Biology De!

nitions

1. Biology: The study of living organisms, including their structures, functions,

interactions, and evolution.

2. Respiration: The process by which organisms convert glucose and oxygen into
energy, releasing carbon dioxide and water as byproducts.

3. Nutrition: The process by which organisms obtain and use food to maintain their
health, growth, and reproduction.

4. Autotroph: An organism that can produce its own food through photosynthesis,
such as plants and some bacteria.

5. Heterotroph: An organism that obtains its food from other sources, such as
animals, fungi, and some bacteria.

6. Holozoic: Referring to the type of nutrition where organisms ingest solid food
particles and digest them internally, such as in animals.

7. Saprotroph: An organism that obtains its food by breaking down dead organic
matter by extracellular digestion, such as fungi and some bacteria.

8. Cell: The basic unit of life, consisting of a membrane-bound structure that contains
genetic material and other organelles.

9. Eukaryote: A type of cell that has a distinct nucleus and membrane-bound

organelles, such as plants, animals, and fungi.

10. Prokaryote: A type of cell that lacks a distinct nucleus and membrane-bound
organelles, such as bacteria.

11. Chromatin: The material that makes up the genetic material of a cell, consisting of
DNA, RNA, and proteins.

12. Turgor pressure: The pressure exerted by the water inside a plant cell against its
cell wall, which helps maintain the cell's shape and rigidity.

13. Diffusion: The passive movement of molecules or ions from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration.

14. Osmosis: The passive movement of water molecules across a selectively

permeable membrane from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration.

15. Active transport: The movement of molecules or ions across a membrane from
an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration, requiring energy input.
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 an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration, requiring energy input.

16. Cell differentiation: The process by which cells become specialized in structure
and function to perform specific roles in an organism.

17. Totipotent cell: A type of stem cell that can differentiate into any cell type,
including those that make up an entire organism.

18. Multipotent cell: A type of stem cell that can differentiate into a limited number of
cell types, such as those found in a particular tissue or organ.

19. Cell specification: The process by which a cell becomes committed to a

particular fate or function, determined by its gene expression patterns.

20. Metabolism: The sum of all chemical reactions that occur within an organism,
including those involved in energy production, nutrient processing, and waste
elimination.

21. Monosaccharide: A simple sugar that cannot be broken down into smaller sugar
molecules, such as glucose, galactose and fructose.

22. Disaccharide: A sugar made up of two monosaccharides joined together, such as

sucrose, lactose and maltose.

23. Polysaccharide: A complex carbohydrate made up of many monosaccharides

joined together, such as starch and cellulose.

24. Reducing sugar: A sugar that can donate electrons and reduce other compounds,
such as glucose and fructose.

25. Biuret test: A test used to determine the presence of proteins in a sample, which
turns violet when positive.

26. Lipid emulsification test: A test used to determine the presence of lipids in a
sample, which results in a cloudy mixture when positive.

27. Proteins: Large molecules made up of chains of amino acids, which play
important roles in cell function and structure.

28. Polypeptides: Chains of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. Amino
acid: The building blocks of proteins, which contain a carboxyl group, an amino
group, and a side chain.

29. Fatty acid: A molecule made up of a chain of carbon atoms with a carboxyl group
at one end, which can be saturated or unsaturated.

30. Glycerol: A three-carbon molecule that forms the backbone of triglycerides and
other lipids.

31. Triglyceride: A molecule consisting of three fatty acids attached to a glycerol

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 31. Triglyceride: A molecule consisting of three fatty acids attached to a glycerol
backbone, which serves as a storage form of energy in the body.

32. Lipids: A group of molecules that includes fats, oils, and waxes, which play
important roles in energy storage, insulation, and cell membrane structure.

33. Semipermeable: A membrane that allows certain molecules to pass through while
blocking others.

34. Antigen: A substance that can trigger an immune response, such as a virus or
bacterium.

35. Enzyme: A protein that catalyzes a specific chemical reaction in the body.

36. Hormone: A chemical messenger that regulates various bodily functions and
processes.

37. Photosynthesis: The process by which plants and some other organisms convert
light energy into chemical energy in the form of glucose.

38. Growth: The process of increasing in size or number of cells, tissues, or

organisms. Sensitivity: The ability of an organism or system to detect and respond to
changes in its environment.

39. Reproduction: The process by which organisms produce offspring.

40. Binary fission: A form of asexual reproduction in which a single cell divides into
two identical daughter cells.

41. Sexual reproduction: A type of reproduction involving the fusion of gametes from
two parents, resulting in genetically diverse offspring.

42. Mitosis: The process of cell division that results in two identical daughter cells
with the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell.

43. Meiosis: The process of cell division that results in four genetically diverse
daughter cells with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell, which is
essential for sexual reproduction.

44. Taxonomy: The branch of biology that deals with the classification and naming of
organisms.

45. Protoctista: A kingdom of eukaryotic organisms that includes protozoa and algae.
Bacteria: A large group of single-celled organisms that lack a nucleus and are found
in virtually every habitat on Earth.

46. Virus: A small infectious agent that can replicate only inside the cells of a host
organism.

47. Fungi: A group of organisms that includes yeasts, molds, and mushrooms, which
obtain nutrients through absorption and reproduce via spores.
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 obtain nutrients through absorption and reproduce via spores.

48. Hyphae: Thread-like structures that make up the body of fungi, which can grow
and branch to form a mycelium.

49. Mycelium: The vegetative part of a fungus, consisting of a mass of branching,

thread-like hyphae.

50. Plants: Multicellular, eukaryotic organisms that have cell walls made of cellulose
and carry out photosynthesis to produce food.

51. Animals: Multicellular, eukaryotic organisms that lack cell walls and obtain their
food through ingestion.

52. Lock and key model: A model used to explain the specificity of enzyme-substrate
interactions, where the active site of an enzyme is specific to the shape of its
substrate, similar to a lock and key.

53. pH: A measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution, measured on a scale from
0 to 14, with a pH of 7 being neutral, below 7 being acidic, and above 7 being basic.

54. Buffer: A solution that resists changes in pH when small amounts of acid or base
are added to it.

55. Substrate: The molecule upon which an enzyme acts.

56. Villus: Finger-like projections in the small intestine that increase the surface area
for absorption of nutrients.

57. Alveoli: Tiny air sacs in the lungs where gas exchange occurs.

58. Peristalsis: The rhythmic contraction of smooth muscle in the walls of the
digestive tract that propels food through it.

59. Emulsification: The breakdown of large fat droplets into smaller ones by bile
acids in the small intestine.

60. Digestion: The breakdown of food into smaller molecules that can be absorbed
and used by the body.

61. Absorption: The process of taking in nutrients through the walls of the small
intestine into the bloodstream.

62. Assimilation: The process by which nutrients are taken into and used by the body.
Ingestion: The act of taking in food through the mouth.

63. Egestion: The elimination of undigested food waste from the body.

64. Surfactant: A substance that reduces the surface tension of a liquid, making it
easier for alveoli to expand and preventing them from collapsing during exhalation.
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 65. Diaphragm: A dome-shaped muscle that separates the chest cavity from the
abdominal cavity and is involved in breathing.

66. Inhalation: The act of breathing in air into the lungs.

67. Exhalation: The act of breathing out air from the lungs.

68. Intercostal muscles: Muscles between the ribs that help to expand and contract
the chest during breathing.

69. Iris: The coloured part of the eye that controls the size of the pupil.

70. Pupil: The opening in the center of the iris that allows light to enter the eye

71. Circular muscles: Muscles that encircle an opening and can constrict it, such as
the muscles that control the size of the pupil.

72. Longitudinal muscles: Muscles that run parallel to an organ or body part and can
contract to shorten it, such as the muscles that help to move food through the
digestive tract.

73. Radial muscles: Muscles that run perpendicular to an organ or body part and can
expand it, such as the muscles that help to dilate the pupil.

74. Reflex arc: The pathway that a reflex follows, involving a sensory receptor, a
sensory neuron, a motor neuron, and an effector.

75. Microvilli: Tiny projections on the surface of cells, such as those lining the small
intestine, that increase the surface area for absorption.

76. Lacteal: A lymphatic vessel in the small intestine that absorbs fats and fat-
soluble vitamins.

77. Churning: The mixing and contracting of the stomach muscles that helps to break
down food.

78. Chewing: The act of grinding food with the teeth to break it down into smaller
pieces. Carbohydrase: An enzyme that breaks down carbohydrates.

79. Amylase: A carbohydrase that breaks down starch into simple sugars. Maltase: A
carbohydrase that breaks down maltose

80. Maltase: an enzyme that breaks down maltose into glucose.

81. Lactase: an enzyme that breaks down lactose into glucose and galactose.

82. Sucrase: an enzyme that breaks down sucrose into glucose and fructose.

83. Pepsin: an enzyme produced in the stomach that breaks down proteins into
smaller peptides.
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 84. Trypsin: an enzyme produced in the pancreas that breaks down proteins into
smaller peptides and amino acids.

85. Protease: a general term for enzymes that break down proteins into smaller
peptides and amino acids.

86. Oesophagus: a muscular tube that connects the mouth to the stomach, allowing
food to be transported from the mouth to the stomach.

87. Stomach: a muscular sac-like organ that receives food from the oesophagus and
mixes it with digestive enzymes and hydrochloric acid.

88. Duodenum: the first section of the small intestine, where most of the digestion
and absorption of nutrients takes place.

89. Mitochondria: organelles found in eukaryotic cells that are responsible for
generating energy in the form of ATP through cellular respiration.

90. Aerobic respiration: the process by which cells use oxygen to generate energy in
the form of ATP.

91. Anaerobic respiration: the process by which cells generate energy in the absence
of oxygen, usually resulting in the production of lactic acid or ethanol.

92. ATP: adenosine triphosphate, a molecule used by cells as a source of energy.

Respirometer: a device used to measure the rate of respiration of organisms.

93. Hydrogen carbonate indicator experiment: an experiment used to measure the

rate of respiration by monitoring changes in the pH of a solution.

94. Germinating seeds vacuum flask: an experiment used to investigate the process
of respiration in germinating seeds by measuring the amount of oxygen consumed
and carbon dioxide produced.

95. Yeast fermentation experiment: an experiment used to investigate the process of

anaerobic respiration in yeast by measuring the amount of carbon dioxide produced.
Food-burning experiment: an experiment used to measure the amount of energy
stored in food by burning it and measuring the heat produced.

96. Gas exchange in leaf: the process of exchanging carbon dioxide and oxygen
between the plant and the environment.

97. Stomata: small openings on the surface of leaves that allow for gas exchange
and transpiration.

98. Guard cells: specialized cells that control the opening and closing of stomata in
response to environmental conditions.

99. Opening of stomata: the process by which stomata are opened to allow for gas
exchange and transpiration.
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 exchange and transpiration.

100. Lungs: organs responsible for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide
between the body and the environment.

101. Diaphragm muscle: a muscle that separates the chest cavity from the abdominal
cavity and is involved in breathing.

102. Intercostal muscles: muscles between the ribs that are involved in breathing.

103. Bronchus: a tube that carries air from the trachea to the lungs.

104. Bronchiole: a smaller tube that branches off from the bronchus and carries air
into the lungs.

105. Pleural membrane: a thin layer of tissue that lines the lungs and chest cavity,
helping to reduce friction during breathing.

106. Ventilation: the process of breathing, which involves inhaling and exhaling air.

107. Gas exchange: the process by which oxygen and carbon dioxide are
exchanged between the body and the environment.

108. Breathing: the process of inhaling and exhaling air. Inhalation: the process of
breathing in air.

109. Exhalation: the process of breathing out air.

110. Cilia: small hair-like structures on the surface of cells that are involved in
movement and the removal of foreign particles from the body.

111. Adaptations of the alveolus: The alveolus is adapted for gas exchange in the
lungs. It has a thin wall, moist surface, large surface area, and is surrounded by
capillaries that allow for the diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide.

112. Adaptations of Red blood cells: Red blood cells are adapted for oxygen
transport. They have a biconcave shape, allowing for a larger surface area for gas
exchange, and contain haemoglobin, a protein that binds with oxygen for transport.

113. Concentration gradient: A concentration gradient is a difference in the

concentration of a substance between two regions. Substances tend to move from
regions of high concentration to regions of low concentration, down the concentration
gradient.

114. Effects of smoking: Smoking can cause various harmful effects on the body,
including lung cancer, emphysema, chronic bronchitis, and cardiovascular disease.

115. Carbon monoxide: Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas that is produced when
tobacco is burned. It binds with haemoglobin in red blood cells, reducing the amount
of oxygen that can be transported in the blood.
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 116. Nicotine: Nicotine is an addictive substance found in tobacco. It can cause an
increase in heart rate and blood pressure and can lead to addiction.

117. Tar: Tar is a toxic substance that is produced when tobacco is burned. It can
cause damage to the lungs and respiratory system.

118. Lung cancer: Lung cancer is a type of cancer that originates in the lungs. It is
often caused by smoking and can be fatal if not treated.

119. Emphysema: Emphysema is a lung disease that is caused by smoking. It

damages the air sacs in the lungs, making it difficult to breathe.

120. Effect on the rate of breathing: Smoking can cause a decrease in lung function,
which can result in a decreased rate of breathing.

121. Experiment to prove exhalation of carbon dioxide: One way to prove the
exhalation of carbon dioxide is to breathe it into a container with lime water. The lime
water will turn cloudy due to the reaction with the carbon dioxide in the exhaled
breath.

122. Transport in humans: Transport in humans refers to the circulation of blood,

which transports oxygen and nutrients to the body's cells and removes waste
products such as carbon dioxide.

123. Surface area to volume ratio: The surface area to volume ratio is the ratio of the
surface area of an object to its volume. It is important in biological systems, as it
affects the rate of exchange of materials between the object and its surroundings.

124. Transpiration: Transpiration is the process by which water is lost from plants
through evaporation from the leaves.

125. Factors affecting the rate of transpiration: Factors affecting the rate of
transpiration include temperature, humidity, wind, and light intensity.

126. Phloem vessels are specialized plant cells that transport organic nutrients, such
as sugars, from the leaves to other parts of the plant. They are composed of living
cells that form a tube-like structure.

127. Xylem vessels are specialized plant cells that transport water and minerals from
the roots to other parts of the plant. They are composed of dead cells that form a
tube-like structure.

128. The pathway of water and minerals in the root begins when water and dissolved
minerals enter the root hairs through the process of osmosis. These substances then
move through the cortex, which is the layer of tissue that surrounds the central
cylinder of the root. From there, they enter the xylem vessels, which transport them
upwards through the stem to the leaves.

129. Artery: A blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart to the rest of the
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 129. Artery: A blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart to the rest of the
body.

130. Arteriole: A small branch of an artery that leads to capillaries.

131. Capillary: A tiny blood vessel where gas and nutrient exchange occurs between
the blood and tissues.

132. Venule: A small blood vessel that collects blood from the capillaries and carries
it back to the veins.

133. Vein: A blood vessel that carries blood back to the heart from the rest of the
body.

134. Pulmonary: Related to the lungs.

135. Renal: Related to the kidneys.
136. Cardiac: Related to the heart.
137. Hepatic: Related to the liver.

138. Aorta: The largest artery in the body that carries oxygenated blood from the
heart to the rest of the body.

139. Vena cava: The largest vein in the body that carries deoxygenated blood from
the body back to the heart.

140. Bicuspid valve: A valve in the heart that separates the left atrium and ventricle.

141. Tricuspid valve: A valve in the heart that separates the right atrium and ventricle.

142. Semilunar valve: A valve in the heart that prevents backflow of blood from the
aorta and pulmonary artery.

143. Systole: The contraction phase of the heart cycle where blood is pumped out of
the heart.

144. Diastole: The relaxation phase of the heart cycle where the heart fills with
blood.

145. Lymph vessels: Vessels that transport lymph (a clear fluid that contains white
blood cells) throughout the body.

146. Red blood cells: Blood cells that contain hemoglobin and carry oxygen from the
lungs to the rest of the body.

147. White blood cells: Blood cells that help fight infections and foreign substances in
the body.

148. Lymphocytes: A type of white blood cell that helps the body fight infections.

149. Phagocytes: A type of white blood cell that engulfs and destroys bacteria and
other foreign substances.
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 other foreign substances.

150. Antibodies: Proteins produced by white blood cells that bind to specific foreign
substances and help destroy them.

151. Antigens: Substances that trigger an immune response in the body.

152. Agglutination: The clumping together of red blood cells in response to the
presence of antibodies.

153. Immunity: The ability of the body to resist infection and disease.

154. Tissue fluid: A clear fluid that surrounds the cells and tissues of the body and
contains nutrients and waste products.

155. Blood plasma: The liquid part of the blood that carries nutrients, hormones, and
waste products.

156. 6 functions of blood: Transport of oxygen, nutrients, and hormones; removal of

waste products; regulation of body temperature and pH; protection against infections;
clotting to prevent blood loss; and distribution of antibodies and immune cells.

157. Secretion: The process of releasing a substance, often a hormone or enzyme,

from a cell or gland.

158. The experiment on heart rate: An experiment that measures the heart rate under
different conditions, such as exercise or rest, to study the effects of different factors
on heart rate.

159. Investigation of blood glucose: A test to measure the level of glucose in the
blood to diagnose diabetes or monitor treatment.

160. Investigation of finding a pulse: A method of measuring the heart rate by feeling
the pulse in a peripheral artery, such as the wrist or neck.

161. Left atrium: The chamber of the heart that receives oxygenated blood from the
lungs.

162. Right atrium: The chamber of the heart that receives deoxygenated blood from
the body.

163. Left ventricle: The chamber of the heart that pumps oxygenated blood to the rest
of the body.

164. Right ventricle: The chamber of the heart that pumps deoxygenated blood to the
lungs.

165. Coronary artery: Blood vessels that supply the heart muscle with oxygen and
nutrients.

166. Cardiovascular disease: A range of conditions that affect the heart or blood
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 166. Cardiovascular disease: A range of conditions that affect the heart or blood
vessels, including coronary artery disease, heart attack, and stroke.

167. Stent: A small, wire mesh tube used to prop open a blocked or narrowed artery
during a procedure called angioplasty.

168. Angiography: A medical imaging technique that uses X-rays and a contrast
agent to visualize blood vessels in the body.

169. Artificial pacemaker: A small electronic device implanted in the chest to regulate
the heartbeat.

170. Muscle: A type of tissue in the body that is responsible for movement.

171. Platelets: Small, colorless blood cells that are involved in the clotting process.

172. Fibrinogen: A protein in blood plasma that is converted to fibrin during the
clotting process.

173. Fibrin: A protein that forms a mesh-like network to stop bleeding by forming a
blood clot.

174. Vaccine: A substance that stimulates the body's immune system to produce an
immune response to a particular disease.

175. Finger-clicking activity: A simple test used to measure a person's reaction time.

176. Root hair cell: A specialized cell in plants that is responsible for absorbing water
and nutrients from the soil.

177. Epidermis: The outermost layer of cells in plants and animals.

178. Cortex: A layer of tissue in plant roots that is responsible for transporting water
and nutrients.

179. Endodermis: A layer of cells in plant roots that controls the movement of water
and nutrients into the vascular tissue.

180. Casparian strip: A waxy, waterproof layer in the endodermis that prevents water
and dissolved substances from entering the vascular tissue.

181. Vascular bundle: A group of xylem and phloem tissue in plants that is
responsible for transporting water, nutrients, and sugars.

182. Excretion: The process by which metabolic waste products and other toxins are
eliminated from the body.

183. Urea: A waste product of protein metabolism that is excreted in the urine.

184. Liver: A large organ in the body that performs many functions, including
detoxifying harmful substances, producing bile for digestion, and storing nutrients.
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 185. Deamination: The process by which nitrogen-containing amino acids are
converted into waste products such as ammonia and urea, which are excreted from
the body.

186. Kidney: A pair of organs in the body that filter waste products from the blood
and regulate fluid balance and electrolyte levels.

187. Cortex: The outer layer of the kidney.

188. Medulla: The innermost part of the kidney.
189. Pelvis: The area of the kidney where urine collects before being excreted from
the body.

190. Ureter: A muscular tube that carries urine from the kidney to the bladder.
191. Renal artery: A blood vessel that supplies oxygenated blood to the kidney.
192. Renal vein: A blood vessel that carries deoxygenated blood away from the
kidney.

193. Nephron: The functional unit of the kidney, responsible for filtering blood and
producing urine.

194. Afferent arteriole: The blood vessel that brings blood into the glomerulus of the
nephron.

195. Bowman's capsule: The first part of the nephron that filters blood from the
glomerulus.

196. Glomerulus: A network of capillaries in the nephron that filters waste products
from the blood.

197. The loop of Henle: A section of the nephron that reabsorbs water and
electrolytes.

198. Proximal convoluted tubule: The part of the nephron where most of the selective
reabsorption of nutrients, ions, and water occurs.

199. Distal convoluted tubule: The part of the nephron where further reabsorption of
ions and water occurs.

200. Osmoreceptors: Specialized cells in the hypothalamus that detect changes in

the concentration of electrolytes and water in the body.

201. Hypothalamus: A part of the brain that regulates various bodily functions,
including water balance and body temperature.

202. Anti-diuretic hormone: A hormone produced by the hypothalamus that regulates

water balance in the body by controlling the reabsorption of water in the kidneys.

203. Collecting duct: A tube in the kidney that collects urine from the nephrons and
carries it to the pelvis.
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 204. Ultrafiltration: The process by which blood is filtered through the glomerulus of
the nephron.

205. Selective reabsorption: The process by which nutrients, ions, and water are
reabsorbed back into the body from the filtrate in the nephron.

206. Osmoregulation: The regulation of body fluids, including electrolyte and water
balance, to maintain homeostasis.

207. Electrolyte balance: The balance of electrolytes in the body, including sodium,
potassium, and chloride ions.

208. Homeostasis: The maintenance of a stable internal environment in the body.

209. Thermoregulation: The regulation of body temperature to maintain homeostasis.

210. Negative feedback mechanism: A mechanism in the body that helps maintain
homeostasis by reversing a change in a physiological process.

211. Vasoconstriction: The narrowing of blood vessels to reduce blood flow to an

area.
212. Vasodilation: The widening of blood vessels to increase blood flow to an area

213. Filtrate: The liquid that passes through a filter, such as the glomerular filter in
the kidney.

214. Thermoreceptors: Nerve cells in the body that are sensitive to changes in
temperature.

215. Sweating: The process by which sweat is produced by sweat glands in response
to a rise in body temperature, and helps cool the body down.

216. Longitudinal section of skin: A type of microscope slide that shows a cross-
section of the skin.

217. Hair raising: A reflex response of the skin to cold or fear, in which the hair stands
on end.

218. Shivering: A reflex response of the body to cold, in which the muscles contract
rapidly to generate heat.

219. Plant growth regulators: Chemicals that regulate the growth and development
of plants.

220. Auxin: A plant growth regulator that promotes cell elongation and differentiation.

221. Gibberellin: A plant growth regulator that promotes stem elongation and fruit
growth.

222. Tropism: The growth or movement of a plant in response to a stimulus, such as

light or gravity.
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 light or gravity.

223. Phototropism: The growth or movement of a plant in response to light.

224. Geotropism: The growth or movement of a plant in response to gravity.

225. Nervous coordination: The process by which the nervous system controls and
coordinates the activities of the body.

226. Hormonal coordination: The process by which hormones control and coordinate
the activities of the body.

227. Endocrine glands: These are glands that produce hormones that are secreted
directly into the bloodstream and regulate various bodily functions.

228. Pituitary gland: This is a small gland located at the base of the brain that
produces and releases hormones that regulate other endocrine glands and various
bodily functions.

229. Hypothalamus: This is a small region of the brain that plays a key role in
regulating and maintaining the body's internal environment, including body
temperature, hunger, thirst, and hormone levels.

230. Pancreas: This is a gland located behind the stomach that produces hormones
such as insulin and glucagon, which regulate blood sugar levels, and digestive
enzymes that help break down food in the small intestine.

231. Adrenal gland: These are glands located on top of the kidneys that produce
hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol that help the body respond to stress and
regulate various bodily functions.

232. Thyroid gland: This is a gland located in the neck that produces hormones such
as thyroxine that regulate metabolism and energy levels in the body.

233. Gonads: These are the reproductive glands, including the ovaries in females
and the testes in males, that produce sex hormones and gametes (eggs or sperm).

234. Ovaries: These are the female reproductive organs that produce eggs and
hormones such as estrogen and progesterone.

235. Testis: This is the male reproductive organ that produces sperm and hormones
such as testosterone.

236. Stimulus: This is any change or signal in the environment that can elicit a
response from an organism.

237. Neuron: This is a specialized cell in the nervous system that transmits nerve
impulses.

238. Axon: This is a long, slender projection from a neuron that carries nerve
impulses away from the cell body.
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 impulses away from the cell body.

239. Dendrites: These are branching projections from a neuron that receive signals
from other neurons or sensory cells.

240. Myelin: This is a fatty substance that surrounds and insulates some axons,
allowing for faster transmission of nerve impulses.

241. Synaptic knob: This is the rounded end of an axon that forms a junction with
another neuron or a target cell, where neurotransmitters are released.

242. Synapse: This is the junction between two neurons or between a neuron and a
target cell, where nerve impulses are transmitted through the release and reception
of neurotransmitters.

243. Neurotransmitter: This is a chemical substance released by a neuron that

transmits a nerve impulse across a synapse to a target cell.

244. Acetylcholine: This is a neurotransmitter that is involved in muscle movement,

memory, and other functions in the nervous system.
245. Receptor: This is a specialized cell or molecule that detects a stimulus and
initiates a response.

246. Sensory organ: This is a specialized structure that contains sensory cells and
responds to specific stimuli.

247. Transducer: This is a device that converts one form of energy into another, such
as a sensory receptor that converts a physical stimulus into a nerve impulse.

248. Skin: This is the outermost layer of the body that serves as a barrier to the
external environment and contains sensory receptors for touch, temperature, and
pain.

249. Eye: This is the organ of vision that detects light and allows for sight.

250. Taste buds: These are sensory organs located on the tongue and other parts of
the mouth that detect taste.

251. Nose: This is the organ of smell that contains sensory receptors for detecting
odours.

252. Sensory neuron: This is a type of neuron that detects a stimulus and transmits a
nerve impulse to the central nervous system.

253. Relay neuron: This is a type of neuron that connects sensory neurons to motor
neurons or other relay neurons in the central nervous system.

254. Motor neuron: A type of neuron that carries nerve impulses from the central
nervous system to muscles or glands, causing them to contract or secrete.

255. Reflex arc: The pathway that a nerve impulse follows in a reflex action, involving
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 255. Reflex arc: The pathway that a nerve impulse follows in a reflex action, involving
a sensory neuron, a relay neuron, and a motor neuron.

256. Response: The reaction of an organism to a stimulus, which can be a behavioral

or physiological change.

257. Effector: A muscle or gland that responds to a nerve impulse from a motor
neuron.
258. Muscle: A tissue composed of muscle fibers that can contract and produce
movement.

259. Gland: An organ that secretes hormones or other substances into the
bloodstream or a body cavity.

260. Sclera: The tough outer layer of the eye that provides structural support and
protects the delicate inner structures.

261. Choroid: The vascular layer of the eye that provides oxygen and nutrients to the
retina.

262. Retina: The layer of light-sensitive cells at the back of the eye that converts light
into nerve impulses.

263. Cornea: The clear, dome-shaped covering at the front of the eye that refracts
light and helps focus images.

264. Optic nerve: The nerve that carries nerve impulses from the retina to the brain,
allowing for vision.

265. Iris: The colored part of the eye that controls the size of the pupil and regulates
the amount of light entering the eye.

266. Pupil: The opening in the center of the iris through which light enters the eye.

267. Lens: The transparent structure behind the iris that refracts light and helps focus
images on the retina.

268. Suspensory ligaments: The thin fibers that attach the lens to the ciliary muscles
and help adjust its shape.

269. Ciliary muscles: The muscles that control the shape of the lens and allow for
accommodation.

270. Radial muscles: The muscles in the iris that dilate the pupil in response to low
light levels.

271. Longitudinal muscles: The muscles in the iris that constrict the pupil in response
to high light levels.
272. Response to dim light: The dilation of the pupil in response to low light levels.

273. Response to strong light: The constriction of the pupil in response to high light
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 273. Response to strong light: The constriction of the pupil in response to high light
levels.

274. Focusing on a distant object: The relaxation of the ciliary muscles and flattening
of the lens to focus on a distant object.

275. Aqueous humour: The clear, watery fluid that fills the space between the cornea
and the lens, providing nutrients to the lens and helping maintain its shape.

276. Vitreous humour: The clear, gel-like substance that fills the space between the
lens and the retina, providing structural support and helping maintain the shape of
the eye.

277. Fovea: The small, central area of the retina that is responsible for sharp,
detailed vision.

278. Insulin: A hormone produced by the pancreas that regulates the metabolism of
glucose in the body.

279. Nervous vs hormonal control: Nervous control involves the transmission of

nerve impulses from the nervous system to effectors, while hormonal control involves
the release of hormones into the bloodstream that regulate various bodily functions.

280. Experiment testing sensitivity: An experiment designed to measure an

organism's sensitivity to a specific stimulus.

281. Experiment testing reaction time: An experiment designed to measure the time it
takes for an organism to respond to a specific stimulus.

282. Dialysis: A medical procedure used to remove waste products and excess fluid
from the blood in cases of kidney failure.

283. Etiolation: The elongation and pale colouration of plant shoots grown in
darkness due to a lack of light.

284. Oestrogen: A female sex hormone produced by the ovaries that regulates
various bodily functions, including the menstrual cycle and reproductive system.

285. Testosterone: a male sex hormone produced mainly in the testes that promotes
the development of male sexual characteristics, such as facial hair growth and
deepening of the voice.

286. FSH (Follicle-stimulating hormone): a hormone secreted by the pituitary gland

that stimulates the development of follicles in the ovaries and sperm production in the
testes.

287. LH (Luteinizing hormone): a hormone secreted by the pituitary gland that

stimulates ovulation in females and testosterone production in males.

288. Progesterone: a hormone produced by the ovaries that prepares the uterus for
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 288. Progesterone: a hormone produced by the ovaries that prepares the uterus for
pregnancy and helps maintain it during gestation.

289. Reproduction: the biological process by which living organisms produce

offspring.

290. Asexual reproduction: a type of reproduction that does not involve the fusion of
gametes and results in offspring that are genetically identical to the parent.

291. Cuttings: a vegetative propagation technique in which a piece of a plant stem or

root is cut and planted to produce a new plant.

292. Runner: a type of stem produced by certain plants that grows horizontally along
the ground and produces new plants at nodes.

293. Tissue culture: a method of growing cells, tissues, or organs in vitro (in a
laboratory) under controlled conditions.

294. Micropropagation: a form of tissue culture used to rapidly propagate plants by

growing small tissue samples in vitro.

295. Sexual reproduction: a type of reproduction that involves the fusion of gametes
from two parents and results in offspring that are genetically diverse.

296. Flower: the reproductive structure of angiosperms (flowering plants) that

contains the male and/or female reproductive organs.

297. Pollination: the transfer of pollen from the anther (male reproductive organ) to
the stigma (female reproductive organ) of a flower, resulting in fertilization and seed
production.

298. Pedicel: the stalk that attaches a flower to the stem.

299. Sepal: the outermost layer of a flower that protects the developing bud.

300. Petal: the brightly colored and often fragrant part of a flower that attracts
pollinators.

301. Stamen: the male reproductive organ of a flower that produces pollen.

302. Filament: the stalk-like part of a stamen that supports the anther.

303. Anther: the part of a stamen that produces and releases pollen.

304. Pollen: the fine powdery substance produced by the anthers of flowers that
contains the male gametes.

305. Meiosis: a type of cell division that produces gametes (sperm or egg cells) with
half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell

306. Wind-pollinated flower: a type of flower that is adapted for pollination by wind,
with small and inconspicuous flowers that produce large quantities of lightweight
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 with small and inconspicuous flowers that produce large quantities of lightweight
pollen.

307. Insect-pollinated flower: a type of flower that is adapted for pollination by

insects, with brightly colored and fragrant flowers that produce small quantities of
sticky pollen.

308. Carpel: the female reproductive organ of a flower that contains the stigma, style,
and ovary.

309. Stigma: the sticky part of the carpel that receives pollen.

310. Style: the stalk-like part of the carpel that connects the stigma to the ovary.

311. Ovary: the part of the carpel that contains the ovules, which develop into seeds
after fertilization.

312. Ovule: the female gamete (egg cell) and its surrounding protective layers that
develop into a seed after fertilization.

313. Seed: a reproductive structure produced by plants that contains an embryo and
stored nutrients.

314. Zygote: a fertilized egg cell resulting from the fusion of a sperm cell and an egg
cell.

315. Embryo: An early stage of development of a multicellular organism, specifically

from the time of fertilization until the end of the eighth week of gestation in humans.

316. Diploid: A cell or organism having two sets of chromosomes, one from each
parent.

317. Haploid: A cell or organism having only one set of chromosomes.

318. Self-pollination: The transfer of pollen from the anther of a flower to the stigma
of the same flower or to another flower on the same plant

319. Cross-pollination: The transfer of pollen from the anther of one flower to the
stigma of another flower on a different plant of the same species.

320. Genetic diversity: The variety of genetic information within and among
populations of the same species.

321. Pollen tube: A tube that grows from a pollen grain to an ovule, allowing the
sperm to reach the egg cell for fertilization.

322. Micropyle: A small opening in the integument of an ovule through which the
pollen tube enters during fertilization.

323. Germination: The process by which a seed begins to grow and develop into a
new plant.
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 new plant.

324. Testa: The protective outer layer of a seed.

325. Fruit: The mature ovary of a flower, often containing seeds.

326. Seeding: The process of planting seeds in soil or other growing medium.

327. Cotyledons: The embryonic leaves of a plant embryo, which provide nutrients to
the developing seedling.

328. Monocot: A plant that has one cotyledon in its seed.

329. Dicot: A plant that has two cotyledons in its seed.

330. Dormancy: A state of reduced metabolic activity that allows a seed to survive
unfavorable conditions until conditions become favorable for germination.

331. Germination experiment: An experiment designed to investigate the factors that

affect the germination of seeds.

332. Car charts: A type of graph used to display data that has been collected over
time.
333. Histograms: A type of graph used to display data that has been collected in
intervals or groups.

334. Frequency: The number of times that a particular value or event occurs in a set
of data.

335. Radicle: The embryonic root of a plant.

336. Plumule: The embryonic shoot of a plant.

337. Adventitious roots: Roots that develop from plant tissue other than the primary
root.

338. Busy lizzies experiment: An experiment designed to investigate the effect of

different light intensities on the growth of plants.

339. Vas deferens: A muscular tube that carries sperm from the testes to the urethra.

340. Scrotum: A pouch of skin and muscle that contains the testes

341. Urethra: A tube that carries urine and semen out of the body.

342. Sperm: The male reproductive cell.

343. Penis: The male reproductive organ that transfers sperm to the female during
sexual intercourse.

344. Prostate gland: A gland in the male reproductive system that produces a fluid
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 344. Prostate gland: A gland in the male reproductive system that produces a fluid
that helps nourish and transport sperm.

345. Ovum: The female reproductive cell, also known as an egg.

346. Oviduct: A tube that carries the ovum from the ovary to the uterus.

347. Uterus: A muscular organ in the female reproductive system that can support
the development of a fertilized egg.

348. Vagina: A muscular canal in the female reproductive system that connects the
cervix to the external genitalia.
349. Endometrium: The lining of the uterus that is shed during menstruation.

350. Implantation: The process by which a fertilized egg implants itself into the wall of
the uterus.

351. Menstruation: The shedding of the endometrial lining of the uterus that occurs
approximately once a month in females who have not become pregnant.

352. Ovulation: The process in which a mature egg is released from an ovary and
travels down the fallopian tube, where it can be fertilized by sperm.

353. Cervix: The lower part of the uterus that connects to the vagina.

354. Amniotic fluid: The clear liquid that surrounds and protects the developing fetus
in the amniotic sac.

355. Amniotic membrane: The thin, tough membrane that surrounds the amniotic
fluid and the developing fetus in the uterus.

356. Gestation: The period of time during which a fetus develops in the uterus, from
conception to birth.

357. Fetus: The developing offspring in the uterus from the ninth week of gestation
until birth.

358. Placenta: An organ that develops in the uterus during pregnancy and provides
nutrients and oxygen to the developing fetus, as well as removing waste products.

359. Umbilical cord: A flexible cord that connects the developing fetus to the placenta
and transports nutrients, oxygen, and waste products between the fetus and the
placenta.

360. Placental villi: Tiny finger-like projections on the surface of the placenta that
increase the surface area for exchange of nutrients and waste products between the
fetus and the mother.

361. Secondary sexual characteristics: Physical features that develop during puberty
and distinguish males from females, such as body hair, voice pitch, and breast
development.
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 development.
362. Follicle: A small sac in the ovary that contains an immature egg and produces
hormones.

363. Homologous chromosomes: A pair of matching chromosomes, one from each

parent, that have the same genes at the same locations.

364. DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid, the genetic material that carries the instructions for
the development, function, and reproduction of all living organisms.

365. RNA: Ribonucleic acid, a molecule that carries genetic information from DNA to
the ribosomes, where it is used to synthesize proteins.

366. mRNA: Messenger RNA, a type of RNA that carries genetic information from
DNA to the ribosomes for protein synthesis.

367. tRNA: Transfer RNA, a type of RNA that carries amino acids to the ribosomes
during protein synthesis.

368. Ribosomes: Cellular organelles that synthesize proteins by assembling amino

acids into chains according to the sequence of codons in mRNA.

369. DNA polymerase: An enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of new DNA strands
during DNA replication.

370. Transcription: The process of making an RNA molecule from a DNA template.

371. Replication: The process of copying DNA to make a new, identical DNA
molecule.

372. Translation: The process of synthesizing a protein from mRNA by using

ribosomes and tRNA to assemble amino acids into a chain.

373. Codon: A sequence of three nucleotides in mRNA that specifies a particular

amino acid or a start or stop signal for protein synthesis.

374. Anticodon: A sequence of three nucleotides in tRNA that matches a codon in

mRNA and brings the corresponding amino acid to the ribosome.

375. Gene: A segment of DNA that contains the instructions for making a protein or
RNA molecule.
376. Allele: One of two or more versions of a gene that exist at the same location on
a chromosome.

377. Homozygous: Having two identical alleles for a particular gene.

378. Heterozygous: Having two different alleles for a particular gene.

379. Dominant: Refers to an allele that is always expressed in the phenotype when
present.

380. Recessive: Refers to an allele that is only expressed in the phenotype when
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 380. Recessive: Refers to an allele that is only expressed in the phenotype when
there are two copies present.

381. Test cross: a breeding experiment between an individual showing a dominant

phenotype (but with unknown genotype) and a homozygous recessive individual to
determine the unknown genotype of the first individual.

382. Monohybrid cross: a breeding experiment between two individuals that differ in
one trait.

383. Phenotype: the observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an

organism, resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.

384. Genotype: the genetic makeup of an organism, determined by the combination

of alleles inherited from its parents.

385. Genome: the complete set of genetic information of an organism, including all of
its genes and non-coding DNA.

386. Nucleotide: the basic building block of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), consisting
of a sugar molecule, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.

387. Polynucleotide: a polymer of nucleotides linked together by phosphodiester

bonds, forming a strand of DNA or RNA.

388. Mutation: a change in the DNA sequence that can lead to a new allele or a
different phenotype.

389. Variation: the differences in traits between individuals of the same species,
resulting from genetic and environmental factors.
390. Continuous variation: variation in a trait that falls within a range of values and
can be measured quantitatively (e.g. height, weight).

391. Discontinuous variation: variation in a trait that can be classified into distinct
categories (e.g. blood type, eye color).

392. Extracting DNA: the process of isolating DNA from cells or tissues, using various
techniques such as cell lysis, precipitation, and purification.

393. Evolution: the process of change in the inherited characteristics of biological

populations over successive generations, driven by natural selection, genetic drift,
mutation, and other factors.

394. Natural selection: the process by which organisms that are better adapted to
their environment have a higher chance of survival and reproduction, leading to the
evolution of beneficial traits over time.

395. Artificial selection: the intentional breeding of organisms by humans for desired
traits, leading to the evolution of domesticated plants and animals.
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 396. Experiment natural selection: a laboratory or field experiment designed to test
the effects of natural selection on a particular trait in a population of organisms.

397. Peppered moth case: a famous example of natural selection in action, where the
frequency of dark-colored moths increased during the industrial revolution in England
due to their higher survival rate on polluted trees.

398. Woolly mammoth case: an extinct species of mammoth that lived during the last
ice age, where the evolution of their hairy coat was an adaptation to the cold climate.

399. Camouflage: the ability of an organism to blend in with its environment,

providing protection from predators or prey.

400. Selective predation: the selective hunting of certain prey species by predators,
leading to changes in the traits and abundance of the prey populations.

401. Case of antibiotic resistance: the evolution of bacterial populations that are
resistant to antibiotics due to the overuse and misuse of these drugs.
402. Probability: the measure of the likelihood of an event occurring, ranging from 0
(impossible) to 1 (certain).

403. Arithmetic mean: the average of a set of numerical values, calculated by adding
them together and dividing by the number of values

404. Mode: the most common value in a set of numerical values.

405. Median: the middle value in a set of numerical values, when arranged in order of
magnitude.

406. Pollen grains and analysis: the microscopic examination and identification of
pollen grains, used in various fields such as plant taxonomy, ecology, and forensic
science.

407. Down’s syndrome: a genetic disorder caused by the presence of an extra copy
of chromosome 21, leading to developmental and intellectual disabilities.

408. Genetic screening: A process to check for certain genetic conditions or disorders
in an individual or group of individuals, by analyzing their DNA or other genetic
markers.

409. Ecology: The study of interactions between living organisms and their
environment.

410. Ecosystem: A community of living organisms, along with their non-living

environment, interacting as a system.

411. Biotic factors: Living components of an ecosystem, including plants, animals,

and microorganisms.

412. Abiotic factors: Non-living components of an ecosystem, including temperature,

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 412. Abiotic factors: Non-living components of an ecosystem, including temperature,
water, sunlight, soil, and air.

413. Population: A group of individuals of the same species living in the same area at
the same time.

414. Community: All the populations of different species living and interacting in the
same area at the same time.
415. Habitat: The specific environment in which an organism lives, including biotic
and abiotic factors.

416. Biodiversity: The variety of life in a particular habitat or ecosystem, including the
number of different species, genetic diversity, and ecosystem diversity.

417. Estimating population size: A method of estimating the size of a population by

sampling a small portion of the population and extrapolating the results to the entire
population.

418. Quadrats: A tool used in field ecology to sample and study plant or animal
populations, consisting of a square or rectangular frame.

419. Random sampling: A method of sampling in which every individual in the

population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample.

420. Pitfall trap: A type of trap used in ecological studies to capture and count
ground-dwelling insects and other invertebrates.

421. Sweep net: A tool used in ecological studies to sample and collect insects and
other invertebrates from vegetation.

422. Pooter: A device used for collecting small insects. It consists of a glass jar with
two tubes attached to it, one for sucking air and the other for collecting the insects.

423. Pond net: A net used for catching aquatic animals in ponds or other bodies of
water.

424. Pitfall trap: A trap used for catching small ground-dwelling animals, consisting of
a container sunk into the ground with a funnel-shaped lid.

425. Bar chart frequencies: A graph that displays the number of times a certain value
or category appears in a dataset.

426. Bar chart categories: A graph that displays data in separate columns
representing different categories

427. Assessing population density: The process of estimating the number of

individuals in a particular population in a given area.

428. Causation: The relationship between cause and effect, where one event leads to
another.
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 429. Correlation: The relationship between two variables where a change in one
variable is associated with a change in the other variable.

430. Positive correlation: A correlation where both variables increase or decrease

together.

431. Negative correlation: A correlation where one variable increases while the other
variable decreases.

432. Food chain: A linear sequence of organisms through which energy and nutrients
are transferred in an ecosystem.

433. Food web: A complex network of interconnected food chains that represents the
feeding relationships within an ecosystem.

434. Trophic levels: The different levels in a food chain or food web that represent the
position of an organism in the food chain

435. Producers: Organisms that produce their own food through photosynthesis,
such as plants.

436. Primary consumer: An organism that feeds on producers, such as herbivores.

437. Secondary consumer: An organism that feeds on primary consumers, such as

carnivores.

438. Tertiary consumer: An organism that feeds on secondary consumers, such as

apex predators.

439. Decomposer: Organisms that break down dead organic matter, such as fungi
and bacteria

440. Food pyramid: A graphical representation of the trophic levels in a food chain,
with producers at the base and apex predators at the top.

441. The pyramid of numbers: A graphical representation of the number of individuals

at each trophic level in a food chain.

442. The pyramid of biomass: A graphical representation of the total biomass at each
trophic level in a food chain.

443. Biomass: The total mass of living organisms in a given area or ecosystem.

444. The pyramid of energy: A graphical representation of the amount of energy

transferred at each trophic level in a food chain.

445. Energy losses: The amount of energy lost at each trophic level due to
respiration, waste, and heat.

446. Nitrogen cycle: The biogeochemical cycle that describes the movement of
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 446. Nitrogen cycle: The biogeochemical cycle that describes the movement of
nitrogen through the biosphere, including nitrogen fixation, nitrification, denitrification,
and assimilation.

447. Carbon cycle: The biogeochemical cycle that describes the movement of carbon
through the biosphere, including photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, and
combustion.

448. Precipitation: Any form of water that falls from the atmosphere to the Earth's
surface, such as rain, snow, or hail.

449. Water cycle: The continuous movement of water through the Earth's
hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere.

450. Evapotranspiration: the process by which water is transferred from land to the
atmosphere through the combined actions of evaporation from soil and transpiration
from plants

451. Carbon sinks: natural or artificial reservoirs that absorb and store atmospheric
carbon dioxide.

452. Nitrogen fixing bacteria: microorganisms that convert atmospheric nitrogen into
a form usable by plants

453. Nitrifying bacteria: microorganisms that convert ammonium into nitrate, an

important nutrient for plants
454. Denitrifying bacteria: microorganisms that convert nitrate into nitrogen gas,
which is released back into the atmosphere

455. Air pollution: the presence or introduction of harmful substances into the air,
resulting in negative impacts on human health and the environment

456. Acid rain: rain that has become acidic due to the presence of pollutants such as
sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides

457. Sulphur dioxide: a gas produced by the burning of fossil fuels, which can
contribute to acid rain and respiratory problems

458. Carbon monoxide: a poisonous gas produced by the incomplete combustion of

fossil fuels

459. Greenhouse effect: the process by which certain gases in the Earth's
atmosphere trap heat from the sun, leading to a warming of the planet

460. Greenhouse gases: gases in the Earth's atmosphere that contribute to the
greenhouse effect, such as carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapor

461. Ozone layer depletion: the gradual destruction of the ozone layer, which protects
the Earth from harmful UV radiation

462. Global warming: the increase in the Earth's average surface temperature due to
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 462. Global warming: the increase in the Earth's average surface temperature due to
human activities that release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere

463. Sewage pollution: the release of untreated or inadequately treated sewage into
the environment, leading to negative impacts on water quality and human health

464. Algal bloom: a rapid increase in the population of algae in water, often caused
by excessive nutrient inputs

465. Algae population experiment: an experiment in which the growth of algae is

measured over time under different conditions, such as nutrient availability and light
intensity

466. Deforestation: the clearing of forests by humans, often for agriculture, which can
lead to negative impacts on biodiversity, soil quality, and climate change
467. Leaching: the loss of nutrients from soil due to excessive water infiltration

468. Balance of gases: the equilibrium between different gases in the atmosphere,
such as oxygen and carbon dioxide

469. Compensation point: the point at which the rate of photosynthesis equals the
rate of respiration in plants

470. Lichens: symbiotic organisms composed of a fungus and a photosynthetic

partner, often used as indicators of air pollution levels

471. Symbiosis: a close and often mutually beneficial relationship between different
organisms

472. Polytunnels: structures used to extend the growing season for crops, often
made of plastic or other materials

473. Crop plants: plants grown for agricultural purposes, such as food or fiber

474. Glass houses: structures made of glass or other transparent materials used to
grow plants, often used in colder climates

475. Frost: the formation of ice crystals on surfaces due to freezing temperatures

476. Fertilisers: substances added to soil to provide essential nutrients to plants

477. Pests: organisms that harm or damage crops or other plants

478. Pesticides: chemicals used to control pests in agricultural or other settings

479. Biological control: The use of natural predators, parasites, or pathogens to

control pests or diseases.

480. Fermentation: The anaerobic process of converting sugars into acids, gases, or
alcohols.
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 481. Batch culture: A culture method where microorganisms are grown in a closed
system until the nutrients are depleted.

482. Continuous culture: A culture method where microorganisms are grown in a

constantly replenished medium to maintain a steady state.

483. Biofermenter: A device used for large-scale fermentation.

484. Kneading: The process of working dough to develop gluten and produce a
smooth, elastic dough.

485. Pricing of dough: The process of calculating the cost of making dough based on
the cost of ingredients, equipment, and labor.

486. Yoghurt: A dairy product made from fermented milk using specific bacterial
strains.

487. Lactic acid: An organic acid produced by the fermentation of sugars.

488. Lactose: A sugar found in milk.

489. Resazurin dye: A redox indicator used to detect the presence of oxygen in a
culture medium.

490. Fish farms: Controlled environments where fish are bred and raised for food.

491. Water quality: The physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of water that
affect its suitability for a particular use.

492. Interspecific predation: Predation between species.

493. Intraspecific predation: Predation within a species.

494. Feeding frequency: The frequency at which animals are fed.

495. Selective breeding: The process of breeding organisms with desirable traits to
produce offspring with those traits.

496. Genetic modification: The process of altering an organism's genetic makeup

using biotechnology techniques.

497. Genetic engineering: The deliberate manipulation of an organism's genes to

produce a desired trait.

498. Restriction endonuclease: An enzyme that cuts DNA at specific sequences.

499. Ligase: An enzyme that joins DNA fragments together.

500. Plasmid as a vector: A circular piece of DNA that can be used to carry foreign
DNA into a host organism.
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 501. Virus as a vector: A virus that can be used to carry foreign DNA into a host
organism.

502. GM Bacteria: Genetically modified bacteria are microorganisms that have been
genetically altered using biotechnology to produce useful products or perform
specific tasks.

503. Enzymes in washing powders: Enzymes are biological molecules that catalyze
chemical reactions. They are used in washing powders to break down stains and dirt,
making it easier for the detergent to remove them from clothes.

504. Producing GM plants: Genetic modification is the process of altering the genetic
makeup of an organism. GM plants are those that have had their genes manipulated
to exhibit certain desirable traits, such as resistance to pests or ability to grow in
unfavorable conditions.

505. Agrobacterium: Agrobacterium is a bacterium commonly used in genetic

engineering to transfer foreign DNA into plant cells.

506. Insect-resistant plants: Plants that have been genetically modified to produce
toxins that are harmful to insects. This makes them resistant to pest attacks,
reducing the need for pesticides.

507. Consumer concern for GMO: Many consumers are concerned about the safety
and environmental impact of genetically modified organisms (GMOs). They worry
that GMOs may have unforeseen consequences and could harm human health or
the environment.

508. Cloning: Cloning is the process of creating a genetically identical copy of an

organism. It is typically done by transferring the DNA of the organism to be cloned
into an egg cell, which is then implanted into a surrogate mother.

509. Bryophyllum: Bryophyllum is a genus of plants that are known for their ability to
reproduce asexually through the growth of plantlets on the margins of their leaves.

510. Aspen trees: Aspen trees are deciduous trees that are widely distributed
throughout the Northern Hemisphere. They are known for their ability to reproduce
vegetatively through root suckers.

511. Micropropagation: Micropropagation is a technique used to propagate plants in

vitro. It involves the use of tissue culture to grow large numbers of plants from a
small amount of tissue.

512. Plant growth regulator: Plant growth regulators are chemicals that are used to
control the growth and development of plants. They can be used to promote growth,
inhibit growth, or induce specific developmental changes.

513. Artificial cloning of animals: Artificial cloning of animals is the process of creating
a genetically identical copy of an animal. It is typically done by transferring the DNA
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 a genetically identical copy of an animal. It is typically done by transferring the DNA
of the animal to be cloned into an enucleated egg cell, which is then implanted into a
surrogate mother.

514. Enucleated ovum: An enucleated ovum is an egg cell that has had its nucleus
removed. It is typically used in artificial cloning procedures to create a genetically
identical copy of an organism.

515. Surrogate mother: A surrogate mother is a woman who carries a pregnancy on

behalf of another person or couple. She carries the pregnancy to term and gives birth
to a child that is genetically related to the biological parents.

516. Donor diploid cell: A donor diploid cell is a cell that contains a full set of
chromosomes (i.e., diploid) and is used in genetic engineering to introduce new
genetic material into an organism.

517. Embryonic stem cell: An embryonic stem cell is a type of stem cell that is
derived from a fertilized egg. These cells have the potential to develop into any type
of cell in the body, making them useful for medical research and treatments.

518. Dissolved oxygen sensor: A dissolved oxygen sensor is a device that measures
the amount of oxygen dissolved in a liquid, such as water. It is commonly used in
environmental monitoring to measure the oxygen levels in bodies of water.

519. Biological oxygen demand: Biological oxygen demand (BOD) is a measure of

the amount of oxygen that is required by microorganisms to break down organic
matter in water. It is used to assess the level of pollution in water bodies.

520. Incubation: Incubation is the process of providing optimal conditions for the
growth and development of living organisms, such as eggs, embryos, or cultures of
microorganisms. It involves controlling factors such as temperature, humidity, and
oxygen levels to promote growth and development.
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