!AH 21s! Congress KARST HYDROGEOLOGY AND KARST ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION 10-15 Qsfdber 1988 0U1LIN.

CHINA

ENVIRONMENTAL AND ENGINEERING EFFECTS OF SIKHOLES--THE PROCESSES BEHIND THE PROBLEMS Barry F. Beck Florida Sinkhole Research Institute University t f Central Florida, > Orlando, Florida 32816, U.S.A. ABSTRACT Karstic erosion of the land surface is controlled by processes occurring in the epikarstic zonethe upper portion of the limestone which is most intensely dissolved. Sinkholes developing today are generally the effects of downward movement of mantling sediment into the major karren shafts which drain the epikarstic zone deeper into the true karstic aquifer. Dissolution of the limestone itself does not cause significant changes in man's time frame. The downward erosion of mantling sediment is termed ravelling. Only in uniform sediment will an arched cavity occur. In unconsolidated sediment which is stratified, lateral tunnelling may even occur. Only the major karren can transmit sediment downward, the majority are ineffective. In mantled karst the location of surficial depressions and photo-linears does not necessarily correlate to areas of new collapse. The irregular and highly dissolved character of the epikarstic zone complicates foundation engineering. Downward drainage through this zone may be limited and cause flooding. An understanding of processes in the epikarstic zone is essential in develop ing on kars t. INTRODUCTION The term sinkhole, or doline, implies a form, a function, and a basic mechanism of origin. The form is a closed basinone having no surface drainage outlet. The function is to transmit surface water underground into the karstic aquifer. The origin is basically by solution of the underlying karst host rock. However, in later stages and over short time periods, the continuous or sporadic downward erosion of the unconsolidated overburden sediment is the dominant process affecting the land surface. EPIKARSTIC PROCESSES While the sudden collapse of the land surface is the most dramatic effect of sinkhole development, there are also other environmental hazards related to sinkholes (Table I). Numerous case 17

studies in recent years have thoroughly documented these problems, Herein, I will attempt to summarize in detail the relevant processes, The majority of the sinkholes disrupting the land surface today are cover-collapse sinkholes or, less commonly, cover subsidence sinkholes. These usually develop in mantled karst rather than bare karst. Figure 1 shows a generalized view of the epikarstic zone in a bare karst (Williams, 1985). In a mantled karst the irregularity

TABLE I: ENGINEERING AND ENVRIONMENTAL PROBLEMS RELATED TO SINKHOLES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Sudden collapse of the land surfacecover-collapse sinkholes. Gradual, low magnitude subsidence of the land surfacecover subsidence sinkholes. Ground water pollution due to drainage into sinking s trearas-~ponor.s or swallets. Groundwater pollution due to catastrophic collapse of impoundmentscover-collapse sinkholes, Irregular and unpredictable foundation conditions arising from the erosional processes in the epikarstic zone. Flooding of karstic basins due to limited infiltration rate.

is accentuated (Figure 2 ) . As the karstic-drainage network grows in the underlying host rock, infiltrating water erodes the mantling sediment and transports it down into the resulting voids. Depending on the geologic setting, the downward erosion of the overburden sediment may occur by various mechanisms. Proper planning for engineering works and remedial action to repair or alleviate damages can only be undertaken with a thorough understanding of tiie epikarstic processes. Although karren (solutionally enlarged joints) generally develop along most: of the ubiquitous joints criss-crossing the limestone, the majority of these taper downward to narrow, low permeability cracks. Water and overburden sediment do not move downward effectively through these avenues. However, where master joints continuously breach the strata, here a continuous flow path for infiltrating groundwater can develop. Because the upper zone of the limestone is intensely weathered and dissolved along both joints and bedding planes, this 3-dimensional network of enlarged, sediment-filled openings forms an aquifer for water movement. The base of this perched aquifer is the low permeability zone where karren narrow to cracks (Williams, 1985). Water is held ephemerally in this zone after precipitation and flows laterally to the main drains at enlarged master joints where the majority of infiltration into the true karstic aquifer takes place-. This process concentrates the converging flow and the limestone dissolution. Consequently broad, bowl-shaped depressions

If

Enlarged fissures permit r a p i d infiltration 4.

Capillary
barrier prevents

rapid percoiat

Figure 1:

The e p i k a r s t i c zone i n a bare k a r s t (Williams, 1985).

F i g u r e 2: Bedrock s u r f a c e i n a t h i n l y mantled k a r s t t e r r a n e , West Central Florida. P r o f i l e measured by c l o s e l y space probe-rod t e s t s . Compare with F i g u r e 1. From Hutton and o t h e r s , 1984.
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evolve centered around the drains. As the land surface is continuously lowered by dissolution in the epikarstic zone, other karren features may enlarge sufficiently to provide more local pathways for infiltration. As karren are enlarged into shafts, they may not only transmit infiltrating water, but the turbulentiy flowing water may also transport sediment downward. In bare karst, or thinly mantled karst, it is the broad, bowl-shaped depressions, or solution-dolines, which are the obvious surface landforms. In a thickly mantled karst, erosional processes operating on the land surface may redistribute the mantling sediment and mask the broad undulations in the underlying limestone. In coastal plain settings, recent high sea levels may have deposited horizontal marine strata over the karstified surface. The buried epikarstic zone is still developing and controlling the downward movement of water and sediment, but it is not necessarily manifested as a surface landform. Shafts which have been recently active may have transmitted much sediment downward, sporadically or continuously, and a bowl-shaped basin may again be evident at the surface. However, other shafts which have remained plugged with sediment until now, may suddenly be washed open and may begin affecting the land surface where no previous surficial indication was evident. Such a sudden change may occur naturally, but it is more commonly triggered when man's disturbance of the subsurface processes causes an increase in infiltration which causes subsurface erosion. This sudden downward erosion, from the bottom up, undermines the land surface locally, forming the catastrophic covercollapse sinkholes. COVER-COLLAPSE The downward erosion process, or stoping collapse of the overburden, has been termed ravelling (Sowers, 1975) based on an old tunnelman's term. In a setting where the mantling sediment is under vadose conditions, such as occurs in most classical karst in the continental interiors (as compared to the coastal plains) Newton (1987, p. 10-12) describes the process as follows. Many sudden collapses forming sinkholes result from, roof failures of cavities in unconsolidated deposits overlying carbonate rocks. These cavities are created when the deposits migrate or are eroded downward into openings In the top of bedrock. The typical cavity in unconsolidated deposits such as residual clay is circular, with the configuration of the top resembling a dome or an arch (Figure 3A). The sides generally coincide with the occurrence of pinnacles or irregularities in the top of the bedrock. The walls are usually vertical as the opening grows toward the land surface. This configuration, however, can be modified by the configuration of the underlying openings in the bedrock and by variations in the cohesion or competence of overlying beds. The configuration of the typical opening can change if its upward growth reaches a more competent bed. The roof flattens, the growth continues laterally, and the walls taper toward the opening in bedrock

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A. Vertical enlargement

g Vertical and lateral enlargement

EXPLANATION

BOUNDARY DESIGNATING > CAVITY GROWTH >

UNCONSOLIDATED DEPOSITS (CLAY)

LIMESTONE

| WATER-FILLED OPENING IN LIMESTONE

Figure 3: Development of cavities in unconsolidated deposits. A. Uniform material; B. Lateral enlargement below more competent strata; C. Lateral tunneling above a less permeable layer; water drains at B down to the limestone (Newton, 1987).

JC EXPLANATION: s~ BOUNDARY DESIGNATING CAVITY GROWTH DIRECTION OF MOVEMENT OF WATER Growth and collapse of cavity

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(Figure 3B). These stages of growth in one cavity were photographed and observed through a small adjacent opening. The 'cavity enlargement, occurring during a 5-month period, resulted from the downward migration of unconsolidated deposits through two solution-enlarged openings, each 1 foot in diameter, exposed in the top.of bedrock. In some cases the ravelling may proceed laterally, as was documented in a collapse near Centreville, Alabama, U.S.A (Figure 3C). This collapse was caused by the redirection of surface drainage which increased the recharge flow to the area (ibid.). Obviously, theoretical calculations of upward collapse based on soil arching are not appropriate to many natural situations. In the Southeastern Coastal Plain of the U.S., where young, unconsolidated marine sediments mantle the highly permeable Tertiary limestone, cover-collapse sinkholes have a more complicated history. In many areas a clayey stratum separates the limestone from surficial sands. This cohesive clay not only confines water under artesian conditions in the limestone and perches it in the sand, but is also strong enough to span dissolved voids in the underlying limestone. While the clay layer is gradually eroding down into the karstic channels, the upper surface remains unbroken, supporting the sand above. When the clay is finally breached by erosion, the water-saturated sand flows rapidly down into the voids. If the mantling sediments are thin, 2-3 m of clay and less than 10 m of sand, sinkholes are usually less than 20 m in diameter and 9 m deep. In Winter Park, Florida, U.S.A.,, the limestone is overlain by 32 m of semiconsolidated clayey confining strata and 18 m of unconsolidated sands. When the Winter Park Sinkhole developed in May, 1981, a vertical "throat" some 22 m in diameter penetrated the confining layer and the overlying water-saturated sands rapidly eroded into the shaft until a stable slope.angle was achieved. The final diameter at the land surface was approximately .100 m and the visible depth was on the order of 31 m, but it is obvious that the shaft extended down into large karstic voids in the limestone. Approximately 147,000 m of sediment disappeared along with several trees, a house, and three Porsche cars. The sinkhole completely disrupted two city streets as well as damaging several businesses. The final damage total is estimated to have exceeded four million dollars. The density of the solution shafts, or karren features, on the buried limestone surface may be very high, but as previously discussed, most of these are not actually effective drains that can form cover-collapse sinkholes. In areas of near horizontal topography and bedding, the density of karren appears greatest. Flat-lying coastal plain areas underlain by young, permeable limestones appear to favor a very high density of karren. The Florida Sinkhole Research Institute used ground penetrating radar to map filled solution shafts in a buried Tertiary limestone mantled by a thin clay and thick eolian sands at the surface (Figure 4). Thirty shafts were detected over 2.46 hectares. Approximately half were filled with hard Miocene sediments and half were filled with
Tl

(_) 4P

90 120 Distance in Meters Vertical shaft, detected with GPR, f i l l e d with medium dense sand and clayey sand 30 Vertical shaft, detected with GPR, f i l l e d with very loose sand, stabilized by pressure grouting.

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Figure 4: Map of major k a r s t i c anomalies, from closely-spaced ground penetrating Gainesville, Florida.
SOUTH SUBSIDENCE-

probably s h a f t s , radar profiles

drawn near

NORTH

B1

FILL

H STREETH

= v
WATER TABLE SAND, FIRM

APPROXIMATE

FINE

CLAYEY SAND, LOOSE, RAVELLING

LIMESTONE

SCALE NO VERT. EXG.

Figure 5: Generalized geologic cross section at 6715 Rosemary Drive, Tampa. Ravelling conditions in sand above limestone caused c^ver-subsidence sinkhole, May, 1986. 23

more recent sands which were very loose. However, only two sinkholes had developed in the last . 3 years. 1 Detailed field checking in the surrounding area revealed a sinkhole collapse density of .02 new collapses/hectare/year (Wilson and McDonald, 1987). If the karren density on the site investigated is assumed average for the area, then only 1 shaft out of 609 causes cover collapse each year. Of course, if this simplified statistic were totally valid, each shaft would have activated once in 609 years. Since some contain Miocene fill, it is obvious that a few of the shafts reactivate repeatedly while others stay plugged indefinitely. ROLE OF SOLUTION, SOLUTION BASINS, AHD FHOTOLIHEAHENTS Whether on karst terranes in the continental interior where the limestone is mantled by residual soil, glacial debris, or other insoluble sediment, or in coastal plain karst where the limestone is commonly under artesian conditions, there are several practical implications of these epikarstic processes which are often misunderstood. The actual erosion of substantial volumes of mantling sediment requires turbulent flow into pre-existing voids. The causative limestone dissolution has taken place over millions of years, but it is not involved in the short-term process of cover collapse. Thus, the concept that sinkholes often form in recharge areas "because the dissolving action of the water is greatest when it first enters the limestone" (Rutledge, 1982, p. 96) is misunderstood. Sinkholes collapse in recharge areas because high rates of infiltration favor downward erosion of sediment into preexisting karstic openings. Any action which increases this infiltration may trigger sinkhole collapse. The large solution dolines visible on topographic maps and aerial photos are not necessarily relevant to collapse. True, sediment erosion down the shafts draining such basins does result in episodic collapse, but collapse is not restricted to these zones. All the pre-existing shafts are not now at the bottom of surface basins. Delineation of collapse prone areas cannot be done by mapping broad basins, but only by collecting detailed data on the locations of recent collapses. In many settings, collapse may not have occurred naturally, but may only be triggered by mans' influence. The collapse of the sewage lagoons at Altura, Minnesota, U.S.A., is an excellent case study. The area is mantled by thin glacial drift over thin, friable sandstone over karstified dolomite. Surface karst is not obvious, but 23 cover-collapse sinkholes and 4 caves have been documented in the area. When the sewage lagoon eventually was.filled to its design depth it drained within a week into nine cover-collapse sinkholes which developed in the bottom (Alexander and Book, 1984). The localisation of infiltration in one area, with a greatly increased head, opened pre-existing karstic openings in the underlying dolomite, Because many pre-existing karren shafts are plugged and do not have surface . expression through the overburden sediment,

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phoColineametits may not correlate with areas of collapse. Wilson and others (1987b) found this in the Orlando area when testing both satellite photolineaments and 1:20,000 scale photo-linears, Neither correlated significantly with areas of high sinkhole collapse. While the underlying karst features have certainly formed along joints, not all these joints can be detected as photo-linears through thick mantling sediment. Therefore, there is no correlation between photo-linear density and areas of common collapse, or subsidence. Obviously, then, studies delineating sinkhole "risk" zones based on. photo-linears in thickly mantled karst, such as Brook and Allison (1981), are in doubt. COVER-SUBSIDENCE It is also apparent from many case studies in Florida, and elsewhere, that the process of downward erosion of cover sediment into karstic openings does not always lead to the catastrophic collapse of the land surfacegradual subsidence is also a problem. In Florida, most case studies of broad, very shallow, slowly developing depressions detect a deformed, very loose clay layer overlying the limestone. It appears probable in these cases that the clay "sags" gradually into the karstic openings below. Such cover subsidence is common in a coastal plain setting where high water table and water-saturated clays are common, but it may also take place in interior karst terranes if the clayey overburden sediment are saturated (Newton, 1987). Such cover subsidence has caused millions of dollars in damage to homes and other structures in Florida. .An interesting case of cover-subsidence sinkhole was recently reported from the Logan Gate Village housing development in northwest Tampa, Florida, U.S.A. On April 12, 1986, the resident of 6716 Rosemary Drive, a concrete block house with a cement slab foundation, noticed a crack along the mortar lines between the blocks in the northeast wall of his garage. The crack s tepped-upward toward tiie front of the house. By the end of May the maximum separation along the crack had reached nearly a decimeter, A quarter circle crack had developed in the garage floor and passed through the corner of the adjacent living room. An insurance claim was filed and consulting engineers were hired to evaluate the subsurface conditions. After drilling the site they concluded that the subsidence was caused by "sinkhole activity". Six holes drilled in the housing development by various consultants usually penetrated 9 to 13 m of medium dense, fine sand and 2 to 5 ra of stiff clay. Soil firmness was measured with standard penetration tests and an electric piezocone. Tampa Limestone usually occurs 11 to 13 m below the ground surface. Circulation is sometimes lost in, or slightly above, the limestone, thus indicating the presence of cavernous porosity. The water table in the surficial sand is usually 2 to 3 m below the land surface. At the house in Logan Gate with the most severe damage, the clay is absent and in its place 6 m of loose, ravelling, clayey sand occurs (Figure 5 ) . Limestone was encountered at a depth of ,19 m in

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a hole drilled near the northeast corner of the garage and at 13 r n only 9 m away. The site conditions were interpreted by FSRI as representing a cover-subsidence sinkhole. A cover-collapse sinkhole may instantaneously produce a steep-walled or funnel-shaped, circular depression that is easily recognizable as a sinkhole. On the other hand, cover-subsidence sinkholes may develop slowly and produce gentle depressions with very little relief. Both types of sinkholes can cause serious damage to structures. Cover-subsidence sinkholes may occur more frequently than cover-collapse sinkholes, but they are difficult to recognize and distinguish from other causes of ground settling (FSRIj 1986). Such damage is documented in Florida because homeowners insurance covers sinkh'oles. The problem may be more common in other areas and yet be unrecognized. EPIKARSTIC ZONE GEOMETRY AND FOUNDATIONS , While it is the erosional processes in the epikarstic zone which translate the function of a sinkhole into its final form at the land surface, the erratic and irregular profile of the limestone:overburden contact also causes problems, even though the shape of the limestone surface can be regarded as permanent within man's time frame. As mentioned, this surface is marked by broad undulations related to the formation of solution dolines and by sharp local irregularities caused by the ubiquitous karren features. The latter are. often narrow and deep and virtually unpredictable. Thus, the reconstruction of this limestone surface based on scattered point data (borings or non-continuous geophysical data) is virtually impossible (see Figure 2 ) . However, for foundation engineering the depth to sound, load-bering limestone is often critical. The problem is further complicated because the upper 3-6 meters of the limestone is intensely dissovled along most joints and bedding planes, creating an overall weak zone even though a few decimeters of rock may appear solid to the drill. Engineers must anticipate the irregularity of this zone. It obviously can be dealt with, but the underwriters of a project must be aware that the cost estimate, for a reliable foundation on karst is as unpredictable as is the limestone surface. A classic example of this problem is the foundation conditions encountered at Hershey, Pennsylvania, U.S.A. (Foose and Humphreville, 1979). Initial investigation for a large Medical Center building consisted of 32 borings to solid bedrock (limestone) on a 90 m grid. Results showed a lower and more irregular bedrock surface on one corner of the site and common cavities 1 1/2 m below the bedrock surface. The planned building location was adjusted and the foundation design was changed from spread footings to caissons. More detailed drilling was performed on 30 m centers. Half of the borings encountered cavities in the limestone. The depth to limestone ranged from 0.3 to 40 m. Plans were again modified and it was determend that caissons founded on 2.5 m of solid limestone would provide the desired factor of safety. Estimated average caisson length was 4 m. Three exploratory

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drillings in the caisson bottom would check for solid rock below. The actual average depth of the installed caissons was 5.5 m a 34% overrun. Geologists concluded that "karst conditions [here] are so extensive as to preclude the possibility o a precise determination of depth to sound rock based either on 30 m centered drilling or on vertical drilling [centered] at the actual caisson site" (ibid, p. 369). FLOODING The flooding of karstic terranes is an environmental problem which has received little attention in the U.S.A. until recently. Sinkholes, by viture of their function, are tributaries to an underground drainage net, whether it be via conduits or more diffuse flow. While many are mere first order flows, others may be higher order because a network of surface drainage may feed them. The actual connection between the surficial basin and the aquifer may be via an open shaft capable of transmitting turbulent flow or it may be through some thickness of mantling sediment. In the former case the infiltration capacity is limited only by the geometry, of the subterranean conduits, and, of course, the driving head. In the latter case the infiltration rate is limited by the permeability of the mantling sediments, which may be quite low. Flooding of the surface basin is more common when infiltration is limited by sediment cover, but because it is common it is not too often a problem. It is obvious and anticipated and usually avoided. Thus, in the mantled karst of Florida, U.S.A., sinkhole depressions often are delineated ou flood hazard maps, However, where sinkholes are drained b>, open conduits, all drainage will disappear until the capacity of the conduit is exceeded. Thus, flooding is less common and often unexpected. Further, if the conduit becomes blocked by 'erosion processes, the infiltration rate is dramatically decreased and severe flooding may unexpectedly occur. In BeVling Green, Kentucky, U.S.A., where sinkhole flooding is a problem, stormwater management regulations limit development in the flood-prone portion of sinkholes. "Flood easements in sinkhole bottoms restrict development below a line one foot above the contour correlating with the flood elevation which would result from surface run-off during a three-hour, 100 year probability rainfall event (10 centimeters or 4 inches of rain in three hours in the Bowling Green area). The 100-year flood line is based upon an assumption of zero drainage from the sinkhole bottom and will therefore usually be higher than the actual level of flooding. If the developer can verify the quantity of outflow by field measurements, the 100-year flood line may be lowered accordingly" (Crawford, 1984, p. 288). Lexington, Kentucky, U.S.A., has similar problems. "Many storm-water problems were caused by development in and around sinkholes areas....The minimum cost to alleviate urban sinkhole-related flooding problems totals over $1.5 million." "The Cindy Blair development is an example of sinkhole flooding....In this area the Grier Limestone is prone to solution, and

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characteristic karst features such as individual sinkholes, cluster sinkholesj swallets, and resurgence points (springs) are common." Although some precautions were taken by the developer, "storm sewers were designed to discharge into sinkholes." "Water has been as high as 4 feet within a house at 665 Cindy Blair Way" . due to sinkhole flooding (Dinger and Re b n nn, 1986, p. 166-170). ia A sinkhole ordinance was passed in 1985 restricting development in sinkhole basins and requiring detailed evaluation and planning by developers In legal actions in Kentucky, the homeowners have argued that "The tendency to flood constituted a 'breach of implied habitability'" by the developer. "The value of each house was alledged to have been reduced to zero....In cases that went to trial, juries have found for the plaintiffs." (Quinlan, 1984, p. 293. CONCLUDING REMARKS This brief review of the environmental and engineering effect of sinkholes cannot provide exhaustive details on all the problems. The numerous complications of karstic ground water pollution, for instance, have not been mentioned. The recent proceedings volume by NWWA (1986) summarizes many examples. It is the thesis of this article that erosion processes in the epikarstic zone are considerably more complicated than simple limestone dissolution and that they are the controlling factors in many of the sinkhole-related problems which impact man. Epikarstic processes are particularly critical in mantled karst where the effect of the mantling sediment dominates the land surface. Only with a thorough understanding of these modern, short-term karstic erosion processes can man safely develop on karst terranes. REFERENCES J . Alexander, C.A. , and Book, P.R., 1984, Altura, Minnesota, Lagoon . collapses: in ref. no. 2 this list, p. 311-318. 2. Beck, B.F. (d.), 1984, Sinkholes: their geology, engineering, and environmental impactProceedings, of the First Multidisciplinary Conf. on Sinkholes: Rotterdam, Netherlands, A.A. Balkeraa Publishers, 429 p. 3. Beck, B.F., and Wilson, W.L. (eds), 1987, Karst hydrogeology: engineering and environmental applicationsProc. of the 2nd Multidisplinary Conference on Sinkholes and the Environmental Impacts of Karst: Rotterdam, Netherlands, A.A. Balkema Publishers, 467 p. 4. Brook, G.A. and Allison, T.L., 1981, Subsidence susceptibility models for Dougherty County, Georgia, from sinkhole and fracture distribution data: in Beck, B.F; (d.), Proceedings of the Eigth Int. Cong, of Speleology, V. I., p. 50-52. 5. Crawford, N.C., 1984, Sinkhole flooding associated with urban development of karst terrain: Bowling Green, Kentucky: _in ref. no. 2 this list, p. 283-292.

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Dinger, J.S., and llebman, J.R., 1986, Ordinance for the control of urban development in sinkhole areas in the Blue Grass Region, Lexington, Kentucky: J^ ref. no, IT this list, p. 163-180. Foose, R.M., and Humphreville, J.A., 1979, Engineering geological approaches to foundations in the karst terrain of the Hershey Valley: Bui. of the Assoc, of Eng. Geol. , V. XV, no. 3, p. 355-381. F.S.R.I. (Fl. Sinkhole Research Inst.),. 1986, Cover-subsidence sinkholes damage homes in Tampa: Update (FSRI Newsletter), V.' 4, no. 3, p. 1 and 5. Button, J.G., Hine, A.C., Evans, H.W., Osking, E.B., and Belknap, D.F., 1984, Influence of a karstified limestone surface on an open-mariue marsh-dominated coastline: West Central Florida: ia_ ref. no. 16 this list. Newton, J.G., 1987, Development of sinkholes resulting from man's activities in the Eastern United States: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 968, 54 p. N.W.W.A. (Nat. Water Well Assoc.), 1986, Proceedings of the Environmental Problems in Karst Terranes and Their Solutions Conference: Dublin, OH, Water Well Journal Pub. Co. , 525 p. Quinlan, J.F., 1984, Litigious problems associated with sinkholes, emphasizing recent Kentucky cases alleging liability when sinkholes were flooded: jji ref. no. 2 this list, p. 293-295. Rutledge, A.T., 1982, Hydrology of the Floridan Aquifer in Northwest Volusia County, Floirda: Dept. of Natural Resources, Bureau of Geology Bull. , No. 31, 461 p. Sowers, G.F., 1975, Failures in limestones in humid subtropics: J. Geotech. Eng. Div. ASCE, p. 771-787. Williams, P.W., 1985, Subcutaneous hydrology and the development of doline and cockpit karst: Zeitschrift fur Gomorphologie N.F., Bd. 29, Heft 4, p. 463-482. Wilson, W.L., and McDonald, K.M., 1987, Frequency of sinkhole development in the vicinity of the Southwest .Landfill, Alachua County, Florida: Fl. Sinkhole Res. I t b. Rpt. rs 87-88-2, U. of Cen. Fl., Orlando, 20 p. Wilson, W.L., McDonald, K.M. , Barfus, B.L., and Beck, B.F., 1987, Hydrogeologic factors associated with recent sinkhole development in the Orlando Area, Florida: Fl. Sinkhole Res. Inst. Rpt. 87-88-4, U. of Cen. Fl., Orlando, 104 p.

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