b n i co po at d i t h e lar g e d 1 9 1 5 e d i
,

n n, r an er n ee n r r e n en
ti o n A ll ki ds of lat h e a t t achm t s f d i lli g m i lli g e t c a e d e sc i b e d a n d
n en or r n n r r
c ompl t i s t uc t i o s gi v t abl t h n ovi c machi i s t t o g asp t h e a r t of lat he
. , , .
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.

r n ar e r a en n r
pag e s d 3 5 0 i llus t at i o s P i c e
.

an r n . r

TH E W O R K F O R B E G INN E R S B y R AY MO ND F R AN CI S Y AT E S . .

A si mpl e s t ai ght for wa d t e x t book f or t hos e d e si i n g t o le arn t h e op e r at i on of a

r r - r
wood t u i g o m t al t u i g lat he T h e fi r s t chap t e r t e lls how t choose a lat he
,

- rn n r e - rn n o
a d all of t h e s t a da d t y p e s o ma k t e d e sc i be d Si mpl e a d mo e advan c e d
.

n th n r n e r e ar r n r
la t h e wo k i t ho oughl y cov e d n d t h e op e a t i on of all lat h at t achme t s such as
.

r s r er a r e n
mi ll s g i d e s pol i sh s e t c
er r n d e sc i b e d T h e t e t m e t s t a t s f om t h e ve r y
r er i s r r a n r r
bo t t om a d l ads t h e ad e t h ough t o a poi t whe e h wi ll b abl e t o han dle t h e
.
, , , ,

n e re r r n r e e
la g e comm ci al machi e s wi t h v e y li t t l i s t uct i on T h e last chap t of t h e
r r er n r e n r er
book i d vo t e d t o t hi gs mak o t h e lat he a d i n clud e s a mod l api d fi e aval
.

s e n to e n n e r - r n

g un T hi s i t h e o l y book publi she d i n t hi s coun t y t ha t t e a t s la t he wo k fr om

s n r r r
t h e s t a dpo i n t of t h e ama t e u m e cha i c 1 6 2 i llus t r a t i on s A bout 2 5 0 page s 1 2 mo
.

n r n . .
, .

NIN G AND B O R IN G TA PE R S B y F R E D H CO LVI N . . .

Th tw
e re a re way s t t u t ; t h e i gh t w a y a n d on
o ot h T hi t r e a t i s e h
o rn a er s r e er s as
do wi t h t h i gh t w y ; i t t l s y u how t s t a t t h wo k p op ly h ow t
.

to e r t th
a e o o r e r r er o se e
lat h what t ools t u e d how t o u t h m d fo t y d o t h l t t l t h gs
,
.

e, o s an se e an r an on e er i e i n
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,

3 5 ce n ts
.
h
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 CATAL O G UE O F G O O D , PRACTI CAL B O O K S
,

L I Q UI D AI R

Q UID AI R AND T HE L IQ UE FAC TI O N O F GA SE S B y T O C O N O R SLO AN E . .

’
.

T hi s book g i v s t h hi s t o y of t h t h o y d i scov y d ma uf ac t u of L i qui d Ai

e e r e e r er an n re r,
d co t ai s i llus t a t d d sc i p t i o of all t h xp i m t s t hat hav e xci t d t h
, ,

an n n an r e e r n e e er en e e e
wo d of aud i c s all ov t h cou t y I t shows how l qu d
n er en e l k wa t er e n r i i ai r , i e er, is
ca i d hu d ds of mi l s d i han dle d i op n buck t s I t t lls what m y b
.

rr e n re e an s n e e e a e ex "

p e c t e d f om i t i a fut u e
.

th r n e ne r r .

A book t hat d s si mpl of t h mos t p pl x i g ch mi cal p o b le ms Bf t h

ren er e on e e er e n e r e
c t u y St a t l i g d v lopm t s i ll us t at d b y ac t ual xp m t s
en r . r n e e en r e e eri en .

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s no t i fic i t t d au t ho i t y b u t i i tr d d f th g e e al en n er e s an r s n en e or e n r
‘ad b i g w i t t n i a popul a s t y l — as i ly u d s t ood b y v y n e T h
,
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e n r e n r e e n er e er o i rd
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i t i on R vi s d d E la g e d 3 9 4 pag s N w Ed t o P ce
.
.

. e e an n r . e . e i i n . ri

L O C O M O T I V E E N G IN E E R I N G

iR -B R AKE CATE C H I SM B y R O B E R T H B LAC KAL L . . .

T h i s book i a s t a d a r d t x t book I t cov s t h W s t i g hous Ai r B ak E q ui pm

s n t e - er e e n e - r e en
i clud i g t h N o 5 6 E T L ocomo t i v B ak E qu i p m K ( Q u i ck
.
,

n n d th N e t ; th an e o e r e en e
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. . . .

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op at i on of ll pa t s of t h appa at us i xplai d i d t ai l d a p ac t i cal w y of
.

er a r e r s e ne n e an r a
fi n d i g t h i p cul i a i t i s d d f c t s w i t h a p op m d y i gi v I t co t ai s
,

n e r e r e an e e r er re e s en n n
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, .

e n y e r n er en e an r i r an o an
xami at i o subj c t of Ai B ak s E do s d d us d b y i b ak i s t u
,

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n n on e e r r e n r e an e a r- r e n r o
to s d xami s a ly v y ai l oad i t h U i t d St at s 2 8 t h E di t i o 4 1 1
.

r an e ner on n e r e er r r n e n e e n
pag s ful ly i llus t at d wi t h colo d plat s d d i ag ams P i c
. .

e , r e re e an r . r e

M B UST I O N O F C O AL AND T HE PR E VE N T I O N O F SM O KE B y WM . .

M . B AR R .

T hi s book has b e e n p r e p ar e d w i t h sp e c i al e fe r e c e t o t h e g e e r at i on of h at b y t h e r n n e
c ombus t i o of t h commo fue ls fou d i t h U i t e d St at e s a d d e als pa t i cul a ly
n e n n n e n n r r
wi t h t h co di t i o s c ssa y t o t h co omi c d smok e le ss combus t i on of bi t umi ous
e n n ne e r e e n an n
coal i n St at i o a y a d L ocomot i ve St e am B oi l s n r n er .

P e s e t at i o of t hi s i mpo t a t subj e c t i s y s t mat i c a d p r og e ss i ve T h e a

r n n r n s e n r r
r a ge m t of t h e book n a e i e s of p ac t i c a l qu e s t i o s t wh ch app d d
.

n en
s i a e e n is i r r n o r e
accu at a sw s wh ch d sc b e i la guag f e e f om t ch i cali t i s t h e s v e a l
r e n er i e ri n n e r r e n e e r
p oc e ss s i n volve d i t h fu ac combus t i o of A m e i ca fu e ls ; i t cl e a ly s t at e s t h e
,

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esse n t i al q ui si t e s f or p e r f e c t combus t i o a d poi t s ou t t h b e s t m e t hods of fu ac
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,

n r n o in n re e n r n n
coal N e a ly 3 5 0 pag s ful ly i ll us t at e d Pr i c
. r e , r . e

R Y O F A R O U N D -H O U SE F O RE M AN B y T S R E I LL Y . . .

T hi s i t h e g e a t s t book f ai l oad e xp i
s r c s e v e publ i she d C o t ai n i n g a fun d of
e o r r er en e r n
i f o r mat i o a d sugg e s t o s alo g t h l i of ha dli g m e o ga i zi g e t c t hat o e
.
.

n n n i n n e ne n n n, r n n n
ca o t affo d t o mi s s 1 5 8 pag s Pr i c e , .
,

nn r . e .

NK M O TI O N S VALVE S AND V ALVE SE TTING , B y FR E D H CO L V I N . .

,
As so ci a t e E d i t o r of Amer i ca n M a ch i n i s t .

A ha dy book f or t h e e n gi e e o r mach i ni s t t hat cl e a s up t h e my s t e r i e s of valv

n n r r e
s e t t g Shows t h e d ff e r e t valv g e a s i u how t h y wo k
in d wh y
i Pi s t o n n e r n se e r an
a d sli d e valv e s of d ff e t t y pe s a i l lus t a t e d a d xplai e d A book t hat e ve y
.
.
, .

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a lr oad m a t h e mo t v e pow e d pa t m e t ough t t o ha e C o t a i s chap t s
.

r i n in i r e r n n n er on
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, ,

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, , , ,
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 CATAL O G UE O F G O O D , PRACTI CAL B O O K S

IN R ULE E XAM INATI O N S MAD E E ASY B y G E C O LLI N G WO OD . . . .

T hi s i t h on ly p act i cal -wo k on t ai n ul s i n p i t E v y d t ai l i cov d n d

s e r r r r e r n er e s er e a

p uzzl i g po i t s xplai d i n si mpl comp h si v la guag maki g t p ac t cal

. ,

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re e or ed l l o t h s who hav t
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e en r n n n e e an re e n r i n e
St a da d C od of T a i n R ul s f s i gl t ack Shows Si g als i C olo s as us d n
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MAC H INE -SH O P AR I TH M E TIC B y CO LVI N CH E N E Y .

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M O D E R N M AC H IN E -SH O P C O N ST R U C T I O N E Q UI P MEN T AND ,

AG E M E N T . B y O SCAR E . PE R R I GO .

The o ly wo k publi sh d t ha t d sc i b s t h e M od
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app t i c t p op i t o 5 t h di t i on P i c e
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THR E AD S AND TH R E AD -C U TTIN G By C om m a n d ST AB E L .

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E WHO L E FI E LD O F M E C A NI CA L M O VE M E N T S H
C O V E RE D B Y M R I SC O X
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f r o c o o .

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EC HANI CAL M O VE M E N T S ,
P O WE R S ,
AND D E VIC E S . B y G AR D N E R D .

H i s c ox .

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r n re n
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.
,

r n d r n n r n n an
g i n di g op e at o s home fou d y wo k e t c mak up t h e s t of t h e volum T h e
, , , ,
“

r n r i n n r r e re e
book omi t s n ot hi g t hat Wi ll b e of u e t o t hos e who u s e t ools o t o t hos e who wi sh
, , .
, .

n s r
t o le a t h e u e of t ools
rn T h e g e at n umb e of cl e a e g avi gs ( ov e 3 0 0 ) add
s r r r n r n r
t emr dousl y t o t h e t e x t m a t t _a d t o t h e value of t h e volum e as a vi sual i n s t u ct o
en er n r r
O c t a v e 3 2 0 pag e s 3 0 9 e n g r a vi n gs
, P i ce . . r

28
 CATALO G UE O F G O O D , PRAC TI CAL B O O K S

M A RI N E E N G I NE E R I N G

NAVAL AR C H I TE C T S AND SH IPB UILD E R S P O C KE TB O O K O f ’ ’

.

For mul ae R ul e s a n d T ab l e s a n d M a r i n e E n gi n e e r s a n d Sur ve y o r s H an d y

, ,
’ ’

B oo k of R efe r e n ce B y C LE M E N T M ACK R O W a n d L L O Y D W O O LLAR D . .

T h t w lft h
e vi s d nd e la g d di t i on of t h i s mos t comp h nsi v w o k h j us t
re e a en r e e re e e r as
b i ssu d I t i absolut l y i di sp sabl t all gag d i t h Sh pb ul d g I dust y
ee n e s e n en e o en e n e i i
.

i n n r
as i t co d n s i t o a compac t fo m all da t a e o d a ly qu d
. ,

n e es d f o m ul fi h t
n r an r ee a ar r i n ri re i re
book i compl t ly up t dat i cludi n g amo g o t h subj c t s a s c t o n
.

Th e s e e o e, n n er e e i n o
A o au t i cs
er n 7 6 0 pag s l i mp l e a t h . bi n d n g P ce e , er i . ri

—
ARI NE E NGINE S AND B O ILE R S THE IR D E SI G N AND C O N STR U O
T I O N T HE STAND AR D B O O K B y D R G B AU E R L E SLI E S R O B E R T SO N
. . . .
,
.

a n d S B R YAN D O N K I N . .

I n t h wo ds of D B au t h e p e s n t wo k ow s i t o i gi n t o a n of t f l t wan t of it
e r r er , r e r e s r e a.
c on d n s d t at i s mbody i n g t h t h o t i cal a d p ac t i cal ul s us d i n d i g ni g
.

e e re e e e e re n r r e e es n
ma i r ne en gi s d boi l s T h fac t t ha t t h o i gi al G ma wo k w w i t t b y
ne an er e e r n er n r as r en
chi f gi of t h famou V ulca Wo ks St t t i n i i i t s l f a gua a t t hat
.

th e e en n eer e s n r e s n e r n ee
t hi book i i n all sp c t s t ho oughly u p t dat e d t ha t i t mbodi s ll t h i
, ,

s s re e r - o- an e e a e n
f o ma t i o n whi ch i n c ssa y f d si gn d co t uc t i on of t h hi gh s t t y p s of
,

r th s e e r or e e an ns r e e e
ma i gi s d boi l s I t m y b sai d t hat t h e mo t i v pow whi ch D B au
r ne en ne an er a e e er r er
has plac d i t h fas t G man li s t ha t hav b tu d u t of lat y a s f om t h
. .

e n e er n er e e en rne o e e r r e
St t t i n Wo ks
e p s t t h v y b s t p act i c i n ma i n e n gi n i g of t h p s t
r re re en e er e r e r e eer n e re en
d y a Th wo k i cl a ly w i t t n t ho oughly s y s t mat i c t h o t i cally sou d ; whi l
e r s e r r e r e e re n e
cha act of t h pla s d awi n gs t abl s d s t at i s t i cs i wi t hou t p oach T h
. , ,

th e r er e n r e an s re r e
i l l us t a t i o s ca fu l p oduc t i o s f o m ac t ual wo k i g d awi gs w i t h som w ll
, , , .

r n are re re r n r r n r n e e
ex ut d pho t og aphi c vi ws of compl t d g i s d boi l s Fi ft h i mp ssi o
,

ec e r e e e en ne an er re n
7 4 4 p a ge s 5 5 0 i llus t a t i o n s a d um o u s t abl s C lo t h P i ce
. .

. r , n n er e . . r

M A N UA L T R AININ G

O NO MI CS O F MAN UAL TR AINING

L O U I S R O U I LLI O N . By .

T h e on l y book publ i sh d t hat g i v e s jus t t h e i nf o r ma t i o n d d b y all i n t e r e s t e d i i ie n ee e

M a ual T a i m g e ga d n g B ui ld i gs E q ui pm t a d Suppli es Shows e xac t l y
.

n r n r r i n en n
w hat i n ee d d f o all g ad es of t h e wo k f om t h e K i d e ga t n t o t h e Hi gh a d
, , , .

s e r r r r n r r e n
N o r mal School G v s t m z d li st s of e v e y t hi g us e d i M a ual T ai n i g Wo k .

i e i e i e r n n n r n r
a n d t ll s Jus t wha t t o ugh t t o cos t A lso shows wh e t o b uy suppli e s e t c C o t ai
.

e i er n ns
1 7 4 p a g e s a n d i s full y i ll us t r at e d 2 d e d i t i on P i ce
. .
,

, . . r

M O TO R BO ATS

O T O R B O AT S AND B O A T W PAG E AND A G LE I T CH MO TO R S . B y VI CT O R . . . .

A ll w ho a r e i n t e r e st e d i n mo t or b oat s e i t h e r as own s b ui lde r s or r e pai r me wi ll er n

fi n d t h s la t e s t wo k a m os t comp he n si v e t e a t i se t h e d e si g co s t r uct i o O p e a
, , ,
i r re r on n n n, r
t on d r pa r of mo t o r boat s a n d t h e i r pow e p la t s e al l y t w o compl e t e
.
,

i an e i It i r n s r
b ooks o cove as i t co si st s of t w o pa t s e ach comple t e i n i t s e lf P a t O e de als
.

in ne r n r r n
wi t h T HE HU LL AN D I T S F I TT N G S P a t T w o co si d e s T HE P O W E R P LAN T AN D I T S
, .

I r n r
AUX I LI A R I S A valuable fe at ur e of t hi s book i t h e compl e t e e t of di m e si o e d
,

E s s n n
wo k ng d w m g s d e t a l n g t h e co n s t u ct i o n of fi v e di ff e n t t y p e s of boat s a g i g
.

r i ra i i r er r n n
f r om a 1 6 foo t shallow dr aft t un n e l s t e rn g
-
e al u t i li t y c aft t o a 2 5 foot cab i n en r r -

T h e s e plan s a e b y A C L e t ch a p ac t i cal boat bui ld e a d xp e t n ava l

,

c m e
.

r s r r i r r n e r
a ch t c t a d a e compl e t e n e ve y pa t i cula r F ul l i s t uct i o s e gi ve n f o t h e
. . .
,
‘

r i e n r 1 r r n r n ar r
s e l e c t o n of a p w e r pla t a d t s t al lat i o i n t h e hul l V aluabl advi ce i i clud d
, .
.

i
o n n i s in n e s n e
o n boa t a nd e g e O p e at o a d la t e s t d s i gn s of mo t o s r e d e sc i b e d d i llus t a t e d
.
.

n in r i n n e r a r an r
T h e i n s t r uc t o s f o p v e r h a ul n g boa t a d e gi e wo t h ma y t i me s t h e small
.

i n r i n n n are r n
c os t p f t h e b ook I t i s a comp r e h e s v e wo r k of e fe r e c e f r all i t e s t e d i n mo t o r n i r n o n er
i n a n y o f i t s p ha s e s O ct avo C lo t h 3 7 2 i llus t r at i o n s age s
.

gg
oa i n g 524
o o o
. . . . .

a e o o o 0 0 0 o o o o o 0 0 o 0 o o o . 00 .
 M O T O R CY CL E S

OT O R CYCLE S CAR S THE IR C O NSTR U C T IO N MANAGE

AND SID E , ,

M E N T AN D R E P AIR B y VI CT O R W PAG E M E . .
, .

T h e o nl y compl t wo k pu b l i sh e d f or t h e e mo t o cy c li s t n d e pai man D sc i b es

r e r a r r e r
f ull y all l adi g t y p s of machi s t h i r d si g co s t uct i on mai t a c op at i on
.

e n e ne e e n, n r n en n e, er
pai T hi s t a t i s ou t li s fully t h op at i on of t w d fou c y cl pow
, ,

and re r re e ne e er o an r- e er
pla t s d ll i g ni t i on ca b u t i o n d lub i cat i o s y s t ms i n d t ai l D sc i b s l l
.

n an a r re an r n e e e r e a
r ep n t a t i v e t y p s of f gi clut ch s va i abl sp d g a s d pow t an
, .

r es e e e re en ne e r e ee e r an er r s
mi ss i o s y s t ms G i v s compl t i n s t uc t i o s f op e at i n g d pai i g all t y p s
,

n e e e e r n or r an re r n e
C o s i d s full y l c t i c s l f s t a t i g d li gh t i g s y s t ms all t y p e s of sp i g f am s
. .

n er e e r e - r n an n e r n r e
a d sp i g fo ks d shows l adi g co t ol m t hods t hos d si i g t ch i cal
,

n r n r an F e n n r e or e e r n e n
i fo ma t i o n a compl t s i e s of t abl s d ma y fo mul t o ass i s t i n d s i g i g
.

n r e e er e e an n r ae e n n ar
i clud d
n Th e wo k t lls how t o fig ur e pow n d d t o cli mb g ad s ov com ai r
e r e er ee e r e er e
r s i s t an c e a d a t t ai n h i gh sp e d s I t shows how t s le c t g a at i os f va i ou
. ,

e n e o e e r r or r s
w i gh t s d pow s how t o figu e b a ki g ffi c i cy q ui d g i v s s i z s of b lt s an d
.

e an er r r n e en re re e e e
c ha i s t t a sm i t pow saf ly n d shows how t d s i g sp ock t s b lt pull y s t c
, ,

n o r n er e a o e n r e e e e
T h i s wo k also i n clud s compl t fo mul f figu i g ho s pow shows how d y n a
, , , .

r e e e r ae or r n r e- er,
m om t t s t s e er mad d fi s lat i ve e f fici cy of i
e are d wa t —
e, cool d e n g i s plai n
e ne re en a r an er e ne
n d a n t i f i c t i o n b a i gs a n d ma y o t h dat a of a p ac t i cal h lpful gi
,

a - r e r n i g n er r e en neer n
n at u R m mb t ha t y u g t t hi s i fo ma t i o n i n ad di t i o p ac t i cal d e
, ,

re e e er t th o e n r n o e r
s c i p t i on d i n s t uc t i o n s whi ch alo wo t h s v al t i m s t h p c e f t h book
.

r an a r ne re r e er e e ri o e
2 md E di t i o n R e vi s e d d E lar g d 6 9 3 pag s 3 7 1 sp e c i all y mad e i ll u t a t i o n s
.

an n e e s r
C l ot h P ri ce
. . .

WHA T I S SA I D O F T HI S B O O K
He re i a bo o k t hat should b i n t h cy cl pa i s k i t —Ame i ca n B la ck mi th
s e e e re rer
’ "
r s .

T h b st w y f y id t ho oughl y u d s t an d h i m ac h i i t o g t a c op y
.

t
—
e e a or a n r er o r n er s ne, s e
of t h i s b k
oo ; t i i wo rt h ma n y t i m e s ts p i c P a cz fi c M otor cycl i s t i s r e .
”
.

P A T T E R N M A KI N G

CTI CAL PA TTE R N M AKIN G . By F W . . B AR R O WS .

T hi s b ook n o w i i t s e con d e di t i o i s a comp e h s i ve a d e n t i r e l y p r act i cal t r e at i s e

n s n, r en n

o n t h e subj e c t of pa t t e maki g i l lu s t r at i g pa t t wo k i bo t h wood a d m t al

,

rn n n e rn r n n e

a n d wi t h d fi n i t e i s t uc t i o n s o n t h e u e of plas t e r of P a s t h e t ad e It g v s
, ,
O .

e n r s ri i n r i e

s p e c i fi c a n d d e t ai l e d d sc i p t i o n s of t h e ma t e i a l s us d b y pa t t e n mak s d de
.

e r r e r er an

s c ri b es t h e t ool bo t h t hos e f o r t h b e ch a d t h e mo re i n t e e s t g mach t ools ;

s e n n r in i ne

h avi n g compl t e chap t e r s o n t h e L a t h t h e C i cula Sa w a d t h e B a d Sa w I t g i ve s

,

e e, r r n n

m an y e xample s of pa t t e rn wo k e ach o n e full y i llus t a t e d a n d e xpla e d W t h much

.
,

r r in i

d e t ai l T he s e xampl e s i n t h i r g e a t va i e t y off e much t ha t W l l b e fou d of

,

e e r r r i n

i n t e s t t o a ll pa t t e r n make s a d sp e c i all y t o t h e y oun g e r o n e s w h o a r e s e e k n g

. , , .

re r n e i

i n f o r mat i o n on t h e mo r e adva n c e d b r an che s of t h e i r t ad e

, ,

r .

I n t h i s s ec o d e d i t i o n of t h e wo k wi ll b e fou d much tha t i s n e w e v e n t o t hos e w h o

n r n

h av e lo g p ac t i c d t h i s xac t i g t ad e t h e d e sc p t o n of pat t s as adap t e d

,

n r I e e n r n ri i ern

t o t h e M ould i g M achi e man y d i fii c ul t i e s wh i ch hav lo g p v e t e d t h e ap d a d

.

n n e n re n r i n

e co o mi cal p oduc t i o n of cas t i gs

n r ov e com e ; a d t h s g e at w b a ch of t h e n a re r n i r ne r n

t ad e i s g i v e n much spac St i pp i g plat e a d s t ool pla t e wo k a d t h e l e ss e p e n

,

r e r n n r n x

s i v e vi b r a t o r o r r app i n g plat e wo r k a r e a ll e xpla n e d i n d e t a l

.
.

,
i i .

P lai n e ve ry d ay r ul e s f or l ss en i n g t h e cost of p at t e rn s wi t h a c omple t e sy st e m of

,

e
c os t k e e p i n g a d e t a i l e d m e t hod of ma ki n g appl cabl e t o all b a ch e s o f t h e t ad e
.
,
,

r i r n r

w i t h compl e t e i fo r mat i o showi n g what t h e pat t e n 1 8 i t s Sp CC fi C t t l i t cost

, , ,
. .

n n r l i e, s
dat e of p o d uc mo n mat e i al of whi ch i t i s mad t h e n umbe r of p e c e s a d co r e
, ,
. .

r r e, i n
box e s a d i t s locat i on i n t h e p at t e rn s afe a ll c on d e s e d i n t o a mos t comple t e car d
n
,

re c or d wi t h c r oss i d e x
,
,

n .

b o k clos h g p ac ca m hod v o
,

Th e o es w i t a n o r i i n a l a n d t i l e t f or t h e i n e n t r y a n d v a l ua r

t i o n of pa t t e r n s 2 n d E di t i on C o t ai ni n g n e ar l y 3 5 0 pa ge s a n d 1 7 0 i llus t a n r

o o o o o o o
. .

t i ons . Pr i ce 0 o o o o o o o o 0 $2 5 0 0
 CATAL O G UE O F G O O D , PRACTI CAL BO O K S

PE R F U ME R Y

PE RF UME S AND C O SME TIC S TH E IR PRE PARATI O N AND MANI ,

TURE B y G W AQRI N SO N P e rfum er

. . .
, .

A c omp h n s i v t at i s i n whi ch t h has b e e n n o t h i n g omi t t d t h at c on]

re e e re e, ere e
valu t t h p fum
e o ma ufac t u of t oi l t p pa at i o s C ompl t di
e er er or n r er e re r n e e r
maki g ha dk chi f p fum s sm lli g sal t s sach t s fumi gat i g p
.

for n n er e er e e n - e n a
pa a t i o s f t h ca of t h ski t h mou t h t h hai cosm t i cs hai d y
, , ,

p re r n or e re e n, e e r, e r
th t o i l t a t i cl s g i v also a d t ai l d d sc i p t i o of a omat i c sub t a c
, ,

o er e r e are en , e e e r n r s n e
n at u t s t s of pu i t y a n d Whol sal
re , e ma ufac t u i cludi g a chap t r y e e n re , n n e r on s
p oduct s wi t h fo mulas f t h i u A book of g al as w l l as p f i
,

r r or e r se ener e ro ess o
t m ti g th wa t s t o l y of t h d ugg i s t d p fum m u f t u
.
, ,

te r es ee n e n no n e r an er e an ac r
a lso of t h g al publi c F ou t h E di t i o much la g d d b ough t u p t
,

e e n er r n en r e an r -

N ea l y 4 0 0 pag i llus t a t d P ic
.

r es , r e . r e

WHA T I S SA I D O F T HI S B O O K :

T h e mos t sat i sfac t o y wo k th subj c t of P fum y t hat w e have e v e r r on e e er er r 5

W f l saf i say i g t ha t h i a book
e ee e P fum y t ha t wi ll t d i p p i
n n er e s on er er no sa o n
for i t has p ac t cal d xc ll t fo mul t hat
r wi t hi y ou abi li t y t p
i an e e en r ae a re n r o
r a di l y
e .

W e comm d t h volu m as wo t h y of co fid c
e r en d y t ha t pu chas
e e r n en e , an sa no r er
d i sappo i t d i s cu i g f om i t pag s good valu f i t os t d a la g d i
n e n e r n r s e e or s c an r e
sam v i f h should c —t of i t wo ki g fo mul
,

on t h e b t
e, e p en e us e u on e er en s r n r ae
i mon e y i n i t f o e v y u s of i t i fo ma t i on
.

s Ph m ce u ti ca l R e o d
r er er s n r .
”
ar a c r .

PL U M B IN G

ME C HANICAL D R AWIN G F O R PL UM B E R S B y R M ST AR B U CK . . . .

A con ci se compr e he n si ve a n d p act i cal t e at i s e on t h e subj e c t of m e cha i cal dr r r n

i n i t s va ous mod e r n appli ca t i o s t o t h e wo k of all w h o a e i
ri a y w a y c om n r r n n
wi t h t h e plumb i n g t r ad e N o t h i g Wi ll so h e lp t h plumbe r i n e s ti ma t i n g a n e
e xplai i n g wo r k t o cus t om s d wo km e n as a k n o w l e d g e m f d awi g a n d
.

n er an r r n
wor kman i t i of i n e s t i mabl e val ue i f h e i s t o r i s e above h i posi t i o n t o posi t i
s s
,

g r e at e r e spo s i b i l i t y A mo n g t h e chap t e s co t ai e d a r e : 1 Value t o plum

r n r n n
kn owle dge of d awi g ; t ools e qui e d a d t h i u e ; common vi e w s e e d e d i n m
.
.

r n r r n e r s n
i cal d awi n g r 2 P e sp e c t i v e v e sus m e cha i cal d aw i g i n sho w i n g r
p l um b i
r n r n
s t r uc t i o 3 C o e c t a d i co c t m t hod i n pl um b i n g d awi g ; plan a d e l e n
. .

n rr n n rre e s r n
e xpla i n e d 4 F loor a d c e l la pla s a d e l va t i o n ; sca b d aw i gs ; u e of t r i a
. .
n
n r n n e r n
5 U s e of t r i an gl e s ; d aw i n g of fi t t i g s t aps e t c 6 D r a w i n g plumbi n g e l e v
. .
s
r n r )
a n d fi t t i n gs 7 I n s t uc t i o s i n d awi n g pl u m bi g e l e va t i o n s T h e d aw

fl
.
, , .

8 r n r n
p lumb n g fix t ur e s ; scal e d awi g 9 D r awi gs of fix t u e s a n d fi t t i n gs
r
.
]
.
. .

i r n s n r
10 1
Shad i g of d aw i gs 1 2 Shad i n g of d aw i gs
. .

of d a wmg
. .

r l l s
1 3 Se cn r n r n
d r awn gs ; d a w m g of t hr e ads 1 4 P lumb n g e l e va t i o n s f om a chi t e c t s plan
. . .
. .

i r i r
’

1 r
of s e pa at e pa t s of t h e plumb i g s y s t e m 1 6 E le va t i on f om t h e ar ch
. .

va t o
.

i ns r r n ; r
la ns of d e t a l plumb i g con n e c t i on s 1 8 A chi t e c t s plan s a d p
. .

D aw mg
p r s i ’
n r
ug e l e va t o n s of e s d e n c e 1 9 P l u mb i n g l e va t i o n s of e s i d e n c e co n t i n u e d p
.
. .
n
r i r i
( e
i n g pla n s f o co t t ag e _2 0 P lumb i g e le vat i o n s oof con n e c t i o s 2 1 P la ) r
. . '

r n : r n
l u mb g e l e va t o s for a t bu i ld i n g D aw i g of va i ous a s of p n
. .
. .

22 Si x -
p in i n
t t h r n r
i n g s y s t e m ; u e of scal e s U e of ar ch i t c t s scal e s Sp e c i al fe a t u e s i
p r e
. .

’
s 24 s e
i ll us t at on s of coun t y plumb g
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E NLE Y S TWE N T IE TH C E N T R B O O K O F R E CI E S,
’
U Y P F O R MUL A S AND
P R O C E SSE S E i t e b y G R D N E R D H I SCO X
d d A . . .

Th mos t valuabl T ch o ch mi cal F o mula B ook publ i sh d i lud i g v

e e e n - e r e nc n o er
s l c t d sci t i fic ch mi cal t c h olog i cal d p ac t i cal ci p s d p oc ss
,

e e e en , e , e n , an r re e an r e es .

T hi s i th mos t compl t B ook of F o mulas v pu b li sh d gi i g t housa ds of

s e e e r e er e v n n
c i p s f o t h e ma ufac t u of val uable a t i cl s f or e v y day u e Hi nt s H lps
,

re e r n re r e er s e
P act i cal I d as d S c e t P oc e ss s a e ve al d Wi t hi i t pag e s I t cov e r s e v r y
.
, ,

r e an e r r e r re e n s e
b a ch of t h u s ful a t s d t e ll s t housa ds of way s of mak i g mo n e y a n d i j us t t h e
.
,

r n e e r an n n s
b ook e ve y on e shoul d have a t h i comma d
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r s n .

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r n s re en r r s
m a y t ut h f t b sa i d t o p s e t t h e v y la t s t fo mul as t o b fou d i th e a ts a d
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i dus t i e s
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an o re n wo t hy of a
e r e n er n r n r

p ma co d T o p e s t h e e ve a li mi t d n umb e of t h e subj e c t wh i ch fi d
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er t nen re r r en er n e r s n
a p l ac e i n t h i s valuabl e wo k woul d b d i ffi c ul t Suffic y t ha t i n i t s pag e s w i ll
.

to r e e sa
b e fou d ma t t of i t s e i t s t a d i mm asu ably p ac t i cal value t o t h e sc i e t i fic
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n er n en n ere n e r r n
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th ar t s t ade s a d ma ufac t ur e a k owle dg whi ch w i l l e d e r h i pu su i t s mo e
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i s t uc t i v a d mu a t i ve S vi n g as a r e f e c e book t o t h small a d la g e
, ,

n r e n re ne r er er n e n r
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.

n n n en e r n r
c o n duc t a p oc ss t h e wo k w i ll b e fo u d of i
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r er , e er n er, n r r e en
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e n er e r
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r n, r r, th en n ee r , e n r e n er ,
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nn
e r, th n e ner , e r n re, n r r
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,

n e re th e r n r, e r er, n er,
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n r er, th r n r, e r er , e er
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e e e a er , e n n re r , n r r, r
t h e P ap M ak Wood d M e t al Wo k t h C ha dl e r a n d Soap M ak e
, ,

m an , th er er, e an r er , e n r,
t h e Ve t e a y Su g e on a d t h e T e chno log i s t i n g e al
ri n r r , n en r .

A mi e of i nf o ma t i on a d u p t o dat e i n e v e y
n r sp e c t A b ook whi ch w i ll p r ov e of
n - - r re
v alu as i t cove s v y b a ch of t h e U s ful A t s E v e ry hom e
, .

t o E V E R YO N E
e r e er r n e r
n e ds t h s book ; v e y o f fic e e v y fac t o y e v y s t o e v y publi c a d p r i va t e e n
, .

e — E VE R Y WHE R E
e i e r er r er r er n
should have a copy 8 0 0 pag s C lot h Boui
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Your T we n t i e t h C e n t u y B ook of R e ci p e s F o r mulas a n d P r oc e ss es d ul r ec e i ve d
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r r . e . .
, r , is .

T h e e a e f e w p so s who would n o t b e abl t o fi n d i n t h e book som

r r er n i l e fo r mul a e e S
i at w o ul d r e pay s e v e al t i m s t h e cos t of t h e book — M er h a n ts R eco
tt
’
r a n d S h ow e . c r
f i n d ow .

pu chase d y our b ook He l

I r n ey s T we t i t h C e t u y B ook of R e ci p s F or mul as a n d
’
n e n r e
Pr oce ss e s about a y e a ago d i t i wo t h i t s w i gh t i n g l d — WM H M U R R AY
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r an s r e o .

B e n m n g t on V t
. .
.
.

T HE B O O K WO R T H T HR E E HU N D R E D D O LL AR S
On clos xam a o of y ou e w e h C e t u y R c i p t B ook I fi d i t t o b e a
i n ti n r T en ti et n r e e
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n
v r y valuabl e us f l book wi t h t h e v y b s t of p act i cal i fo ma t i o ob t ai n abl e ,
e and e u er e r n r n
T h p c e of th e book v e y small i compa i so t o t h e b e fi t s whi c h o e c a n .

e ri i s r n r n en n
o bt a f om I co s d book wo t h full y t h e hun d d dolla r s t o a n y on e
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— in t r th i n i ”
er e r re re
D R A C SPE T T S N w Yo k
.
.

. .
, e r .

O N E O F T HE WO R LD S M O ST U SE F UL B O O K S ’

Som e t m ago I g o t e of
i ou eT w t i t h C e t ur y B ook of F o r m ul a s
on a n d h av e r "
y e n e n s
m ad m y l v g f om t v c e I am alo n e s i c m y husba d s d e at h wi t h t w o
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e i i n r i e e r Si n n e n
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s mall ch ld e t o ca d am t y i g so ha d t o suppo t t h e m I hav e cus t om e s

.

fo
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w h o t ak f om m e T o l t A t cl e s I p u t up follow i g d i e c t i o n s g i v e n i n t h e boo k
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R UBB E R

R UB B E R H AN D STA M P S AND T HE M ANI P ULA TI O N O F IND IA R UB

B y T O C O N O R SL O ANE
’
. .

T ih s boo k g i v s fu ll d t ai ls on all poi t s t at i g i n a co n ci s e a n d si mple ma

e e n re n nn
e l e m e t s of a ly v y t hi g i t i e c e ssa y t o un d s t a d f o a c o mm e c m
,

n ne r e er n s n r er n r n e
a y b a ch of t h e I
n r d i a R ubb e M a uf ac t u e T h e mak i g of all ki ds of R
n n r n r n n
Ha d St amps Small A t i cl s of I d i a R ubb e U S G ov e r m e n t C ompos i t i o
.

n r e n r, n n,
Ha d St amps t h M ani pula t i on of Sh e t R ubb e T oy B all oo s I di a R ubb e
, . .

n e e r, n n r
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, ,

n e en n en n r n r en r n
Sho s e t C t h e H k t og aph St amp I ks a d M i sc e lla e ous N o t s w i t h a
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e n n
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e r n e
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n e er n an n re n r, ar s
a ma d i g d t o b ad i l y u d s t ood t h e xpla at i o s b i g plai n a d s
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i n nn er es ne e re n er e n n e n n
I n clud i g a chap t o n R ubb M ak i g d V ul ca i z i g ; also a chap t
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n Ti er er re n an n n er
us s of ubb
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p ag e s I llu t r a t e d
.

. s

SA WS
SA W F IL IN G AND MANAGE ME N T O F SAW S B y R O B E R T G R I M .

A p ac t i cal ha d book fil i g gummi g swagi g hamm i g d t h b az

r n - on n n n er n an e r
ba d saws t h sp d wo k d pow t ci cula saws t A ha dy b
, , , ,

n e ee r an er o r un r r e c n o
hos who hav cha g of saws f o t hos e m cha i cs who do t h i w fi li g as i
, , , , .

t e e r e or r e n e r o n n
wi t h t h p op shap e d p i t ch s of w t e t h of all ki ds d g ve s ma y us ful
, ,

e r er an e sa e n an i n e
an d ul e s f gummi g s t t i g a d fili g d i a p ac t i cal i d t t hos who us
r or n e n n n an s r a o e
a y pu pos e C ompl t t abl s of p op shap e p t ch d saw t t h as
, , ,

f or n r e e e r er i an ee
s i z s d umb of t t h of va i ous saws i clud d F ou t h d t o e vi s
. , ,
‘

e an n er ee r a re n e r e i i n, r e
e nl a g d I llus t a t d P ic
.

r e . r e . r e

SCR E W CU TT IN G

THR E AD S AND TH R E AD -G U TTING B y CO L V I N a n d ST AB L E . .

T h i s cl a s up ma y of t h em y s t e i s of t h ad cu t t i g such as doubl e a d
r n e r e re - n n
t h ads i t al t h ads ca t chi g t h ads u of hobs t c C o t s a l o t of
,

re n ern re n re se e n ai n
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n e r 35 e . r i i n . ri

S T E A M E N G I N E E R IN G

MOD ER N STE A M E N G IN E E R IN G IN THE O R Y AND PR AC TICE

G R D N E R D H I SC O X
A
hi s i a compl e t a d p ac t i cal wo k ssu e d f or St at o a y E n g n e r s a d F
. .

T s e n r r i i n r i e n 11
d ali g w i t h t h ca
n d ma ag e m e t of bo l s e g s pumps sup he a t e d
re an n n i er en i ne er
f i g a t i g mach i e y d y amos mo t o s e l vat o s a comp e sso s a d a ll
e ,
‘
, ,

re r er n n r n r e r ir r r n
b a ch s wi t h w h i ch t h e mod e g i e mus t b e fa ml a N e a ly 2 0 0 qu s t o
,
, , ,
, ‘

r n e e rn n n er i i r r e i n

th i a sw s s t am a d l e c t i cal g i e g l k e l y t o b e ask e d b y t h E
.

e r n er on e n e r en ne ri n i e

i n g B oa d a e i clud e d
,

r r n .

A mo g t h e chap t s a e Hi s t o i cal : s t am a n d i t p op e t i e ; appl i an c e s f

,

n er r : r e s r r s
g en era t i o of s t am ; t y p s of boi l s ; ch mne y a d t wo k he at co om y
n e e er i n l S r
‘
e n
f e d wa t ; s t am pumps a d t he i wo k ; c us t at o n a d t wo k ; s t arn
e er e n r r i n r
‘

i n i s r e
a t mosph i c p ssu ; flow of s t e am f om ozzle s ; up e h a t e d t a m a d t
er re re r n s r e s e n i s
adi aba t i c e xpa s i o of s t e am ; i d i ca t o a d t wo k s t a m g n p opo t o s
n n n r n r s r
'

e en i e r r i
.

n
valve e g i s a d valv mo t i o ; C or l ss e g e d t valve g e ar ; compound
n ne n e n i n in an i s

t h o y ; t i pl a d mul t i pl e xpa s o n e g n ; s t am t u b f g
.

; n i n i e e r i ne r e ri e
a d it
n s e r r e n e

e l va t o s a d t h e i ma ag e m n t ; cos t of pow e ; s t am e gi e t oubl s ;

e r n r n e r e n n r e e

p ow e r a n d e l e c t r i c pla n t s 4 8 7 pag es 4 0 5 e g r av n gs 3 d E di t o n . n i . i .
 CATAL O G UE O F G O O D , PRAC TI CAL B O O K S

E RI CAN STA T I O NAR Y E N G INE E RI NG W E CR AN E . By . . .

T hi s b oo k b e g i s a t t h e b o i l e oom a d t ake s i n t h e whol e p owe r plan t A plai n

n r r n
t alk o n e v e y d a y w o k about s boi l s d t h e acc e sso s I t o t t e d d
.
.

gi
r - r en ne er an ir ri e is n in n e
t o b e sc i e t i fic or mat h e mat i cal A ll fo mul as mpl e fo m so t hat a y o
.
, ,

n n r a re i Si r n ne
u n d e r s t a d i g plai n a i t hm e t i c c e ad i l y a y of t h m aut ho
.

h a mad e t hi s t h
s
n n
u d
n e
s t a d
mos t p ac t i cal book i p t ; has g v t h e e s ul t s of h i s y ea s o f
e
T
r h
r
an r
n ri n
.
r n
i en
n
r
e . e
r
r

e xp e i e c e a d has i clud d abou t all t ha t has to do W t h a n e g

r n n n e oom o a pow r e i n in r r e

p lan t You a e n ot l e ft t o gu ss a t a si n gl e po t You a e shown c l e a l y what t

,

r e in r r o
xpe c t u d t h e va i ous co d i t i o s ; how t s cu e t h e b e s t s ult s ; way s of p ve t
.
.

e n er r n n o e r re re n
i ng shut dow s d e pai s ; i sho t all t hat go e s t o m a k e up t h e q m e m e t
n an r r n r re r n s
o f a good g i r capable of t aki g cha g e of a pla t I t s pla n e ough f o p ac t cal
,
,
en nee n r n i n r r i
m e n a d y e t of valu e t o t hos e h gh i n t h e p ofe ss o
.
,
.

n i r i n .

A pa t i al li s t of co t e n t s i : T h e boi l e r r oom cl e ani g b oi l e r s fi r i n g f e d g ; pumps

r n s n e in
i n sp e c t i o a d e pai ; ch i m e y s s i z e s d cos t ; p p g ; maso n wo k ; fou n da t o s ;
, , , ,

n n r r n an r in r i n
t e st i n g c e m t ; pi l d i vi g ; e g i e s slow a d h gh sp e e d ; valv s ; valve s e t t g ;
,

en e r n n n n i e in
C o li ss e g i s s t t i g valv s s i gl e a d doubl cc t c ; a pumps a d co d s e s ;
,

r n ne e n e n n e e en ri ir n n en r
d i ffe e t t y p s of co n d s s ; wat r n d e d ; l g up ; pou ds ; p s o t squa e
, ,

r n e en er e ee i ni n n in n r i n
c ossh ad c a k e g i e e s t ools ; p i st o s a d p st o gs ; b e a n g m e t al ; ha d
‘ ’ .

n n r n n n ri n
'

r e or r n i ri r
e e d copp
n ; d i p p p s f om cy li d e r jack t s ; b l t s h o w mad
er r i ca of ; O ls ; g as e s ;
e r n e e e, re i re
t e s t i ng lub i ca t s ; r ul s d t abl e s clud g s t e am t abl s ; a e as of s e gm e t s ;
,

r n e an i n in e r n
q ua e s a d squa r oo t s ; cub e s a d cub e oot ; a as a d C cumf e n ce s of C rcle s
,

s r n re n r re n ir er i
N o t e s o : B i ck wo k ; e xp los i o s ; p umps ; pump valv s ; h e a t e s co om z e s ;
.

n r r n e r e n i r
s afe t y valv s ; lap l ad a d cl a an c e H s a compl e t e xam at i on f o r a l c s
,

e e n e r a e in i en e,
T h i r d e di t i on 3 1 1 pag e s 1 3 1 I ll us t r a t i o n s Pri ce
, , .

etc e tc . . . .
.

GINE R UNN E R S CATE C H I SM B y R O B E R T G R I MSHAW ’

. .

A p act i cal t at i s f t h s t at i o a y gi
r re t ll i g how t o
e
ct ad j us
or t a n d ru e n r en neer e n ere n
p i c i pal s t a m g i n s i u i n t h U m t d St at s D sc b g t h p nc pal
,

th e r n e en e n se e e e e ri i n e ri i
f at u s of va i ous sp ci al d w ll k n own mak s of g s T mp C u t - ff Sh pp g
.

e re r e an e - e en i ne : e er o i in
d R c i vi g F ou dat i o s E c t i g d St a t i g V alv S t t g C a a d U
,

an e e n n n re n an r n e e in re n se,
E me g ci s E c t i n g d A djus t i g Sp c al E g e s
, , ,
.

r en e , re an n e i n in .

Th qu s t i o s ask d t h oughout t h cat chi sm

e e n plai a d t o t h po i n t a nd t h
e r e e are n n e e
sw s g i v i such si mpl la guag as t b adi ly u d s t ood b y a y o A ll ,

an er are en n e n e o e re n er n ne
t h i s t uc t i o s g i v compl t dat ; d t h y w t t i n a popula
.

e n r d p t
n e n ar e e e an u - o- e an e a re ri en r
s ty l wi t hout y t ch i cali t i s
e, mat h mat i cal fo mul
an T h e wo k i
e of a ha d y n e or e r ae r s n
si z pock t cl a ly d w ll p i t d i c ly bou d a d p ofu s ly i l lus t a t d
.

f th
e or e e , e r an e r n e , n e n , n r e r e .

T o y ou g e g i s t hi s cat chi sm wi ll b of g at valu sp c i all y t t hos who m y

n n n e er e e re e, e e o e a
b e p pa i n g t go fo wa d t b x mi d f c t ficat s of comp t cy ; d t
re r o r r o e e a ne or er i e e en an o
en gi sg ally i t wi ll b of n li t t l s vi c as t h y W l l fi d i t hi s volu m mo
ne er en e r e o e er e, e i n n e re
re ally p ac t i cal d us ful i fo mat i o t han t b fou d a y wh e ls Wi t h i n l i k
r an e n r n is o e n n er e e a e
c omp as s 3 8 7 p ag s Se v e n t h e d t i on
. P r i ce e . i .

OR SE - O WE R C H AR T P .

Shows t h ho s pow of y s t a t i o a y ng i n wi t hou t calculat i on N o mat t wha t

e r e- er an n r e e er
cy li d d i am t of s t ok t h s t am p ssu of u t off t h volut i o s
.

th e n er e er r e, e e re re c -
e re n or
wh t h co d si g co d si g i t ll t h E as y t accu at a d
, ,

n on -
’
e er n en n
u or n en n s a ere o se, r e n
s av s t i m a d calcula t i o s E sp c i all y u ful t gi s d d si g s 5 0
, .
,

e e n t n . e se o en neer an e ner . ce n s

E AM E N G INE CATE C H I SM By R O B E R T G R I MSHAW . .

T hi s uni qu volum of 4 1 3 pag s i n t o l y a ca t c h i sm

e th q u s t i on a n d a n w
e e s o n e on e e s er
p i ci pl b u t i t c o t ai s fo m ulas d wo k d t a s w s f ll t h St am p obl ms
r n e n n r an r e -o u n er or a e e r e
t ha t app t a i op a t i o d ma ag m t of t h St am E n g i I llus t a t i o n s
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t th er n o e er n an n e en e e ne r
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E E L : I T S SE LE C T I O N , ~

ANN E ALIN G HARD E NIN G , , AND TE M PE R ING .

B y E R MAR M . . KHA .

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 CATAL O G UE O F G O O D , PRACTI CAL B O O K S

T R A CTO R S

O D E R N G AS TR AC T O R : I T S C O N STR U C T I O N , U T IL ITY , O PE R A T I O N
AN D RE PAIR B y V I CT O R W PAG E . . .

An la g d a d vi s e d d i t i o t hat t e a t e xclusi v e ly on t h d e s i g a d co s t uc t i o
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r n , n e .

WELD IN G
OD ER N WE LD ING M E TH O D S B y V I CT O R W PAG E . . .

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e r e n e O n e e r
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n r n or er n an r r or n r
a r e i n clud e d 2 9 2 pag s 2 0 0 i llus t a t i o s
. 1 9 2 1 e di t i o P ri c e e . r n . n .

T O M O BIL E WE LD IN G W I TH T HE O XY-AC E TYL E N E FL A M E . By

M KE I T H D U N H M
. A .

E xplai n s i a si mpl e ma n e appa a t us t o b e us e d i t ca e

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.
,
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s o n a re e n an r r o

over co m e t h e m Shown 1 6 7 p a g es F ull y i llu t r a t e d Pri ce . . s .