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  • ?일반화학 제 14판

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    1. This document discusses concepts related to chemistry including moles, the mole concept, Avogadro's constant, and stoichiometry. 2. Key topics covered include defining the mole and using it to relate mass of a substance to number of particles, determining molar mass, calculating moles of a substance from mass and molar mass, and using the mole concept to solve stoichiometric problems involving chemical formulas and reactions. 3. Calculations are provided as examples to demonstrate using moles to determine mass, particles, or moles of substances involved in chemical reactions based on the mole ratios from the balanced reaction.

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    1. This document discusses concepts related to chemistry including moles, the mole concept, Avogadro's constant, and stoichiometry. 2. Key topics covered include defining the mole and using it to relate mass of a substance to number of particles, determining molar mass, calculating moles of a substance from mass and molar mass, and using the mole concept to solve stoichiometric problems involving chemical formulas and reactions. 3. Calculations are provided as examples to demonstrate using moles to determine mass, particles, or moles of substances involved in chemical reactions based on the mole ratios from the balanced reaction.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    26 views1,254 pages

    ?일반화학 제 14판

    Uploaded by

    clc1217
    1. This document discusses concepts related to chemistry including moles, the mole concept, Avogadro's constant, and stoichiometry. 2. Key topics covered include defining the mole and using it to relate mass of a substance to number of particles, determining molar mass, calculating moles of a substance from mass and molar mass, and using the mole concept to solve stoichiometric problems involving chemical formulas and reactions. 3. Calculations are provided as examples to demonstrate using moles to determine mass, particles, or moles of substances involved in chemical reactions based on the mole ratios from the balanced reaction.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
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    il.^l6l= E^13 7-t^1fl=71. r{ot flzllzlzl ?)Lzl.JEj4 qg.q, +lilq r|4 -u
    11871219
    =.Al
    =z}l%iol
    g6}ql^J= +Ae+ gEol zJzJ 7a%o* 24voE 4** 7I^l6J+. # Q zy7yo1 zl+tr e+
    xlileJl?
    trH, sEl)g goyo oltol 4d zlxl gi-t}i, *a, "JFolE., a,
    ^14(Ht4eI4zl
    i.{
    g+tr1ts
    Tlel
    vJ¤'-E ol+q4 ilr, +4 E9 A*g soozo oltol ,rll zixl ga-{}a, *A, +
    = 7.5%
    -JE
    4.7% 9.2% L-zl ilzldfir. glEl(fa 1.6).
    3.4% 81.19 t*ol .J4d H zlxl gde+ a-/1& s^l6l+ 4ol zlEGymbol)E B4l ++U
    +A 4,o14. 4 ga.el zlEE aJ z}l EE F zll9 ¤E girtBletr Elq 9lr, a H4 .Jul9l
    tla 25.7% g ql+zte ++. ql++g zlEY g^E ¤9 olE9lrl +4619r, H zlzli E+q
    495%
    q^l +4t aE 9l+(e 1.19 e_=4 g). s 1.lql *= zls#.Jo]-E ¤szl. ?14.
    r1g zlEEg *e.E Ell+41 I 4.o14.

    ^17-! E 1.1 ol 7t^l EJol oJel{ flAet 7l-e.

    TlEl oj-7u
    -o/ BA(Carbon(C)) I fi ,(Alu minu m (Al) ) 74 (Copper(Cn, cupruml\^'l +4))
    +4
    L0% 5F9fl(Pluorine(F)) u -EtrJ(Bromine(sr)) B (tron(re. ferrum4ltl *4))
    fc(Hydrogen(H)) zJ6(catcium(Ca)) B(Lead(Pb, plumbum\l 4 fr4))
    ,,.t,l
    EA o1olgfl(rodine(r))
    55% t8Y, ¤i(Chlorine(Cl)) i$(Mercury (ag, hy dr argy r um gl 4 *4))
    4i(Nitrogen(N)) ¤E(Heltum(He)) sq+(Potassium (K, kalium\l ?r41))
    ^1
    lH:(Oxygen(O)) 4E(uthium(l-il) $(Silver(ag. argentumil t') *4))
    ?!ill
    oJ(Phosphorus(P)) u|:rllf, (Magnesium (Mg)) tE(Sodium(Na, natrium\l^l +4))
    a rE 1.6 fl^el 8tH4 %r(sutfur(s)) fi(Silicon(Si)) f 4 (rin(sn. stannum4l\ *4))
    E-"f)r.l E^11= + =rllHl*
    ltfel tt]7 |
    ^14(H
    ddl= fl49 EBt EEE
    *U.5. Geological Survey Circular 285, U.S Department of the Interior.
    1.2 l=trslE+ 9

    "Jzlll -EE giel r TlEEg j/zHE


    .Jszl
    "J+E fzl$s.(periodic table)9] Lte+ 9l
    4. ?zl&sql^l eg gql ul]rlg fl^Eg ^]tr gd6J ¤+cg 7td 45olr+. ?zlgs
    q ql6ll^J= 2.saql^l Er| zl..'.llal ¤EB 4o14. rqr Ttql^l= +714eE- HI+EIE
    g^59 ^Jeql 4;I9 .Jol-B aolq.
    EI6JE
    g^e+ tE zlso614 +EJE9 BCB + 9l+. ql= Eq
    '11++9 fl^= += +^ 712,il
    zl *+ 7l8le+,J+ g46tE, g^oJ +ie} &+zy 6J44^1 pltlE.J Eol ^8Cgq. r
    e+ Hlqle, Eq d+= Er+^l7lE Eol r cts fliE ssl]g + 9l+(f.H 1.7).

    -r-/
    88E! Hz9 Pnlzl'Oz9 +trlEtl 01fr= tlB 6 o1t- 2SoJ7l?
    =
    (a) #l BrlTltl^ fl^tH.tl 7lH7l ttllEoltl. (b) +A 3^t7f $A flxlHtl37] ttt|Eoltl
    (c) E E^l= -d THel tl^ grlet + 7He.l t^ fl^le 0|+ol^1 9l7l nHEolrl.

    ta 2111116111

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    T
    O Kim Christensen/Shutterstock
    E(H2O) +A Tlill(H2)

    afB 1.7 d7l E"=11 tFu IE= E6t| a=E E0l dE flA +^et 4ta+ E6HEtl. eE4
    =E
    -??] + 9 +tr|= +qq + H|]olt|-. =
    ^l--J$oll ^t4

    ++6J Eg C+ g+e E6ll^l7l= dE ar+E+q, ge qqql^J 7149. 4"lE t*


    $,ol d=* EE¤tr r1vo9 itq
    8e%el &iE ol+q4 fl+S "J + 9l+. ol Elgg 6J
    tr- .Ja.Jql, ol= 449 E Ezlq fl= +4 gzlel4I4 flzlel 4+7144 "Ja6|rl u1l
    Eol+. 4"J ESSE EgIg ql Ee q++ AI^E ol+q4l {zJfl Bolzl"J, dzll= E
    Ez[ ,* ,ll'] F 7ll9 +a flz]c] 6J 4lE t]4 $z]21 9i+. a*4 flz] 4f9 a6]ol -J
    il6|zl 9J:= ag +4 fl^l7l &a gzttrtrI ¤t ztEzl ullEol4. E E.ll dEq^l c+
    giE Ar* +AeE g + 9l= Eg a^14 eCg, &4 gz} oJ 7lle| flzl + 7l]E +i
    +cg E +zlE e^dr+ "Jil.JEI.

    G +^ grt (He E^l) o fl^t


    ^t4 +;.1;
    (Oe
    E E^I
    (FIzOe *.tt)
    10 13
    ^.lE:=tr.
    otlLl^|,
    =E

    8 1.2 E, *1, tlasl HliL

    +4 ,^'t/\
    t'r

    ttEll" 'l^ll 7llll Tlzll


    4,l.I
    o o -z-L
    r6-E,7l 100"c -253"C - I g3'c
    trlEa
    ar 1000 g/L 0.}sa glL r33 glL
    .J+d olo
    ti.l. E
    o1_q o.] o
    tsiE
    "*9. qlTl$.ll^l

    tl^ tlEliel +^e+ &^: olg^[(F 49 flz]) Eztg B4e z[¤4lq

    O
    =4]q]+.

    +a (Hre *,r.1)
    =^t
    E 1.2q1^l trFol EE ceg r cE fl^=r+
    '-,) H'g dol de s+. +^, &^, Ee 4
    4 ^1tr_
    += +84"14. ol= 4 EeE +471^lE +E i1+9 EzlolTl ullEoltrI.
    E s+6J$ql^l r fl^$ a+= ag gB ¤EHl Hflfiawof constant
    a^dol 6J^J
    composition EE law of definite proportion)olElI. 6l+q, ol B49 1800H4 g*^E
    plelzl |oseph Louis Proust(tzss-Bze)z| xl-9tr gg.6}fltrt. ol Bzlol gqd zl 200
    zlifzl+. olzlE HH srlEtE4 z}¤q ¤z116}= E}6JE-
    ^IBg ¤edq^l "J=
    LJol
    ^Iol
    ql: ilolTl- 9l+r Er 9l+. olel+ "Jge Efl 4o14. +++ aaol
    =Ezl
    dedql^l sa 4sqld sd ^Jss,ol, ae aaql^l='"}^J ag ^dEr+ ,Je 449. ?*
    plelzle]. zl.flg ,Jg ?liE ol$a|_L zr¤ Bzlql uI4 a4"ilot .J+. F EeE a
    =4.
    c4 cd.l .rle rlEE, rEg r+= g[6JE.E o]+q4 9j4+ iE7y +e+.

    A +4, ta, Ep s.+ E^lE ot+ot8 qtrt. t^el.tats g4?l uE, Ee Et-cr'Efl otp
    v+r
    | = =^to.

    uttuaE
    EH
    *4zl ts= EH++g Eee ^le += +Eeol 4lq fl: sqlEolr}. + ¤.8"LEql Eq
    9l= 449 +Eee r zl^jel slqtzl I+^J4 5dg +zl6lt 91trI. .JA+ 4$$ zlzl
    r 9l= +Eeql Hl6ll g6JEq aCg HIE + 9l+. ql= Eq -J tE ,ltlql= ¤Bol a
    + E= r*ol E"l 9lg + 9l+. gB+3 +C6l+ +Eeg r gqlEel C$(component)
    olep tJQ.
    qtr g6JEg a^d, Ce, esoJ Fol d^ll4etr +F6l{ ?++. q= E'"1 "J4ol4 4
    T aol+ ?r.o3.o1 ++ql q+ Hd+ql, ol4+ g6JE-9 Efg(heterogeneous) g.JE
    =
    ol4z ojr|[=al 1.8(a)]. H]8, E= ? Eol Js"6J g6J+g *9(homogeneous) g6J$ol
    +r oJ+. *71= ei, 4}^, A*e] += zlilltr ol+qd +oJ goJEolr-I. *zl +el A
    r$ f,4a3 e^e+ r Ceol gad ,J4. oli ++tI ai+ +rl 6ql ?lE E^z[ ?3
    ei EzlolTl rllEol4. a+, ¤+, r Eig Be gee Eql +ot +"J E-6JES "J=tr}
    [rB 1.8(b)]. +g ¤.BEg Ee{(solution)ol4r,E d4. *9Golution)ol=}3 +q: "lill
    1.2 11
    =EelE+
    < fg 1.8 E-etE (a) "J4= E
    -clolfr q4 7l'^l Etr3 Hg
    e--J=oltl. oltaf 74$
    rt= ^ftl! EJg
    taF==sl
    -cfEE=+
    ntrJgf== qq +r =
    g,l

    tl. (b)Eg Eo-qolafr"


    =EfE=
    n^l(gu
    -errl'. 8^q +4
    ^lTl9sulfate))ts
    (coppe(ll) +ol
    9o_!9 6^lAo:[rl =o1l

    (a) (b)

    qxt <rC 1.S Etrel E+ -s=++


    == -d Et8 E=Aee 34 !E:
    H=r] olrl
    + B=-ffi=T
    =l5lg=
    -t u"t.
    olLl9 Eill4oe
    qt

    J"J_.J71?

    #g E-E[E
    fol

    +
    0tLl9 ql
    E-g +
    ^dol
    o)i)l?
    (-
    EAI
    E== fol
    gE EB=\O-/
    =5te/-QoB\

    +-
    0l|-l9 I] ZE_d +=EE ,01
    EaIEJ + ?1ts7t?

    fl4 ---t. -) Et-'JE

    E gtl6lal olxlu3, +.-4g.ailloJ +E, "lill'J +E EE Tlill'J +E 9l+


    fe 1.eql EAg gi, sl'Jg, gsJEE ¤+6I= %l$g e-e+="Ifl4.
    qHl i.1
    aa, ElffB, E6JB +tJElTl
    :Br'aJol
    'trlolE Brl""JahE e3'g^4'=+01 9ltl. ,\lE tlE F atolE E=u 1g=q|, 0l= 4
    =-=.'0ll=
    r =ol =rl""Jal-Eg =+ol
    llE= dill4oe 4d0l g¤6l.tl. rzJ 1.9e1 HJEoll q4 EtolE E+61.^19.
    =EE
    rtl? > HE qFill
    4 ^lE= dxll4-g-E r 3,<Jol oJA6}!E +.J6}trl. relLl trl-g+ zffi(grapefruiOql ql6}q gu|-Ezll 71f_i,J a+?
    + ^lE= ^lE +e =c¤. zlzle_+ p+l}Eol+n B + fl (a) #f6J ElElEol4.

    i1, +zl +'J gqlE"J Sol+. o) qq +tlEg +"J sqlEol+.


    12 18
    ^jE:EE,
    ollLjrl,
    =8

    (c) {+l E}6JEE tA'J SaJEol4. > iil= qtfl 2


    (d) q4 fllo1eP;59 #"J saJEol4. ol-^rlflg t}+flol {e6tulE 60.07o9 *i. 4.so/o
    (e) rJ zlzl cI.JEol q3l 4= tr-Elle fl= aol+ =Aql
    3s.sv"E &le o1-7qd4. :H l.eq *Bql q
    E +^,
    + ol^rlflg E+61^le-.

    1.3 I EEE ^J?


    -E= Eee r+oJ ceg z$la- glq. qE 5E s 1.2q1 +4u c4g ol$a|{ f}"
    +I^, 5g +gg + 9itt. Eeel Cee 844 Ceq 3r+tr14 C¤e E+g + 9l+.
    elH ¤E(physical property)ol+ EeE +Cr+ 3Cg HE+^l7lzl *r *+g + 9ls
    =
    q, 44, ts^l], "JE, +=4, #=¤, AE Fol olql +*+. Eeel itEt4 ¤E(chemical
    property)9 Eaol Hp+ E= H}8(react)alq +e Edg 4C6l-= ag s¤g + 9l+.
    &az1 9lg trll q¤ Eeol g^q= cee 7t¤cg 3r+q}4 ceg + qol+.
    9r, g;4 E" 4 ,J3 * zlzl CAg q{apz} 6l+ ^lEE oF} tr*ol S.4. ole]. zJ
    g Ceg dlzl ¤E(intensive property)ol{r 6Iq, ol Ceg ol+4q qtr Ee"Jzl q
    "Jg + 9leE-tr e+qlql^l ,ll+ ++6l.trI. qlBql e*r+ +ul Fe +c6IEl= ^lEE
    oJ

    (amount){I trIE+ E+qq. ole+ ?g CAg 371 $E(extensive property)ol+ll flr+.

    'ge g+DltsEtrl' "JE7l :g


    A = =+olEl'.'alz
    n,,, ol= r7l dtrul^1171 dtr 6 olL ,t'tl

    I .r-t* ototTt-tE ta)ft

    +q4 HElel E|E,J4 HJEI


    Eeg E?-14 E= 3r+q4ee Hsl-J+. Eal4 E!=t(physicalchange)z| gqg uI= Ee
    I aCg H6Izl g:r. Eee.l Ei.l4 AE"J"J HEltrlG BsI d+E Eeg Ag aol+).
    Eq 6ge E?-lzl Hs+E + qloltrL Eol ?gg trll= "-4^ll tlqql^l zl;ll ,*4-e ut+lzl
    "J, rH 1.4q1^l H=
    Hte+ eol qd6l E EzlE ol+q4 94. olel Aol EE Aq E!+
    (changeof state, qlE Eq
    "lillql^l 7l4lE E=.-4i{ql^J rrll-tr H6l-= 4)= Eq4 H
    Elol4.
    il¤t4 ElEt(chemicalchange, ilttE-!8(chemicalreaction)ol+J.E- B)zI "J94H Eeg
    4olzl " + +E EeE E++. el= E:q +^E +71 6ql^l EI+H 4I^e+ ¤tlal.g Ee
    EI+l= slE4 HEIzI .Jq\++(rEJ 1.10).
    qqle e+qr-4 Hs+=,]]+ +4"1r+. leolLJql +E.J slql ,L4^lE lztoJ r.a
    Remsen9 xl* =rJg
    aql+ ral 1.11e1 E+E EI¤¤ trIg-q eol EE6l*.4.
    qq} J+^lE 6 "¤de +rloil ^laEI.+."+= E+s Hril t3t.l. :rll,rl olzlol gfl
    g.l'J
    g elEl6l=^l gfolHzlE 6t9t+.
    'l= s+<]9 dtl-S +6}0l,'^+A-*++= "Jol P¤ F?l^lE
    $lx[ a191e Eol94. o] szld "I[oll, r13 z[x]l 9lE q dlEsl +A ETlg zlzlol ol$r.l
    :*
    a.+. += Ed rl]= 4tL floil Er'dt}'o]4jr s^lE Bg Eol : sIiIE *4 Ed 9loil a
    +q $sB 611 9lHq. -:rflcll olol LI Egoil^l "Jolrl ol Etl-S. 9¤- pqol* "Jtl
    = =El=
    7I? Ed¤" olol $all 919'+. ololfl {52} o}qH.}. 8+4 o-!^il7} 7]ES Eqq1 Ed4 4

    aI9loil aBe s7l7t 7l-=6191.+. olE olBzl B= + ?lSz[?.+= EF¤F6]0i ¤g,e EdS d
    q 6tE E+e.E trJ^l ElH.+. r e+¤'oll 4ts s += gzll gH4. ¤4}ol *zlqoil'^}A'PI
    ^ldg
    1.3 l=Ee] dE 13

    <rEJ 1.10 E|+ HJ3

    ,fo)
    H2 o2 Hzo

    ziol4. r'lle.l 214fl ¤i5o o,P ?16]l qlaxl *=d s tr+= d-dg 617ll gH.+. rli fz|$g ulxl
    oll E¤EIJ, oluJo|= ¤tlol tsf^le+'+ApI.+'= ziS gzll 9fl.1. ol ge {zt dEPl aE 6
    oll^l 718 elAtzlolH4. L}= o}^ls ol "Jg oflf xliulllzll 'J-d.+. ol rlzJS +ollzllE d5l F.E+
    9 9o194. 'Et'6lzlE, ol$zll $el-$ ^lEql ..il6ll ull+= +"J-* "JHe d:ddqlrl "J6lul a
    $E xlzlHE ziol4.'"

    rl
    tU

    a r.\ +
    W
    r
    NrTrilc
    ACID C0'\.
    Irt
    L *HN,!_ J
    l't', 2
    k / 7 )
    h

    a-19 1.11 ?fl Edz[EttE trt+ HJB E|tql + +{= 8=4 Eo-4= oJ=tl. 888 !,J^q 7l^lE ol.tJe[ E4olrf.

    tl¤ 6 qtr a0l Eal4 Etrtol-r., oltr a0l al-:qt4 Eal.?.171.? r 0l+= ¤E6l-^le.
    (a) 4EP ol{talEJaetE-ePgl 'J+E UEtl
    (b) 5o; 45zlzl trJ=rl.
    =i71 ^lal=
    (c) E(l8,t tzt +q 7l'= EE E=tt.
    =.J01=

    *Remsen, lra, The Principles of Theoretical Chemistry, 1887


    14 1d .tlE:=E. otlll^t. +E

    +GJEE +AI
    g'J+g +C6l+ CEE$ ddol 4tl 4=4= 19 ol*al$, sql+$ 4r+4 Ctse
    / g +?-lE + 9l+. q= Eq 4 z4+ * zzqo14.J H"J sElEe 49 ++6|q er+
    +es eelB + gltrI. trJ BE+ ,JHe zl4E .Jqg ol$dlq + 44e. *7la- 4 4r+
    "JE4 LI= aol4. F++E +s-6Jslq4 zlol= ol-so6J+E 9l+. ¤4 zlzl 4lg a
    $ \olzluJ +e +ol7l *6JtrL ar} +9 g6JE-g zlB6J 4}ql '-;eH eg +r +e B
    Be;.9 a=71(filtration)-tr tsqdl 'J + 9i+(rzJ 1.12). +oI 9l= ag ilq^l Ell
    \ =+.
    j g e+o.I HI¤¤ oleo o|{ +^l gr-llel ++e-E Hp+^laq.

    -QoH-q Enloi Eol¤+Elol gTll


    o-=
    -vld
    Eol=g:.Jtr| EoJrl.
    L \
    a =al-^-foll

    4)la I

    1
    ts'2-l+
    a
    ,' Ef
    LH7}
    oll

    Lr

    b# Eol 901 E+ 6g6lE


    gEl
    ^Eol
    LJ=tt.
    E7H
    ++-d=af43
    E
    ?.tel

    rH 1.13 g+ 4E Eo-4(^=EE .SEee Eal6f= 8^l


    ArB 1.12 71e71= 018-dEel =+
    r^llq q^llg E--JE= )1= I
    ololl +qE, o-4^11ts ffit^lLfTfI 0H egEetEalbEat4 et+4 48?l7l-?
    r^]E 9loil H:rl.
    "[8?]71,
    =ol Eel6lE E$ Eoll=
    1l+ +q

    A
    =tr1.
    Eal6fr.^[
    l otE
    =tsEE
    Eolloll
    =oJrl \\//- ,' ,

    I
    dE=o1
    E4Eq, t
    x{Tl/.t
    oz.to tr
    fr
    -
    il+
    =eolEl"allrl S

    r
    -
    -;} ) "aI

    449 dBot g Eotl


    E'J6[E qe s=q.

    A:1H 1.14 rJ =e!fE-Lat|trl= 0l8-el 7l^l +EEol Eal


    ^il
    1.a I qlrlrlelp! 15

    +g e'*Eq ^d$g Efl6I= 6s* rl$ + 6I+= ffi(distillation)o1r1. ol "JHg E


    4ut4 7l4lL E6I4= CoJol 4zl 4e d9 ol+al 4o14. qlE r++g #olH
    =q
    Eg +ts6}j1 a+ol B=+. +gg #zl+ ts4zl H"ilrl ffiqq z=J r.rsqrl Hi
    Efe+ Aol +^l sqillE E6J+.
    qE i1iilg eE9l 94 E= Caol E¤"t4 EtE aE e.J+g E46l+ fl4zl. ¤ f
    ?14. =A t.ugl ilE =eule:-rll{(chromatography)E ol gEl= ol+6J gtJE +4 EJ
    Hol4.

    1.4 I qlL17,lel +e
    ++ql fl= E= ^l-gg Eae ol+q4 9l+. rrl+ Eaqlg-+: +4E 5q& ^ll^Jol
    *zlolE olil= ¤B617l qB+. El+ eg Eolzl"J, +e & E+E Eq +dzlql^J #
    n 9l= +g ++ql EqEflg "il +r-l= o[+ += AeS 6[r]l g+. olqoJ iiol= + E
    ol E-fto|-r. ?lE
    "llHzlq sflol
    qErll, #i1 9l= Eg ilTte EH4 g{ gltlzlE
    = 9lulzl
    zlzla_ 9l+. sl+g olallalzl 916ll^l= qLlzl r zlille+, slE4 4dql^.i +Rlq=
    E EEIE ol6H6llot 6J4.

    Ee+= 84, qlLJ4i eeJE S,j1 +ql ¤ +E $.zl"J .llHxl9 sr+L *+614+ +
    e6J + 914. olHrt(enersy)E "Jg 614+ gg dB61+ tsqol+. E(work)g q¤ EAI
    ql flg zlofl E4lzI *zl9g q Ag¤ oilq4olr. E(heat)¤ E4lel gEE gq= ql
    ^I
    s-o*l qq4ol4(=e r.rs). 4*E9 Eill gEql 4aJ 9olL zl+4sE g
    ^r+Eg
    I |lzl"J, .Je-l Ce-lql qlfl^J= r+zl ?*4. .J(r)$ E,.llql Tl6llTI E(F)q E4lr[ d+7t30il
    =+ trlolll
    :d
    "J3
    +zl.J 44@)9 +etr Cel'JtrI. =E
    --Jtrt.

    w:Fxd ft.ll
    $zl,tl fl(force)$ EillE g!+ tolBzl} ag "J:"I=q1.,t al+,* ql5 5E zl+
    rr$
    el+qol+ zI^19 Hlql + ^FIq .Jqe a;ol-r., Elqql^l E^llE Eq 944+ E
    q 9l= at4g q4H S$ al]o1ajr1.

    ffi qlLlzlcl trlEl!¤ qlLlzl


    qLJzl= oloflalzl +l6ll^]b qlqxlg r-g4oJ + B4"J .gF qlqzle+ s]Hl¤ qlLl
    zl= +slB BszI ql4. zl-Fzlolf, fi+|.olE, e4ol=, *zlol= Eill= EE oil
    ulrf(kineticenergy)$ r*=tr+. EillE ¤t "llHzl9 r7l(EJ= 4*@)4 +E(v)ql
    q+ e4s+. (a) ORuslan Shevchenko/Shutterstock

    7la gg
    rr: f,*r' tr.zl
    BlLlTl-Eoll
    EelSE= SaJq.

    trl+^J Ei{e-l gE qlLJzl= EiilE +E E.= 44ol f;z}gfg 4414.** ql=


    r.l{ 0szje.ulq(km/h)-e kmE gg "ilH+ q
    Bil+B, \+ =q
    sE 2s
    ^E^l7l =
    qlLJxl= ,*+tr+.4u-zl ag ql= aE*ol ++. qlLlzlTI rl+ 0s
    =4. "I4rl
    kmE B?-l= +rl+ Eqg ag +E9=+E TIqe ssulol-H4 trJ eE 9lHxlE
    ,*=+. = = .I}
    (b) ORoman Sigaev/Shutterstock

    .ol +q ql Y E el E4l otl^1, ir. r l4 9 Bc E419 ol::,J6Jr+ B 4 CE"J rela}tr 6J+.


    "J
    arH 1.15 oilLlrlE F AEfl?] g4 g
    **gEJ6l EJ6il^1, +EE EJ4¤ E6J6l+ Elelo}(vector quantity)ol4. trI+^.i +EE Ei.llTI qL B-6*eg gEl-+ (a) 93 Eoll BJoG E^11= 84oJ ttt|
    gzlol=aj= gole+. HlEq ^f
    gr_l quantity)oJ +qg %I5Jrl +4lsol +^1 g4lE u+ezlE}g 4 8E ollLlrloltl. (b) Ee E^]19 8E=
    ^a4"J(scalar
    4\n+. .l zqql^l=, *4.JE %I6Jql rll6JEE6J t+ol fleB, +Ee++qC+g6t4 gr-a
    ^l-&6J
    aolrl. e= nfl 0llLl^lolrl.
    ^IEEJ
    16 18
    ^lE:=E.
    ottll^t.
    =8
    gzle+ +zlE +E qlq4= qlq|e-l +g +dE 4tol4. beE BTlql: Li+ 4e ol
    E E4-E=g e+g _E_+6Ir. +4olr ilzl uliE"ll ¤.F qlulxlE ,*11 9lEl. EillTI 7[gq
    E, te +lql fl= +dzig Eol= 4E olql ts.J "JF"lb zJEol=, Eiilg flz}q E r
    4+ +F .llulxlE Erll Elq ¤+ +qol +7i6Jrl. r4 oe. 99 dBol* Ez| ++ql^J
    ts +F qlqzl9 dB"l+.

    qE a+'il
    A EaJ= + uflE -g nilet ++E + H,l.e E
    ',l =,
    trr
    =
    EE 0il11^rsr Eatu 1g

    | 't='tt
    rt= ¤Ellg qlLJzl-tsqt ¤+eql zJ*g qlqzl, "lq +ls gfl +ql zl+g ql
    =q
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    t-lxl(potentialenersy)t trt= Ealq 46J tr-ql4ql +lilql el6l]^l Adg4. slHI¤ 9ltJzl
    E44eE,4tlg' .llHzlol4, += Ei]ql el6lt 4r{ q= Ei{el .Jq E= +gq ql
    =
    Eql g^J*+.
    slHl¤ qlq^l7} +F qlqxls HI+l= a+= e6l E + 9lEl. ql= tq flql fl=
    zld4= ^J46ll u-zl(rB r.ro). 649 .Jq qlEql +lql il= zld4q =q slHl¤ 9lrlzlE *
    qql flg trlltsEl q +q. t4r+ zld4= 43 uule4l fleg 4i1 q]elsE^l Elfl¤ ql
    \zlzl +E qlqrlE HIflEl. 4 zl4A9 El¤]¤ 9lHzlE *olzlr, +^lql eF qlqzl
    ,t1l+(^l r.2). ol qlE .$E 9lHzle} EIHI¤ 9lHzlz} eq
    = ^]s d++g + 9l+= 49
    =+.
    flzl4 +z[ ^[ol9 t]E ++ql^l=, "J^]E eeJ ^["lq] 4]+6]= +qe +^l6J aE
    oll, {a}oll el6fl g^J6l+ Eol 4 +96}+. {dzl $fl¤ oflt{xl(electrostatic potential
    enersy)i +Eql^J +$i zlat ?_sd slHl¤ ollrJzl z[$rl] 6[+tr., d6l-= S oJx[ ,t[o1
    E ^Jg zl+q E6]] g^J*+. oi+l¤+ Hlql +gel d6I= ^lE d-otrd-7]il, Ag +EE
    dq+ +ts6JEl= ^|dg * gr flg 4.14. ol ^Js }+q ^ll7l= d6l.el =zlzl t)zl
    E +7161r., d6I ^lol9 44zl E"lzlH AA*+. See ol 49 ++6IH^l ddzl 9l
    qzl= qel
    ^IEl +^l E 4o14.

    +e qEJ!¤ o{Ll^l
    EE ollLlrl0

    'tol^l= tr1E!¤ ollLl^l


    7l^l= E-E ollLl^l

    a:18 1.16 trlEJl¤ 01lLl^lel.E5 ollHrl E.l fl0ll 8^16ll ?l= trlEJl¤ 0llq^l7l 9,lrL
    EZ= fl== Lfl.1eE^-1 trlEl¤ ollq^|= "Jr, E5 olll1^l= g=rl. ^l-I7lot|: ^]8Elcl ^l
    1.s l=E9 tPl 17

    +4 + 6I+= 7l^l ^ll4lql^J g + 9l: E4e.l qluJzl9 Eslz]., tszl ii


    s+ql++E
    E +F qlqzl eE ulHl¤ qlqzlel "lE *flol 9l=xl g'lH= aol+. E.ETI ¤^g
    qlg elilH, *g Eeg *gooJ ql qlqxlE E"L=e+. sezl z[+] E]4 ollr{zJ(chemical
    energy)L flzlE9 Hl]gql zltlElq 9l= ElHl¤ ollulzlolQ. g}eE q+l+g flz|,r.1o1q1
    aE.ol ^grJ q +E+ ollHzlzl *=qr, ¤EI"l #gd q +o+ "llHxlz} 4E¤+= ag
    ts}l+r]l E 1o14. gETl ¤ig rll, qE acie $olz1z1u3 +E a6Jol ¤¤gr}. oltrilel
    p+ql qfl¤ 9lHzlzl gEql r|4 ¤9lHzlE d++g 4,o14. Bz}el ++ol
    "Jzt s4E,
    4zlfl +F qlqzlTl azlr, ol"ll ul4 gqlqzlE 44L1.

    gcE'il .E
    A ...== e+ErE
    ^[E6r.7r
    ,J46pt1,
    +16,1 d+E
    ==-g
    ol-LlE EsltTf g-E7l?
    n,|, q'at org d^rer ar+ qrLl

    | ^,= =71.61ts7t,

    1.5 l#Jel =J?l


    ge EAE Cee {e}{(quantitative)olQ. +e+ +dqq 9lq. qH .:

    qEf- = =C*g Jq
    +zltr +El-'J "Jg ++l= Eq6l E,¤6llot 6.Jtrl. qtr ¤gq aol= tz54 t

    r 6IH, olE o}+fl 9olz[ fl4. ol +E ++]e+ q-21 rz.sdqnlel(cm)E E^l6llot al


    'r,
    I

    aolE 4¤61 B^l+ aol+. !}El +Aq^J: stetlt(metric system)el t+l= ^FS
    ",4
    11,
    Dt
    cX,
    ".J+. 4E
    olEl4l= ls^Jl7l +Hlql g=J^oll^J zlltsqol, Qzfl qlSgq ++ql^l 9l ,o
    ^FSqrL
    4. ul+9ldE dF4eE ¤E4 i{ZlE ^l-8-6}B_q_+
    dd "lrl4lzl-trSs}qn 9l t2FL0!-
    +(.r.J 1.17). $55ffil)

    st .J+l
    arH 1.17 BlElZl EPI EJtS
    +Ag 916|] EA.J H zlzl olEl4l *+l= ^l-.+6}zr= +rll BEol rsoo'J9l ol E9
    r+qt
    +nl7f g+4 391(84. fl
    ol
    +qA+. EEql el6J EI+IE sr E+t(sr unit)4t +trL ol= +41 ++l4l(systdme oz)ef !lElZl t9l(trJalalel, mL)
    s%I^q E4ol+. SI 4l4l= 7711t4 zlE tflGase unit)E -tr
    International d'Unit6s)9 e E^lElol ?l=ol. !l+oll^1E
    olEl EtrJafqr
    EL6|q, += l.= +9lE ols+El +E¤ f 94(e 1.a). o1 tlql^l= zJol, d=J., gEE olrl =8gsl ^1801
    TIzl 7lE ++l= +Etri.
    ^]

    x. 1.3 sr 7tE trJgt

    EAIAJ Eet ge Ert


    zlol(Length) ulel(Meter) m

    deJ(vrass) zj-E-Lfl(Kilogram) kg

    $E(Temperature) 4Hl(relvin) K
    ,r.1zJ(rime) i(Second) s Et sec

    5d*(Amount of substance) E(Mole) mol

    dF(Electric current) ojsllol(Ampere) A E= amp

    $-E (Luminous intensity) zJga|(Candela) cd


    18 13
    ^lF:=!,
    ollLl^|.
    =8

    Efx1t ErJEol ?l= grpl= Ffl!(tumen, tm) .Jfle. B Eajolx.^lElol 91tr1. 771^l
    A sr zt= q! =q
    ,l0l
    E+l 6i +ElE de-let+fl01 ?1ts7t?
    I

    ;116lr{ H}Hl
    oH
    --a

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    {"Jzlts qgll "J + 9l+? rt4{-e=$ +q zl^lg q$zll I "J^J^Jgql glq^l= Newton$ gF H4S ?E6l tsot
    +46Ir zfl{o}fiz}f 5'J + flg AE.q 4q6I+.
    4+zlz| q$zil .Jg 6l+zl tultrg ag dE H+. a +lql^l oloFTl+ diil 4c¤.
    =g 1.18q1 E^lpI6I*.4. ol

    B4ltr BdB ae r+o+ zl^lg z}tsg +AaJceal 9ts4 rI+4 *B(scientific method)olz}I.6J+. rq+ 4qL4
    =
    *Hol t 7lzl"J 9l= ae otq4. 4oi zlrl9 4lB^l7l=
    aolE+. 4qlz}9 +g +4e B^lr+ +4cg +n +a
    = +q, 4+E +=tr+ E += +A
    g ¤+ +Al= *oI Ell= "*g a H6I^l ?+= 6t+el s+ aa3,
    ^Iolel ^7I4I+6J+.
    q3l +ag aq6[= 4.o]4. trts +41= z]¤9 et(why) * +qel ¤He ++rl +*qlot 6Iq, s4 zl-¤ Btlq"J E
    a-6J EJ^le_s 6J5r5l+71¤ E= aol+. 44zlE ol eEql =6lot ql+:4o14.
    B-6171 fl6lq +ag ¤E6J + 9l= 7ff;l(hypothesis)olaf-=. qB =o+q trI= 4aql^JE zlgol 6J^J-5ce %L
    ^]E
    E,¤g 6886t4tr. olel,* Bd--$ lttt HE|(scientific law)o
    ^,11+trI. ^l-9--E
    xJ+q 7L¤g oi+ e.czlol4, 6l+ 0l^619 fH=d 7l¤ e sEg + 9l+. qlE Eq plq H}+ql^l HI+EE dill 3
    g 9l+. 7t¤ol *+8, olq "*e ^JC$E ditl ee}ll.J^J A+= ag
    EJ+4es +3
    ^llg +E
    Ar+
    eI +eg ezl E+. olBl+ Br-^les 7l¤g =|6Js+=d.J
    qltr-g + qfl+. ol elfl +$9 e"6E tr= B4(law of conservation of
    trl g7l g1g r++4 +Ec mass)ol4L oJ+. olE4 rlol B4g +H6l]ot +tri. r+q}
    ^[.eg deg ¤zl6]E+ ++.
    e tr+ 4tlq Eeg Ei6l7l 9-l6J +e deE ¤4lql ES Bzle. +47h.J:il 9l= qH "Jol .J^J "Jqt+=
    Aq 4ql ^J+o14. HlEql ol# olE 9ol 'Jq\t aql ql
    ol q= ,I¤g ^J46il g trll +e* q6Jg 6J+. =c6J
    Ctrz]. dd *o14, azl$ z|{$$ AqAn 4Eqd4.
    A+ +49 G44l zl* +6J61+ ai*9 z}¤"Jol Brll g
    +. olull ol zI¤9 olE(theory)ol+7 E4= Egol q=ql, ¤-H. +g6t7l
    olE+ a+= ql+6[n, -E= +ag ¤EB +
    (^tE E80ll EH-d *grt d-deB+q)
    ^1:E1vl^19
    9l+. E6J ol$g + trl H+lel ol$, ¤ trJ .JHI4oJ ol$
    =
    *, trl= olEq +.Jqqot 6J+. qE p+^I'l]+q]^l
    "J
    I
    =q
    q+= ¤tr-g ¤E6I.b olE+ gdB, l9 EI4 E"4 olE 7[¤ 81971
    ql +ql6l.q"t
    (6tLI E= r olAt)
    ++.
    qq+e ol 4q^l ylg olEg "J+ril g 4o14. r+ q
    zlzli o\\ltl^l +39 aEr+ 6*tr-"Jxl6t= 4.5o14. :4 I
    2JAiiPl
    + qB olEE e44 os *+r +H.J + S4. *4E ol
    71^J
    (t:dg 56tG)
    Eol *g ai.lH ^J4+ i llzl"J, 9-zlzl +eql^l= a*
    qflg + ll4b zlSCg 6J^J BoI :14. +B6J 4lt: Isaac
    Newton9 94 olEol4. qq olEe 839 +zl"Jql ql6}
    I
    olE lll?71
    q ot+ 4+6l.7ll zlgolSe{, z04l7l 4vl^1= qlrl6J ql (7tE dA4?]7t¤0fl
    9lE *ol^g + Sfl+. :244 Albert EinsteinS +zJ4 =Z6|'G)
    ^l
    aql ql+ Newtonel olgol g*qg+= ag trq +*.+. I
    Einstein9 ^JqC ol# +ArI 4* ^J4g tE4
    ^lzJql ol== BJ=4oe e=6t71
    oE Ht+94. Einstein$ Newton9 olEol 4+qzl ?+= (d:d e!+ct +-st6tXl Tlld Ets EllTl)

    +ts¤ ql+6}S,r, r 4143 Newton$ olsiql,q ql+q=


    anl.= ol+ zlg ilolgzl"J d^lle +=qfl4. Einsteinel afH 1.t8 4-+4 HJE
    1.5 -J+l 19
    =8s
    x. 1.4 EtEl4tet Sr EJgqt
    ^tgEt: t+q
    E+ol efrt el0l qt

    914(peta) P l01s lql4e+E (PW) :1x l0'sclE(elE)"


    rll4(Tera) T 1012 1ql4e+tr(Tw) :rxlo'2el-E
    zlz[(Giga) G 10e lzlT\e+tr(cw) :lxloeq-E
    rllz[(Mega) M 106 lEll7|e+-tr(MW) :lx t06e+E
    zJs(Kilo) k 103 lAtr.e+tr(kW) :lxto3elE
    !l.tl(Deci) d l0 I
    1rJl.'.lolE (dw) :1x 10 lelE
    U4(centil c 102 rtl4elE(cW) :lxlg-2elE
    "J4(uitt, m 10-3 r"J4s+E (mW) :1x lo-3e+E
    ulol=E(Micro) l.L
    b
    106 lulol=EelE(pW) :rx r0-64E
    t-|L(Nano) n l0e l+Le+E(nW) :txt0 eelE
    sl?(pico) P 10 '' rul?elE(pW) : tx lo-r2e+E
    B-tr(Femto) f 10 15
    lgEelE (fW) :1x 10 'selE
    ole(Atto) a 1 0-18 1o|5r9|e (aW) : tx t0-18e+E
    {tr(Zepto) z l0" lfltrelE(zw) :lx1o-2'elE
    "elE(watt, w)= 3* qlq47l ,J^JEIA+ AtslEl=.Jag +44= "JE9 st ++lol+.
    qlqzlE s B9E 6(joule, I)ol+. I I: I kg.m2ls2, l w: t I/s
    b:elr gx| mu(E* mew)

    t qtr Bzlo] trl oltl- +86[zl g,


    ¤B(explanation)olrf. o s= a*Elq flr+a +aqlot oJ+
    ^l
    += ag ga+flg ullE: 849 ¤Eal+ olEE qq6J +H g+ ¤i4l: 1.66,1.88

    +glq^J: d+qE ^Fs"6Iq g4 zlzl ++lel drlB a+ E= ts]]t= E^ltq. ql


    sr
    E Eq dFq EJq(milti-)E 10-3, + a+E 'Jg 9ulaJ4. "J4-z*(ms)g 10-3:H(e),
    uje]ulrl(mm)E ro 3 ulQ(m)olQ. E 1.4q1 slqlql^l zlf .lfgap d+qE d116}g.+.
    sr++l= ^l-S614+ +4= ¤ trll zl+ .E^l= 4= aql sl+6l]o} *4. zli E^lHql q
    +6tzl *e trI^89 FB e. t9 *aolzl Hl+r+.
    sr ++l7r olu 4e dir zlzlts 4q}4lq^l qd6l "Jtl4
    og.rl*$sll gl4. ol 4ql^l=^Fsq4 *= +^llol^I"J, H
    sr ++l7I olH Eglz} zlg +g trll, rql 6llB6[= sr ++]
    E EL4l Ezl6.3- aol+. sr ++l7t "tu ++l +
    ^Iol9 *zl
    Tlzle+ sr ++l
    .J+ql ^l+ ^F*q= P
    714 ilEzl c45lq 9l+. xill.7¤ql^J= E ^tolg H+|g ¤Bg xol4.
    1 ,ge H pS"Jtl?

    ,Jolel laJ
    zlol(lengrh)9 SI 7lg t9= trlEl(meter)o]4.
    "lel} g+! +fl zll4l.J ol=(yard)B4
    Et ,J+. E$(mass)*$ E^ll= +^d6I= Eee] oJql+oJ 4sol4. 4d3.9 sI ,le +9
    -¤".14 +rI= +e aol "iq4. a.6te EaE "Jql qi+ 4Eojr, +41: +q.l EeE a,jql 716[= aol+. ql=
    ++.Je.l +4lE 4+qldBEl Bql^l El z+gql, ol= 99 +qol 4+E +qtr+ ztTl rl+ol+. :184"J ++"JE
    =q
    e.*
    3 Bql^l+ 4+ql^lL| 44.
    20 18
    ^]E:Etr,
    ollLl^|, +E

    aErts(kg)-s-e, * z.z+&-0b)ql 4'"I*4. ol 7lE ++l= =fl(gram)il dFq A


    =
    E(kiro-)E ¤ol7l qlEq q^ q46l7il y44L+. e=Jg += tr+]tr +48 tril+ rflql
    d+q= Eq ^Fo..
    oJtrl.

    qH 1.2
    5lt+qol¤-oPl
    (a) 1O-eraJ, (b) 10-66, (c) 1O-3olalo]l6l].J6l.= Eglq Ee= +1oJ7l?

    6tl3 > E* qlrJl2


    .s t.4q^l 6ll*6}= d+qE *.t +9E EI=E trl-gr+ e (a) 1mts H pmtzl? (b) 6.0x 103 mE d+qE ol+6}
    4. (a) *u:B: ng, (b) Elols-E.=:ps, (c) ulalulel: mm q g7l6t^l9-. G) a.22 mg¤ dtlB zl+E 0l¤:619 g t
    fle *21ai,(1s. (d) +.22 mgg A+dg ol$a|{ g t+l
    > !{5 qtfil1
    El-S + al+AIE +C47lq 4*.J +7ll= 9y X,.Jzl? -+. s.7l6l-^ls.

    (a) 2.0 x 107 mg (b) 2soo pg (c) s x to-4 kg


    (d) +x t06 cg (e) s.sx 108 dg

    9-tr

    Eee-l E48 E= q+ AEql e-E(temperature)= g aEE %16&9 ACq+


    iITFSql
    E?]4e +colr+. ge .J^J kg ssE Ees+El *3 gsE Eee z|$zl-g-_e. cE
    +. trl+^] +EE]. gETt +g E4= "JzlE IIdAl 1-744a_, gol +_s*e gq 5qs=
    ag "J + 9l+.
    g6l
    r+6.Iql^l gE +91= dale+ ae] t?lol4. flalE9l(Celsiusscale)t:6ll+H
    ^l¤-61+
    +olql^J EE q=dg 0"c_tr 6}r #:dg 100"c-tr c+ aql^J +4dtr}(fH 1.1e).

    0t4 rH= H? LIE E80l d?.!^1, Z]]Erl E+61^le. "d,Il8Eoll^l 1'zJ4e eBl3E0ll
    1 2J4ate+."
    ^lE

    373K 100'c 212"F _ eol E_Lxl


    6LE
    =i

    tr flr flr
    il NJ NJ

    u uj u
    310 K 37.0 "C 98.6'F co xi^t i.I-9

    273K _0oc _ 32oF q=E


    - =el

    eu e-E dul3E trlril 3E


    a.r.H 1.19 gHJ. dul, E[{e-E E?lslHlE
    1.b l+8el EPI 21

    ?[EJ E9l(Kelvin scale)t: SI x]l4lql^J gE t+l.E^J, 4Hl(kelvin, r)ol ++l:


    ^l-S6l-:
    +. a{ ++lq^l ¤(o)3, ¤ql el6J E= +zl"Jol B+lzl= *.r-+.,.J EEil EE(absolute
    zero)z}.L.J+. ¤q gE= d,4 gEe= -273.ts"Cql 6H'JoJEl. dr{ ¤.Ee} dEl ¤.s
    5g6J &E ?J4g z*zl uil+91, Ee +¤.el +4lE ,*=+.
    =
    K :'C + 273.15 U.3l
    E9 q=d 0'c= 273.15 Kol+(re r.re). aHl gEql^l=gEql E(.)E 4zl 9*= a
    ql +961r+.
    trl+ql^J ts-f gE ++l= EBI gE(ruhrenheit scale)olxlu3, r+ot4l
    ^l-8-6I=
    ql^jb _E-tL E2 zz.Fql^J g.a_,zr2"Fql^l #=trI. slal ¤s
    ^l-g-alzl
    g+=trI.
    e+ dal gE= q+q +4ql 91trt.
    1 m39 o4xll=.J71 gl6|l,'.1ts I L Eol H
    TligeelTl?
    'c : ! ('F - 32) E= "F : I t".) * ,, t1.41
    1m
    1m

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    8qdt7l= dlLt ¤gdt^l g *q 9oI4 H."l*Ezl¤ LI4U+. qq Hel +4 44zl4E +Z aLg,*:+E(+ s
    e A+q q6lfr E'4oll tlE i q^1714|+E), +4= +d ¤4ql z14lAg ,*=+. rel+ t4 r.zqy C"J* +Aol
    E0l olEZl9.lil6l"=71? Aq.J +Aol olH +tr 9ltrl= 4.g s_q ql= Eq g* EAg oil+ "J+.J zlgg
    =+.
    e=J.ol al+6ll^l dxllB4 rl 244 z+rll +g 4o14. + ol ¤"J6I
    ^l-S6tE, =A
    q+E Aq6}zl= t*9lolr-L =Ag

    #E. izl
    0.000re*qrTlzl +ag + 9l= zlgg ol+6lq Edg e+g +aoJ+-z 6IzI. qqB
    g a"Jg 2.2405 s + 0.0001 s9 E4lE 7l+6J +E 9lEl. olull t +E= +AE Eqd
    {g +4]Jq. r}Eq^J ++ +A ar_}¤ 7l+6J tril r= ^J+6}=ql, ol= qrq+ +Cql
    8qE .[ H.-r.S i9 ,]zl"-t *zl+ 6]-t EJE B+dCg zlzla- ll+= 49 9r ilzl qE
    .<.f
    =P
    tsP 8"JE ol4.
    :aJ 1.259 gEalql= .lill9 'J 9lzt + b+ glE|. b+eE+El H zl4=
    ^Iolq +q
    +E61 9lg + 9lzl"J, trlzl"+ zt4e-l <tg +d6l]o} eq. 8r41q1,<.1 sq^ll7l2s "c4 30 "c
    ^i"lql*= ag Hr, E4 zt4= qd6rzl ?*zl"J 27"ce +a'J+. olag Eq-g6}71

    100'c

    '*g EqE 80
    oc-
    E"JE
    =P
    "c-
    60 30'c 27.coil^l7g +E
    -zt zl0lt[. qaf^J
    +aI^J*frt
    40'c- OC

    20'c- 25'C

    OC
    0

    '+3 d+E
    'fP E"JE
    Laa 1.24 8"JSe15415
    arB 1.2b +Eg EEJEd4?6 *rl
    1.6 27
    =8sl=.ftd
    E 6lzl"J, gETI 27"ColH "Jg "J6|r 28"C+ 26"C+ olqel= grlol4. :4* gs
    7t 4+61 27'C?+a "Jts += s+.
    E+d+ zlEE izl-= sEr-¤t +d{Ig E= ixl-= ?= fr}(significant figure)4.7 t
    4. z.z ge-+. E^l* e=*e + 7il9 +a +4¤ 7l^]|4,2.240s sel +E izlE 4d zl]ol
    rt. +E *zI9 4+71B¤++ r +C AaIzl rl 8"J6I+: 49 9"104.

    qa* 25 s?! ,\rE9 EaJB o.oor s9 dEEE ri=tr +E.tflE r,, E 7,lq BE +
    A 7r.T!

    Lj'=,t"=*
    +4&9 +g- izr zH+= +6171 96ll^J= r <tg g+ql^J e$f og g.lsE^l i]+e
    _e, 0ol olH xlrl+El zI*+E 41s1. u|-e4l ug +{Aq^l 0ol olH E.E i{+ +s.
    *2}"il E+g+. o* +cit9 "J+Eg +E 9lr, Elzl 9lzlE't+u a.J +E
    9lzl uIE9l, o3 fs izig fs, otB +E 9l+. ^+dg
    . 0ol olH fz| ,r.1o1q 9= 0g 6}{r-+E *xlol4. - 100s kg(,?a *z| rll 4l), 7.03
    cm(-ft.s +zI ^Jl
    z11).

    . 0olol9 4. *xI Sql 9l= o3 fs *zlzl olqr, tzl Aid9 qlzlE +qU
    4.-o.ozg(Sa iz} aJ 7l]), 0.0026 cm(fr-s izt F zll).
    .^+Ag 7l7la. 9l= +ql^J, ool olH ulxlE *zl +l9l llE o3 fra fz1o1
    4. - o.ozoo s(+.E. iz} ^ll zll), 3.0 cm(f-s. iz} F zll)

    ^+dol fl= +ql^l fl+q il= 0g +E6llot ++. rBl+ a+ql trF 0g +E +zI
    7l olu as.E .E= zl+ -E.TIE(Y q A.1)g 0ol +E fzlolzl o1g
    'J+.JE+. ^l-&618,
    ,l .J + 9l+. qlE 10,300 e9 d*3 qBzl +tafHizlql q+ :, +, szH9 -fts
    =q
    izls -s^l6J + 91tr1.
    t.o3 x toa g (+E iz1 711)
    ^ll
    t.o3ox toa g (+s i^I LJI 7]])
    t.o3oo x toa g (+E izl.4d zl])

    +lE +ql^J ilE E= o3 fs iziol4. zlf roa¤ +a +zlql el}gzl g=trt


    ^+d
    qHl 1.6
    +E +al ule.4ltrlzl
    qE tr+ Colorado +ts oJ+71s,546,574801r E40l 104,091^1lE0l'g0laE,4A flq'. + +0ll 9lol,t.l 3E i
    ^lE.4ollEE, gEqq o/(=Tl?
    7Ht= r1tr-d71.? trJe{ ofLla[E +101
    ^l"l
    6ll'J q
    ^J+g +44= +3 %IEol+.
    el ?1+
    ol^l¤ a , Tljt- E qq+r +71 trll$ql Colorado colorado$ 843 IIl4 Ht+lzl ?+=+. ul,4rl gzl
    ^}$Eg ^laql
    E t+= EH"J HlU4. El4^l 4q q= ?l++= zl5t 4 q^l +dg +Col qr. 7lE +E +{= zlzlr llg {r
    tr+ gd q *e
    AqEE E^lqq 9l+. E+ qE E {${z}ol+. "J.J +E 4Al7l +ed dq6l.Zl c6il4
    +q ilE e= +q]g aqq ^]l71+ 4E Ezl-bB =4.J
    ^lrJql 9148, 9lC zl¤¤ ol+6}q 44 9l= +E +4"J+9 e
    aol+. trI4^1 4-4 9l= +E zl-=."aJ {BQ ¤t cl ke A qE= Edtr +E 9lg Xol4.
    "Jre. +r.1qq fl+. s,s00,0008 otr zl= {ol Cotorado
    28 ltrl ,tlE:=tr, otlLl^|, +E

    > H= ql41 (d) edB6l+ Hn (e)


    "ixll ?fl'J 44
    "Jt^Jgql^J g6l olqel + + qA+= q! a > E6 qlfil2
    ^h8:61+
    ol 4el flsrl .J+ql ES rulgg s280nlE(ft)+a qq
    =?17[?
    (a) F4alc+ Hr o) EFU'll (c) rQ 914. olae ot"Jol +A¤ 44+= 9"loJzl?

    4l4l l.z
    +t?,loilA-l+E *at 7[+ +al-71

    rtB +(=8,Jo.tr 7E!)0il1 3A txl.=


    =)ilA71?
    (a) a.003 (b) 6.023 x r 023 1c1 sooo

    6[l'J > .H.= qEll


    (a) ull z]1. og fz1o14. 0) Lll 4. zli: +E +
    sF sn qtr 58lel e+g +A4*,rlul o.otoso eol*.4. +4<k
    zloll +alslzl g:=4. (c) aJ zll. iidol flsH Flql fl= 3 H z1l9 +E tzl¤ zlzlt- flizll
    o9 fra fxlz| olg aotr t+'J+. "J.J ol izl rj "*3 (a) 2 (b) 3 (c) a (d) s (e) 6

    +E +zl-= zlzla 9148, r+dg ol+6t4+ ^lie E^l > E=qIil2


    ollol tJ4. r}4r] sooo.g frs. ixlzl ui] zflola, s.00 x 103 q-* +A{}e #s izlzi P zlloJzt?
    g+a *4zl z1ol+. (a) 3.5a9 g 0) 2.3 x lOa cm (c) 0.00134 m3
    ^ll

    4lth{l^lsl +E +zl
    qBl +CAg ol+6}q 41lg trI tr|g +!ol 4+g+.
    Eq.¤col *?t z +c<l"l 44I ar+el qrJce 4+6rr, E|4^1 4l+ 44I rtel
    +E izl-= a4+4.
    4+ 4l& {19 s-4 t z}4.]lrl"J Eq¤Cg zlz)t- 9l9ot +E}. 41&q^J +E *xt9
    7H+= *+zl +16ll rl+E + 7l7l +4g 4+ 6I'+E q6l7le+ mxzlgl 4
    ^l-+tr Lol4.
    il aoli1, trIE 6l+= +6}7ls+ *hzl{l {EI aol+.
    r. q6'l7lel4zlollrl 4l4I a4=, 4* 4e xlE= 714 +4114 ?9 zl]i9
    ^+
    zlq= 7l4ol +q. Ar+E Aol gsel zfl+tr+ q Be +E +{-= zlz)t_ $eH ^+
    HlgHf,+. El^¤. qlq^l E+¤+ 4 o + s^lqq 9l+.
    ^t*+=
    20.42 <- + Tllel
    4t{l urie-t+i ^+ ^lal
    trl'='J86t= + 7.322 <- T|lel 4+
    ^ll ^El
    83. il 7flE
    .r.* Ad^+
    ^tal
    704.U2 --
    .- xEltr UEg(104.8)

    83.rol fl 4+ zI4E 7l^)jt- 9lzl ullE"il Ar+= 104.s-tr_ alot ++.


    zll9
    2. t6}zle+ {}1zl.lld 4l4I A4=, 4+ 4g +E tzl-= 714 14;kli- zJ$ zflf9
    +s +zl-= 7l4ol.JEl. ar+E 61o1 pe,* 7H+H+ q gg +E i4-= zlzlr !l
    +E HlgH.J+. el= E^]4el z)olzl zJzJ s.22r cmet s.z cm"J zlr[4BE H
    =q
    4& Al.Jzlzl q "*e ^I4+= 7[4] +E Hq ++r gzl4E., s.271 + 7llq +E
    iz|E 7l^la- 9lo o-e. 32cmzg Hrallol p4.
    44: 6.22Lcm)(5.2cm) : 32.3492cm2= 32cmzE +gH
    1.6 29
    =Eet=Ef!d
    4l4lql^l qC+: +e49 +s i4-= 714 1e-e rJ+EI+. trl+^-l 'l'lE= r2oJzlol
    +.'ql^l 12= qC+olss 4l4lql^l +E +zI9 ,]l+= 449 gszl S4.
    HlgH.J tril= $..l]o} ts *zI +ql^J zI^J 949 *zlr} jleloJ+.

    . $,oHot 6J zlei g+el *zlzl sEri4_q-8, : *9 += H6Izl ?*8tr1. rl.44 t.2+s


    9 F49 +E izl-e qlgHatE r.271 +].q.
    . $.ollo} g zltr g+E *zlzl s ol,b}olE, : *g i"ll rg rJaJ4. qel^J s.ttsz
    ^ll
    zll9 #.a +zts Hlgea}tr 4.7471qt. z.zte* + 4el fg *zle HI9HalH z.+
    zt 84..

    A rt EetEaJor 25.1 s?! Hr10, et 5 mLer +a + E4 eaJ= 30.625 sorfl


    == ^i=tr =E6rLr
    EaJe E 7l1el8a i^E 4\|=7n
    I
    qH i.8
    4lt'Jel.SA *x|. ?,4sl7l

    +3 8^l.el 7[e, EolTl2:7+ 15.5 cm, 27.3 cm,5.4 cmolrt. dl^[e.l +tr|= frE *^l-= #?J6lq ZltJ6f,\l9.
    ^18,

    6}l'J > .H.= qlfil1

    tlz}g +El= ziBxr.,llBx$olol4. ol 4l+I arl¤ 7l+g EllenS 4=ql + +lB s}olH elE zlE ¤Hl= oJoitrn
    q= +E ftzl zlllzl tl* 4+.+=i 7l=o +'J4. ol 4* dfl+. Ad A4Alzl osr.ru}9(milg +49 trll gtrE
    ql= +olq 6l]=J6l-= +71+ zI9 *a f4_$ z[z]s+ 41 ¤. 7l-= iH+r Elqqzt, rsr+.+ui9g +48 r{ r0.rzjH
    & Ar+= + T}]el +a izls zl$aJ4. G.l)9 ¤eE +^l il]fl+. + Hg a+ E+ ¤EEol e
    : g +ols iH+la4H, ol ilE flEl= TIZJ g se6J a3
    +:l1 71tr x tol
    : ^Jlex
    (15.5 cm)(27.3 cm)(5.4 cm) El-S + qL a.J7l?
    : 2285.01cm3+2.3 x 103cm3 (a) a0 mi/gal 0) al milgal
    4l&zli A+= trq izl"J, + 7]]E +s
    228s.01o14= G) al.2milgal (d) a1.20 mi/gal

    izle HlgHollo| olE-tr 4+ A4= 230001 ¤+. + 4 >H6qFll2


    9 +E *^E 7l* g s,B6l+ *H9 e= zlf *zlg o s Qqtl $izt 100.00 mE B4E rll ro.sa aA+. g?]
    z.3xto3 cm3e. z1qa1g EE6I+. 7l d+E 1l+ +qg +_tr izl= aBl+q aB
    "lel E
    9lg,!a^lg.

    qHl 1.e
    71 4ru'Je.l +E +zl- B'lnl7l
    e-E 25Coll^l :19 1.264l. 2J0l,7lr.1171=01 ?t= ETlq EaJ= +E6tr, E7l= Hl3 + tt^l +E6lf;.tl. +0lTl tllolElE+E] 25C
    g ttfl 0l Tlillq"JE=+6l,'.19.

    6fl.J

    "JE= Al&614H zlll9 de}4 +ul$ "JoI"t {4. zldl9 d*9 zl4lzl Eq 9l= *zlc+ el 8zl9 e"J ^IoltrI

    -rls_4 ag a+.1 +E HlgH +zl¤. ^l-8C iE flrt. + 4l4Elqot 6J EJI g+ f47IsolE^J r Et¤- iz}TlOola
    + s: a+.ltr}. olrl
    ^l^&61+
    .JHI4 *He s= HlgB6l*-g Eil. r izlT}4+4H HlgBaJ iE AJ1. g+?+E Rlc
    e6ll^l +g +84 6I+ cl 49 +¤ r^E g+. r}+r.-i a.z:so9 4+e+ 4.74s0E A+, +E iz} 41.tr HlgB6IE E+
    ^il
    4.7471 aq.
    30 13 .rlE:=!, otlLl^|,
    =8

    837.63 g Egq^l +qd +q l.osxl03cm3e+ "JEel Ags+q q


    -836.25 g
    +9 Eg + 9t4.
    1.38 g
    U]L
    d+ :
    e=J 1.38g
    Edq^l 4l1} ar+e-l +a +4= ^l¤- tl=g zlEql H -r
    -rr'1 x l03cm3
    1.0S
    el6ll^l adg+. Ahlq ^+
    {}Eg E + i+ + a}?-l= :1.31 x 10-3g/cm3:0.00131 g/cm3
    ^Fs"oJ
    7|zlr, 9i+. trt4^l u ar+= r+ + zl4= zI41 r.:e gol
    +iCq^l 4l+ Ar+E +a izFts ^tg {}Eej +E iz}g
    ¤+. 4+ql 96ll^] ACgq. 9lE 4l& ArlE ^ll ,llE +E +zI
    7lill
    * 7l^la_ glErll. ol= ++zlql ^F&¤ + +E +n ixlel
    "Jil6J+. El+ il*q +C+ e*e 4d zl|9 +E i4¤
    urllTl

    Ttzlr glzlEJ, al+ 4l&*e rll zll9 +E +rl-= zlzlL !l


    +ql+96|71 HI++.
    >E¤qFil1
    , a
    +c]E "JEq E+ dfl
    ql6J 7.IE(8.e0 g/ml)el 150 mL
    q= oleo6}q, qE +4 44E A+g +6lelI6J+. d
    Aqql 10s mlg Eg +e + +4 v+g Bg-t-l *vlzt
    87 mLtl qflr}. +?-lE e*g Eta4 7l++ ag?
    (a) 287 C 0) 3. s x 10-3 g (c) 286.72 g
    (d) 3.48 x 10-3 g (e) 2.9xrO2 g

    > r* qlr{ 2
    +El: 1.05 x 103 cm3 EaJ: 836.25 g q8l(:1H 1.26)ql fl= +rl9 4*9 zlill= rdllTl d+ql
    trer: ffi7.63 g
    s+ i+,t11 zlr-lzlzl +4619tr18, Zl4l6lq ++ TlillE
    "JE= Lil 4lel +E *zl==zl4 f ?lEzl?
    a.LE 1.26 +¤slE+ddrf ff6 *rl.

    4l& 44ol + q +rJ 4l4I aq+ +n izlE+ 4qE * 4q "l^} 4 zI


    +41 oltl"J
    4E+ ollot t4. ol+zl 6l]ot 4 +alql^l ElgBg 4l rJzl= ei|$ol 6JSzlzl t*ol al
    + AI+ql S6}-9 +zl ?*71 ullEol4. Al.J7l= ^l-s" 6J trI= += 4l+6H^J Eq+ + al+
    A4ql^l"J Hlgeg +E 914. +49 HlgH sz]-= zqq B4 ¤4Bol alt4q Eg {t
    ErJE
    ^Iolql ^JzlE
    4qI S.Jol g + 9l+.
    ^l.olql

    1.7 I il.eJ +4
    +AAe +Eg ++l= 7l^)a.9lzl ullE"ll ol Alg AI4I6J trl= +S+ olq4
    ^l-S6Iq
    ++lE 6y6} Ielollot 6J+. ol 4ql^J= E4= 6l]A6I= ql ilq ilfl E4(dimensional
    analysis)ole|= *Bg ol oJHql^l +gE=¤. +el6J4l +b +
    ^Fe"drl.. ^le +B +E,gHt=
    E 91tr1. E+ E.J+ +91= {}4lg + 9t+. ila E4g E4l= E Elol trll +
    ^JE
    +lE r*E+ 6]] E6J E*e +zl al^IE Bg +r s+= ql
    da6}= ilq^lE ill4lzJ
    .J *Bol4. =+.

    +tt oJal
    xlg E4ql^J 7l+ +st HI¤ trll *& .Jzl-= u|-Ezll 4o14. sltt
    ^lole +9lE ^l-8:6[=
    9Ft(conversion factor)E eg E4elg Es.e| tszlq 4r+ L+= +flE -s^l* E+olE|.
    qlE Eq 2.54 cmq l"Jzl= ag ol
    'Jolol+(z.sqcm:r in.). +4ls+El ++r+ aol F
    ,l]E +& oJzl-= + 9lEt.
    "JE
    1.7
    ^13
    E4 31

    2.54cm oL L in.
    1 ir,- { 2-54 cm

    + +t& "Jzr + a4l ae t{= d4"lrls +}t}g uI ol*aJ4. ql= Eq aolT} 8.s0
    ln.oJ Exll9 ?ol$ cmE ulQu]l$ o}4e| ?4.

    fl61+ ++l
    ct4"lelf : (8.s0in)
    +tr : 21,.6cm
    \r +qd ++l
    -T
    slt} qlx}9 eEql fl= qlil ++l= 94 +qa a(s.sooJzl)9 .Jil E+le+ ^J4lg+. s
    4I "JzlE Eziql flE d4ulrl ++l= 4+ Bq t9lzl. g+. +lt} "Jzlel EEe+ Ezl^=
    ae *ol7l tril+ql ¤lt} .Jzl-= +61+ 43 19 *61+ 4,r+ aot^J E4 #ql sffi ixl
    ?+=+. trI4^l aol 8.s0 in.! zjol 2r.6 cme] zlrJ.
    ++l +&g 'JHI49E g6l+ ++le+ +q{ ++l= ul:zoli ase+q ^lz}.Jq. r7l
    r +qd ++l= fl6[= E+]E H]#= i]& qlz]qli 9B 401 9lEzl¤ "J"]E+. +q11
    7}g +4I oJzItr +E trL olqlel eol +flE EL4l +6llzlr ++qTl+.
    fla}: tr"-l
    , ,u u,,. +q{}¤f:--}-ll:g6l+++l
    =c>)zl-#,.
    g6[= Egz[ Bo]zlzl ?+sE, H]E^l +]1] r+a 6 9Bz[9] s+7] *= aolE]. +4 4.
    ,ll ¤rl-u-E s+E g"Jg *g + flg aol4.

    qFl 1.10
    tt+lstl-Bl-rl

    115 lb?] q^l7l ?tl. l=Jo+ B[+E g0[?]71? (rqq ?r.xl gqql fl= E+l aJZE Et46laf.)
    ^tl60l

    6}lU
    ,+sE=:18 oe. HI+eJH + ++l +41= +o}"t 6J +clTl El?l: lb
    ^iolE
    +. Fl.E.zl .J+q trH l lb=453.6 gol4. vl+gE S"]]a 453.6 g
    rHg BzlqE :tsg ts lql, +gE= +Eq 9l= +4I ^tE 1tb
    oJzl¤ *-6]]oF,*+.

    r+ ee; : t,rt*l(#\:
    '\ lrb / t.rrx 1o4g
    flolE A9: o
    o

    lts lb=
    ^Jl
    7l]q+s +rl= zlzla 91o str BE +s +rl
    ,tll z|]E 7l4ot +4. ++l +4I$Cg s-ql r* oE +
    4H4.
    (a) 5763 x lo4 km (b) 1.496 x lo8 km
    (c) t.49596x 108 krn (d) 1.483 x 104 km (e) 57,759,000 km
    > H6 ql8l1
    qH +rJql 4+= qoJstr+El e2,ess,o00trIoJ Eq4l > H.= qlrll 2
    aos +¤qS.+. ol= ql ,1]E -ftc izle H ?eulrl +lErl .J+E +4I oJzl¤ ol+4q 500.0 mi9 zl-E"it c
    "JzI? (+lsxl "J+ql fl= +9 +4I
    oJzl-= +a6l+.) + 44= Lrrrg uJf.rl9.

    as+t6l7l
    4l4lzli 4+sI5a"lzl"J, e*E Bg "f+ drll eg + ++l=.Jt gqHa gH].= +l^I olz|$^[$o]f 4olr].
    E 91trI. EE olaol t]6l-= ag "lqq. 4. zlzl +41= ,l E4l= +eE $ol rfrlaf,z|= ^J46}= 4o14. olql 'qH
    ,lE +zll+ eBg Elg + 91trI. a4= 4l^lql^J a4+¤9g+el+.
    ^leql^l
    32 1At
    ^lE:=E.
    ollLl^|.
    =E

    qBe+ +ae HlgB+ += ol+6l.q .l]q4-s.E al4l E E"J +lg+q 9"t9 Eg LAvl? +4 E+iql= p qlg
    6I= aoe, 4l&zl5 ?*olE q:1Ie4 Altlg 44471il&tl? "Jg qeltsol ol e$ql ql{q 'es4lg'
    ^l-8-6}zl
    oe. Cq6J Bg gg += H.zl"J gEI= B olap $a}$, Ll+ .Jzl s7l6l+ 1o14. qEE ++lql^l
    "J.J4. ol %tH
    ql4t qlqE Hg= e+tr + 9lEi. ,.fg 844 qBA4 d++ a=ql ql+ "#3 +AoI E7l Ht++. 4elol* "J^J
    o_tr zl4}
    ¤4zI4B"Jzl dril dA6J + 9l+. qel BlEql^J +C6Ib d4ol dd 4olzlE 49 g
    ^Jge-l
    gt}^Jgql^l g+g 6IE +46I.= dqol dd +.t41tr1. 4 4p14.
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    ^l-8-6llot
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    zl ?++. 4t {lqulele} .Jzl in. :2.54 cm)zl gl4. sr dFqql^J I cm:
    ^}olE *41(r
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    +olE +{ f6}= E+{

    m ^tE cm .# ^tE: ln,


    1cm 1in.
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    +q d *(a oo *'*
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    a H4 Qt& .JxtE trlEl= S.olll Clqolrltr. HI+E'JI trI4^l
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    ^l-Sgtrl.
    tlq"lelzI tsz}ql 9l+. + Hall +^I qlzl* tl4"lqE S.olll oJ^]tr uI+= 9l rl-*9zl
    qEql dq"lulz}+Eql, gq+++l.J qIilTIEzl"il fl4.
    F Hall gEq^l 100 cm :1 m9 +& "Jzl-= .<l$ollE g+. +9= g 4+7IE^l g6I
    : E+lg flzl7lzl +rJ ++l= u|-e4l t[4]^l7lE, 4&ql^J H]= ar+E eg + ilg a
    olrl.

    qHl
    F
    1.11
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    ^lZ'J
    Atlff *g + 9lE+. oltr+q m=. km-E, : rl-s km= miE utg
    ioltl -/s ++l= 96l-= mi/hr EI9IE Ht+elB trlEl= r,I + 9l+. E 60 s : I min, 60 min : I hrol Ir E, sE ming-E.
    .Jtr, a=
    rlzJe-tr Hl-+qo} qlEl. sr d+qe+q l km: I +s min$ hrE El¤ + 9l+. dill +eg E++4 eq.
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    +old E9 36l: E9
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    103 m 1.6093 km l min thr

    Bzl zl4 ++lE Ht+a, r Eh8_


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    1.7 E4 33
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    mi/hr 44 : ("'+)(#*x*Hk)(#;1i#)
    : 1.15 x 103mi/hr

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    ^lE ^l+
    9.e ++q mE km-tr BITB o.s km/sz| $Q. tmi3 4 3s7q4= 4E6I*tr1. lullA:0.075e9814H, FabiolaE
    4 t.0k-o]o-e. +q+ 0.slr.6:0.3 mils CETI g+. 60 ,Jfl'& H gel= xlg6}gEzl?
    g 0.3 x60:20 mi/minolj1, +^l 609 #6iE zo x (a) $1.18/gal (b) $3.03/gal (c) il.a7lgal
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    +trlel aJtEJ .J+l Elt


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    Ht+E +I4l .JzlE 9l+. q= Eq EAg "JE= A=*4 +ul ¤lt} tzle ^Fe"6J
    ^Iolel
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    ++]tr +6]l H.zl. "JEE+q ++ +& oJzl-= + 9l+.
    ^849
    19.3g 1cm3
    ,
    1cm3 f 193g

    4+g r"d ++]tr +t;l7l g"ll, ts^Iq r+ol *= a H4 .JxlE ol olzl$.r.|


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    94 glzl ?*zl"J, .Jile+ CI4"lrl9 +Al= *g + 914(r in. :2.54.*). oJHg ^Jl4l+6[
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    ^llg
    (2.54 cm)3 12.54;3 cm3 16.39 cm3
    (1in.)3 (1)3in.3 1in.3

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    A ^ll4l+dqtrlEl= ol+6}q ++$ oJzl-= 4+.lE ++4 zJol EzllE dle6J + 9l+.

    rts e=J : iz ooi"fl(#X#) : 633s


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    rL9
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    ln." ^fE cm3 d
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    34 13 ^]E:Etr. otlLl^|. =5

    4lril t.tz
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    Hlrtoll= rt|qr t.soxton km'elEol gtrt. ol+tr|= alEl E+l-tr Hl-+^19.


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    4lrl9.Jr ?loe+, ol= ol+6IH +El ^rolE +41 glz|-
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    = / 103 m\3 10e m3
    \rtm/ - 1km3
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    :
    4Et +i,t (1.36
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    : 1.36 x 1.021 L
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    106 km2ol.a,
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    ^l*ql^] 'J EE fl#zl
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    . E+ Exilg *++ql fl='be-E -e= z]l'J'g 44+ol .4q 5E CRC ¤B(CRC Handbook of Chemistry and
    zllHg E"I4 S olqlap fl=zl= +e+ 49 gF physics)e *g ++E EJlolElql ql+ s= +n -Ef,-e-s
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    l.s4 nlElHrI g+4 iJAl, lzll ol 4 flszl t+E s.E ol+
    r1* 4 +C#ql^l +E i^l+ Q.-1l"J7l? 6Iq q¤ +fl= +416f^ls.
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    -trr (d) 0.010s L (e) 7.0s00X l0 3
    (a) Fm
    - mm (b) ms + ns (c) mi + km (d) ft3 --+ t
    m3 (0 aOO g
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    (a\ 3.77a km 0) 205 m2 (c) 1.700 cm
    ¤zJ+g:r46lue whale)9 qlgelg s.0x 103 Lol+. ol +
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    (a) t02.53070 (b) 6s6.980 (c) 0.008543210 cm4 zf*4. olag oJile ++4I6I^le_.
    ^laB
    (d) 0.0002s7870 (e\ -0.0357202
    r.s6 (a) d+qd qE +qg 2.es9xl08 m/solr|. olag
    ^lrJ
    r.a8 (a) zlEq^J zl+9 miol4. ol +=- fiE $ ulol(mi/hr)s 4l&6}^ls. (b) Chicago Sears rlfle] go1
    ^lEe 7e26.38roe
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    "lag uleltr. ll&alrls. (c) Horida 4lLll4
    ftolEl.
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    ?_lElE
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    fl= q¤ qdel e"lg 100 mLB 2a2 mg9 341
    (a) 14.3505+2.65 (b) 952j-140.7389 s.6J6In 9l+. ol qtq eslol + s.2 L4H, ol
    -1ae(c) O.2e x 104) (0.2s01) (d) o.os88lo.67z
    ^qEg
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    =ql^qlEol
    1.50 +s +,q-= j1EJ4q +¤¤ 4l&61^le. +*+4ld1^le-.
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    - s (b) 0.0550 mi - m (c) $1.89/gal + $/L
    -.u, (d) 0.510 in./ms
    O) [(zes.r x tOs) - (r.zoo x 103)] x 2.8es4 + km/hr (e) 22.50 gallmin --+ L/s
    42 18 .tlE:=E, oilLl^|,
    =8
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    + --+
    olg r,lElE Alt}6l^le_.
    (a) 0. 105 in. mm (b) 0.650 qt mL
    (c) 8.75 gm/s --+km/hr (d) l.9ss rn'-yd' qlzloJ, 2s'cql^J
    +zlE "JEb l.le g/Lol4. 14.s ftx l6.s
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    =B.6tE^l
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    (a)4 4*91 B+ Eq+gg 41416Ir, r.B+g *atr q!
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    4Eb ulQe QuloJzl?
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    (a) ellolz.lq-9rJ(baking powder) O) qlE+4 (c) o}e.l+ ¤ -10 "Cql^J 0.9r7 g/cm3ol4.
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    r.75 25NEr^14 "14 +cl+ 4*.1 s.6z g, FAIY 44 r.ss mm r.s2 ¤+4'=q ai.il 32.6s c4 E+qlg .J"l d;ll pv.lz}
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    (b) +g +slq e=Jg g"ftz}? 7l?
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    gzl HEe+ e*+E 449 otflx}
    flz}(oJdz| +C^f, dz})$ +s E
    ¤61+ %IBg q+"JEl.

    2.4 > flIl.g gzle}9 zll"J4, 4 gzlel e


    ?el +EE EaiEr|.. ++rol ?l= qs-Lr -s. +zJ,=det Etr
    *r| *41= 1111.34.
    =xlEl
    g ,JEJg
    hr.r aolq. oEEilE g+ ¤floil^l + ?,{= EEel rl.
    g:d oJr ?lts ^lTlilal
    Lz, !E= ¤EJol = qE--J +
    2.5 > +7tEE ?l^E gz} BE +9-E Eq
    ^qe, =el
    1tr10il
    =E =d - +3 +, slol4g.e ElisJ ECE fl
    918 10ltt. olEXl 6l-E ++l0ll ?= Etr=el EaJl_= F-dal rggl i= +q +e +Tlgsql 46l] "Jole
    AB-g + 9)?l? EJ^el'Esl'4# E+ FE-d
    =5=
    BEHTI E + 9lq. r +.
    =tr
    aJrll AaNaCt)e Eq g +^lU, r[010[-EE(c)= Eq dA +^l ?J=tt. g
    2.6 > ErtetEx[ El.-dE +z]+= flz]9 a
    +ElE¤ d7l= E Edl^l'J. t6l-g+Eltsg dTlE 561.^l ?j=t|". t4 Tlill Elg B+61r, tsalE 3^Jg '+EI'l]=
    6l.0ll^lE El^lEJ, E4 7li.ll6t0ll^1E Et^l g=t|.. 0la1-d itol= olEXl ¤tr^14 +z}4g =" P6J4.
    =0171
    ¤E-g + o^)AE7l? ole|, ee Etrel Eal4 dtrrl.Et+41 ,sEE 0l6t]dlE
    EI|E Hle B^[ ?^e-l *E + ?ltt. 2.7 > 0l3r[018 e-d EtEtE $^[z[ {zf$
    ^tololl^l e4+ geH olgol g+E Ag v,t
    gn, +7lgEE 7l4tr olgq dd-=
    ql+6}7 A* +ql$el ¤q!^lg
    "le ullg+.
    HlBg
    +oJ* 5Cq EeEe +zl r00q 69 flzle+El Hltg+. ola +615
    g E^I 2649 ¤q gul9lg aElaIE +ge +q= "JEq 4: 2.8 > +71 Et-dE BEH EeE ol# i]al
    7.t+ rJLl. rElE fl2}53 qB4l aEi6l+.7t? r=ol a*6I 4 otr +q6l= *B"J BBE9 ++
    ^ls 6l-n, +rl E++Eql EBBS 4+.ll
    %IEq= qE +zlol 9lY Eeg Cee Ee# ol+
    = g^Iel aoF4 qB s4lz} ^"Jvl? EEl.
    il+ d4lE fl4* qBrll ^J
    =
    A*tt?:aEln + gig flxl* += gdel flztp] +Eol trIer.
    ^"Jrl? 2.9 >
    =
    Tlxl 2JEEI 371 ilsr'E +^el +
    a-e, ol+qd zJEt.?zl 4q]+g
    +Eol al*.*71? 4l6}a, olE e+*gq ,lE4.J EBH ^
    ol tlql^lb ?lzrel 71ts +a= ¤rltrr, tsz]-e+ olgE -q
    a -r- tl *LrL
    oTila-
    ^Jcql
    461¤ ="*6[r]l ¤tr]. ol +ql^J ++61+']l+g ffi 1tf,i$ ololl
    6p ql gs6J zlZzl g aolr+.

    < 8fl011 ?lil|:d EEe tl'g-.J EEI|9I 7l5E ,fr ?lxl


    = ^.lEzt
    .J g0l-?]b +7|^llE Bd6tE =gE=
    r.H+Eel E^tts s. 6=+0l a^etrJ ol+ol^j
    litL rrwJarek/Shulterstock

    47
    2,1 l#sl flzlE
    *4zl ^l= ^ll^Jg +^J6t= 71ts 'Ee'ol F9,.JzI9l ql6J +=+ r4 ?qt4¤4 zl* G
    -soJ ETll +9 6l.+fltrI. Democritus(aoo-:zo BC)= Hl*6J qq r4^ Eqrzls=9'rJ
    ol^J +h!+ 4-= + S.g' ol4E f$ zl-tl gxl(atomos)4: 4|e "JzlE EAol +Cq
    plato4 Aristotle* rl olt r+E + S,= Ezl+
    "l *4_z ^J46t94. :a;l+ *B =46t
    zl ?+=+= ,HHg qB49+. olg Aristotle oitl9 AEol zlull6lH EHq^l='g
    ^l+
    ,IE4'84+e ++Bzl *6}r{ qH+.
    rq+ +Bql^] flrl(atom)9 zl]'dol 4^l 4EElfl4. qlqtzl¤ol r.]l-E¤ E
    17^)17]|4

    {ol uJgolzlE E}*ql^.t E}¤: giE oJg +AaJ + glrll EIE^J, flAg 4,-Jn+ flzt9
    ,IHg olq i= flz| o15.o1 CB6trll 5]fltrt. ol olE+ 1803LJql^J lso7LJ ,r.l-ololl lohn
    Daltongl 96l] +Bqflr{. Daltonel flzl.E¤ uJl z}zl 7}¤ql 7la++(re 2.1).

    > azJ 21 Daltonel flrlE. E flz|$


    Dalton9l
    +sl 7 I-U-J'J^l$el 0 lEO lfl tJ
    John Dalton(]766-1844E 12 1. 4 g^= gz}4i16l+ +51 Lg "J^Ie ol+q4 9l+
    Aloll 7^l8gE
    0|l ^l4r6lfitl. A
    tH+E= lVanchester0ll,!
    ?teq,^Ei-+retq+doil^l a
    'g
    o tl^ 3ae.l3xl
    o E4 fl^el fl^t

    ol-= ^LoCrL
    i= vlM-|. /rl/\t6l^ll
    lo-vll
    7lq
    EL
    ?l/\l
    lE 2. +2 giE E= flulE zJzl"J, oJ gag flzl* 4E E= grE flzle)3 qe+.
    o- rLxitl -! rli]lol Tl^fq E
    alq= E+6lxl Elflr, B^l-
    6|]
    EE 8=J olZl qfl eq. rt--f!oJ
    OjO"" ooO="
    trlll,q
    ci d=
    Glrllll !l^^Ll.
    E/
    ElO]rL
    3.3rlq Hlso e_8.6J giE flzlE 4E fli9 ?lzte Hlg + fitrI. flzl-E plql eI+
    o s uJgolzlTl+ iEq4 9*=+. =
    ll,l
    a@,O="
    a"F.ltlE g4el ?l7t7} ArJ6|q +-JEol "J=q{+.
    4. F
    +q4l +qlEg ¤d6t= ?z[9 6F4 ^]44.J 7H+=
    'Jtr-g+
    o.o O -------->

    EA
    I
    o
    +
    NO
    6l-Bt=

    ¤.E+ olE+ "JEl4l ^tdg ¤E6J + glrl 6ll Dalton9 olE+ r '*^l "J4d'J
    =+.
    9.zlzl slq a* H4g e ¤H6J + 91fl+.
    . "J4 C+Hl B4 (law of constant composition) *=(t.zE)**3 zI¤ 4ql 7la6J+.
    qB ql6JE-g ¤C6l+ flzl.9 ="#4 tI44.J 7ll+= "Jd6ltrl.
    . IIBHE H4(lawof conservationof mass)3 zl¤ :ge ¤Hg
    + 9l+.
    s+q} H}g"tr
    "JEqd Eeg aa{ 4*g H}+ d EeE d4 e%}r} eq.
    ** Dalton,
    Iohn,'Atomic Theory'l 1844.
    .se 4.J -u.$r$ zlE(re): i^uel *++q.! olEl dtg 4H.Jc.s^l+EI

    48
    2.21 1^l +401 "Ja 49

    ¤EBJ olE-9 e.6J


    ^l]tr+ ^tdg
    ql+6J + 9l4l 6ll Daltong rE olEql zlaa|{
    trl* Hlg +Ed}fltr+. =+.

    . ull+ Hlrll El=l (law of multiple proportions) |

    + fli Ae| nz| eq]6}q + 7Vl ol^Jel s+6JEol "JEqe ull, gA'J oJq Ae+ HI*6I
    Bel e* rJ+6J Cfulz} CB.JE|.
    = ^Iolq=
    ol H4e +de+ ta g^E ol+qd E!+ r+4}p+ +^E ql-E 5q ¤Hg f ?14. r.o g
    4i|zl a.o99 &Ae+Hls"6lq +3^Jc6Ir, +i l.0sol 4Ia ro.og4Hlg"6}q 4&
    s+ +AE
    ^JC6Jrt. + plilEq^l +i r.o gB HI86I: 4149 eeJEl= 1:2014. +
    =
    i gzlql 4¤I &t flz}9 +: r+&s| iizl Eq El6ll + tsl]7l E9 0alton9 g^lEe
    tr ¤Eg + 9lr}.

    EJ+el-tr471 HJ8:g Ezotl q4 F


    rrt|. HJB rl= a[:d=o1 SdEJtl-. El.-cr.E A= EJ

    A 1 S'J 1.333 gol {jA= E:BElts HJE, El-stE BE=+ol


    EJ{ 1 g'J 2.666 Sel 1|4= s-Er-dtl
    (a) q7l^l EgEl= traJ E=E H4+ uH+ Hlall Hzl qE Aq 6H.J6lts7l?
    ^l¤e.
    (b) El.EtE Nl,J? +el taet EJ^ qq =
    B^le flq.E, a[--JE Bel +q?]71"?
    ^dP

    2.2 I flzl 7ae; 'Jo


    DaltonS dEdq^l Ee plq+4 ++ ar+q 3461q flzlES qfl6}flrt. flzlzl
    7l46IE, .JA CBtsl 844 tsl]+ Hlql Hzlg ¤¤6J + 9l+. 6Izl"J
    =46J+r. g.trql Dartong
    ¤+ a+= EEolr, :r.E zlzl6}tr rl*5s r ol+ 100tr EoJ t
    flz}9 ¤zfl9l Ell.J 4d4"J 62l= 4l^16}zl= *619+. r4+ sEgql= 4 fl
    ztel ¤e4 r g4-=9 E+E olulzl-E E i il4(=EJ2.2).
    EeE ¤+6I= +"s"J dezl HlHol ,llg5]E^1, rl ol/J. 4T}]zlzl g:
    =^dg ?)zltl :?lc
    ^J4ElflH +d.6J +aolq, s=B flzlE q 4Le oHrt E
    =+r
    rl(subatomicparticle)E ol+q4 glt}= ag ga 9l+. eql4.J gz} +e r.Bg gE
    L a4 2.2 +4e.1 EE olElxl
    +/.l tl'JaJ -d!le (scanning
    617l dql, ol eQol 444tl7lzlE q^I4 ga=¤ rJ+61 grlg 1o14. gzlql= *d tunneling microscopy) o + EP

    {¤ E oJzte+ +d{-= E "JzI7I sEllq 9l+. ¤'Hzl flzt s¤9 gd 4Cg ola|a| olEl^le, ?^1.= fl7ll ?ts-=r +
    ?lEE 4+El=
    71 gd^l= d6l-= E .JzI rJE Ell6J ol6H7i g,c6}+. +*e a6I= Irl= E
    ^Js 4+ql ol:olrl TDlol r,\H^l86lq
    HM-|. E--lq -1,\^!=
    | L
    9l
    Il+ I

    4-e=e gqLllJ., +E A6L= trl= E4-E=g giqEJrJ+.


    ---l

    ^le ^lE- ^loll6HLJ-zltf.

    zH+ c{zf tzf


    1800HEll +Hlql rE{ 2.3q1^l E:
    ee {+S(*7171ZE S=)g ol+6}q dzl *
    ar+
    dql +.J g+= ^lz16[9+. +g d"Jg aq +E + L]l+e.l d+ ^]olql HJ^l-dol B^J
    oJtrI. ol ,J^fdg(-)+q^l HJ¤6171 ull$ql ,fl+Efl(cathoderay)ol+n +=+. z]l&E
    d zlxll= g + s.zl"J 5a Eaq^l ¤*(fluoresc")g Ecrl? e E/il e=g + glr+.
    zllaEdS ulzl ${o}$ sEaH dzl^Jol4 z]'zl^}91 el6l] aol ¤e4 oE
    =dq=
    +eqH4. ¤19 4elz} f. |. rhomson(rss0-rs+0)g 4aEdg E^Jol(-)+ EAE
    a"F4 +4lrl S+g q.J6I*.+. rhomsong 18e7Eq gEg ++q^l Tl]aEdg, zl;-
    ?4zl Lfil(electron)+r. +s:, *d6l-= E .Jz[9 EEol4il ¤H6t9+.
    S0 26f g^1, E^1.. 0lg

    EB Eeg zJoll,tl rtlzlatqE 7H.t E,Sol g86lE7l"? rl]$qCE 5 + 9,lb7l?

    (-)= (+)E

    t- t
    )
    \-j,*r*- J' *7

    , ,.
    I
    -5-5.*
    a----n

    7|]^ E.S(drlE (-Eoll,'.l tr01 E"=||d E'J ?ll]' E^lol 7l=E Tl,\l
    ^=alg
    (+F-oe 0|5-dtrt. THi cScl ee= Eq 0ll el6t] +lqaltl.
    fuuE/\lnl
    /ULlvt HElilEi:olil
    TXUTU dO
    =q
    EEoll,l.l "!ol utrl.

    :1H 2.8 Tt|l ECg

    ThomsonS(+)+ql Eqa +Betr azl^Jol E"4¤ + 9l= zlleEdsg a.J6}s,rf.


    dzlzl o-e 6[dg S4 x[49 zllilEd4 +zlo] q4l tsl]96]r., + ¤ql= ¤'] :'=go1
    +q fl= 7=olr|(:eJ 2.a). 421*2 dzFJg E¤q4 ap, zlzlltg Hlql ,J t4"e
    6Jq gq+rll oJr{. rhomsong dzltirt zlzl*9 a¤6}q 4^l7l 4Cg
    =¤ol ^llzlE
    s ¤+ +E6IE+ 6tB+. dzlat4 ^171*4 ^Jl7l= +44q azlel d6[e]4
    ^rflql
    A*9 HlzI 1.76 x 108 C/go1 gg g + glq+..
    xl"7l8E eol +xl ?J9tE tttl, IxiAIe d7l80ll el6H olL gB(+l+ IEb o1a11q;oe EtrElts7l"?

    t7l8rl azl .\=al


    ^1.7189
    E^t+lg
    =E^lzrl cz14oe
    6I-dE trJ

    N
    (+ -

    S d^t ee
    (-)+
    xl?rl

    E7l8at
    ^t7l8e)
    a:d= ol+E ^1l7vl
    Ell-alel
    oJolLtrl oJ=trt.
    d^14 =Eol

    a:lH 2.4 d7l¤iol +4?] zH.r^c5g 7t|^ -d(E^l)3(-)=oil^l g86|q 690il +B0lEaJ(+)=oE 7l+Erl. +E= 5rl
    ^l7l8rl
    -Lf 8^l¤g:dB^fzloll6E6G ^le gE L.!rl-. 17l8rl^l7l8el^1171= z]co+ E¤idl4l -=t+ ?,ltl-.
    ^E--Jo=+ul8^l¤01

    .Coulomb(C)9 d"IE SI +9loltrI


    2.21fl^!i^sl gA 51

    WI Thomson8 (-)=ee 6+Tl EJal^1E 7H^ r5e1=doll= EElTtgtee


    ^lEElE =+9
    "JZalfrrl'. olrlol EDldtE a3?
    (a)zt|l .EdP (-Eoll^l 9851.= a0l olLlrl.
    (b)it|l Ec= 0l+= g^1.= -"E e+q EErqq fl= aolq.

    7 E^Pl+4ElE TlESgel tr*q e EalTtgqLltsTl?

    TleHtg
    fltol ]ol

    (+)
    rJ= -dDlz

    7|=HJEP Sda|.= Eln 9lo


    Xd gg 3^l a t str, el6li 0fall+ U6Je'|

    Xd 4,ttoll E"tl "J8


    iip-l t
    ol o o
    a :.J= =alql
    E^tE 17tgofl et6fi 9l+
    :d
    d^t7t 7l=ggoll (-) 'Jeq e= gll Etrt.

    HUtU, /TleHlgq
    too=L
    l
    ^til[H
    3d6lE ttlzll EJtt.
    Il7180 e
    6IdE trJ

    Afg 2.5 E^lel E6FJE +E-g + ?,lE Millikan9 7l=oJE d-d EdF= E + trJ
    4t= 7l=g8
    7I=HJEP 3E6l-= trlll ELl. MillikanP F Er ^l0l=
    0l q6fo=l1l -srtl. X5= eq +ts dge.l
    Ee[o]l qaf 7l=gfEel ^^l6lE
    q6l+E7l 0lE-szl Etrldf=^l= Se6lfitf. 0l ^l0l0ll
    7l=U=sl d6PJP
    'r.602 x 1O te Csl =+e+El
    8+uHzl- =J= g + ?fir, Mi[ikan3 o | ilee+E1 E^l 17l|e] 85PJ= T
    =6tHrl.

    "JrI dxl9 d6}-q-dela)(elm)3 g4l q9-s-s_e,, dzl 17Hq ql* d6l E= e


    %lg +C6IH, += .Jg drll +6J + glrll qfl+. teoetrql chicago 4qI9 Robert
    irzrillikan(rae8-les3)g r=J 2.sq ++u dqlg E"6|q dzlE d6lrd:g +a6}= Ell c+
    619+. MillikanS g.6J zldol 7't dz}g d6te*(1.602 x 10 re c)r} ThomsonE d6l-
    4-d=Jul(r.76xt08 c/e)= ol+6|q d4g e*g +6}fl+.
    dzt d* :1 602l lY::
    ,
    e.lo x 1o-28s
    "16
    ol{}g s=g dztg 4=Jq.e g=ld e.10e38 x 10-28 sq + oJil6}r. ?14. ol <tZ zl* \
    Ttqg +d gxl ee*g E r/zo009l 6IB6l+ 49 tlol+. a

    ,J^IB
    1896LJql EeJ^ 4olul Henri Becquerel(1852-1e08)g +el+: +oJEg E+dl-J +, a-
    -rB 2.6 Marie Sklodowska
    qLlalg %r-^Idol x].$!eE %r-=q= Ag ga6IH.4. ol z}ts4 %r-^ld %I=g S^t Curie(1 867-1 934) 1 903Ll0ll

    E(radioactivig)ol+I oJ4. Becquerel9 4l*oll rt4 Marie Curie(aal 2.6)e+ rE BE Henri Becquerel, lr4arie Curie,
    pierret: EIE.Eq 5q fl= EJ^IC Eeg q.J6tn +ele d,Eq^1, ol Eaol +?+ts g ralr rLlE .JtrJ Pienets B/.l
    5(rL17l^ll?lCt 8Gl) Eotel N
    z|.Jg q.J6l-9E1. -lxlol OC-l= r-Ell e=l6t/\tq
    l-!!tr!=="t-o=

    ¤=t9 4elz} Ernest Rutherfordzl +E+ HJ^kq q+ 4+¤ ¤+E+q .ql zlzl S +86f*tf. 191 1 Lloll tr/arie
    49 ", B, 7 *rtdol "JAl Elfl+. Rutherford(l87r-r%7)Y flzI7a
    ag CurieE E-+tsrl 4ffi gz-d
    ql q6J S+ql =zlloJ+=
    zlq= aJ !+qlz[olr+. RutherfordE Cambridge 4${lrJ f. f. Thomson + fl4 r=gd= +-* E
    =B+
    0t01l,tl +.86|-fi r|-. O ruerett
    =
    4 ,Jol ¤+= oJ f, Montrealgl ilE McGill ql+e.E zlEl= *a+. r qolq^l oJ^k Historical/Shutterstock
    52 2Af B^t. E^L ol3

    Bdg olE 0l8rl gxl(Sdrl'. 6811, lEts dx|)oll 6llB6lb7l? Fdol adEcl tj B0l 401ts 0lffb (a) c] zlEzl tttlEoll, (b)

    d6Pl tl37l rllEolE[.


    oldE BdP gfee
    =oe
    6tdE E +o+ Eltrl.

    (+)
    -J AtIt E6l"= qr 91^l"J= 7dg
    6tdE $0ll g:Bi= EII

    t I
    | (-)
    olo
    6ldE
    = ;LxlEl a Al-9
    EJ +o+
    90
    Eltrl.
    =

    x{7 111 o= 2la)$l


    6tdE oJ

    B^ltlEE
    L ra 2.7 E7 18 +0ll^1e.1 grt(a), 4let(B), #n l (y) g^l'de.l 7.15

    ql q.J ¤+E 6|9eq, olae r7I reosHql rEg Elqtr-g g+9lrll fl Al717l qH+.
    leoT¤ql g+9tr SoIe+ Manchester .llqq a+71E Rutherford: r*ql^l l?E6J CI
    'Jzi tI* dEg 614l qfl+.
    aC4 Fd9 dzl*"ll EBll ^]s gq1 ula.te-e Eeqq, ^yd* dzl*9
    Rutherfordt:
    g6}.3 Bzl ?+=El= ag ga6}fl.+(f.J 2.7). dE a4E.+q Fcg uulezl ++
    "cr}
    6l-= d6l-= ts "JzI4r aEg .IH4. dzll.s B 94+ i1+g dztE, zH&c.c*qlrj %I
    6]]B-6Jqr, g + 9l+. B Erl= oJeE 6rdg +se olpfl+. o "Jx|b
    =q=',J^idql
    oJA6l¤ 7V\q, (-)++eE olEfltrI. Ezl+ dz}9 dal ++le 1-el d6l-= tlxlt_,
    B
    a oJ4* 2+E d6l¤. 7l4c+. r+r:4 o "Jzl-b {z}el zaoouH AEq A+g z}+14. s+
    I gl^Idg xd!+ Aol E3 9lHzl9 {z}zlu}o1q, oJz}tr +dqq glzl ?+r Ad}E trl
    r. 9lzl *trI.
    flata{ E_B

    flzt= q zlg "Jzle +^JElq il+= ^ldol ¤E4ee .J+¤ql r].4, : olz|$ol ^lE
    qBr]l tsllgqq fl=zlql 4aJ *dol d+q9+. 1e00LJql aql I. l. rhomsong flzl ¤
    *q^t {z}$ ul6ol ,l]+ *g-EE dzl-b gx} q"lld z}e ++"Jg z}4g 4.ol4l ¤
    86l.fl,+. E r= rH 2.8q1^lilH, flzlE "Ja6I7[ +.J6tr]l Es+ +¤ Eeolll, q7l
    oll d4¤ol Ei4 gl4r 41.J6l.fltrt. gE olE¤ uig ol 'd
    ^IBEol =4 E= +^lql^l
    str +B (plum-puddins) l-B'g:z4 9-{7lzl *flB+.
    ler0Eql Rutherfordt: a "J^l7l flzI ft 7ll cE +419 sg +Eg E"46J qlql &
    ? di{oil
    EEEJ gd6t *qa+ Hl^Iq= 4E= g+6tj1 9lS.+(r=J 2.e). r= rlel E= oJzl-=ol HI^Iqxl ?*
    ArH 2.8 J. J. Thomson9'zJ r +Eg E"II6E, ,ll+ 4g f9 " oJzluJol Ezl r" CE fl= ag gaal9e4, olE
    g-=. F=J' Brl'-E.E Ernest Thomson9 asE +B l-Brl oJil6l-= a49+. RutherfordE olE E +^l +oJ6I7l +l
    Rutherford9f Ernest Marsden
    6Lq ¤Edql^J 96I= E+ q^J Ernest Marsden(188s-rszo)4141 4E +I+ d¤g 6l
    3 ol E:dol E=ElflE¤ =
    dlfitL =E E+ 6[9tr]. ol deql^l= ts*zilE i+s_l Ez]7] {+ 4E.E t]+El= ag +a6J
    =
    + glfltrt. E6J q zl]9 gzlE +Ele f.l_e HI^Iqq oJztz} B-6Je-e &+qflEl.
    =Bt
    Rutherfordt ol {ffi HtE ol6ll6J ++ flflzltrJ, BH6l Thomson9 aEE +B .EBr+
    oJil6l-zl ?*=El= ag .J + 9l9E|.
    =RutherfordE flrFI sEl(nuclear model)ol4E zlge rel dE A+= ¤g6J + 91fl
    2.2 fl^l+^sl gz 53

    ¤(beam)E Ed6l.= gxle-l Eoits +XoJ7[? gd6l'= ttlts flxl"]8 0l gxl¤ Eol'J71ts71, "JolLt|=7i?
    =
    416{
    6ll4

    EnloE
    =vt.!L
    a "JI[
    a "J^tti

    a oJxt EJd 8il

    fl^t.-I

    tsg E6l"=rrl-z g,lE 0l+ 4rg grF"l


    -Hl =xle
    E=6f=, +61 g+Eel a g^lE 4E-+
    taJE4. =

    -
    a5a
    4il.\=al

    6114

    Eole=
    fl^l= Tlel ulcl ?l7l a E^[
    ttHE0ll EH+EI9 aoJ
    taJEi^l g=rt.
    ^t=
    flIIET

    afB 2.9 Rutherford9 a Bxl{!aJ !-d a g^l-71=EE 54g q, rflffio| oJrf= ?J^lLf
    g+ts ||alElq, rl]+ 4oe +E e?E 9lr[. ?^f7[Zstr +.J E-drl arlE, "J^lsl=EEl^l E-E= a
    g= aoltl. ralLl=E 7Ho1cr oJ^l7l 4-e.e Ft= 013: flxf-"] seoe ¤gg + flq'. =tr qq4 fl^l
    ^l r=Lf^4 =
    floe LIE|.L^[^|"J, -"-! +?l Ql-p51o1 8rJ0ll= EaJOl 0l+ ArP E^l"J ,i= 0l6Hd[E
    = =^Hel+:
    aol6e6El.

    4. ol sBq^J + gz}Tt Tl,.ly ql+Eq A=*r+ E= "Jd6l=, aTlTl r]l+ 4n "JszI


    +EE k¤ flrlt4(nucleus)ol4= *ql E-q 9lq-. E6J flzt *sl9 4++e Hl +rJolq,
    r Hl ++ql^l 4zlzl q +91= s4olr1 9l+-z 71461*.+. " oJzt tI+ dEq^l E}]++
    9 a "J4s=9 +Eg +C6t= flzl¤9 Hl +rJg E"4¤ Bol+. rEl+ 9P " "JztE3
    flz}4 zl7lolq1d=6lrtl ¤4. olrllE tg "Jd6l-= E + g4qr+ a "Jzl9 oJ{o}.<1o1
    E ,J+ H}tstr, fal 2.eql^l E=ol d*ol 42 q oJztE tlezl rrll +lqdq.
    Zl+g deg F6lt qg ol+r 9= "Jd6I "Jz[(s¤r], proton)4 +^J oJz[(E¤r],
    neutron)E gAg + 919tr1. "JCzI= leleEql Rutherfordoll e.l6l] gAqq.z, +CzI=
    le32LJoll ¤49 rtqrzl fames Chadwick(18e1-1e72)ql 96ll gAqS+. + 94+ Axl,
    oJdzl, +Czte o]+q4 9l+.

    Rutherford dEotl^'l
    A r++ata=7f, +al= e7,,r171|-, a zfEtr &aJEE a oJ^lel +E
    =Hfel =71'6fa
    otLtE Ea[7|.gtrJt=7t?
    | =.
    54 28 3^t. E^t ot8

    2.3 I eJzl +asl Etrll4 ol"H


    F Rutherford ol+, flzt4ql ql6J i+zl tltSElE^J Eelq4¤g fl4.49 ol+r gl=
    ^l]
    -r4el rlE¤ pm E9l.E. gol E+ "Jzl(^BzI)= 4l+ ga6l.r 9i+. qElEe +lr, flE, s-¤4 ?3 agz1q1 4q1
    aJTl?
    sqtr*g 4o14.* :44 pi*zlE=g Eeg +q4 +^Jg olCz}. +CzI. dz}=l9 ^ll
    d^t7t zlzl o|gzl. "Jzttr E+ ¤B6J + 9l+.
    gd^tet it^161"=
    +tr1 d^Iel d6I= -r.602x tg-re Cola, o.tdzlel d6l= +L.6o2x 10-1e Col4. t.60zx
    =8xl'=
    g:-J6l=
    "j to-le Cg Erl Eat(electronic charge)41 t4. flz}4 otgzt "Jzl59 d6l.t.
    E(coulomb)tr+: ol d6IE ufi+s rJ+fl E^lo}trI. l4otr dz} a|49 dalb t-ol
    =
    i1, oJdzl 6I+9 d6l= r+o14. +Czt= d6l-= trlzl gls EE 4214o e +col+(+
    -1g +
    1-
    crt4= olEol 9Bzl a4a=zlE g + 9i+). -rLE gx}.b ae +el dxle+ olc4-=
    zla 9.71q+q .Jrr dE¤ rlzl 9*E4.

    AIH
    F-'^l
    2.10 Sxlel+I uule
    oJCzlc+ 6^Jrl+ gzlq +ql B4l
    =46I=
    ,l]+ 4e oJztol+. flzl Pvl9
    'I+E
    .$ dzl¤ol 4+l4l zz3o1Q(=al z.ro). 4*89 flzI zl$$ I x 10-'0 m(roo pm)e* sx
    Zl 3E6l'= E^lel +=01 fl
    +trlgl tH+E= r0-'0 m(soo pm) .rp1q1 ilq. sr t+l= olqzl,J, g^I rzl= s^l6}= z3olel g!1tr
    ^l ^l^l-sttl. g-reE(angstrom, A)ol4=
    g¤^le+ ed^ttr ol+qTl q ¤ul.J ++lE ^|+oJ+. 1A:tx10 r0 m:100pmolI,
    g g^[edsl +61 4.fP BE E, flzlE zl# r-s A dEol+. qlE EE gi grlel zl# 200 pm EE z.o Aol4.
    E -l^l-Lrt[. -4e.] EBFgI ?^l
    el tE4glE-Jolrl. dzlE Hlql d6lE oJzl-p ^[olq 4]+61+ e ql$ql e +el "Jdzlql ol¤fl+. fltql
    d^|e+ q olqE ,qlzlz] flAE z]zl xtolE ¤B.J + 9l¤¤ Hll+
    ^J ^[o]el ^[olE 94
    zll E 4o14.

    n (a)olE fl^tg Sd^1.+7|.157}|a[E, r gr[7[zlxl-r.9]E III-= E )llolil!.)l?


    (b) fl^tofl,ll gd^l'= ol! *oil o^)=71?

    gxlg eele,ll+ 4+. ql= EH 7l7$ +A& fldg e*e 4x1s-zz g {rolq. o1q
    zJol are. eB,¤. s +gl-s HI+6ll^J s7l6l+ aol .E¤6I71 ql+ql flr] eal trJ9t(atomic
    mass unit, amu)**4i t+l= 1 amu:1.66054x l0
    2a
    gol+. oJ^dzl+ l.OO73
    ^l-S'*+.
    amu, irJzli 1.0087 u-r, dzl* 5.486 x 10-a amu9 e+g z*=4(s 2.1). dz} 1836
    7Il= olCxl lrHE eE}r+ *a,44 t83e71171+CzI lrHE e+q A-qEE, fl4 e"+E
    q+Ee eql el'* 1o14.

    82.1 oJrJrt,
    +trt, trtel HIE
    grt E6[ EaJ(amu)
    olCz[ oJ(r+) 1.0073

    +cz[ sg(+^d) I .0087

    dzl- 9(r-) 5.486 x lo-a

    fl2}49 zlE+ 10 4A Ctre, flzI dill rTlq Hl6]] ql+ 4g llol+. ft: flzlz|4
    + 4?l**+ r+H, qe Ie +¤q zzlt]:L ^J46|H flzlq eE t}ql4 aTlE +<
    6J + 9lr+. olaH zlg +qE +q 4Ig 4ol szl. a=JE 45+g ilzl6l.Tl ,IEq, fl

    -dxl+ q oltl ztg oJz|tr aa + s= rlE .Jca}e++c4+ +lr+i161^= El +9 Eals ol+q4 fl+
    "JXI.J HlH,
    **94 A* B9(atomic mass unit)9 St *zl'b uolzlEJ, $HI! o e amu4E Eal-= E}ol
    ^l$+q.
    2.3 I fl^l+^el -drH5 ol6H 55

    zlqg 1013-101a g/cm3 4E9, Eg + sg qi+ +g gEE ,*E+. olilH +g "JEE

    zltrTlzl aE6J gz} +4H+. flzI dill +rJg q++g zlz16}=


    :r¤g _74 2.l0ql
    dzti slq]- H}¤-ql^l +s'{} Egg tr}. *sE {z}el ollulzle} +rJq^JE E]lgql 46ll
    ++6141 9H, dx|Eol flrlal ¤qg 9ol* +B ¤4e L}EIL]]= ol+= .J + glll g
    1o14. alzluJ zlltlzl uI* 1elg-+E 'J^J4 o-q ^l-s"6J ElqE zlts zl]HS ++d ¤
    E6J + glrl

    flz|HJE, taJ+, ffl eJA


    6.J g^E gz}e} +E giE fl^l7l += Ag HzlTl r+r 9l= j1+q} oJdxlE +ql el
    aJ 4o14. + fl^E ?),'lzl r*=.J^dzlE iE:z 949 flrlElE(atomicnumber)4tr
    qI4. fl^l= 4zl4o e +Col7l qlEq dzlfs+ oJ^Jzlfz} +olo} *+. ql= 5E E=
    +i gz}= oJCzI67HeI dzt 6711tr ol+q4 9lrl. HlEq EE 4Ii flz}9lb oJ^dzl s4l
    s+ dz} s7H7l glrl. u|+^J +^E gzl HE= e, t]i9 flz] HE= sol 84. 4 giq

    flzl Hs: ol 49 g}Ezl "J+ql g4E ol+ "i TlEe+ q+4 ++qq 9l+.
    ag g^el flzl4g fz| u1g + 9lsq, IIl+^.] ¤elE,r.1e rl-5 + ilq. ql
    =.czlE
    Eq .I++E tsl gz13 67H9 +d4¤ zlzlu], qq +A flzlE +crl-= q y+ol E
    =q
    4rll z)zlE-6JEl. 7lE'3c(+a n'+jr- gl=rl, Ed-12)-e +El-u +i fl4+ oJ¤
    =
    zI0zll4 +CzI etll= z*Y Ba fl21o1r1. oJCzI67Ie+ +Czl8ZlE ol+qd B^ grt
    L n"++zr raolE, ,lc ++ ,*ce 444r +4_144-r. gl=trl.
    oifl Azi= flz| HEol{, +l e^Itr s^l6J 43 E=J#(mass number)tr.^1. gziE oJ
    Czli4 +^dxF+E rJt zJol4.

    qH
    F
    2.1
    gJzl r7l

    ol4 EE(dime)ol xlES 17.9 mmolq. P fl^l-el 2.88 Aolrl.. EEg 6lltrJ6lE E 7tlq e fl^|E L|.aJ6l H|1E
    -g+ ^l=e ^lEoll ^1c0ll
    91=71-?

    6}lB > .H= qlrll1


    9(eg) gzl+71trlzl+ol+. 44e+ Szl+q +'J ¤+& "JzI trtg + flzls.l
    =zlg eA6l+ e-i=?
    -tr 1 Ag gzl:2.88 Ag ol+tr + gltrI. *d 5d9 zl-=¤ (a) 49 +'l (b) flzI 491 9l= dzITI gE6I= *rJ
    't4ql= ++l= {}&.J F, 3 ?]zl-9 zl=¤ E +q (c) dzl-lzlg +Elql flzloll :lE dzlfE =-Jd
    ol+6}q Ed
    el 4Eql ql6}q 3 flzPg 4l&6J + 9l+. zI (d) diil qda} (e) e +9lql 9lb dztE dil 4"*

    As ezt : 1,r., *'r(#X,+X+#) > .H.* fflrll2


    +r grlE zlES r.saAol4. (a) ol gzr9 7l+g sl?
    : 6.22 x rOTag fl21 ule.l(pm)-tr qEllil^ls. (b) 0.20 -m ¤9d9 uJulg xl
    4l4I Ar+, a,zzo"J zl]9 3 ?lzl-= FAq xl= zldtlq + += zld^Jql H zl]9 +i gzl-= u|$al ul]gr3 + 9t=
    +61 H]]¤B + 9l+. 7l?

    7lt 6J (basic force)

    4¤4lql= 64, Q) 4zlzl4, (3) ,J+ 44, (+) qts"J e


    (r) force)$ s-= Eill .J4 (4.o[Bz]= .J)oI
    ^lolql ++6[= oJzf
    qr+ ag q] ++9 7lE 6Jol .Je4 gl+. ?HQravitational 4, Arlq Elql6J+. flzf E= ofilx| 4t-+6I=
    ^lolq
    56 28 g^t. E^t, ot8

    +qe 4* 4zl trIEq e+qr4.J +edg fl+. Ae d6I9 oJ4 ^Iolql= qlgqol 4*6lzlq},
    =x]]6J+.
    force)3 dd¤ q 5il+ ,lC olC4¤ol ol+n 9l= Ae rJ+ q
    dxlzlH(electromagnetic
    ^ls Eq^l 92t49 ol o].fl2| oJz|
    al
    ^Iolq ++q+ dee. eqr+ Hlgq E.+ 7l+614. d aol+. Cg
    H(strong nuclear force)9] el6J
    6l-= ¤ + EzI
    ^lolql
    zle-o6}= dzl93 Coulomb B4
    ^Iolq
    zI+61+ oJol+.e +E oI+ sg 44ql^Jb "Jq
    (r:ke,erl*)ql Lilq= drl7leec1go167l= a+ arqol trllEql, "J
    "l=+. 9zlr.l e,4 A= + EzlE d6}e* =zl
    ol{, dE oJz} +d ?J9 44, kts Qe} dE E}9lql q+ A Czl-Eol *a 9lzl g+.
    ^Je
    CEE tfolr{,-:r=> (r.+fl). rz} gq <}.lE q]H9 444 s++ qq (weak nuclear force)P dzl4B4 E6tzl"J +q
    q, "J9 {tolE q}gqg ++u+. dzl43 g^q a}q}4 -E_rlu = (lol+. 5a BEllel oJ^kql^J"J "+* qqel
    Ceg AC6I-= ql flq z|{ fea}r}. xl]= qtB + 914. =
    in5 x1olaj s= gzlE 4ql= + 7]] olt}g oJCxlzf +¤ g+ E4: 2.114

    Eg+(oJd^l+ + 65^t+)
    \
    'ZC..- 3a z1;
    fl^t flE(gd^t+ E= E^t+) "/'
    6.Jg^E EE 94+ ?¤ flxl dE= z*zl oHE9l oJ.Jol otEl Ezl-E E7l6l+ ae H
    ztr+ goloe B¤l ^J+"J+. trI4^J +i_r2 flzlE A+61 ,rc.E ,+4BrI.
    zJg gt +ql^J 94 Hn: ae+ A*izl +E gz[(= oJ{2143 ?Jeq +Czl=+
    7I +e gz})E¤ .J+. +iel 9. zlzl ++l g^E E2.2ql
    ^lEq E?tfA(isotope)4r
    ++619+. "JHlzls.e +l erF= 6J giel F9l giE +48 utlE} ^l-S,*E|. Ag
    gAE 5l+l g^= ElE4 oE =A ,,c gzlE
    '}]+ t+6lEI= a3 + Bd6l]ot +r+. "l+q
    +l oltl:4 e^E slol4 +ce "c9 olcp} +Ae+ 5"J6lEIr g + glEI.

    82.2 * 7f4 EJAeltgl?4"


    7la g¤^t+ drt+
    l1c
    =drt+
    6 6 5

    ,,C 6 6 6
    l3c 6 6
    l4c 6 6 8

    "4¤4lql^l ,Jaq: +49 ee%='2colE}

    qH
    F 2.2
    B3|sl offlxr g;,1+ +6lil
    fl^|ts 7tl9 gd^l-,6d^l-, E^tE ol+ol^l o^)=71?
    (a)1s7Au
    =
    (b)^-=EE-eo g^|ts E Tt|elgdxL E^|.tr 0l+cl^1 o^)=71?
    =dr|",
    (a) 9l Ezl tsz " olCzl-+$ +^dz1+= 6J6J e"++ol+. zlr. flsq, dzl razl]e+ eo-3s:S2zllg +czl-=.7t4r.
    ol 4E **21 q]*"il 9l= g^ IIleH, +e g 9lEl.
    zI En 79ol+. ar+49E reTAu=+q
    g7t= o3=,r321 zszflo] >ie=qm1
    $zlzetll, a4a-D7-ze:1182H9 +CzlE qq q4. El-8-gz} +ql^J +^dz}A izl ?l* r++ Ae?
    ^EEEE gzl HE= 38oltri. tr]4^l
    (b) oJCzl- 38rlfl= 7l tt'oy
    (a) la8Eu (b) (c; 14eNd
    (d) 162Ho 1e; tsecd
    2.4 fl^PJ 57

    > .86 qFfl 2


    +g gzlql= oJ^dzl, 44, +^d^l7| H zll glEzl? (a) r38Ba (b) 'J-:t

    qHl 2.3
    E7'lsl trdtr sttj 7la a7l
    n EHI6P traJ+7 l. 24. 25. 26?] 7 l.^l Egl fl47 I ?rl.
    (a) ol?iE9 EE-.J al-qt 7lE(91 E^iel-0lzll E^lsE9= l
    ^11

    ^1e..
    (b) 4,+el Egl fl^ fl^|'oil= 6d^1,7|. z1z1\ t|il871?

    6llg > E=qH1


    (a) u[:L1]f,g gzt HET} 12ol+. E+^-l EE u[:u]1f,$ q+ + +C gz} s.zlflo1 e*g Ae?
    r27ilE oJ^orx}e+ t24lE dzl¤ 7l4Ll. r74o+ ,r1l zlzl (a) 8ri (u) ';c (c) 93ocu (d) i3p (") '39eg

    E9l g^= ?lrvts.?:rlurs. i${gol4. > sd'EqH2


    (b) 4 t+l g^qld +crtE +: e*+q^l oJczlE + oJC4 s27H, Szl tztll. 6.Xzy oa4g= *{}o}i flz}g
    5 is alol4. trEl^] +rdztg ++ 7+7+ 12. t3. r47l aq. SdsJ P++ TlsE r^^19..

    2.4 l elzp"t
    flzlE EeE zle a4olq, 4+^.1 a+g ,*b+. ol ¤q^lE flz}.il ^Fsq= e'* +
    9cl flzt=&(atomic weight)9 ,llHg 4.Zl+tr|.
    eJ7,f lal 4E
    1e^ll7l9 rlql4-E=g gr=s erd.ol +sr+= ag .Jzl qflq. ql=
    trls
    ^Js ^J-e, =
    q E 100.0 g3 ia tt.t 94 &i s8.e se-e qq 9l+= ag "Jl. gflq. q?+^J Eg
    {=JEIE +aql ulall s(:8s.e/rr.r)4q1 6|]B6l+ {li= sEL{+ ag "J + 9lS+. g
    + rlE4¤ol Eg +^ flzl zzHB rzl]9 &^ flztE +Cg ag 94 ¤ olg, tI^ fl^t
    r7H= ABtIE +a flxt tzl|9 r6(:2xs)ullz| g+= ag "J + 9i9+. zl${E zlzJ
    7Iq+ flx}.J +^9 ^Jq 4+g ¤q^J 1(++l S.gJE C6lr, +E gzig e"*g ol al
    q Elql6fl tI44sE c6}s.+. tr+4^J flxleJ=¤ 160-+, C6r9+.
    sEg +4= 4?+9 gzlE A"*g ot+ ^IAEaq6lrll ACg + 9l+. qE 'u flxl9
    e*g r.6z3sxro-24 golE, 16o g^IE Aetg 2.6s60x10-23tolQ.
    =q
    zll2.3¤q^l ++fr.
    *"1, oll* 4le e+g +4.3 qq= flr] Eg E9t(amu)= 0l+61+ 4ol ¤4oI4.
    1 amu : 66 054 x IO-zn g, I 9:6 .02214 x 1023 amu
    1.

    ¤zll9 flzI er* ++l= +4E ,,c E ?l giE e=*g cqal rz amu4tr c+ aq 4E+.
    ol ++lq^l 'u flzl9 A"*g 1.0078 amuolE, t6o flx]9 e*g $.ss4s amuoll dlBdE].

    A aJq= E^|.-d 7tt7t ETgrllel traJ EEIE LtEtLHalE, amu Efle azlqg tt4-16 fl^lq tr
    H Ttlel ?E i^l.7l.rJe6tfl=7t?
    i
    flataJ
    zl$ql .il++g g4$e Efl 949 sEl$s trl{^l 44 zlzl Efl
    =7]|61+ =41+tr1.
    58 261 3^1,
    =^1.
    ol8

    fliel e=*r+ olSel tI44


    =4HlE
    *¤ e+ rJErcsal flrlaJ(atomicweight)ol+:z
    6l+, gAE S+ gzr {S(average atomic mass)S +6J + 9l+.
    gzleJ: >t(Fgl g^el a=J)x(E+l giE tz.tl
    gxol F-E =4lHl)t
    3401 rfidfl
    =+l
    q= tzc*
    zlE4lql +A= e8.e3vo4 "ce ol+ol4 gltrL olE E
    r.ozoro4
    =q
    9l g^9 e*g
    =461+
    zJzJ 12 amue| 13.0033s amuol4. oltr+El ?]zI*9 +g + 91tr1.

    (0.9893)(12amu) + (0.0107)(13.00335amu) : 12.01 amu

    ol 4el *gzl .J491 +zl$Ee+ glEE flzle}B +E-_o}q+.

    rlBoil^l gzEl= E^oll= + 7l-^lE?l fllu l.9lt[. 1oBel traJg to.ot amuolE, 1189
    tr83 11.01 amuolcl. +TlEx.el E flxFJ= olE6lq, 10Bs[118 6 qtr EPI flAz|'11 i:
    ol=^t|6lE^l=
    =86t^le.

    qH 2.4
    gfl sa *4HHlrttE flaE tszEl4ltl-Er7l
    35ct
    fl^l(3^t traJ 34.969 amu)z[ 75.78o/o.37Cr 3rt(g^l traJ 36.966 amu)zf 24.22% E^'9 ilPJ=
    ^l.Ezloll= =^t|-dtr|.
    +61^19.

    6tlU > !r= qlfl 1

    4 Efl g^E Aelr+ +.J + r.f rja[{ $z}ef z}flq= u'Cre} utc,r9 + TIzl .JCt E+l gdzl
    =4lHlE =46J
    g +g + 9l+. 75.780/o:0.7578, 24.220/o:0.2422018 4, 4. Cu9 flzt%+ol $.s46 amug rll, trl-g + *g ¤Eg?
    6scuE t'cu-Hrl oJCzi-= 24 Ll r*a
    : (o.zsza) (u3as amu) + (o.z+zz) (a0.so0 amu) 1a) ilr+.
    flz}="t 63cuz}65cuB4 q
    : (b) ++6trll fxflaf {olc}.
    26.50 amu*8.953 amu
    : 35.45 amu
    (c) E.E cu flzl9 ?%+3 0r.s+o amuol4.
    > lr= qlrll2
    gzlelg 9z[ 3*9 *tl{loloe,
    942] +6J gz[?to] 4gzlql^l: ,tll zlzl$ +^ t9l flaz1 9294. "sl
    + E+l g^q ee} rlolel 6|ol{, ^}qi4eE yj:ol (sz.zzv")E 27 .97 693 amuol tr,
    2esi (+.
    ogyo)i 28.97 649
    =xl]6}
    ts 35ctq1 zlTl$ztolsE EI'J-6J a4oltrI. amuol4, 30Si(r.osol")E 29.97377 amuolr|. +AE E+
    flzle.rg 2l&61^19.

    eal E {71

    $zI=JS C+6f41 +61-= rJBg *f ff71(mass specrrometer) H, (-)e 6tdg *+"JGrid)9 6}6ll olgg 7l+^lrJ4. +
    ^I-S6I=
    4o1r|(:EJ 2.11). trfo}* 4z[.J9 ¤a] E4zl +"Jg 5r+6}8, + 7Hq 5qg ols-"o|¤ ztE olg¤ ¤ql
    =
    7I ilzl"J, 4lE6l= flel= +^I6l-q. a H4l +zlb gxl-+ 7I g+. ol ol$.rjol zl+E^l {ez} flolxl4
    ^l.4 ^IolE
    Exl-= 7lx-ll tr-qle trJE= 4o14. ^lil7l Tlxll tlEH"J a+ ¤4. ol99 d6I7L eq$, e*ql qE+ qq4= dszl9
    E glzl"J. 7li.ll7l olH a+ql= ¤, dzl^J, qlol^] g^ E 4T1+. +4+ olg.J++ E fl"lzlzll g+. trl-+^l e*ql
    I zla}q 7le+^lrJ+. 4+g zlill flzluf tszl-E oJ rI4 olgol Ezlg+. 471*9 EE+^lrlz+ ++"j
    ^lE= qlq q aq ++ doJg HI+q +8,^ll7l=
    e.E 6ld¤ .Jz[, ol$(ion)oE
    "JE= aol+. +g dqg e"*E olgol ?¤
    zlE d^l-gg = trl= Tlill E te}g slql HI* F zle $olzlzil 84.
    =^1617l+
    olgg ol$ol uJ$olzl olg gzl e Jql ql6J a=rl tEel
    +.J6J BlBs-E "J=+. ,l^ll ^Jqlg ^ll7l= +4ql=:a;H
    2.51+)laE 59

    gE e* z.glefl(mass spectrum)ol+-11 6Jq(rd 2.12). 4 olgEE e%hg +a6}q, e+ ts4-= q"J6I


    a* +46[E ?=zl"ll Eg6l+ oJz]E e"J¤. ql +EI4 'zl$(fingerprint)'^.lH^4trHe + 9l+. EaJ E
    = ^l-&g
    'J + ^EEB¤.
    9leq, 4ls9l ^ll7ltr+q tlql4e g+ 9l 4LIq^l fl4¤ol qB4l e*qol gllzl"ll q]6J A_H_= xll

    4 *!+l giE flzl AeJ4


    =4]ElE
    trt. 2.4e+ e qlzll +6I] trI+^i Elol1-=g Elc6J pI"JEE +3=
    =+. ^llE4l
    ol gag flzi*9 +e + fl+.=xlHl=.Jtr, E^16I4+, +a sg Eeg q"J6I= EJI 4* E47lE
    ^I
    4e* E4zlts p+.J+g q"J6Ia g.JEg E46l+ Ell JJ +rI4.
    H+l6tzl ol+qI 9l+. dzl-= g3 +zl^= "Jd6l-= E oJ +H ¤+ EA : 2.37, 2.38, 2.40, 2.88, 2.98, 2.99
    4 a49 ol$e-tr +6l]E + 9lq. ee} E4zlts olqal a

    "! =^El rt4 --J-


    (-) N 3791+ ,JE)I
    (-) u
    TlgE I
    rlf Ldl F ol +--
    =Lt 4: -l

    7l
    ^ll
    otnl-qaf 3scl+
    Ne-7 S
    4at
    =x
    (+)
    T]E ESOII E'J traJqlqat
    olE+^l7l= ol8olEalE 34 35 36 37 38
    d^t+I ExPJ(amu)
    a.rH 2.11 EaJ E47l Ct E^l= E^l CrE Ol8ilE + E7l6lee 7[+E101 Laz12;2 g.4 fl^lsl EaJ 4EIEH
    es614 3761

    8g 57161-11 Er[. cteiF g^-++El .J=Glc 0l- ^l7l


    3e E?l fl^elEII|HITI trBF E47le] Z=71 CEsl ,s
    TlEJatTlrl. =9] ^1718= ^lLlE^l rH4E LIEILJLI.
    ^Jl7E

    2.5 l+rlEE
    1800LJ4 g^E El+4 a6}cg *eEl
    ZTlzl Bg +e.l flizl "JElzlH^J, :*ol4-==g
    l. ^lE6tH4. ole+ Ag rc.H oe ls6eHql trIaLil ?zl&xzl "JEqzl4l qfl4. ?zl&
    E= Flql^J + q +^ll4 o-a ¤B6l4,zl"J, izl¤Ez| Qu|{ 6s-681 *S'*zlE zl#
    ol6ll6llot 6Jq. qEl+==e * azl&xz}44xl-501 +q4 7lq6l7l +l
    ^l+!g c46}r
    4 ,rl-a"al-L 4t f++ E++= ag "JrI B 1o14.
    *g fl^= ^Je a+ +^lcg _H_.Jtrt. 4E(1il, iENa), sEl+(K) F9 g^Eg EF
    ,11+ +slr eISCol ++ol+. gE(He), rile(Ne), ole*(tu) F9 gi5g HI¤-Bol
    =
    4el fr} Tl,llol+. gd=g gz| Hn +^Je Ellg6tE, clq}4 ^Jerl E4zl caol Hl+
    aJ fl^z} ++6ll^J, +7140 1+4t+. ql= fH 2.13q1^JrlH t}*col s= EJE,
    ,19, ol_=.* =
    Eg zlill Ele q-¤-ql, =E
    +sr H}*col 48, iE, sEl+ Eol 44 g+. =
    ?.!qt F7l EJBdol e Hl=+ola|E, q7loll^l -Hq +E Aa 6 Hl+Ei ¤88 ,*r ?lE ,tee qHE|E Hl=+ E4= +1?l7l?
    .)
    fl^t c rol 11 72- --77 79 20-
    EA
    7la
    1

    H Hc
    2 J

    Li Be
    4

    F Nel Na Mg-
    l
    "
    cr l":
    l

    K Ca-
    'J

    uJ3d0l tqll^
    B I HJ3d0l
    fl= 7li1l +er. otE I tiJt
    fl= 7lill EE7
    !ot-glt^
    B
    ovt I Hlqll^I B l-ql{ n I

    3f,^
    LE-
    ==4
    LE-

    Arg 2.13 flA= fl^l"EE +-e.-e uHg6lE +7l4oJ LlEiUtl. 0lalzr,3-8|501+7lEtrsl )l^)l E)LI.
    =d0l
    60 2Af 3rt, E^1. 013

    +)l-7lE= Ht+-d
    1A =-+^.lgoilts
    CtrE fl47lgilEt 8A
    1
    18
    gA= gII EE
    1
    1
    H
    2A +Otr BtlEE 3A 4A 5A 6,{ A 2
    2 zlE-d 53
    =+rt
    13 1.4 15 16 17 He
    ulB+e] elldoJ
    J 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
    2
    Li Be B C N o F Ne
    8B
    J
    L1. 12 38 48 58 68 78 1B 28 13 L4 15 16 17 18
    Na Mg 34557 8910 11 12 AI Si P S CI Ar
    t9 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 JJ 34 35 36
    4
    K Ca Sc Ti v Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
    37 38 39 40 41. 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
    5
    Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe

    55 56 71. 72 /5 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
    6
    Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta w Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg TI Pb Bi Po At Rn
    87 88 103 L04 105 106 107 108 1.09 110 111 1.12 113 714 115 11.6 t17 118
    7
    Fr Ra Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh FI Mc Lv Ts og
    l--l o-
    Ll -+ 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
    [ ==+ La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb
    n ot=+ 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 1.02
    Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm BK Cf Es Fm Md No

    LaH2j4 fl^el+7lEE

    ?]}# flzI da +eE ul]90}¤ HIiEI CeE fli=ol +4sE EHgqzl "JE ag
    Fz|E+(periodic table)4r EItrI(r=J 2.14). +7]r&Eql ilE 444 gi= flzt H:r, fl
    i 71c.. flzlaJ¤ +-s4 eg ElHetr sTlql+.
    19 gzl trE
    K g^ zlE
    39.0983 flzi*
    qq¤+ += jr4l+ ,Je]dql ?zl¤s ^Flql ErJ.4 ilolTl 9l= ag ga6JzlE
    ?lE
    EEr+. 6lzl"J olag Ezl u]flo1r-1- ge91 q+ 4EE zlolq 9aJ 4o14, ?zl&xtl
    ,*r 9= 9"l9lE zlolT} Sl+.
    =84"J
    +zlgsg +q. a H4l +7lql= +4(H)e+ ¤E(ue)9 F
    7lE.Ag=;zl(period)El
    gA"J 9I+. + H4lel^ll H4l azlYzJzJs\14 giE ol+q4 9q. H4le+trI{ H
    'll
    all fzl9lE 4zJ tszllq fl^7} 9l+. qd H4le| tHjA ?zl{lE :zz1q g^7I 9le+,
    +ol e+ql rg + 9lE+ 4?+4 147}lel fl^(flz} qje- s7-70,8e-102)= sE oI4+
    q +ElUtrl.
    ?zl¤s9 +zl gg =(group)olep
    *+. +9 HE= Eol= %r-Bq= ErJel ilol
    7t 9l+. HE z]-zl $s o-e ol=g Eol=cll, a-4 z.r+9lrJE + 7l7l \Lr-BsE +4q
    ^ll
    fl+.
    . 49 B-t z146}= %IBe +ul"llrl +E
    ec+ olq* +g s^lg tr]I= ot4
    ^l-s94.
    Elot +zI7I o|{ Eu} ixtE *t
    g714z1s. +4. q= EH 7A+g vrrA.e .s^l6.J+.
    . +Eql^lE Hl*d %IHg Ae] BE 4e4l zlc6J+.
    ^l_g_6[zlE],
    . ole+ ag gf,$ ul6}dja +rll ++ "t ++ sl4 ¤rJ (rnternational Union of pure
    and Applied Chemistry, Iupec)¤ a-A 2-14 +7lgs.q F H4l E+ TlEe+ Aol
    =
    2.5 +7lE_E 61

    +9 HnE Ae+ B-E ++zl glr., l-18-tr ¤+61= 4sg +zlg ^ll'J6IBtt.
    ol 4q^l= +E HE= zld6l+ rupAc ,JHg
    t-18-e.
    ^l-sg 4014.
    E"J'J +ql +61+ g^=g e6l elqlzl cer+ E?]4 ^J¤ol Hl*6I+. el= Eq '3rlql
    +a ?4(coinage metal)' - +4 (cu), 3(ng), ;(nu) - ¤ t t4q1 +*+. ol5 flA: trI
    E ++ql uloll {9.<Jol ,11f *zl qlgql d ^ll!lzl_e--e qq1 7a91 E4 rl_&94. ?zl
    gEg +E +5E e z.s4 zJol H49 Eq
    ^FS*+.
    ,J+ 4 flrE=e flz|9 el4ql fl= dxlel ull¤ E4zt ?zl ulEql +^toJ Ceg *=
    +: 49 "JeE 6t}4 7*q^J ul]g aolr+. rq+ +7lgs= ErI4 s-+ ol$olzl fla[
    / tu\Tyzl7lrlg gs= s,+. +EBrlE +7lgE= dztE =4lE "Jzl FaI9H sle}
    zl¤q 96]] "JEqAzl ql$ol+. +7lgs= qI='J^l slqrzl¤ol otqfl azle, +;-l=
    +7lgEE ol+6lq g^E 'J9 tI++41= ql+6l.r, E+e plq4 atrE a4l zlqg +
    il9 4o14.
    -74 2.144 44 E^l= -uH, +7lgsE g+4 6.Jq fl= g^Eg +4= zllelalr.
    E+ El*flA(metallicelement) E= Et*(metal)olr|. .ErE ++ ?}'= "Jqol ilsq,
    =4zl gg dtrtr7I krlE
    ") +Feol gl+. E+ ie(ue)s Tllel6J E=;r+g {}eql
    rillol+.* +a(B)ql^l o}^48(e091 oleE 4l+ E"Jel dg trl+ ++r+ HtE+ fla
    ^J
    (nonmetallic element) EE ulEt+(nonmetal) oE +B+(+^'= ?zl&99 g+q glzl
    ul++.Jql +E6I+). tlg, tl"J 6lql^J El++g Tlill+ niJl tlqe .lill
    "J ^J
    =z}l6}q,

    8 2.3 +71&-*.q^1 ol 7t^l +el oJt


    4- tr{it
    oo flA
    I garl *+ Li. Na. K. Rb. Cs. Fr
    2
    .JEE tr++ Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra

    16 zJi.{(chalcogen) O, S, Se, Te, Po


    t7 6I='
    t_+ ?l
    u F, Cl, Br, I, At

    l8 Hlg^oi Tlill He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn

    tI* q"J *4sE "JEqllLt? t


    +dg "J= dE4sE +r-1, e, +g ^l-8-4qo+,
    Ellql=
    d49 EdqlE g+4ee += *+ol ^l-&¤4(rs 2.1$. !

    +=q ^Fsq= ++ EE -=+ s6JE(qF=)e dzl +^lEl ./

    zl gfolof oJ{. E+ E6tll HBE]zl ?*g CE


    ^l¤-6lqE
    -e ++6llot 6l+ .F^lql, .J46J Eo+3 7lzltr dal 4qE
    f glq"i ++. "J7[q=(un;z]9, *+6izl"J Eo]¤. "J?I h,l,
    617l qeJe;:+g +6ql + fl+.
    ^F&¤
    E +e zll6.J qEql, zlt r00Bt +=ql ^l=sq= 4ETl
    qBl H HI+14 q9+. Eil++ le33LJql +3rI
    "l+g ^leflgg
    Eq ol^J
    "JErl qfl+. 1e64LJql=
    ?*Zl *.fl_e. 2s
    .uEeI lo.glE.ll rl olt e¤ ?*rll q*+. EsE
    .lB 2.15 ElEe.l25,IlE EI3 Cu 91.67"/.$ Ni 8.33"/"e 0l+
    ^Fg-6tzl ol Tl El'-- e.e UE+. O masicoven/Shutterstock

    *EE -o43 i3+61 7IS6IE .l4lrl ¤4. ug9 *dol 4= s= ++tr+E *¤. gol+. AE(N"), sEl¤:(K). +ulEi
    (Rb), 3+(ca)3 ^Jgq^l nzilzluJ, 1ss'6 ol;foll,<J \ir|.
    ^ll+(cs),
    62 28 g^t, E^t, otP

    t{]tr Ede] CEol fial +elql^l +fltr E+


    tes2LJql: ol+q{. Etbl+a 6}= B-r,r-e_-tr "J=tri. s=g El+ tg
    ¤ ol¤o + Ht+]*+. rog4l-el Edg ++6J +ele "J54 +l Ede gg|+n E4zls 6i^l+, ¤+ dq 5q flzl ?+
    E, Edg +q q Elt +alE gq= trI. ol Edg +q (88.sy"), o}fl(6.020), trt711)rO.syo). q
    ^[*=ol ^JA iol4.
    rEd +3ql ol+q: dE4"J qHg "t+= +?le+ qe AQ.oy,)e. "JEqA+.
    9 g-JEol+. trl+E stltr Fdg A4 zsor"* l4zsyos +{¤ g+ E4l: 2.103,2.104

    EIel gi= l4l7t glrl-. ul!i{$ .J+4str ?Eo}(f.s Eq4 cdol ++4=
    2.16)0l+
    +s+. ++r+ ul;{g $sa}E dg tr}+ +q fl= Hq g^= ++r+ Hl++ +rJ4
    CAg ++B'1. olE fl^E gal ffi(metauoid)olqL t4.
    ;4 ol-afl rts011^1=+sl ,Jsgol Hl=+al.qE E + Tlxlb?
    Hl;t+
    =+
    ¤ (Fe) ial(Cu) "J+Etts (Al)

    L ffi ,/
    tratrl
    (Br)

    J --x {E ti
    ^/

    a\ L.--- {
    'xk=i-f "J
    (P)
    3(Ag) H(Pb) a(Au)

    arts 2.16
    =+rtHl=+olql

    g4= -gEt!3401trl(82.3). +7lEsql^1 0l fl^sl+lil= *e le


    (a) 716= +1?171.?
    (b)olE +71, !E olE +0ll+61.=71?
    (c) flxl"Ha= +1?l7l?
    (d) Hl=+?]71.?
    =+?171",

    qH 2.s
    r:i
    +7l¤-s ^f¤.rlrl I
    rtg fl^= 6 3^1-d Eal4 dtral El.+4 dtrE r-[r[Lj z]oe q|8E|= + fl^=?
    B, Ca, F, He, Mg, P

    6tlU EIEJ ga= +a 9l+8, trhg + qH g^ql ++6]|016I


    +Tlgslql^l ,Jg +ql fl= g^Eol ^lE Hl+d ceg Ll Y7l?
    4E 4o14. u|4,r1 cae+ Mgzl z;2 24, 4 oJrJ?] tr++ (a)F (b) As (c) Se (d) Cr (e) P
    ql +6171 qEq +Col 7I* +^IE+ 4o14. > s= qlrll2
    > -H.5 qFJl 1 +7lgsq^l Na(^E)s+ rr(H--euJ)9 +lxl= +e-^le-.
    *(s)g s*6J q¤ +oJgol E+q^l +Elt4= 5Cg ¤ 7J7+E +14 HsE *.2, ++, El++,
    =++es
    5a|
    +61+ ^J+qr}7l 9l+. "JB :uz| Hl++ LI4q=
    =dg ^ls.
    2.6 E^fef E^lef-Br'= 63

    2.6 l$xlsl+alEt'Jg
    gAE zl* 42 EI+l= flzlolzluJ, ul$rJ zlilluJol z[$zJlol],<l llBg gxl r]rl_+ ¤xll
    qi+. ql++E Eeg Bzl E= olgo-e. +^Jqq flq. q7l^J= tszlq rlla|{ oJo}Hzl
    tr 6I:/, olg"ll ql6ll^l= z.zg4lxl gqg 4,o14.

    +zlel-ElEJt
    qq ga= zlg4l"ild ae ++q flzl¤ol 27H old.
    ^1tr
    a6J6[q ol+qd Ez] B4
    -+ Sd¤4. ql= EE +71 +ql^l gaq: &^= 27Hel &^ flzttr ol+qd EztE
    +Cqq 9r1. xllt.z¤ql^.i ¤8619=0l, ol EzI tqq &^= oz4e EIEI^I(chemical +A
    O t4
    formula) oE +411tj1, '9 F(oh two)'4r 9l=+. 3tl-o+^19 oI4 A4+ +4 +^l7l 24
    (Hz) (o:)

    9 &l gzlE ol+q7i 9l+g +ElU+. ole+ Aol 2Zl9 gzl.E ol+q4l Ezl-=- otflrl
    Exl(diatomic molecule) 4r tJq.
    &4= e¤(ozone)ol4I "JEltl += B4e-l BzleE s+ E4+ 37l]q & !D ,e +a
    i gz}_e ol+q4 *zl rll${l Elql^le orol4. 'BFg't4(oJel s=e E 4 &le.
    =xH++. E
    (Hzo)
    altE}
    (Hzoz)
    tI "l${4 ?lzl"J, olEel Elolzl Cd4 Er,l4 Cee ,H+ rlgtrl. ql= EE ^J$^llql
    ozL gf4olxl"J, o.E f+6I+. 02! S,rllz| szl"J, 03: ts]il4 ,J3 4-*c H^U7[
    el+.
    "JHlzl"e olgzl EzlE B4E +4+= fl^= +i(Hr, ta(o,), ?a(NJ, EE
    O
    gllEl
    (co)
    EJ^ olt+
    (Coz)
    EJ^

    d(p,, clz, Brz, Iz)9 E + 9lrl. +A= ^llel+ olgzt +4-=e 7zl¤e9 sE+ql -E.q
    el+.
    tszls ol+qd sI+59 Ert $EtE(molecular compound)ol4i1 6[q, + z[z] o14-g
    fl{# E++trI. ql= EE ullQloJ(methane)S tzfl9 Ei flxtc} +zll9 fi flzle o1
    +q4 gleq, p+ol^lg cHnzl g+. +iql olull flzlzf s= ag qql.J Ez] rzl]ollE E DllElloJ ql=all
    g^I 17H7I gl¤¤ +Elu+. aeJ2.fle g^ (CH+) (C:Ha)
    ^J4 "t slEtE ^JqlE =^H6l+ Hp tszl
    ^ Hq aLl. rf EAel e^dol p+q}4q 4+ qB4l B4xlExlgl +E6I+. EoJ ol Ea LaA2.17 E^lqE el.*^lol
    = E^19 dErl-qE aJzlg^l=
    E9 -45 El++ gJ.E ol+q4 flgql ++6lE+. +E6tal:
    *4zl E= Eil+EE tszlC Eee tsl++ greEJ ol+q4 9l+.
    +al^.lal- t6.r4.l
    B4-= +^.i61= flzl9 fp* ++E +4ql= e++^lg grl+l(molecularformula)ol4l
    '*+(re 2.t7ql fl= Elo,I^lg tsz|4o14). rzlil tszl 4"ll =461+ flzl.9 ="+eI tI
    ql4.J += ,+Err]l= +E^lg ¤E+l(empirical formula)"141 6J+. dfl^].il qlE ot4
    B4E=¤ alt zltt +g d+Hl= ++UrL ql= EE 44lir+ +iE +z}4e HzozolH,
    ¤e^]g HooltrL qlg{E Ez}4g czHaol4, ¤¤^lg cHrolq-. E Bzl.(Hro)e} rJol,
    Y+g Eeq^l Ezl44 dErl.l zJ4.

    tl¤ Lll 7fxl6l.-st^l= qfirl eol +E6t^19.


    NH3, N2Oa, COz, CtzHzzOtt
    (a)¤-d40lU 6H.JE. (b) Ert^loll.J aH.JEJ. (c)E^[^]!E= ¤-d^]01 E + gtB

    qts sl6JEq ts^I^lg "JE : tszt9 ¤E4g "J + 9l+. 6[z]uJ r q]qlE 43* zl
    b6l^l ?*+. qL Eeq ¤E^lg "J_r 9lr+_il BzlutE azl g[zl SsE Ezt^lg .Jor
    'J + flEl. rflEJl slqr{-==$ ell qE 849 dfl^lql +dg 7l7l=71? xll:*{lrl "Jzll
    64 23: g^1.. E^1. ol8

    94,21"J, 4 zlzl zI+


    ^]-S6tE
    r
    Ee E4H3 ArItr+El dE4"J 9olg qlzl ,tl f
    rl&e+ +^(H2or= g4
    Eol+. ql= Eq ^Jqltr s6l]6rq +rll= +c6|H, +^e+ tI^
    fliltl Ag +E ag qql6J + 9lg aol+. 6tzl+ fl4E Ez}^lol Ho, H2o2,
    =46l+
    H:oi#91^l qH +zlql dlBatEzlE g +: fl+. "J+ ¤E^lol AAqE, +7I dE
    g F6|] dfl^lg +z}!e--+ Ht+l i= ull p-9-d e}-= eg + 91trI. E+ olg A6J c|6J
    E4 zJol, +Bg Ezls 9*E EdEs gl4. ol A+ql= dE4sE r Eeg
    ut44ot"J 6.J4. =416}z1

    qH
    F 2.6
    tuJ43i sal4lel oJ+^J

    tl8 E^lEg ¤-d^l= & le"


    (a) EF=4(gtucose): g.J IEts ctt,r=+.r(dextrose)afz ga1[!, E^t^.lol coHrzoooJ EE
    (b) +lEl-01tr^: El+lrllB q7t| 'i3 7f,^(raushins gas)'alz 6[q, Ert^.I01 N2ooJ EE
    ^lEs.lr.,
    Btlff
    (a) dqlal9 ot4 AzF= 7l* ++ 4+ElE ++U+. al^
    4+El= 4 "t4 AzF= 4ql*E+s ++q E=+. ol
    dft ool4. trt4^l {E43 curozl grl.
    (b) NroE olull a4+ olul .tsli A+HlolE-+., &pI oldi ol EeE Ez}!r+ dtlfle?
    g dE4e +zl^l N,oe+ e+. (a) CzOz,COz (b) C4O, CO (c) COz, COz

    qlr1l1 (d) C4O2, C2O (e) CzO, COz


    > !e6
    +^ 4I+EE "'+t ol4}3rl r|$C(tetracarbon dixoide) > Eaqtfl2
    g?ICdJ Eeolq, E4 +a= +g rHnI a+. EzFl ol BroH rntl Qlzltrfl oJ (decaborane) 9 dE g+
    ^l
    = {elzp

    -H-7,1-
    r r alTl
    qH EAg Ez}4g +zl-= +C6l+ flzlzl qBril a*q{ ?l=zl= trq +zl= 9+=
    4. +=*l(st"ucturalformula)3 El-¤- qlql^JilH, ol4t dts-E dB6I= ql 996}+.
    H
    H- C- H
    I

    o
    H H H
    I

    E rl^l+ +a ollEllfl

    94¤g fld fl4¤ol ^lE saE ad.g de.E LIE+u+.


    zln-e +E}.llr.,
    "JHl49-e +a^l e+rl flzI ,Jel a{}44 ag tsz}g zl;} fe$ "J + gl= ae
    o

    olqq. gz|=ol qts 4E=l A*qq flEzl-$ ut44zl +l6ll^J= ts_q Ajz+ *Bol B
    s_6I+(rA 2.18).

    . F^l.E(perspectivedrawing)oll,tJ= 4lzldr+ ddg-e +olHq flzl 9*3 ABg Ll4


    U+. ol BH9E Ex}el Al;{-fl4.J EoJg d4g + 9i+.
    . E-EEll.EB(ball-and-stickmodel)ql^J= flzl-5 +sE, AaJg EEl]tr *484. ol
    E¤9 f,tde B4 qlql^l gz|=ol a,*'J 4E= Aq6|rll +r}8 + 9l+= aol
    E|(rB 2.1s). oJHlzi o-tr gzl#
    4 o e +E6tzl+, ga zlnE *ql 4q BTIE
    ++.
    2.7 I olE.rl0l= ,J-J al-JE 65

    8-Erll EErtEil itlt sE 5, 6C Ext+9lel 46J4e llolts rll .H.rlE7F1?.! ae ol! 7i-0J7ll?

    Ed IllTldS e-J td3 E0tl


    ol ¤iol ilE= -B16l
    olE 7l-q Iulrlo
    E.g aL=__J0t=0t
    6vt OIE 7]9 I LtrLLH
    x= _t-t E
    H !7 aL LtrtLH

    tI
    ^=

    H-C-
    I

    CH+ H {tl7ld3,J-ctol gE
    I

    H E -d6tl' ?lE ?tB


    L[E['J
    E^t^.1 =x^l F^IE E:d 82J ill8 PB
    =-qfq
    arB 2.18 qlEll?](cH4)E^tel clE EEE: +4.^], +^lE, 3-Erll EE, BrJ itlE sB
    ^lE

    . EJill=E¤(space-fillingmodel)g g^19 a-71= +ql6[E E^l7l9E B4z[ E f


    glEzl¤ trq z.ts). ol EBg gz}9 {r-qlzl a7l= trq izlq}. ez}E
    =+(rH
    zlo[ f6E q.J'J tr]l ++.J Sz] zJ 4E: +-Eql EBE A+ql uloN ofo[trzl o]
    84. *zJ ill¤-EBql^.]= Ez}el drI r7l= 44421 qEql, E^l¤ol qEr]l Hllg
    Elrl+ +q^l rxJI= Ec6I=71-= E_^IB'll ++6}q.. 4 flz}9 ao+= +-Eq E
    Bql^le1 zlol gee_ +E.ll4+ ?la zlsE.r^l ,-+q +HoJrI.

    oilEiloJg ?5^.lg q8r[e+


    HH
    H-C-C-H
    tt
    HH
    tt
    E^l4lg +!?l7t?
    (a) ollell?]9
    (b) 0llEllEel
    tr--J^le +1?l7t?
    (c)o[:go++El H-C-H 90'aE -g+ 9l:7l?
    =Et40l

    2.7 I olgzl ol*. ,JE.J qEJE


    i)zlzl dzl¤ glrl+ eal ElE, otE(ion)ol+r 6l+ d6l-= ts oJzlz} "J=qTl+. oJd6l-
    E olgg Elote(cation)ol4l4q, gd6l-= E ol99 Eote(anion)ol+r 6J+.
    = qE llzl]q oJCzIel llZl9 d4-= r*: fl4-= ¤qlzle 6}zt. ol gzl+
    =q ^E
    dz'll dzt lZlE g=trt. ^JCg oJolgg lITHE "JCzIc+ 107Hel dzl¤ r*41 5lE-a ¤zll
    d6l= t+ol+.
    +
    1 1e-
    11 o\,, 0"

    d^t
    OILrL
    6ELI.
    l7H= rt
    Na flxl Na+ ol8

    ol99 dxll d6l+ 9l Azls +4url. 9l dzl +, 2+ , 3+Y 4r+ dzl¤ t/]. z\1. ztll
    4l gqqg 4 ..JzlE dxjl dal¤ 9uloJ4. 9l EzI -, 2-, z-y 4rf azl-= t4l, zz\,
    3Zl Eg 4 xJzli Aq-= 9rlaJ4. olCzl t7711e+ 4zl fizl= r*r 9l= gr= e6l s]
    q H}*ql^l dz} rzl]E Eq +s-4 z;ol cl- olgg BC.J+.
    66 2ei fl^t. E^l'. 013

    l7e- 17p + l.8e-

    I^t l7|l=
    GL.L
    d-Lt.

    cl g^l Cl- ol=


    gH}4ss ¤xlE dxl-= gol ololgol qq= a6}ol 9r., El++ gxl+ dzlE
    *4
    ¤9 *olsol qq= a6}ol ?14. trI4^l olg aq} r+ilEe NacEl aol, ++4 Hl++
    9 Eqlc.E ol+q4E 4'Jol 94.
    qFil2.7
    F ol8ol El6J ?lE ]^71

    tlfi 018=el !aJ+e|"fl E^1.= sEr'-.J EtE-d i[qt zl55 ^


    119.

    (b) 6d^t 167Hel Erl187H= z/ts B 013

    Tll'J 16+16:32014. olole+ t6zllg oJCzIe+ 187HE dz}


    (a) g^q gr} HEoltrI. +7lgEe+ gA + _E ol+q4 9loee. dztzt oJCzl[rl24 "*1, d4l
    "JCztits
    +ql^J 22zl oJ^dzt(gxt Hi zz)= += gA= 4ol+ d6t= 2-ol+. trI+^-l Sdq! q-q zl-aE "S2-o14.
    .k(rilol+. ol rlolel-fi.89 gAe_l er*+: 22+26: "JH}4qe g{aj 91 g^ql qql ¤E6l-= a+7i o}q+
    -="

    48(olczt+e++czl+E tl)o14. dztiql Hl6Iq "Jc H ol99 dz{ dat"J s,tlap.. e++= s^16}zl ?+=trt.
    zlizl tz\ q g:-e-!-E d4l ddl+ 3+ol+. :a;lE e ol > -H.= qlr.il 1
    48Ti3*o14.
    "lgE Sd.J slel zlE= trl-g + oJczl+e+ dz}.+E
    ^lo)717l^* =
    Eag?
    (b) +71&Eql el6IE, :*r(s]r zlE s)9 gz} H.cTt 160l (a) Ti2* (b) p3 (c) Mn (d) Se2- (e) cea+
    4= ag g + 9l+. trI4^1 ol flzl; t6zll old4-=,* > H= qlril2
    E* ol olgg 167l]el +Czl-= zlzlsa A=*+: 7ese2- olgg oJ^daL
    +czl, 4^l7l+7+ H zl]oJz}?
    =trL

    Na*q Cl-e+ ag 7J+6J +gzt olg+E} olqel, NH4*(oJ.EE olg)ol+ son'-(s4I


    olg) Ag c}flx] olt(polyatomic ion)-E 914. ol olgEg gzL=ol tszie+ Ag ¤4e
    AtJElq glzl"J, d4lE "Jd6I+ +d6l-= gr1. zllz.8¤9lrl 49zI olgg ¤EB 4ol
    +.
    "lgq slql4 Cee ol$$ ol+I 9l= ?14 flzleli,ll+ +E+= !$
    oJolo| aJQ.

    dxl¤ H ,l] E4+ geE, fl4 flzleft dq qE E^Jg ,*Al g+. qlE Eq +
    +g E4 4B6}rll HI*6|zl"J, iH E6J6l+ NaCl 'Jg olg A6J EI6JES 4E^E ++
    EI+ 4g6}r] Er+ HI+6[zl* *E+.
    olS rJof qEEPI
    E 2.3q1 E^lg AalrJol,18+ gA}$ HlgC gas)fl44r *+. ol Hlgd
    7l^,il(noble
    zli{: o}+ 49 +e1 E}6JE"J$ "JEq, 3r+q}4os q}*Col 4E S* gAol+. y+g
    flzl-==g d^l-= SZ.+ g¤.sE.Rl, +7]¤E^Jql^l zttl zlzlol 91E ul$,tJ zlrlle) ulf
    + +E d4¤ +ril g+. flzl-Eol olsl* dzl ull¤g alzlj1 6l+ a6}g, ul$rJ zl;{e}
    ag dz} ts]]gg 6IE {l+ .JC6J Epol 9zl rllEol4il +e-B + 9l+. ul$C zllls+
    ol*oJ+l^Eg dzl-E g4+ eq qlA.J {z} ullzlz} ol+qe + 91tr}. q155ol Na fl
    zl+ dz} rT]|E gq Ne(fl21 Hs r0)r+ Ag dz} Hllil$ B + 9+. u[{ziz]-e. cl gzt
    2.7 OlEr,f 0l3 al-ct= 67
    =-Bf

    dzt 17l]= gq lsTl]e qj1, gzl. Hn rss.l Ar4 rJg dz} E]lzlTI ¤4. xllszJqlrl sl
    =
    q a'Jg ffi rllzlzl, olel eol ,J+$
    "lg ^JC ,HHg ^I-SB 4o14.
    qFll 2.8
    o|$ {4 qffittTl

    HlEal{14-e.+El U=oltr + 91= 7|Ah ?JE-el0189 Edl.= ql+61-^le.

    6H'J > .H.= qx{ 1

    tstE olgr| olgg zlz! tlTl$ ulgd zl^,ll flzte+ ,J "*3 ol9ol Elgc 7l^lle+ ag dzt Ellzl= +q= ag
    g d4+= ^Ii ?*A1 2 a oE q^Jg + 9l+. +7lgEtr+q .Jn 9l= 4e E¤.ol g+. 6Ixl"J B:e gA, +61 d
    HlEq flzI HEE s09 o .J + 914. zlz] tltl$ ol* Hlg ol #+ gael = olgg ul$^J zlillc_|i += dz} tsl]zl=
    C Tlill= 9zI Bs s+el xeolQ. trt4^"1 Hffi'g 27114 4^l 6In 914. -t4 z.r+4 ?zl¤s= a'aap, ol4E olg
    E ga sa2* ol99 ec6l.q {z} s+z}lel oJ{fl {z} ullzl + qE aol Hlg{ Tlzlle} ag dxt ul]zl= 6}r. gl_s_q,
    7I g + 9l+. qE aol ulpl.J zlx,llsli += dzl. tsl]zlE r,t=zl ^^^l
    e. Hlgc Tlille+ ae {z} uflzl$ 6l+ olg9 a+ql=
    &cel $x1 HE= sol+. zlz] zlTl$ oli ul$rJ zlxlli q¤ gds++^l*7I?
    ueola, flrl HE= l0ol+. Irl+^j 4lA: dzt zzHE 9ol
    (a) Tia+ (b) Mn2+ (c) pb2* (d) Te2- (e) Zn2+
    9I46J dz} HI]zIE olg {olr., 02- golgol "J=qe
    ^l > E5 qlrll2
    4o14.
    (a) Al, (b) Fel 7I^J.Jdfl ol99 d6l¤-ql+6}^ls.

    +7lgs= +7lgs9 aI+ ¤ gi olg)E d6l7t g"IoJzlE zl9a}4l *


    0lg(+61
    ,li+ +s"61+. ral 2.leql^lzlH olg9 d6l+ r giE +TlgEql^lel flile+ +fl
    "11,
    ol 9l+. qlE 5q .s g+E r+("JrJel +^J gd5g l+ olgg BC6E, 2+(oJvJA
    E+4J ?li=g 2+ olgg BC'Jtrt. rEl.a t7+(gEal) gi5e 1- olgg, 16+ g
    2- olgg BCt4({lzll 2.sE .H+ qlxll rglrl9+ zJol, 4E + fl^Eg ole+ e
    ^Ee
    ol ++'{} +!g qs^lb g=+).

    3, olE. AilEe-e.+E] uEol^|ts Tfti gHJ4?l olES Ag+, zn2*, sc3*olrL ol-zll s"oll^l
    0l 0|eE0l Eole + flts 7l¤l rlEft ila? 0|E 013 olrEJ aol Hlgd Tlill B+g eg
    +E dxt=,;aoli7l?
    =
    1. L7 18
    H* H_
    2 13 14 15 16
    Li+ N3- d- F_ Bl
    r{nl -4 E}
    Na+ vg' A13, s2- cl- ,/.l

    K* Ca2+ Se2- Br- 7l


    i1l
    Rb+ sl* fe2- I_

    Cs+ Ba2+

    ar.B 0l=g ql8 7E:d E6l ErJ^4 Zlt-d dP


    2.19 E TlrlE-d +.?61ts CoJ E
    =+4Hl=+=
    90184 30lP= TEal= d017lE 6ftt +^= 1 + 0lgaf 1 - 0lP= trF oJEtl.
    ^l0ll,

    olg 7jarjr glEf$


    +E*g Elqi El¤. r+cq^l= 6J Eeq^l 4= EeE 4^l7l olEJ+. aeJ2.20a+ zJol fl
    4 ^JEHg AEol g^ tr-elel g^e+ Hls"g rll dzi l7H7r 4E gztE+q $l: flzlg ol
    68 26t 3^1. E^1, 018

    Aal Na* ol94 Cl- olgol 4zJ r4l4 ^dCg+. Hlql d6l-= ,*= + Eill ,J
    Eo6J4. _a
    ql= "Jqol 4L+6t71 tr]]+ql 5u+ ol$$ Cl ol$ol {,$a}q gE} rE(Nacr)ol?+= s+
    ql+g ¤c6J+. *4zl a+ol4r "Jr gl= gg} 4Eg 4ezl.J 0|g eg iElE(ionic
    compound)E^J, "Jolg$ 9olgo e ol+qd slg.Eol4.
    gE-el +sl fl^t# EoIEP aE gil4E Erlalr. 84--J + 9) E7l?
    1 1e- Z
    11
    E^l l7tl=
    OlLrt
    0e- -l
    EELI.

    -ry
    Na+ ol8
    Na 3xt i"
    e
    7-!7-
    18e- r.-=# 6t
    -&,
    rE/
    lL ?'

    crt17tl= 7-!7-
    cHqrt

    CI3II
    Cl- 0lg Oinewsfoto/Shutterstock

    Laa2.20 0l8 eEf EtdEel g¤ l,la fl^l0il^l Ex[ 17H7[ct flxle 0lE6lE Na*e] ct- 0lg0l E¤Erl-. 0l 0lgE8 Ee] :1
    illoll^l 4^l.trEHe Ht|gElol ?lrt ^aNacD

    9+EIEE 6C "E+q :r. Ela]$ol ol$e-P +Cg olg A.J p+q+Etzl, +4-=e +C
    g Ezt p+.JEoJzlE +g6J + ?l+. "JEl4es oJolSe ++ olgoln, ¤.olg* Hl++
    olgol+. q+^1,
    olg a6J +B¤e {zll Nacl$ a+e+ zJol, *44 El++e.l dE}4lol4.

    qHl
    F 2.e
    ol8 AtJ !:lBEl} $zl EuJgel S+

    rt. 6 ot8 aFdE?t ae?


    =-d
    N2O, Na2O, CaClz, SF+

    6,ll'J (a) Rbq El;:+ giTt qls= E= olg aq} pI.J


    Nazoe* CaClzE ++r+ El;-+e*e +Cqq ?l o o + olg A Eol+.
    q+ slqlEol4il ql+6J + gi+. Nroe+ sF4= E_+ ulf,$g-E G) eis+ ¤ed gizt aq+6}q "JEgzlts E= Ett}Ee
    +Cqq 9loo+ gzlolrjgol4r.HlE4l ql+B+ ql+. +zI Elql$.ltrl.
    qlr'll1 (c) pl.{}E MsK'rE ?*=+.
    > !e= =xl]6.}zl
    (d) Nae+ KE El*+ flre| aEJ6Iq 4+ +^r+ sloJEg
    +g + Bxl E+'+Eg?
    CBr4, FeS, PaO5, PbF2 "JEE}.
    (e) ol9 Aql irl.JE Llql^l a+(Ca)g Ca2+ ol$ rlQle ¤
    > H6qE{2
    xllal {olr}.
    +q-r+ eg ql+ol 4B.J ol+E?

    olg ¤6J 34-qlEql^l olgEg :7A2.20E Nacl4 ?ol d}zl_fl +zE tsllgg+. gp+
    iEg Sqg Nacl'EzI'¤El]e ?*zl ullE9l ¤E^loE"J.Ezlaj4. +='lt+
    =416|zl
    EE olg a.J +BEE {E4g_e"J s7l¤}+.
    2.7 Olgr.f 018 ;,lEf ofaf= 69

    olg slql$E a+, e+6J+q +C6l= olgel d6l-= .JE ¤elg 4= ae u]]+
    A6J
    ,J+61-rt. 3rlq} E¤g alt dzl4
    "E +^dol+. Et4^l olg a6J p+6JEql^l drll
    oJd6l.
    e+ dill +d6I7I ?olol EiEl. trI+^J rzlel Na* olg4 rzll9 cl- ol$ol psalol Nacr

    9, r2119 Ba2* ols-4 z\! cl- ol$ol {oJa}q Bacl2E BC6Jrl.


    olg aoJ sl6}Eol "JEq¤ ql oJolg4 ¤-o199 da}=J.ol gsE, zJ ol¤9 oI4 ez}
    rol+. d6l7l. azl g:eE, .J ol¤g d6}7l ^Jq¤ olg9 o|4 4zlzl grl.(+Eb ^J
    =
    +). ql= Eg tvle(Mg'* olg ¤d)pi N(N' olg ¤C)str+q "J=qzl= olg a6J p+
    'JEE ¤Ele Mg3N2z| 9E, ol4¤ H]+!eE +4!]E rlg4
    g+.
    ,g{l(9 Ms:Nz
    ol tsJBg
    ^l-so
    dJ trI= +98 dol-ll+-de^lg + fl^E ,l* 42 a+Elqot 6J+.
    r1e1,r1 rl*e| o'- zJoll BCg olg A-J slqlEg s+q}4g ri2o47l olqq Tio2ol+.
    wmel 02- oEe-e oeolTl a['JEe] d-d^ls +qoJ7l?
    A
    {Eq^8+q lIJgEJ
    fla
    a42.21? ^JE f,zl9l g+4.J giE Bq ql++E e UEE qlE= EJI gs+q, 4lA a4E 4lg ABqIE gq
    =+.
    +7lill e=.Iel e7%oy *t,
    +4., +i, ei, "J, *9 oz1z1 ++. += Bg gdEe *a=J"Jol g_s_6}71 qlEql El"d"
    fl^7} iizl++. Eg ^8211= o1-73 zfir +s6J a[E]ge, $A.(trace element)E|tr ++. tr'll .Iql^lE dl-E=sHl 6J
    ql++el 70o/o ol*3 zlzl6J+. nB E cg 9ql^1= "lelE +?.1= dfl6llot +4.
    ^lls a%19 ^-llEE
    eg oliE zl-g feal flaE Btol4. El flzlE 4oJ +{ g+E4l: 2.102
    oJ +71 EzI9 E49 ol+4, +^+ += g^e} a
    qlg 6fl fl+. qlE Ael E= +Eee qs=4 1
    =q
    ee ai+ol Ezl L{ql^l H}BzJ o.+ ¤Aqq 9lq. H
    2 13 14 16 t7 He
    o Li Be B C N o F Ne
    il
    4 7 1 11
    AI Si P S CI Ar
    C
    -N- I
    K Ca Sc Ti V Cr N,[r Fe Co Ni Cu Zfi Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
    H Rb Sr Y zrlNb!rc Ru Rh Pd Agffi In Sn Sb Te I Xe
    += fldzl4"&eI +Tlillql^l g
    olqql 237|xlE
    aEq. E= +7li]l= ca2*, cl-, Mg2*, K*, Na* lIolxl 'J+
    +s E4 E+=te "dg sTlrl 'J+ fla I ,t=; al
    59 sz1x1 ol$$ pe-tr ql+. ql= 5q a+ olg L aH 2.21 SBillql "J+4oJ fl^

    qHl 2.10
    ol8 {6lE oltElol ol8. ,js E}SEE ;a.rq lzl
    rt8 0l8e_e 0FclTl itaJEel d-d^lE l
    ^19.
    (a)At3+q ct- olE (o) nt3*q 02- o18 (c) Mg2+glNo3- o18

    rflff gol gs6.IEe dE4¤ Mg(trto)ro1r1. 4flzl olg"J


    (a) Al3+ olgE d6l +Bg "*+ElE :211e.1 cl-7]-gs-6IE No: 9 4*, 22119 ol$ol el-oJE$ ¤C'J+= ag B
    E. ¤e^lg Alcl30l4. q6l 617l ?16]] gE= aln, olql azl2= ++.
    (b) 34lE o'z olgq d6t +eg *+rltr zzlE Al3* olg > .H.= fflrlll
    ol $ealr[. 6+E + .Jd6te+
    6-E + +d6[9 +¤g q-9. El++ g4 +. olg4 A.J6Iq oJolg+ gol
    Sc3*
    "*izl 9ldlrl= H]TI z::ololol ++. ¤e^lg Atzorol4. gE EITI r:roJ ol3 A6J E*Eg qlg= agz
    (c) rzflel Ms'* ol9 d6}e+ +Bg "*+EiE zzllel Nor- o1 (a) Ne (b) F (c) o (d) N
    70 23 g^1,
    =rl',
    olP

    > HE qlrll2
    trl^8- olgeE ol+q4l EI.JE.9 dE^lg r^^19. (a) Na*q po43- G) zr'** sor2- (c) Fe3*9I co,2-

    2.8 I +rl EIEIE tro{trJHJ

    slql$g ol$r} +ql^le p+Elql 9lq^l g+ EzI{aJ f-{olrl. EAe.l ol$g Eol=
    %]-Hg E|E!E BBEI (chemical nomenclature) olu|-L 6}:ql, nomencalatureE 4Eol9
    nomen (oleo) 4 calare (*e +) q +4 6tH+.
    ^l
    flzlzlzl s000EI 7l] oltel Elq Eeol "JEl4 gl+. ol Bg EeE ol+g 6|+6t+ a.
    E ag Ezl-L"6J.Jolq. E(Hro)olr-[ oJeloXNur;23o1 s4*'"J g 5Eq + "JBJ4
    -e+ Eeg zflp{eE dE4 olEG gH}B (common name))g *=tr}. rel+ q++9
    E¤e Eeg +c6l+ c+ql zla* 41414.J E¤Hg ^l=&6[q olEg Eola, olE"J
    g Ea r EeE c+ql ql6]l "J + 9lE+ r+6J ol+g +q++.
    Elq EBE9 +4e Eag a"FEE #al-E ,JHql 7lz6la- 9l+. +e+ Efr +
    zl +.J84 gzl elt'J$-olrl. +ie} +A= E,*6I= *zl 4.JE(organic compound)9
    ++ tI^, e^, EE +E g^=r+ a6J.J+. olelel += E= Eae +71 +El
    $(inorganic compound)olrJ. =zl slqlzl¤$ #zl pldJE¤ rl$ol4 EEr+ +flz.]9
    a. +7!slgl$e ^JHol S= E4+ +flz]fl4. ^S$ille+ +d6lq E{g ++6]i ae
    trl ol^J 45J6Izl ?*zl"J, Eag #zl E}.JE4 Fzl slaJEe 55;li ag
    "t4E +s"61
    +. ol aq^l= +71 sI6J+g olg e6J E}6JE, ear +6J8, ++q EH6t= +4
    ql ql6l] ="P6|4l ¤4(92| +: ol 4ql^J= G EBH4 +41 +'J EHH(¤q^l)g E
    ^IsE

    or.kr).

    ol+ ,jEJ ElEr-Eel olBal EFJ^.|


    olg aqlslEISe 4zll ;.4 olg4 Hl=.+ olge-l a6Je_+. ol+q4 9i+g zl$ala|(zll
    2.74). ++e "Jolg, ulfr$$ *ol80l 84.

    l. elolE
    a. +4 flzls+q EJEq4= ololgg +++ ag ol+g r*YE+.

    Na+ ii(sodium) ol$ Zr2* o[$(zinc) o]$ Al3+ g-7ul]:(aluminum) ol-L

    b. EJ"J ++ql^-l d6t4 += + 4zl olc-el oloJ$ol "JEqzlB, ++ olE H9 9a


    oJ.ll sul +zls old6l-= E^l+q.
    Fer' tsltt) olg Cu' *4rli ol9
    Fe-" e(ril) olg cur' +4(rr) olg
    ol$$ {o}z} +-E.E E+q}4 4?- rJ+ 844 5¤ol =q4r+(azJ2.2).
    LaeJ2.22 'J3 fl^el rt= 0l =^"rr},
    g4 zlzl d6l-= ,*= ++E q+Eg +7lgse.l +rJql uilB6}.= 3++q n+vl
    Ee E80l rl.Erl. ?el F Etr
    3 E tnF=olrl. g+sl EE3 zlE dol *+(transition metal)olQ(ol 49 sezl oJ+ql 9lE fzl¤e +a). +
    FegOaE p"2 91 fs3* Ol83 g
    =o#(6J zlzl {a})el "Jolg"J "JEqzl: ++g 14 ") 2+ se, eP*(r:aJ, 6o1
    -Bf-drl. g=+elEEP Fe3* ol
    eE E:E6l: Fe2osoltf. ++.Jeg*(tta-) ,Znz*(124). cd2*(tzal Eol+. ol=olgE olE¤.E"J Ell d
    2.8 +7lal-cfE EEts 7'l

    6l+ s^16[z] g.=r[. "J"J ++o] 6]+ ol^J.E %tol¤g r8ca]Ezl s¤6[zl ?+eH
    su} fzlE. d6l-= s^16}4. olag Egsgzl E4E g*g 43 olLl4.
    + 7l7l d6l-= *= ++ olgg +E6J rll 9"191 -ous$ -icel {ulq-= EolE d
    F rJzlol oI4E gl+(e}= ol+ql^l= xllr, xllzts Fetr +E5t7lE 6J+).
    ^l-8-q:Z
    Fer' zllt{ ion) Cu* zlll+r-l ol$(cuprous ion)
    ol$(ferrous

    Fe3' zll2e olg(ferric ion) Cu2* 412+4 ol$(cupric ion)


    ol 4ql^l= ole+ ee dF4 EHH9 z.l9
    ^l-8-6}zl
    *zllrJ, ++lq^l ++ ^I+q
    49 E + 9lg 1o14.
    =
    c. El#4 gxlE+q /8Cq= ololgg -iumo =*¤+= olE¤,*=+.

    NHr+ oJEE. olg(ammonium ion) Hro* 6}0lE-trE' ol$(hydronium ion)

    ol 4ql^J r+-f} olg + olcl ?ol olE+ tsol} olge +lel F .lgllql $.+.
    7|t| .JEl4fl *olg p zlzlg olEn+ sl+^lg E2.4ql ++,lflr}. 4 rle4 qI
    4 HqlE gq}4e.-tr. dEl + 9l= olgq E7t 9l+. g+ql +g.J olgg t zlzl d
    6}"Jg z*E tflz} ol$o11, e=+ql qg+ olgg 4flx} "Jolgola+ {el z}zl
    d6r$ ,*= .Jolgolq. Hszz* olgg *Szlz} olqqE dol 5016}+. ol/.$ zzl
    9 Hs* olgg Ba aol+r ^J4g i glzl qlEql +g(r) ol$olap aJu|. zffi ,A
    ol= ol¤+ #g +ElH+. ol$ olgPQ oJolFxI.
    =r^lE

    A tlqloJzlt-lx(ll)q d--J4A Mn2O, MnO, MnOz 6 01!]i.A)l?

    82.4 0JU40J oJotg*

    t6l' ql-*^l 0l= sE^l 0l=


    l+ H+ fA(hydrogen) ol$ NHn* olE-fi'(ammonium) ol9-

    Li* zlS(tittrium) ol$ Cu+ +4(I) E= zlltfal(cuprous) ola-


    Na+ tE(sodium) ol8
    K' gtffi(potassium) ols-
    Cst 41f,(cesium) ol9
    Ag* 3(silver) olg
    2+ Mg'* u|=uJlf,(magnesium) ol$ Co2* igE (II) E= li.g E (cobaltous) ol$
    ^lj
    Ca2+ 7Jf(calcium) ol¤ Cu2* *r-l(II) E= xll2+al(cupric) ol$
    Sr2* IEE$(strontium) ol-e Fe2+ A0I) E= 4lt?(ferrous) ol9
    Ba2* ufS(barium) ol$ Mn2* uJzful -z(rr) E= zllllrJTfq z(manganou.) ol9

    Zn2* o|$(zinc) ol$ Hg22* +g(I) E= zll tf3(mercurous) ol$


    cd2+ 7}E+(cadmium) ol¤. Hg'* ++01) E= 7ll2+3(mercuric) ol9
    Ni2+ qa(r) g.= xJlqa(nicketous) ol9
    Pb2+ B(II) E= xllt$(plumbous) o1s-
    Sn2* +4(II) E= ^ll1+4(stannous) ol3
    3+ Al3+ oJ+trlEi(aluminum ion) ol$ Cr3+ r.tr.E(III) g.= ol$
    ^ll2rtr+i-(chromic)
    Fe3+ ¤(III) E= zllz?(ferric) ol8
    azl+ ol¤e
    ?Aol-L.
    iig +Elllfl4.
    =4e
    **q^I +: 4lr+4. 412+4 ¤+ oJ+B-q-e, ol 4ql^l= g:=r+
    ^l*:6[zl
    72 28 g^t, E^1, olP

    2.
    =olE
    a. +gzr *o199 g4 olEel E +Bg dul4 -ide(-*)e EI+EI
    aJ= ezl{lrlE d"lri'-+= Eeq.
    H- fds](hydride) ol$ 02- &ol(oxide) olg N3 dte*(nitride) ol9
    P. tlz\ rJ+oJ 49zI +olgE -ide(-*)tr ¤LI= olEg ,*=+

    ou- i,ilp}(hydroxide) ol$ CN- ^Iol?Isl-(cyanide) ol$ ol- 4^Is|(peroxide) ol$

    b. &a= sEl6l+ 4sz| oleg -arec4l)s.E -;re(o[-{l).E E+E d"l9E z*E4.


    olflfl 9ol9¤ ttat!=0lg(oryanion)ol+r ++. o.lul$ -arec&)= giel ,}f,i
    e6I4+ EllE4"J 4I^4I +olgql rl-$al.-L, -lre(o1-g - ag d6l-= z*zl"J *tzy
    ^l-$++. $] -*21q1,t.1i dolrl
    r7]] 4.$ 4Ii& e-.ol${l '-&'9 Eol{, &A+71-
    49 olgql='ol-'= Eq +E6JE}.
    NOr- n^l olg(nitrate ion) SO4'- ¤ttl olg(sulfate ion)
    NOz- o|e{! ol$(nitrite ion) SOr2- oI+tI olgftulfite ion)

    +Iazl g-+414 A6JtJ A+ql= &a& +olg9 =o ql zlzlE 5qB fr


    914. ol i
    ql= d+^l-= per-(4)Y -ate(-*)e E+ts t]i4} *ol8s4 &
    ^l++EI. d+^[
    r q
    flzlz| 17l] 9g ^l-8:6tr., hypo-(alo\E)i -;re1o}-gE E+= &^4I gol
    ull
    gE+tI^ gzITI 17]] 49 trll
    ^p3-+r+.
    clo4- r+g^.tl "l& (perchlorate ion): EA&(chlorate)-Hr| o gzlT} l7l] ui B¤-
    Clo3- gitl ol$ (chlorate ion)
    Clo2- ofgdtl ol$ (chlorite ion): Et4}(chlorate)-tr4 o gztTl 111 zl*
    CIO- 6folggAt olg (hypochlorite ion)l o[$]{!(chlorite)-H4 O gztT} l7l] 4+
    ol +!g ral 2.23q1 sE6l.fl4
    +e-"Ut(perbromate) 018?] BrO+- 0l80ll^l t4 t 2115 xllz-d 30139 0l# +QE7i?

    E+_.J g6t 013


    9nlq
    (chloride, Cl-)

    -ide hypo_ite
    Der ate _ate gr}
    &4t rtE4tt 018
    +O E^t oq/\/\t nl-? -o E^[
    olgatl 013
    :-O
    r--+ 6folEg^ti olg
    (perchlorate, Cl04-) (chlorate, ClOl-) (chlorite, Cl02-) (hypochlorite, CIO )
    =0t3
    olHlx1 E!
    -ite
    EtlE4E +tI i B0l8
    LaeJ2.23 gol$ EBE$ +^l 9E E^++El .J=Gl^l= 3+-zr +fl^l&Att 3013= ql= LfE.lLHfltf
    =0l8rl =cl

    A Boleg olgol -el-(-rde), -t(-are), o[-t!(-ite)oe E.J nfl, ol= +-cr'=oil rtl6}l g + 9,1ts

    | ¤E=+q?!71?
    afl2.24= +a6IH +o&"J 4I44I *ol¤9 d6l"e+ 4lr gz14g 7lq6I= rll E¤.ol =t
    4o14. +7lgEe.l 2+7\ fl|oJ ce+ N gzl+ al4 :2119 o gzlel aB6lzl"J, z+zl il
    2.81+)l al-ctE BEg 73

    2+71 fl^= *lrll


    37flo1 ofl^fel t4+ l-5+ l6+ l7=
    =-d
    cor2- Nor-
    EJ$ 018 Etl 0l3
    2+)l (carbonate ion) (nitrate ion) q40e 7lq,(]
    Po+! So+2- cl04- t6t
    3+71
    gtt =7t
    EtI 0t8 0t8 rtgatt 018
    (phosphate ion) (sulfate ion) (perchlorate ion)
    3+71 g4= 4rll
    47Hel og^tq e:st

    Lae 2.24 u u g0l3 gEJ^lqe t^t 30l8el a54 861= r flA9 +7lgEo]l^lol Pl^lef ESol 9ltl

    p, s, ct o flzlq a6J6J + gl= ag "J + ?l+. a4 2.24E e-#


    fl4= 4zlel
    ^oJ
    otq ++El trE, olgg d6l+ sE-+ql^j g+qe zlsr.l cloa-9 r-"ll,rl po43-E 3-
    e ?7I++. 2+4 fl4q A+qE s=+ql^l 9+" e z|fl.<l No3-9 r-ollr.l co:2-9
    z-tr- +71q}r+. a4 2.24q) 9lb 4 olgE 'ffi olBS -*(-otr1o * gLtzlEI, ClOa- ol
    eE a+ql= dF^| 4-br'-)Z ^l-so dt|.
    qEl 2.11
    olBss+Ei {.tAtl'3ol3.E E+6J{ eet P|
    gt 0lEel E|.-E^]o.-tr+El (d ¤alltstJ 0l8(selenate ion). (b) 0l¤alltst 0lP(selenite ion)9 al*48 qE6l'^|9(EJ4¤eilts8
    164011 +6[q P^[E! t]^tt 30188 E¤-dtl').

    6ll'J (a) gac olg


    cloz-: (b) Io4-: $olol9fl4l ol$
    (a) 3.I,iI ol33 soa2-oloE, olel +^l+ detlts& ol¤+ (c) Soa2-: oI+& olg (d) Io3-: ololsE4} olg
    (e) Noz -: oip& olg
    SeOn2-o14.
    (b) 9"1 rJ* d6l¤ ,*zl"J, q"lzt -aregl 4}r4i *
    -iteY > s= qEl2
    "lgB4 .lla flxlz| 1zl 49 4I^41golgg +4u E-.PIrJ+ olgGromate)el plE}^lg gA+ olgr+ Hl+6I
    +. trl+^l olgql+& olgE EIE^19 SeOr2-o1r1. +. 6}olstr.tr.ql4} olg(hypobromite)$ otHtrEJ& ol
    > .!eE qlrlll ¤(bromite) 9 elo}^lg ^A^lg.
    4+ 4I^+ golg + olEol e*g ag?

    c. H*E dzlolq "J=qA &A4l *olgg HE +ql "*+q fa(hydrogen)u| ola


    a(dihydrogen)E dF,rle Eq EB*+. 419 ol=4'+^'= 9"l4zl *=trL

    Co.l2- +4}(carbonate) ol9 Pon3- oJ&(phosphate) ol.$

    HCO3- ${lf}.(hydrogen carbonate) olc- H2PO4- oJ4}ol+i(dihydrogen phosphate ion) ola-

    4 H*= "lol *ol9(parent anion)9 +dol¤ 6t+ +^^lA aql +q6I+. qldql
    ol7l'* 4. zlz) olgg EEts tr]] d+q +-(bi-)* El4^l HCo,- ol
    = ^l-s6l9+.
    gg ++ *B& (bicarbonate) ol$, HSo+ -= ++{} (bisulfate) ol gol +='JHlEg
    6J+.
    ^AzlE
    "JHI4.J¤-olgg olEr+e+q4eE2.5elol 49l rlezl q}4"ll gl4. _iae(_ED_e
    ¤+= olEg zI4I ol¤+ gqq, -ate(-g)oe ¤LI= ole+ EE sEqql +eq
    q 914. Ez-], olE olgg ir+ol^]4 ol+g oJot"l +4. -;,r1o1-4})s ¤'+* olEel
    olglg -atetr-¤\v ol$-s--E*Q o= t7]| 4l46lq "JE + ?14. ?zlSEql^J ol
    74 23 g^t. E^t, ot8

    825 oJrJ4gl got8"


    t6t El-4^l 0l= Et+^l 0lE
    l- H ilP](nvarlae) olg cH3coo- o|,tll E{}(acetate) ol g
    (EE CzH:Oz )
    F_ EFsfl*(fiuoride) ol$ ClO.r ¤A4}(chlorate) ole
    cl- ¤EHchloride) ol¤ cl04- $$A'll(perchlorate) ol$
    Br- u eEl4(bromide) ols- Noa- d$(nitrate) olg
    I_ olol9QE(iodide) o1g MnOa 4"J7It-.1 =&(permanganate) olg
    CN ,t foI
    oJo|(cyanide) ols-

    oH- olg
    2- o2- &4(oxide) olg COr2- t&(carbonate) ol¤
    or' r}4}ol-(peroxide) olg CrOa2 ?E#&(chromate) ol9
    s2- *alG"tna.l olg Cr2O72 qolrtrE olg
    Son'- 3*&(sulfate) olg
    ^Xdichromate)
    3- N3- dtpl(nitride) olg POn3- oJ&(phosphate) olg
    a4+ Aol: ole-$ -r. ol=+ tg +4qsE}
    =r{e
    olgel +lilql ++61+. 174G , Cl , Br-, r-) Bflzl ol¤+oltr r-9 d6l-=r*
    * EiH, 164(02-, s'-) ol¤* 2-e-l d6l-= ?*YLl.
    3. olE ElgilEI=
    olg eqr +BEe.l ¤9
    "lE¤ "J"lg "l+g Bz] 4r, *olg olE¤ fq-gq ++.
    a.h= olEg a+qlE +olg ol+g Hz] 4-/, oJolgel olE¤ r+.*ql +q.

    CaCl2 BPI rJ#(calcium chloride)


    AI(NO3)3 dt}'JFulb(aluminum nitrate)
    cu(c]or2 r+94'& *4 (Il)(copper(Il) perchlorate)
    E= r+gA& x.llzf al (cupric perchlorate)
    d& .JF"lb Ets rlg^^I +r-l(rDe-l EIE4g ¤ Ell= gsE qerll ^l-s6lfi.Ezlgl
    ++614. :{.JEol F 7|| ol^JE 4fl2[ olgg EEi6l+ A+, gE E]gq r olgg +
    5 o|4 ezlE +4U+.
    qw2.12
    EtEJ{se+E ol8 egsirJEE oE e{6r71

    t[= 0lE trl--sf=sl


    ^
    0l== 119.
    =-Et
    (a)KzSOa (b) Ba(OH)z (c) FeCl3

    6}lff aol+). olgE olEg a.J6lq *{} +4


    *+
    ^lE6lzl
    olg e.J +qlEs EEB qlql= 492| ol89 +Eq+ a *(potassium sulfate)olz[5 ol$g 'z*Zl g+.
    r+ +'J6J d6l-= 714 + 9l= "JolgE dd-= 444= a (b) *"1¤+ Ba2*(u15, ol$)olr, ¤.ol¤+ oH (f{!r} olgl
    ol iealr|. olE+, ol +ilEq olE+ +tls} uffi(barium hydroxide)
    (a) ol ElqlEel oJolgg K*(E4+ ol$)olr., ¤.o183 ol4j16J+.
    Sor2-(qI^I olg)ol+(+"J {4Eol ol Eld-Eol sr-e} (c) E flzlt * zlzl ol^Jq "Jole¤ ^JC6J + 9lo o e, H
    o,-E e.o;t3+a ^J46IE, 492[ ol¤.J r]+] ol3¤ zl eq dq¤ A46l]016J+. ol s+.JEg 3719 ct-E
    2.81+)l6t-st= EEE 75

    E6J6tE_tr "Jolgg e(rrD E= zll2e olg, *


    re3*qo1p E(IV) (tellurium(IV)chloride) (c) FezOr: tF+ ole(diiron
    tr}, tr+4^J ol slqlEel ol=+ gp+ E(rrr)(iron(rrr)chloride) oxide) (d) BaO: &E+ uffi(barium oxide) (e) tr,tn:(pon)r:
    E= gEl xll2e (ferric chloride) olc|. t& "J7Iq =
    (II) (manganese (II) phosphate)

    >HEqlH1 > -H.= qllll 2


    +g + ol+ol g* Ezl$ ole- a6J e+ElEe? rl-9 ol¤ Aq+ E+*EE olE¤
    ^^,tl_e_.
    (a) Zn(NOJz: ?& o}fl(zinc nitrate) (b) TeCla: g3t} g+ (a) NH+Br (b) CrzOr (c) Co(NOJz

    6EJt AE(sodium bicarbonate)el Ell 0l=P Elt+A. AE(sodium hydrogen


    carbonate)olcl. (a) ol et-EtEel El'+ lE ,'..t;t, (b)EB+! #6(calcium bisulfate)af 4E 0l+
    A ?.!t(sodium dihydrogen phosphate)9 6t=+1]= l ,'.l9.

    te.l olE-:!.f El6J4]


    &e +^= s+61+ +s6J plqlEe^1, 5E6J %r-^lsE BBil+. +d Eql +g ql +
    a olg(u*)g Lil* + gl= Eeg {}(acid)ol+r 4E6IZI. Flql^J +^l uH*4lzl"J,
    tlE E++4g gqtrE HCl4 H2so4ilH a fl41 g^7I +^E qq glq.
    &g golgol +B'J +q H* olg4 a6J5lq dzl4_q_E +^dol 9"lot aJr|. lelug
    Son2- olgg 2z}]E H+ ol$ol $9a|-r., trI4^J H2SO4E-Bd+trt. +I9 olE.S aH2.2s
    ql ssF"J qlE, golg9 olE4 *¤.1 914.

    r. olEol -de.E ¤4E ¤-"lS9 4Ig -de= -icB tsh+r d+^I hyitro-= E.J+.
    f,= ol+olld= golgg _F+E _i++^4IsE H[+q
    =+.
    30t8 golEsltl
    Cl- Su|(chloride) HCI goPltftfdrochloric acid)*

    52- slp|(sulfide) HzS +r++i4}(hydrosulfuic acid)


    *7lill tEilg ++6J HClg g+ +Aolq, uct #*9ol gEl+^^Iol+
    6Izl"J HCt ++gq .JtsJB.J g+C q "*ol
    ^l.s++.
    2. olEol -ate Ei -ifeE pulg ¤-olg-e-E+q ElEqd &9 ol+9 E9 41ts -are-E
    ¤+= golgg -ic$ flul,<|51 Eh+q a4, -itee. ¤+E *ol*9 -ousel {ul,r}sE
    Eh+q fr g acid= EoJ+. golg olEel d+^I= &E olEql^l rqlE frzlq}4.
    6'J= ol¤.ql^l: olgg U olEg 419 olfi.e-E
    ^l-*+4.
    g018 30l8el{t
    ClO4-,tlf;i{1. o1-.a_(perchlorate) HCIO4 ;tf$l{f(pcrchloric acid)

    ClO3- g^'tl olg(chlorate) HCIO3 ¤Atl(chloric acid)

    clo2- olg^.tl ol-$(chtorite) HCIO2 ol$lt(chlorous acid)

    CIO- a1-o1eSC$ ol-3(hipochlorite) HCIO 6lolEgi4}(hypochlorous acid)

    & u+oJt olE(bromate ion, Brog-)0ll H+= rl6H trJEolIlts tsl 0l== 1 119.
    76 23 B^l-. E^1. olE

    > 2.25 tel 0l= Eol= ,J


    aza 9alq tt
    E g^= E-Bblts tt= 0lE E
    flrl. ||^tlSolag olEoil
    H* OIE hydro_ic acid
    ^l gal 018 (chloride, Cl-) EEt+Al(E&) (hydrochloric acid, HCI)
    tElE r(per-)ef olo lE(hypo-) E)l
    a3 EF^t=r4e+^lEr[.
    -ide
    _ate Ht olE acid
    E tl ol3(chlorate, ClOr-) E4t](chloric acid, HCIOI)
    rlgAtl 0 lS(perchlorate, ClO4- ) ^l7I alE4u(perchloric acid, HCIO+)

    ite ous acid


    H* ol3
    0lgAu 0lE(chlorite, ClOz-) 0lEAtl(chlorous acid, HCI02)
    i.l7
    lEE^{l al'o lEEAtlGypochlorous acid, HCIO)
    L
    6to o lSft ypochlorite, CIO- )

    qF{
    F 2.13
    te.l olEsl Etcj^l!+el oJ+¤
    tlB +lsl 0l==^ ^19.
    (a)HCN (b)HNO3 (c)HzSO+ (d)H2SO3

    6tlff lJ(sulfurous acid) olQlc ol9$ {ul,tl -iteY dulrl-


    (a) ol l}el +olgg ol$(cyanide ion, cN-)oltrI. -orsE qlil6Jq).
    ^|oloJE+
    -ide Salt'l'A zlzll 91o E + hydro- 45x1-4 -,t 4o1 > H.Eqm1
    qE++r{I (hydrocyanic acid) ol ap aJr1. 8*g te? s*¤ olEol+ El+^lg tsI
    ^l¤ Eq ^Iol +g + olEol
    HCNoI ++sq.J A+ql+ ^IoloJEl+A&(hydrocyanic =.7,11
    !.zl^19-.
    acid)ol4.rr. 6rq, ++t ,l4l 3r+qlEg + (a) ¤F9-gElf4{I(hydrocyanic acid) : HF
    ^lol"Jg+
    c(hydrogen cyanide)4L ql+. ft) o|{,ll(nitrous acid): HNO3
    ^IoloJi++r&4 ^tol
    'J+ +^= E+ +Col ,ll+ ,J6I+. (c)4!--efl&(perbromic acid) : HBrO,
    (b) No3-= 441 ol$(nitrate ion)olIr.tr., HNo3= el} (d) ololsa4l(iodic acid): Hr
    (nitric acid)ol4(*ol*9 f;ul.r[ -afets A]el ol# zI (e) ¤41ts&Gelenic acid)l H2SeOa

    I oll
    9"1 -ic-tr Qlila;!4;. > s=qF{2
    (c) SO+2-9 ol+ol +4I ol$(sulfate ion)olstr, H2SO4E trtg,tie.l Etqllg 4^ls.
    ol*3 ++Gulfuric acid) olrJ. (a) u eulffi4.,i!(hydrobromic acid)
    (d) so32-= otFJ4l olg(sulfite ion)olEtr", H2so3= otql (b) B4}(carbonic acid)

    ol^J+ Eal slafEe] ol$zf El6J^.1


    x.2.6 Ht++ t eoJ-e.-e DJ

    EqT! olrd+ EloJ+g soJgl ttll ol-S$$inary) +zI E+.JES BEE ull
    ^]-Sol+
    +zle olg a,* plq+E-g HHB UIE
    ^tt6ti t+^t +44 Hl+6l-tr1.
    d+^t slEl

    9- (mono-) I otg# Brt sl¤lEst BgEt


    ol- (dt-) 2
    r. 9HI4 0.e izlgsr}qld q g+ql fl=(++q zlt4&)94= Exl *4. ol +zlql
    *- (tri-) 3
    qETI q= ae t}i, gd, Ee"J, otolsE(E+eflg 4le]oJ 6JE4l gi) p+.JE
    ,r.|_ (tetra_) 4
    9- (penta-) 5
    9 ?*o14. olE ElqlEql^J= t}}= "I4Eq ++.
    2. + 4E fl+21+zlggdlq^] Ae +q +61tr, oHl+ g^E tsxl ++.
    4- (hexa-) 6

    ¤- (hepta-) 3.Hql 4E gie.l olEql -i+(-ide)* dul^tE E"J+.


    9- (octa-) 8 4.,+gig flz}?E+48 trl] rE^q d+^I(E2.6)=^]-S++. dF^Imono-E a H4ll
    7- (nona-) 9 giq= *=+. ¤.ol¤ ol$ol (oxiderle) E¤-e-E ^l4I6tE d+^IE a E=
    ^Fe-o6tzl
    d- (deca-) l0 H¤.olr+. ,dE olE4ll^l= "J, ol, ..., d ¤¤
    ^I.s"6Iq += ++u+.
    oE
    ^J4=.lb aol
    2.s q 7|.^l A-J-ut +71 +--J= 77

    +* qlE -trB +39.J + 9l+


    Clro g4lE+ olSt(dichlorine monoxide) NFr d-g+-sflel {A.(nitrogen trifluoride)
    N:O,r ol{A(dinitrogen tetroxide) P,,S'r, d4}4 r.l-ol(tetraphosphorus decasulfide)
    ^I&gl
    4H +zlol gs6J ol+E olg a.J s+.JE.q slq|^lg ql+d[= a4 E.J+ *z]ge
    EzI EeE E+ql^lg ql+6}71 dzl ?*zl ullEol4. rq+ +^e+ += oJ gi= sEL
    =
    6I= +zt s+6JEs {l9ol4. ol= s}oJEg u}zl H+ olgr+ golgg se-6[a *= a
    aH +1+g + 9l+. r4^l HClg H* ol&4 Cl- $ol$ol dzl4 oe +sl¤ astr A
    +6|q Esi i^(hydrogen chloride)4-7 +=+elag +++ s+6JEql ^Fsodl+ olElol
    +. Hclel ++".q9 $ffi4{!(hydrochloric acid, s.l!)ol?+i1 6l.q, 4.l¤ql^J +^l Ell+
    ,ll g+). ee +zlg 4+6IH, s2- d6tel +¤g *+qH u*zl zz\ g3-61-l-E ++ +
    }.(hydrogen sulfide) 9 dE4g HrSo14.

    A SOCI2E 0ld$ El-srEfl7l?

    4lr'll z.t+
    ffi ol^J+ szl El.ErEE olBrl.r4qiqalE
    "J{.t
    tl8 trl-sr'Eol 0l=E i.\119.
    (a)SOz (b) PCls (c)ClzOo

    6tlU > E=qE{1


    +l EloJ+E=3 E+ H];.+-S--P ol+q4 ilo +, olgcolIr q-* +esl olC+ EI.JE9 olE¤ zJ4 *t'ls-.
    olrj $x[/6lol+. E 2.6e1 d+^l-= ol+6]q qs=r+ rJg ol (a) CSz 0) Co (c) C:Oz (d) CBq (e) CF

    E¤ e=+. > !il.= qrll2


    (a) ol&+ *(sulfur dioxide) +g E6JE9 slq^lg r ^l_s.
    O) gg9l oJ (phosphorus pentachloride) (a) r]lE4e--euJe] *}.(silicon tetrabromide) O) olgg} ol
    (c) u$&EI ol gd(dichlorine trioxide) a"r@isulfur dictrloride) C) +t}e+ ol ol(diphosphorus hexaoxide)

    2.e I "i7lzl #JaJ f;rlE|t.JE


    +4 s+6J$ql +6J p+olg SzliBf (organicchemistry)olap d+. ol tlE *+Eql^-l fl
    ?61-H,Fol, #zl Ell}E(organic compound)3 +ie} +4= g'g'6tn 9l-e-q dd, ea,
    E= T]EI flie +dg plELEg "J*+. #zl sltJES t **zl q= qq6.J p+.JEtrr+
    E 956l "t9-q. e+qlql^l q]+ +s-6.J +Eg zlzl+r}. #zl sldJEgl .ll6ll^J= 24*ql^l
    zl^l]fl ffi {olzluJ, -il.4 di-llql A4 Be ++E f.zl p}aJE$ d6}rll E 4o14. {zl
    ql^l= 7l* 7J+* frzl slaJE H zfzlq r59 BEHS d7l6}i1zl pI+.

    glloJ

    iql^l= +a gztTt 47H9 +E flzlc+ a6J6tr. gl=ql, olfl slq+E.g g?ile!(alkane)ol


    +a +q. *Ltl rzll, zz\,3zlql zl-zl zJtd'Jrlltg 44 rllElql(-ethane, cHr, qlql
    ^ll
    78 23 B^1. E^1, ol8

    t(ethane, CzHo), ue$|ol(propane, C3H6)ol4:1oJ+. ol;iE +a= Els-r+ atr|


    H H H HHH
    H-C-H
    I

    H-C- C-H
    I I lll
    H-C-C-C-H
    H
    I

    H H
    I I ltt
    HHH
    4lEloJ (methane) 0llEll"J (ethane) E + trllg (propane)

    +F++i= olcB $z| eFJ$ol7l= 6rzltrJ, #zl E}.JE9 EEBS 2.8eql^] ++fl
    H Fzl ol^J+ s+*EE A+e+b +s+. ?frfq.J4l"Jg ol= ¤ql -ane('-9loJ'ol4a
    =
    ts*+trI)g B'J+. Eafz[ 4rl]?l "J4l'J3 tHIgl6utane)olr1. *A+7i szl] oltr-oJ oJ
    4eE A+ql= E 2.6q +4U dF^l-= ^l-S6Iq 'J4leg ol+9 ll=+. qlE Eq +
    i7I87l]ql ceHre9 A+ql= Sql dl'J6l-= d+^I octa-¤4)el "J4lqlg elulali olul
    -ane9 Eq^J 941?l(octane)ol ¤+.

    gll"JE "i7l^l +Edl


    oH7?l Bg ++E fzl :*QlEs=¤.J4l.Jg +i gz}Ti 4*zl(tunctional group)=-}.L {+
    n Etl.rll
    =
    urvll
    7i6l
    PH
    =d
    +lz} dt_qtr zl++g 4o14. q= Eq 9?E(alcohol)g "Jrll.J9 H gzl-= -oH7lE Ht
    E aolr+. "JigE olEe "J4l"J olEel g *ts -aneC9l.J)g -otCS)ol+r Et+q 4
    E gtrI.
    *S H HHH
    H- C- OH H-
    I ltt
    H-C-C-C- OH
    1-ueEJg H
    I
    -oH ttt
    HHH
    oH)l7l 7EL1l
    o1lEJ3(methanol) 0lEJ3(ethanol) l-r eE=(1-propanol)

    "Jagq ceg.Jrll.Jel cen+=,ll+ qe+. qlE Eq "llEllql, qlql"J, EsElloJe E


    EJ^ql e-.J

    E aaql^l= E+ +^q Tlxllolzlq}, ql+$, ql+$, E-E+ge +4 qillolE|. olE sl6J


    EE Ce ilolql 46J ol+E lt+q^-l ffi {olr}.
    1-sE+g(1-propanol)el ol$q^l 'l'ol4= izl-E H g^l-e+ zl++g oH i)7171'+'t
    6) +^e+ A6J6I4 *l'uI?4'+AeI AEl6Ia 9lq= *ol+. ol=qlE 4E EltJE.J z-g
    E'+9('JE ololtuE$ oJa$(isopropyl alcohol))3 oH 4*zlzl +rJq 9lil'* El
    ,-reElg flzlc+ a6J6lq eg + ?li sFJEol+(f.aJ 2.26).
    LaH 2.26 seoJE(CsHzOH) Ezl4S azl"J flxl.9 uH¤ol 4= s+6JE-g ot¤Etdt(isomer)4-L 6J+. ql= Eq 1_=
    e.l+ 7l^174(oldEiJl) ESgr+ 2-E-e+gg, Ezlllol ?zl"J +e^lol r+= +a olCe{(structural isomer)ol
    +. *sE ="s6ll 7lE^J trI"&"J a"F9 olrj{xllz} 9l+g ts}l¤. aol+.

    HefloJ(c+Hro) E + Ttrt oldEi{q +^^tE rat^te.


    A
    *q^J ¤E.J 44 ,Jol, grjl.Jql a6Jg '* zH q¤ r ol^JE +a gz|= +.J* 4i+
    7lE Htg + gl+. tre4lolq +ie+ 4I4 flzlz1 a'J¤ 7l+47\(-cooH) ¤iol r qlol
    +. q-ge *sE EH+al g qq Ai¤-zlE Hq j'l+^qg.tr Lf4H).
    =+(4I+71=
    HHHH HHH HHHH H
    tttt
    H-C-C-C-C-H
    lllllll
    H-C-C-C-COOH H-C-C-C-C-O- C-H
    I

    tttt
    H H BTH
    lllllll
    HHH HHHH
    I

    H
    2- H e tr+ElloJ +Eleti oil= += 0ilE1

    Q-bromobutane) (butyric acid) (rnethyl butyl ether)


    2.e 7l^l z-J-d +71 al-Bf= 79
    =

    #zl sl,*EP +i-+4 ¤6J9 a ^l+g ¤^"ig .f ?lzl trIEq oH+ +.S"J sl6JEol
    "J=qTl+. ,llEll"J, qlEll"J,
    i.Eqts-t "J4lql ,llgn+ qlBg, ql+g,
    gE+
    ^l4}q=
    ge gzl4eE oJ+ E+ ¤rlg + 9l+. ^l¤ol trl eq
    ^l4}q= "Jag 4193 ^l+g
    zlZl EIE "Jrll"J4 "Jig C¤g Eq-rll g+. 44loJ(octane)g szllel *r flzle o1-7q
    1l .Jrll?lee, "JHI4"J 4a4ql^J elillolEl. "Jz)ltol fd zl]9 +4. fl,.lvlzl ¤tlElB,
    HlHBoF. *4 tr+ 8zl, dEd tlHle+ ag 4l+¤ u.l$zl $lal] ^l-8:El: ilijl
    Ee'J E49lB{(polyethylene)S gg + 91tr}.
    =4^q

    qH 2.1s
    EJct+Asl +atal tsfqt{ .tt z;

    E! el | ?.! (pentane) 0 |
    afE gl I
    oJ il':dlEo | ?ltt.
    (a) ol el--JE9 EJ4z1-6 E=Bq ?1+r 7l+!6|r, EJEII?]q +4^lE 4 le. (b) E!Ell?1g E^l4l= a^|9,
    =E
    8ilu > .H.E qlr1l1
    (a).J41.J9 +^'e} fr*oE 9"1 llr,4 *LY q4 (a) tsae o17qd "Jrll{ql dl4lgl(hexane)9 E
    67He.l

    I
    += gTte+ ¤aqq fl+. fleleg d+^t {4 44e +Et7l? b) al,{qle-e+q E}Eqd oJ7g9
    (penta)E s(-*.2.6)= F6rEs, flql'Jg szH9 tsAzI olEr+ +zI43 *i"Jzl?
    5J=E +gg E+.J Xol4. _74a4 EazI+zl]9 *l > s¤ qlr.il 2
    4e+ gaqE+ ++{} +g +^ flz}c+ ¤Ea}H, ot4 ot4 + EI.JES olEq '+ql"J(butane)'o1 fl+. ol
    rHrI ,Jg +6!9 9rl1 ¤+. Eg olde4"J7I? =q
    HHHHH HH
    ttttt
    H-C-C-C-C-C-H
    lt
    H-C-C-H
    HHHHH
    tttlt -H tt
    H-C-C-H
    o1e1aj Tael qlll"Jg 17-¤lElloJol+.r1E o3r|. ru-$'normal' FBI?l(butane)
    tt
    HH
    g*61q. *^-7I6'J =e Llgg A+q oJ(
    ^L.s"oJEI. cyc lo b u tane )
    (b) g+ plqlEg +4= rfl + ?zl9 4+E d+.
    ,^ f 0 |
    El I

    trI+^J =E+
    ¤lEil "Jg ts2t43 CsHrzol4.

    rlt{-g-
    --lde at H!
    e +L
    HfH{
    O H

    zl##olH a H4 +El lxltl zlTlflzlr. flg aol H6IE ?I g+.


    ^lEl
    +. p+E+
    ="*91^l 7t+;:s6J 4.3 4zllE gd6l 6ln, E¤ 4l&g + c+B +^]g a+. E^l E"Jol 4l+
    6llot
    +44+ s5q= 7H'dql ql6ll n+Hqlr]l #"JS"l 4+9 g 6J + _H_7le+ Eliz6llot ++. r-31+ rJ^l-E=g 6JtI q
    6l+ aol4. pol g+ql +i1 -E-zl$ uJszl
    "JHi4"J 7l-ol=+oJg rl-e-$ ^J=ol B617l dg d+E
    qtEI
    ^l1lql
    ar]+ + 9l+. EIEqI 4q+ +ile} EflE zle Bg t+6}rll pet l
    r++el ¤4q 4+ +.J"J ++9 ^le ExllE d6IAl E t+.
    4o14. al^Iolgs s= dtrI¤ ETllE E oll Bol .l]Ell.6J a
    +, +d qd+ sBg 4le.l^14 E+. rqq trE *g
    r. ¤cEl EBI 4B ,Jelql^l: d4¤ Ezllz} zl+ Bg f+6l+ E&4ol ^Ja + 9i+.
    +. ol 4E ",*g ¤+ E^ll= ol+ls} 6'+E ^leq=xllgE]lEl

    tr]l ,J^[
    2. ffial ltt!E{t olfl +¤E E^ilql^l= Bol
    B + 9lE+ +5qe+. C4¤ ExllE =.EE ^l
    =xllB
    Eg E= -H-717I AB-oJ axJH EolE+ ++. rBls
    ol
    "*eH ++ d+E tsg + 914. r4,e Aa.J =
    r^le EEEE ZltI 4Ag 4"lo} ql4. E+ Ex{q^l
    e_ llltl glq Bzl 9*n
    ^J#6irll B-g r.s= s+E
    80 2d g^1. E^t ote

    ?"ltl Ctszt +9ola q¤ Bg s"+61+zl= 4E+6l dql 6J^J izllE ++.61+ ^}J+g B9.z| 9l+). r
    uletufl.F 6J4. =oJ
    Bql 'l]+ ¤Hg #g6LZl E¤ot.J4.
    9s_a149 ,J+qI ¤B6l.2l+ E_s= rqE g q+
    4. Beo1z11 al4}6tr=E
    ufzlu-|etr B.9 r.5 ull9lE: Ez{ql ^lrJg Ezl
    dq+ +9lE ^l-s"6}4 ^Ig ql r]
    "Ji1 ++ql -H-E+ 4lr6J + ++ E:xlls LJqTro[ aJr[.
    4g olgalq *9lz] rJqg= n+49 ts-q
    =q. aol bleE trI^l ¤qE 9zl"J, E_s=.Ex{ql 4+ rl]gr]
    3. ral E8l ol 4 +HI+ql TIot rB Ezllz} u|ezlu.l. ul
    + BE += Ezll= ^laol ++6}al gq.
    4 olfl +¤E Ez,ll= += sB-E oJol}Lz}(^lql B7I =

    so+ "J 6s tq
    Etroll tll-d flrl olE, grt+49 ';zj(2.1H,2.2tr) 8r](atom)E * E= tszl.=Jg Cq6l7I zld +Ag + 9l+.
    E49 zlE +aolq. gxl+ Els fl^En+ aB6J + llE zI* +7lEE(2.5¤) +zl=e(pe.iodic table)t gzf HnTl 67I6t
    lte +glol+. g^lE o]frl grt(subatomicparticle)4E: q +g E +9.e g^=g ul]g+ sol+. olp+4 caol +^I6J +liE
    oJzls +cElq :14. o[92] E^] + H z]xl: d6l¤ Itln 9ls
    g tsl]ilqq 9l+. g^E¤ E(group)ol4-r.
    q d6l= trl: "J^tE SCg r*j1 9l+. Ag d6f=.7ITl E,{+ ^llEaql ^Jle¤q
    6JEl. t]}=o] +q fl= 7l-trgg #zt(period)4n -J+. ql++
    ^1tr "Jq45 ElE, +E d6l¤ 7Id E^l-E=g ^JE gq'Ja+. 9 fla5-g gEL6l+ E4 8A(metallic element, metal)i izl-$
    ol tlql^l ol-fl2[ oJz[e] ga4 5dq] +6J dijg j1+6] .sE g+r+ +,J ++ql 91.L. ul=+ flA,(nonmetallic element,
    H4. dzlat A zltl* r-1e1
    =!,s-6J
    rl|s¤(cathode ray)91 46J Thomson
    ga6lgi1. E+ epJ= rI d6tHl(m/e)E +a6I
    nonmetal)E e- *+ql 9lilql4. ++ ?lie+ El++ gig
    ¤eq^J d^l¤
    A4ltr-ql 9l: gi- ffi(metalloid)ol4r. t+.
    94. ulttanq 7lE%I¤ dEeE d^Iel d6}r*g g + 919trI.
    Becquerelol gaEJ gzl-=ql E6J +^ldE ztg4 ,,J=, + A^l E^tel Exl iFdEe.6tr) flzl¤9 A*se. E&(molecule) zl "J
    i(adioactivity)E Bag 86il g^l7t El zlg +4= r*= Aol + Eqd+. ezle +dg Er] tlEEt(molecular compound)$ -Hf,
    Bqfl+. Rutherfordi Sg ++Eql^l 'Jq+= a .Jxl- &* ¤ g Hl++ 94.-+.EJ ol+q4 91tr1. g^l2rlltr +dE Ezl-E olfri
    += F6ll tlxlt4 EE!(nuclear model)S olEq Hn. "Jd6l-= ¤ E!r[ (diatomic molecule) z]i .J4. 5A el 3C g il=t*l (chemical

    +g "JEel dl(nucleus)ol gzl qlq ¤{6Jg Bt-dqfl4. formula)eE +4utr].. +aI EAg +C gzl-=E fr-44 4+
    e +qzl= tlE*l(empiricalformula)9.e +ElE f ql4. r
    flrl +69 Et}l4 016]|(2.3tr) ga]ql: gflrJ(proton)s]
    Bl+ E# qI Ezf qlql fl= 4 ++ flxl-=9 dx] +e +q
    =S
    Il(neutron)E +dg qol ?|r} trl(etectron)t.q +9lE +rJ xlE Er]4(molecular formula) o-E -EeoJ+. i5'Al(structural
    g +zle+. dz}g d6}"*g Eri Eol(electronic charge)af-L o|
    recol+. formula)$ Ezl Llql^l flz|p9 e{l +^lE ts-{ 64. *-etct
    4, t.oozxl0 "Jzlq daf= "JHI49g ol d6I"*9 Ell E¤ (batl-and-stick model) $ 8Zt itE Etl (space-filling model) 3
    +e LI4U+. r4^] dzFb r-9 d6l¤ z|^Ii1, olCzl* r+ tszI +4ql 4'J izI4"J Ce.g z1;,..3r1.
    I d6l-= TlTl+. gzlel A?*3 .JHI4ee. flr] CB E9t(atomic
    mass unit, I amu:1.66054x10 24 g)e 4rlu4. flzt rzl= + olEat 018 itgE(2.7tr) g^t= dzlE gzlr+ 99 ot
    =B
    t(ion)o1a1-'. d6l= E oJ^l7l g+. rE+g d^l-=i ga oJd6I
    t #E(angstrom. I A: l0 '0 cm) B9l-e. -E¤6JE}.
    fl4=s tfil EE(atomic number), ?]z]qq 9l= .JC^l-g olg, + Sl¤(cation)9
    ^JC6J+.
    Hl++e d^L= gq +d6t
    ie = ee g^L+E
    5gq-. +qTl g^E EE g^I.= olg, EolE(anion)S ol+q{
    '*=4. = ^J^"i++. "Jolgq ¤.olggs
    g^lel e$+(mass number): "Jdzl+e| +Czl+E q}o14. zJ olE EA EEII(ionic compound)¤ 4lzl4 oe 6Colq, trE +
    g g4 + 4*+71+g gzl-= Ei?tfla(isotope)zp ajq. + g^el Hl-.+ fl^= E+ EB.J+. flxl-Eol s^l B4e aqi
    99 9al d6l¤ E ol$$ ctfr] olE(polyatomic ion)olap oJ
    fl^PJ(2.49 gz} ee* B?lE "c flz}9 deJ¤ {$ol 12 amu
    +. olg aB c+6J+g +EI.I= slql^lg dil^lol+. olgE d6l
    4j146J 4g Tlloe 6Jq. 6J gigl flrlEJ(atomicweight, $ .JE, olg aEt E}+gq dil4g ¤rll ¤ + 9l+. FfilEql^l
    r
    + g^I e"J)g g4E E+l g^e.l +xllEle+ e=6tq q+ 41tI =
    ololgE diJl old6}= golgq di] ¤-d6}e+ aE+.
    ¤I-l. Eg f;!{71(mass spectrometer)E ol+6l.E dE4 o-e. gxl-
    6i9 HJS4 81

    +71 EIEIE EBE(2.8tr) EIaJEE olEg BIE¤ e}qr. g lE E Tlrl ,JE-et *71 Et-dE(2.99 Szl ffi(organic chemistry)3
    ElEl(chemicalnomenclature)ol4l +EI. +4= olg e'* +6J +i cl.JE.g ¤+61= Eolol4. +rl s|6'JE +q^J TI^L A+
    E, 4I, olg^I +zI pl6JE F ++9 +rl sl-ql-Eel olE¤ E 6J ag +^e+ +^-tr"J ol+qd eJil*4(hydrocarbon)olr].
    ^ll
    olE ,.llZl4.J %}Bg EI*14. olg A'J sl.JEE olE+ oJolg 4 +^ flzltl ttll! trIg g^l-e+ e6.J6}-ar 9lb esl+^s gxl
    I Hzl HB.J + +olgg $H"J+(G olg$ f,,tlz| Hlql). + P!(alkane)ol4L qlq. "Jrll"JE olE gql=,ilq1.J4 qlEI.Jql
    + gzle +^dg olol¤+ ++n+ ag olEg zI+14. ++ol ^l ^lilH
    -q{(-ane)o145 9,15 E"J4. += ++q #zl s+*E
    E += d6IE oJol+g ^JCg + gleE, r {ali euf fzl-$ 5g "J4l"Jel +^ fl^|= zlf.zle il+6J aol+. ql5 5q s
    *.¤tL+. oJflzl. *o199 olEel ¤q -ideCpl ol9E ?E(alcohol)g'J4I"JE H gzlE -oH7le. u|3 Tlolr|. oj?
    ^I.s"6Iq
    Eqlq. }^el +E g^E s6J6iE 4flz} Solg(ttat! Eol 99 0lB3 qltsg4 q+gq^l trFol "J4l.J olE:g ¤ +Bg
    E(oryanion))* olEq ¤q -ateC4} ol$EE -ite(o1-41ol$E -9(-ol)ol4l H|+q 5¤q. +z|^le azlEJ e6JE Hllgol EIE
    E.J+. ol^JE BzI pI.J¤g olE¤ E"J Ell rrl^ dFq= +^l o l¤Ei{l (isomer) 4-7 6J4.

    ^lq^lel
    4 grq izl¤ 4444. +Tlgsq g+(++ g^e}
    Tlrl+)q\ fl^E B^l 4=+(Eql^l= Hi4).
    =xll6l=

    aJ# tal ot BE a+il +01 qeJEe q¤E :-J


    + ?totot -dtrt.
    . Datton flzlEg 7lB 7I¤g ¤BdJ+(2.1¤). . dE +^t!g +B.JtrI(2.6¤).
    ^14
    +¤ ts+ +A1:2.11-2.14 +¤ g+ +4i 2.4s-2.42,2.4e
    . dxlE ga6}n szlg flzl4 EBg BI-dB +_e dEg ¤E . +zI^]4 +a^l oE+El BzIg
    ^JEn+ +aE ¤E.J+Q.'A).
    a3r|(z.z¤). +H g+ ¤.41:2.1s-r2.18 +fl ¤+ +Ali 2.s3,2.s4
    . gzlE +4= "JdzI, +C^|"i {zl$.<l-$af{ ¤86}q, olE . dzl¤ g4+ gq^J ol9ol qlgqzl: ag ¤Bg + 9lsq.
    offlz| oJzlfg tlEll4t d6}e| g+3 E.E{}tr}(2.3¤). +7lgs=. ole_"o|{ olgel d6l_= {l=+4(z.z¤).
    +B S+ E4'.2.21,2.22 +¤ E+ +xll: 2.s6_s.s8
    . ¤4 Hnq e=*+E E6J6J plq 7lE+ ¤r9l $4$ olgS o1- .ole a6J pl'J¤q de^lg ¤ + 9leq, 4 olgel d6l¤ oJ
    g^f E^l_= s¤qlE}(2. 3¤). r+(2.74).
    +{ g+ z^l'. 2.23, 2.2s, 2.29, 2.55 +H ¤+ E4l: 2.se,2.61-2.63
    .4 gzlq e%rr+ ^J44"J +^llHltr+El fl+g fl2]_gg 76 . slE^] o.tr." q olg A'J sl*Eq ol# ¤ + 91"q, cl*E
    r+(2.44) g olE:e_e+El slql^lg ^; glQ(z.a¤).
    +E ¤+ #4: 2.34-2.36, z.3e +¤ S+ +4:2.71-2.74
    .gzl. {ne+ +qlzJ 5^JE +^}Cg nq6}q ull$o;} fl+el i . olg^I +rl sltlE4 &E ol$ "t plo+lg a; 91Q(z.s¤).
    zl&sqhl g + 9lE +7le} +E 4'Jg dBtl41z.s4). +¤ 9+ EAi 2.7s-2.7s
    +fl 96 #4:2.43,2.44 .*zl clqlEg +ql6}i1, ++6J .J4l.Jr+ oJngq olEg E.J
    . +Tlgsql^l ++r+ Hl++el +lilE ¤B++Q.sA). ;91Q(z.s¤).
    +¤ s+ E^il..2.4r,2.42 +¤ ¤+ +.41: 2.81, 2.83-2.8s
    . +*EE Cge.e+El +^IC Eer+ oleC EAg +Et
    4Q.a4, z.z4).
    +H g6 ¤,^ll: 2.6r, 2.63,2.6s,2.66

    z o HFgl
    OrL l- o -
    gr}"*: >t(Fg 949 d*) 5+l g4
    =xflu1;l lz.rl
    . x (F9l fl4.e1 e*9 716 B+ -e. gzlr6t Zl4I
    "
    OE

    E+l flaoll rt16ll


    82 28i 3^t. E^t, ot3
    OJ6 E4I
    bo.E E= 7flLJ 2.s +g rH + ol+ aEl e+llEs ++qlb ag? E +zI sl
    ol E4lEg 4lt¤ 6t7l-H.+= +s_ TlEg +oJ6f EtEg +$r|b Ae? dq+ ol+¤ ¤B6I^le.
    ^lg ^l-S6Iq
    ag +4ee.J+. EJ4 Hnel gz15 zq Flql qlB.l 9l+. lz_e9, z.zrJl
    =
    2.r dq¤ E .Jzlzl-4s rBr+ eol + d++ ^IolE ^l+r.
    ilL|.12.24)
    (+)
    m
    .I'I'I- ]

    i'.
    .'r'r'r' j

    (i) (ii)

    [-] 2.6 trl-g slil^gg s}+4g ,r ol EI6JEe ol$rjolz|, o|


    ^le.
    ulE tsxl-cqlz}? +,*EE ol$$.9..r.1e. lz.eg, z.sg)
    l,-,
    (a) ol E^IE d6I +n= P9tzl?
    (b) ++E d6}*ol +7I6IH gxlzl. flE AE= +7lg a
    oJ7l, a^Er l.JzL otulB Hslz} S.9zI?
    I
    (c) oJ^Iel +Eb HElol fin E^lel a"d.ol +7I61-H, E^l
    7t fl= 4E= +71.J a.JzL zJ^E a.Jzt, ol4B H
    2.7 +¤. +7lgs9lrl szll ,Jql= 4ol edl4 91trL 7+ i4471
    *zlil2t4? trJEE olg9 dd_= ql=6}^le. O.74l
    2.2 +g rBe zhlgl g^' nevadium(Nv)9 flzl zozHE 44t
    1.14. BSa4 ¤|.* 4. +¤^q **
    rrrN\,ol
    4 . lz.+4)
    2e5Nvol

    (a) ol F4l4ee.
    NvE ql_s.t+n z|{i}r., 4 9a
    ^lE7l
    9 {dle +a}^ls.
    (b) 2e3Nrr9
    =4iul= 2esNvq
    e"d.ol 293.15 amuola, d*ol zss.ts
    a-u48, Nve-l flzlg=3 g"IoJzI?
    OOOO 2.8 trl^g rBg olg eql E},fl¤g LI4u aol+. 834 ""9
    oooo ololgolq, +=4 +g 901¤o14. El*E rsr, K2so4,
    ? ol4 rHq
    :::i: +
    Ca(NO:)r, Fer(Sor)r 6ll%:61^= slqlBg?
    ElEel olE_q-? O.24. z.ag)

    2.3 +g +7lgs9l.<i +41q +ql eql4 9lr+. ol 6 E+


    ^qol
    4 Hl++g 44 qy A"J7l? ga?] E++e qH aql
    7I? ulgC zl4lE? [z.s¤]

    2.e E]-g + ^]Ei


    olcaaloJTp r ol+E ¤E6l^le.
    lz.s9l
    HCl
    tl
    H- C -C-H HH HH
    ll tt
    H- C -C- C-C-CI
    ll
    2.4 q+-rB¤ +^J gzl-= Lt44=zl, olqB olg¤. +4tll= HIHrl tt tt
    ,l? 4*+, ?zI Ha, da65.*.$rJ ol g^el $d6J s+ H-C-C-H HH HH
    qL 7ls=,tr-,r1e. [2.:¤, z.z4] tt
    HH
    Sd^t 15711 + Sdrt 16zli 2.10 Millikan9 zl=*g d?(rB 2.s +4)ql^lE ol4 rBnl
    Aol. +A {l== Ftll o}+ 4g 7lEH}gol .?l-" g+zt4
    Ert 187fl
    + H+l 9lrl+ 44zl= aol *eg+. t2.2el
    (a) {zl1to1 flg ql q6} 4s.z} E+zl} ol+E?
    Ee E^ll 83

    (b) gtr 94zib zlE*¤ol rJzlE ol-+L? 2.t6 _74 z.z4lt) .tr= ar+ pol, ulzlel .Jzlz} F 4E 6}dg
    + ^Iolql^l ¤-zloll gl4. ol E^l7t olC^l-4r.71-C6f^t.
    t f
    (a) zl-{o1 "*48, ol .Jzl+ B Ezte+ ag E}a}e-s glqzl
    :TL olqH Hlql H'6'Je-e +l9zliz}?
    f o a (b) ol EzITl-fl"lzlE aE= B E^lB4 afl$z|, olulg
    o o 4AYzl?

    ;+ z.tz Roth".fordg Eul deql^i 4Ee &+qb o oJzlg HI


    = 7Jol,21le.l gzl-=" e_s ol
    g3 gul.Jzl? EulS :+ 2.ee+
    +q4 9lsq, + g^|e+ flz}4g .I+zlt Ee 44 270
    pme| t.ox10-2 pmolc].('rJs: flz}9 +H4q^J flzlqol
    El-* s+ E4l= 4 e}g 5A +^ll# 4FE ¤e +e4q ++
    7f^l6l+ Hl¤-g al4I'J 4.4 $^l+ql^l +sl gzlqe E
    flEl. fl+ Er]Ee F zBal S+6l.8.i1, g+ Hg Exll(B,J^q E ,JqZl Elgqq 9l4a zlCB 4).
    ,il)ql 4+ dlBe 4 Flql +qd.fl+. dol s= 4+tr+ dol 9l
    Hgg Ezllzt tolEzl ++. 2.18 MillikanS :H 2.sql^.le+ ztol $zl$ 4ql^J adq-= ts
    = zlE,JgE q6F= ¤+4q d^lel Ad-= +46}fl+. 6t q
    EEel flrtEal flxt +6el 'J2l(2.18,2.24)
    dol ol dflg qel B +4+q ,l$Elgel d6l= Elg+
    2.n 1.0 99 oltq +4(cor) ^lE7l-g^ tlqltr Sd6l E4q ?ol 4141619+.
    9, Blo.zn gal +i0.727 g.l ^8d98.4.
    TIEBE
    (a) cgl ql+ oq 4elElE?
    4ltiE d6t(c)
    l.60 x lo-re
    (b) += El6J¤
    ^lE7l
    eqlqq +i
    cn+ 0.42e ,tI^ 0.521 s
    A

    cql ql+ oel 4alulE? B 3.l5xl0 re


    "l ^JCq9qH,
    gzlEql qeB, F Hall EI*E9 dB4g 4.91 x l0
    re
    (c) Dalton9 + C

    9.ol qA=zI? D 6.31 x ro re

    2.r2 +E+ +^E +4e+ +9 + zlzl fl4.tr ol+q4 9l+. de (a) TlEHlgel d6l7l-^le ++ ae +{g EEl6}=7}?
    +4ql^l +El +i 6.s00 sol $d6l E6Iqq gi ^J47I (b) ol dE aqe dzlE d6}ql ql6il qH +q4 ^Idg "J
    slflEt. -r olLTLO
    II
    ^t-/
    (a) 0.38a cq +i7l ^Jdqfl+H, ^Jtg qlE oJg grl-oJ (c) dzlel d6K+E i^l +q)= B"f4l -H-nts + ilYzY/
    7l?
    flrt 7^el EEll4 01afl, flrPJ(2.3E, 2.48)
    (b) ol ¤f, Ar+= qE B49lPBslizt? 2.ts + (ao) 9zI9 Hlzl¤+ "* r.:s Ao1r1.
    zr: + g+^I7l30.82 g9 ¤^'zf 4Ia 17.60 s, 35.20 g,70.40 g, (a) ol zjolg 4:.ulr.l(nm)q ulaulel(pm) +9ls +44^ls.
    s8.00 g4 44 Hlg"6}q ql ,lel EIE e+ql+3
    ^Jd6l- (b) 1.0 mm aolql uilg6} + 9l= + flz}e] +=?
    ^lE
    agtsd6}9Et. (c) g^lel EoJol +Bol+:z zf{a}n. ;- g^t lrllel +ul=
    =
    (a) 4 ElElgql^l a4. r gB &.i9 e-*g ah}6}^le. cm3 tfl-s +61^19-.
    (b) (a)9 ¤4E oaltonel gzlE4 + "*=^lql 4"ll ¤B6I 2.20 -e.E(Rh) flx}9 xlE¤ o+ 2.7x t0 8 cmol4.
    ^ls. (a) EE g^lE HlzlEgA4m Elgle +q-^le-.
    2.14 oJflel ,JEg F6I ololgHr+ 5+9flo +"J ol+qd
    ^.il (b) 6.0 pm aolq HHS.J+ 9lE .EE gzlE +=?
    ++e] +EL+g ild6t9+. ^.ll EaJ¤g ol+il 9= 4 g (c) Rh Szt9 EoJ'ol +Bol4i1zf36}r., Rh ga} ITI]E +
    e*e +-sr+ a9I+. ul$ m3 ggg 7a[]e.
    ^9
    ej-JE otoletrJ9 EaJG) EFeaJ9 EBk) zzt x.z.t+$ao1z1 "Jr ++ eEqlB6I^19.
    1 4.75 3.s6 (a) ?zl¤ +d6h= .JzlE *q"Jzl?
    2 7.64 3.43 (b) dzlE d6}ql ql6J 4 .JzfE
    ^JrllzJ"J {ali $u}olz}r
    J 9.41 9.86 (c) oltr 6)*7171*
    (d) qH oJ^l7l 7l.} =A&tl?
    714+71?
    4slElE.llr.l ololefl r g%l¤Fefl9 e"J=g gEloJTt?
    (a)
    (b) (a)9l.tl ++ Aq+ flxl$g +E6l+7I? z.zz 4* ¤Hol "*Ezl, Er]=4E E^l6l^le. Eflg a+q=
    zrs ^l =.+9 otflxt E^1, oJ^J^|, +czt, 4^l + 7t+ Bal *4 nil^le_.
    ga¤ E4+ +qolq,= ,LlI Llaql tsag Ezl+ +E.J (a) g^tE 4++q e+g gzlqql E+ aolq, g^I4g
    7l? flzt 4*89 Pu.l$ z1z1;3r1-.
    84 26l fl^t, E^t. ol3

    o) ae g^q sE 94+ ee +E "Jc^l-=,*n 9l+. I =A Efi S+ 6Jr*g +Ad+ aol+. al=ql= *g +


    (c) E.E gzl9 d^l++ gzl9 6t4+e} aq. 9 ,"x.4 "0x.9 ulgg- +c++. ol + 5+l g^q ag
    (a) ne fl2}49 oJCxl-E=g z.lfl flSee +e 9l+. dr+ EIE de?
    2.33 (a) flxl.e* +ge.l 7l=ol qE F9l gi= F9.qlz|?
    (a) ol fl4ql ilE oJczl +czl d^IE +=? (b) +^q g^Ie}g l0.8le .J314 914. rEl+ qtr +^
    -zzt'osg^|qlql6llB-61^le.
    O) 'oBql o.},tJzf rzllz| sqqflg 419 9zI zlEb? gzlE 10.8r amugl dl'J6l* 3d¤ 7t^l^l 9*b4. r
    (c) "sql G.\A^l v\71Eqqflg Elig gat 7le!=-? olffi;jgof,tl9.
    (d) (b)e+ (c)qld oJSolzlb gzl='os9 E9l g4.J7t? 2.34 (a) C-12 fl49
    ¤=J¤ H amutzt?
    ,JE r++E qtr +lioJTt? (b) +Tlgsql Ecq flzlrlol tz.otte. s.7lE olP,
    63Cu =?
    2.24 Szl"ll 4ollB-6f^ls. 63cu(g^[
    2.3s A*:az.szga amu. ¤xHul 69.17o/o)4
    (a) ol flxloll glE olcz}. 6c^f, dz}9 ii?
    ^Ifl4qE
    utculgzl-
    4*:6a.9278 amu, EzllEl :o.s:x)9 +7171F"
    (b) 63cuql,rl zlxyzt\z 4lrlltg oll9 ol39 zla.*? 9l fl^zl-¤41.J+. +qq g,]+{B+ g^} ar*)g+6f^le.
    (c) 63cu E?l fll +. +d7l7l367lloJ g^IE 7lg:=-?
    2.36 al¤4ql= +HlE-8s(g^f d*:8a.et88 amu, ¤xllHl
    ns @) gz} HEel e"6E+E Ael6l^19-. 72.1sc7o)* +HlE_87(gxt ee*:86.e0e2 amu, *xl]Hl
    (b) olE +ql^J F"J6,J g^q^l
    g+g + il= ae?<iol 27.s5%o)4 + 7l^lt:+l gaTl +xll6Jr+. +HIEE g^l-=J=
    2.26 (a) i;x, ?lx, ?zx +rJeg^gF+lg^+1+=q:=4"J7n (¤+ gzt a=*)g +6}^le.
    o) (a)ql^-l dq6JF9l g^E qE g^oJ7|? 2.37 (a) rhomson9 7I&EC+(rB z.a)4 e* e^l7l(rg
    r]g4 flaE o;^dzl, ?Cxl, dz1g 4+E? 2.u)ql^.i= d6l¤ ts Ezl¤ 3e^l7lzl fla|{ {zl{
    (a) aoAr (b) 65zn (c) 70ca (d) 80Br (") ttnw 14 243Am $$ zlzllt$ ol+oJ4. 44q dEql^J dq¤ E "Jzl
    -227gE+ql E *T"JZT?
    ^l-sq= +s E+l +l^E "Jczl, +c^L d^Ig
    2.28
    1l+=? o) e"J^dlEHe.l lEz+4 qtr a|qldl'Jdl+7t?
    (a) oJ-:z (b) (c) 7gE-60 (c) 9E gzlE e=J ts^l EeBlE, gztE t zll
    =+g-51 ^ElEBg
    (d) qlsLJlE-ee (e) ololefl-131 (0 B6-zot E= f oltr-E dzl-= gqot +Et. r olf+ +9."J7t?
    qg Fg"J dzl^F| zITltL slq^l Cl*eI Cl2* olg ¤= El "*
    HlrJ¤ ill+^ls-. 4 ge 6C flxl-B +4.t1= aol+ ol
    a 7IA+q. E¤qY ae?
    -zs 7le ,,Br 2.38 rB 2.lrel A* -E-^t. El-8- ¤Bol '*EzL E4
    ^EEHS
    g*g
    gge- ul.e4l rzl^ls.
    *c4+ 25 82
    (a) ?c(dal¤ qr 9lzl *9 gzfE aeE
    =rI?
    6C4+ 30 64 ^|71+q Edl
    H6I^l ?+}trI.
    dzlf 48 86
    o) e* 4 sl=.q +olE E9 g^9 e=*ql
    e"*+ 222 207 ^EEBql^l
    HlHl4lt+.
    2.30 E++ HlrJg il+^le. 4 ge +d gzl-= +ElqlE aolel (c) iq{
    g^.ql^1, ee} qa 211;3
    ^}¤zls
    r TICt+. ^ulEHg
    -e. +4]6IE g^q E9l fli zl]fp] ?4.

    TliL ',2cd 2.3e zI¤Zlql^J EE u}:r-llf, t.+l g^q +xllEl= trI¤-4 rJtrI
    *^J^l-+ 38 92
    E+|fl^ flrl traJ(amu)
    6d^I+ 58 49 ,,Mg =r[Hle/.)
    78.99 23.98504
    dxlf 38 36
    "Mg 10.00 24.98584
    a*+ 8l 235
    'uMg I l.0l 2s.982s9

    z.:t IBzlp] o}4l azF=i ^l-*6fq q-+ Eeg plct zln-a 4 (a) Mg9 E+ g^l4"*g gtrIoJTt?
    +Lll^ls. gs6|E *E^l qI+E g^ ++g ol$alr.le. E^l
    (b) tvtg9 e=* r4^le.
    (a)f{xfz11187HoJ E+9 E9l g4 ^EEB9
    z.+o 4* +^l7lE g^Itr+E E^fE g+q q E+ol zll
    (b) a++ 840J aBEel F+l g^ ^i^s"gq.
    3+ql^l E + 9l= a4 eol, +z}*g E^l¤ oli= -gzlE
    (c) d*fzl-zst ul^9 E9l 9l
    flzle*g *o14. H, +^l.71-H flzte EaliElzl ?+= saql
    (d) ,Jg f9 olcz}q +txl-= Tirl ElrLll+q E9l fll r.l Hz9 d* 9fl4. z}¤4lql +^E E
    2s2 g r+ag g+61-= %LB +q 6F+= s4 + g4: ^EEHS
    lH(flzl =zl]6l:
    ^l+714dol 9l de*:r.oozsl amu, ¤xl]Hl ss.ssaso/o)e+
    E6 85
    =^l
    ,u(flz]-
    d*:2.01410 amu, ¤^l]Hl 0.01ls%)z} glrl 2.47 Ll+ 4 p|.J¤q Bzl^l!+ dE^lg F9..Jzl-?
    (a) d* E+ 9lE 4=$ 211i52 H
    H
    (b) 4
    ^EEHql^l
    q39
    ^J4zl.J A"*g? N...
    (c) 7l* ulee+ rltl z+g qr= q- 4"J71? -N
    = H H H
    +7 EE, Er Et Er l Et-srE, 0 ltu t 0 |3 eEr 6,F!f;(2.5*2.7 8)
    l
    2.48+ E.eE Ez}^lr+ dql4ol .Jil++. + E4ol a3 elEi
    z.q 4* 4 ?aq clq zlse+ +7lgsql49 9l^lE? E6J 4 Eol4r E+ + 9l=7|?
    fl4z};-4, Hl++ + qqql dl'J6l+zlE ac6t L4, q*E^l49 ?*Y4 e+,*Eq ¤E4g r
    =++, ^ls.
    ^ls. (a) A12816 O) CsHro (c) C#sOz
    (a) rEE O) gE (c) oJ (a) oI¤
    (d) P4Oro (e) CoHaClz (0 B3N3H6
    (e) u|:uil6: (0 trE"J (g) HIA
    2.s0 trl^S Elql-EE dql^lr+ Ez}^lg +d}^le_.
    2.42 E.l+ g^9l olE. gz} Ha, +TlgEql^lE +l^l=? E+
    (a) tsi gx1 02fl4 +d gz}67]|E ol+q4l fzl *,ll.J {l
    4 g47f ++, +++, El++ + qqql 6HBal=^l= AA6f
    dGenzene)
    ^lg. (b) +c ?17,1- lzle} g^ gxl4zl]E ol+qa a+q a9 g
    Li (b) Sc (c) Ge (d) Yb (e) Mn (0 Sb (g) xe
    (a)
    qE
    .E7l +A(silicon tetrachloride)
    ,$ q+ 4 glE p]4 zlgel olEol +sL aE ol=.(s 2.3)g (c)
    ^Ig+
    B}' flzI zzll4 +^ gxf 6zle ol+q4l H}+dol .ke
    lrr', ol{ol ++, El#+6 qH aq dlr}d}=zlE oJ(diborane)
    =++, Ee oJ
    4ol Eq
    ac6I^le. (d) ts4 gxl0zL +a gz}127H, .tla $z| ozfl-tr ol+qt]
    (a) e461 (b) olol9tr (c) n|rLll+ 1a; ole.E (e) *
    + qro}(glucose)
    2.44 14+ gA= +E Eo.e LlleJTlH^l 949 SCol ull+ +
    zsrclg 4 E4ql= 9 zl9 f4 g^I7l 9=7I?
    olBzl H+EI. ol +q fl= 4 g4q olE+p+E 7ln¤ )^
    (a) C2H5oH (b) Ca(CH3Coo[ (c) (Nrq)rlo,
    j1, *+, +-'=+, Hl++6 q¤ aql 4'J6l+^l= AC6|^le.
    2.s2 .-l;^ EIE+^lql EEL¤ g^Iel +s-?
    * :zB3 n-*El"Jnl- olol4+qloJel +a^lol+. (a) CaHeCoOCHs 49 *a gz;
    (a) 449 +a}4g r
    -zas(b) 449 dfl4g ^19. (b) ca(clo3), +el &4 g^I
    ^A^le. (c) (NHT2HPO+ 49 i4' fl^f
    (c)F cI6JEg +B6|EE dql^], BzI^1, +44 + qtr rl-g- BzI EBg r*E +EIEE E^l4r+ +a4g .,A^ls.
    ag ^l-+6llot
    6l+71?

    HHHH
    tttt
    H-C-C-C-C-H
    HIH
    rlr
    H-C-H

    H_C-C_C_H
    H
    I
    -2s3
    eoa " e"
    HHHH
    tttt tll
    HHH
    (a) (b)

    -butane isobutane

    2.46 Hldg +71 +q HI+q zl+ ^l-ss]= +^qe] EiIolq, oI


    ^.ilB{lg
    rg +de.l ¤Ee ^Fsq= Tlillol+. oi?{ rBg
    F s|,fl¤g +-Eql EBol+.
    (a) 449 Ez}4g il^le. (c) (d)
    (b) 44e) dB^lg ac6}^ls.
    z.s4 E++ B^I EBg r*= ElqlEE +^t^l+ +a4¤- ,^,rle.

    benzene
    e=$
    acetylene
    (a) (b)
    86 28 fl^l-, E^1, olP

    z.on oJolgrt 9ol* tt ll E6fl +Eqzl= olg a-J El6.J+9 r^l

    - H"l Elg s.¤.SC6I^le_.


    CI olg Na+ Caz* Fe2* Al3+
    o2 NazO
    No:-
    (c) (d)
    Son2

    2ss rlg- Eq ElrJg 4+^ls. AsO+3-

    TliL s96o3+
    2.6s trl-g plelEol szlcoJzl, ol3^dglzlE ql+61^le.
    oJC^l+ 34 76 80 (a)B2H6 O)CH3OH (c) LiNO: (d) SczO:
    +^J^l+ 46 116 120 (e) CsBr (0 NOCI (g) NFi (h) Ag2Son
    dzlf 36 78
    2.66 E.l+ alql-gg olg aq} +tlE"J7L B^I +*g.J7I?
    9aI dof 2+ (a) PFs (b)NaI (c) SCtz (d) Ca(Nor,

    2.sd trlg Eel HlrJg ifl+^ls-. (e) FeCIr (0 LaP (g) CoCOr (h) N2O4

    3lP3-
    718 +7t EF*E EEg, rJEEt 37t EtgE{2.8tr, 2.etr)
    olCzI+ 34 50 2.67 E+* "lgel Els}^lg A^ls.
    6C^l+ 45 69 ll8 161
    olgi4}(chlorite) olg 0) ¤+(chloride) olg
    dzlf 46 76 (c) Bi4}(chlorate) ole- (d) rlgi& (perchlorate) ol9
    Sai dot 2- 3+ (e) 6|0l Eg i4}(hypochlorite) ol8
    2.58 EleJ SoJ g}oJ dql# +4 +^I6J ++$-9 "JEtrI. +
    z.sz rJS9 4 g^= sl4 HI+q^l olgol g + 9l+. +7lgE g olgel olg$ jr.rle.
    +r6}q ,I+.JC{ "lgel d6l¤ ql+6t^le-. (a) SeOa2- (b) Se2- (c) HSe- (d)
    =
    (a) Mg (b) Al (c) K (d) s (e) F
    HSeOr

    r1*. o+"JEg oJolgr+ golgq d6l"* q ol=¤ r^^ls.


    z.ss +zlsEE "l+4q 4-$ s+-egq "JEqzl: "lgel d
    (a) CaO (b)Na2Soa (c) KCIOa (d) re(NoJz (e) Cr(OH)r
    6l¤ ql+6}^ls. -x,
    (a) ca (b) Sr (c) As (d) Br (e) Se 2.70 L++ sltlEel ololg4 sol*9 d6I=J "i olfi$ r.r.le.
    (a) cuS (b) Ag2SOa (c) A1(CIO3)3 (d) Co(OH)z (e) PbCO3
    zsc +rlgs.E ol+6}q El-g- g4Eol trJE= +*EE clE4
    qg olg eql cI6JEel olgg r
    4 ol+g ql+6}^ls_. ^ls.
    (a) Lizo (b) Feclr (c) NaClo (d) CaSo: (e) Cu(oH)2
    (a) caq F (b) Lie| H (c) Al4I (d) Ke+ s
    -z1 (0 Fe(NoJ2 (g) ca(cH3coo)z (h) crr(cor), (i) K2croa
    2.60 47.18 e -e+4 zl* $ EI#l ol gE d6l+ 3 1 ol r|. :'zJ
    ^lb 0) (NH4)2SO4
    Er+ q-S g47I +ElE-3 ".IE q qdlq= ++4r+ olE+?
    (a) otolsB G) * (c) ?c 2.r2 Ll+ olg a{l slql$E olfi¤ ,^^ls.
    *, r1* oleEql E6Iq olg AEI s+6J59 ++^lg el
    ^JC¤
    (a) KCN (b) NaBrOz (c) Sr(OHL (d) CoTe (e) Fez@O:L
    (0 Cr(NOJ3 (g) (NHJzSOT (h) NaHzPoa (i) KMnOa
    +6I^le.
    (j) Ag2CrzOt
    (a) ca2*4 Br- (b) K*91co32- (c) Al'*91cH3coo-
    (d) NH4+9+ SO42- (e) Mg2"9| PO43- r+*E+o.JEE EI${g ^,-^ls.
    (a) f^JsI oJ+El-h(aluminum hydroxide) (b) *4I ee56t
    2.62 L++ ol¤-r^6e.e+e] El¤q^lb EIEIEE s}+4g q+61^le-. -Ln (potassium sulfate) (c) A}al +4(I) (copper(I) oxide)
    (a) cr3*4 Br- (b) ,.:+91- 62- (c) Hg22*e] Co32
    (d) ca2+9} Clo:- (e) NH4*91Po43-
    (d) et o|$(zinc nitrate) (e) u eu3p1- f9(IlXmercury(tt)
    bromide) (0 E'tI 610l+Hg
    E(ItI)(iron0u) carbonate) (g)
    z"or .*otg+ g"lg,Jql Eoll "JEq4E olg aEl +,*+9 r4
    "J+I lE$oaium hypobromite)
    Bq q'* s.E SC6I^le.
    2.74 E++ olg aB s+qlEE q}4^lg 4^ls.
    olg K+ NHa* Mg'* Fe3+
    (a) .J4I iE(sodium phosphate) O) e4l o|$(zinc nitrate)
    CI KCI (c) ugu341 u|$(barium bromate) (d) r+g^t e(II)
    oH- (iron(rt) perchlorate) (e) E4if4 zEe(It)(cobalt(II)
    Cor'- hydrogen carbonate) 19 o|,tll tr & E(III) (chromium(Ill)
    =.E
    Po+3 acetate) (g) +ol =.-EE,l! Effi (potassium dichromate)
    +7lEa E^ll 87

    2.7s c++ olE E= +E^lg 2.80 zqg 9l+ trH El-gr+ ee ++ +fl Etlg dE + 914.
    ^A^le.
    ^}9 0)
    (a) HBrO3 HBr (c) H3POa qzlql t#g 4Eaq slol^lg?
    (d) 6}0l gg^&(hypochlorous acid) (a) *{}fi }S(sodium hydrogen carbonate)3 gf^I.tr.
    (e) ol-ol9Bt(iodic acid) (0 ol*4}Gulfurous acid) 4"J+.
    2.76 I:l+,tI9 olE E= ++^lg r^^ls. O) alols.g4& zJf(calcium hypochlorite)9 sul *.-!91
    (a) ofol9fl ffi4.{!(hydroiodic acid) 4rttri.
    (b) ¤44}(chloric acid) (s) o|{4}(nitrous acid) (c) .i.|o1 oj51 f3:(hydrogen cyanide)i Ed='C 71 4l ol trI.

    (d) H2CO3 (e)HCIoa (0 CH3CooH (d) +,il+ u[:t]1f,(magnesium hydroxide)g ¤^f4ls raqlE].

    qg olCts ts^IE olg EE clE4g r (e) EFsflol i4(ID(tin (II) fluoride)* ilEel E+sA
    ^le. flzlzlltr A.JtrI.
    (a) SFe 0) IF5 (c) XeO3
    -y77(d) ol ei(dinitrogen tetroxide)
    (0 *sl *&e_e 4E6lE +s+
    zfEE(cadmium sulfide)g

    (e)
    ^I,tlcl
    o,191
    .r.1-o1
    f4(hydrogen cyanide)
    i^z141zl gdt+.
    ++el rlol(tetraphosphorus hexasulfi de)
    (0 isl (")- tsi++4+ #g.JzI? (b) S4l9l(pentane)g ++' g^l
    szlel ol+q4l grllql a}+Eol+. +a4, E^l^],
    2.78 4i 41ffi-q E^l zlqg +s +71 eg Eeol4. +¤- + ^l¤.E
    6JE9 ol+g r dE{S'r^^19.
    ^19. oldeill+
    (a) NzO (b) NO (c) NOz (d) N2Os (e) NzOa 2.s2 (a) F{¤ "5.1.b71? $) oll4loJ(ethane), E_Esll
    ol$ropane), Bell oJ(butane), {lEl (pentane) f oll,!
    oJ
    4 o1

    '49 ¤B +ql t+g 4 Eeq s+q4g ^^^ls(ol 4E $ zllT} +z116l+


    "'3

    E.zl oJ+ql fl= flA 7ls


    -zzs(a) E& o}fl(zinc carbonate)S
    ^l-s-o).
    7I96IE &q- oi¤(zinc r"83 (")- zt+71+ +tql7}? (b) "Ja+g L}qql= zISzlE *9.
    oxide)4 ol4}pl EA(carbon dioxide)ol
    Bdg+.
    oJzl? (c) ¤lEloJ(pentane)oll,t] f^ 17HE il+}6|q "J5qxl
    (b) ol4Is+ fi(silicon dioxide)E ++sflF++d4l b l-¤l*g(l-pentanol)el +44g r4^le.
    (hydrofluoric acid)oe. ilq6}E qltr3l-=+gfls+ +4 2.84 ql+g, seqloJ, dl^ll"J "i Etr+gr+ ?Je +71Eeg ^J
    (silicon tetrafluoride)$ Eol Bdg+. 46l] H4.
    (c) olts| *(sulfur dioxide)¤ Erl HI+6Iq ofgltl (a) olE + q! zlzlizl?
    Aol oHTlE
    (sulfurous acid)9E HIfltrI. + 37llq E4 g^l¤ s6J6l+ ag?
    (b) olE Ezf
    (d) t+.}'P+ oJ(phosphorous trihydride)g tsF E^S =Eol"JE +i flxle| {!}ap gl= n rzgg cltr il+61-
    6lq, +4qI 7l illoltrl.
    (phosphine)ol4a
    H + q ol(chloropropane)o1 uJ=,
    (e) 4$A,tlberchloric acid)8 TIEE+ Hl*61-q 4gA& -z"ss(a) =-eeo F 7I^l olCedq +=^lg
    "O. r?-l^le-.
    zI=.B(tI) (cadmium(Il) perchlorate)9e Ecl6J+. =-trEueqlqlE
    (b) ol + sl*Eg ol$qg 4ql6J ag?
    (0 Htr"Js} u1ffi(Itt)(vanadium (III) bromide)3 lH?9 oldAill= ,*=trI. 4r:E +449=
    2.s5 $qloJ(CsHr)g 34le]
    ts -L;1o1r;-. r?-l^19.

    +71-oJ+ +zll
    ol ¤+ EEI= ol tlql^J ¤E'J r]l+ +^JE +gqq 9lzl"J, + Eizllllzl?
    xllBtr L+h^l= ?+9IEl. ol E4lEe %}etr qq flzl e*4. (b) !E
    ar+q 7la6}q d49 d6I+3 warmomb t9E
    2.87 qB 4*ztz| Millikan9 7lE%Ig dEg 4¤al$.+. :r.fl +6f^ls.
    rll ol $olzfi %Igq d6l-= warmomb(wa)4= ,Itlg + (c) (b)9 Bql 4+ 4 1llgs.l d6}q +dg {z}el /1ffi

    fle *r1a1q q+rl,Jg A+= efl4. +d|^le.


    (d) warmomb EfleI coulomb +99 S4} elzlE?
    TIEUJE rlltE dat(wa)
    A x 10 8 3.84
    2.ss zlg4lql^l 3Heel +^l]El= 0.0001377oo14.
    (a) 3He gzlql= H zll9 "JCxL +Czt "l dzlzt il=7|?
    4.80 x t0
    8
    B
    (b) olEE olg^I E^Ig dz} Elol +lzlE e"*ol4r 7la
    2.88 x 10
    8
    C
    6JtrlH. 3He gzle+ 3H flxI6 qL lol rl .flzlgz|!
    D 9.64 x 10'tt
    (c) (b)9 a4¤ +"J61-71 9+q gs'J e* 84219 3"J
    Hlgg aTlTl rJr+4, qtr B}gol 7IT da6l q-
    "JqI EE
    (a) E= aEqo} 6l+7I?
    88 2Al g^1, E^1, olP

    2.8e + Eol 1.00 cmoJ C+Eal soJq +9 e*g le.3 eol4. ulE r.a, 24.1. 22.1, 52.4Voo14. folt rJlolrlE
    ^F*6lq BE
    + g^l lZlE e*g le7.o amuol4. flz|ffifa[]e.
    (a) ol c+Halq= + gz} E zllzl o,JYtl? z.g6 zJ#(Ga)g zl$4lq a=J'ol 68.e26 amu* 7o.e2s amuoJ F
    (b) + g^tE zlBS Aee 4* g"Itzl? 7I^l Eg $az}9l4.
    (c) (b)9 B9 Bzl 9l4q q¤ T}dol gs+7P (a)4 F?l fl^9 gxtqql 9l= *C^le+ +^dztel +=?
    2.e0 +HlE:(Rb) gxtg zlEg +.ss [olr[. -sH9 g^]7] ++:r. 4 F?l giel fli zlc.E }'r flzI Hie] {r3;g g
    BiJH dHgqq llrla z1zga1x1. Ae-.I Ellgql^J= EE gxl- ^l6I^lg.
    7I .JBe ullgElq A^I4B 47,1-= ol+a 9lEI. Be+ Ag (b) ca9 Bt gal e"J(gz}"t)g 6e.72 amuol4. 4 59,l
    Ellgg 4"J $oJ(close-packed) ullgol4n 6Fbql, E+* g $ie] fz1lu15 +6I^1e..

    ^l+9 *+6J *91 flzlEol +lil,J+. 2.97 CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physicsuf http://www.
    webelements.com F9 +il Edg +461q Niql qlql q-¤-
    +++ l.l'l. g 4^t6l^ls.
    +++ YYY
    al.,^
    Y. Y, (a) 944i F9l flaE +
    +++
    Y
    l..l^\ g^t {g(amu Egl)
    YYY (b)
    (c)
    ^lsql^l
    7I+ Elol s7l^l tl9.1 94$ fr1lu1
    AB =7ll6lb
    2.e8 rJsEJ g^Iq Egl g^b + ++olr+. -trFq
    (a) A tslgql^l Hol 1.0 cmoJ C^l.4¤ .Jql EqrJ + 9l
    6J =aql^Jb
    gd t}49l H-e,EJg Br2 $z| tr4e Br' $zle1
    Rb g^l+ H zl]"Jz}? ol =zl]alq,
    = e"*g + SzI9 3=J9 +r| aq. eEJ E^l
    (b) .EHel flz| u|lpol Be+ Ag ql, '* Hol r.0 cmoJ C^I rJglzge1 ^ElEHql
    ^lE
    El^q-I+ 4=zI44*4.
    4B .Jql 5qa + glb nu 9zl* H 4lc,J7l?
    (c) A ullpoll,rl B HIg.tr. H6}H^J .trBql+zll6}E g^IE zl EB(amu) EleolSEll4 ?71
    += qtr Elge +7I6Ib7l.? +i}+loE *4.J48, m 157.836 0.2s69

    ++9 "JE7I q +g dllgg? l 59.834 0.4999

    2.er (a) flzt4 fl2}49 azlzl tfl 2.10r+ A+.r. TlAEl ull ?l
    16r.832 0.2431

    zlel +qql^l flol rizlalf Hlgg? (b) oJ,{z}el zl5$ (a) cl=z}444E ol+E +Et7I? (qts Ffl g
    4l zll9
    l.0x 10 tu rn4tr 7LA6J q, oldz}9 "JEE g/c-'BflE +eqq ilEz}?)
    ^7|
    (b) 4F+l g4E e+e 9uI'JzI?
    +6I^le-(E 2.1e1 oj{z} e+3 A.
    ^l-&ts
    2.e2 L+* 7lo+ s^l6J g4= +l.J7t? 4 gdE "J^J^Ie+ +
    (c) Br2 $ulel gt ea}g QuloJzt?
    (d) u euJ g^I9 ¤+ A?*g gElglTp
    cz}9 i= 4 o^ls.
    (a) 1lx (b) "ulx (r)'?'rx (a) '33x F F+l flrel 3z1lu1g +6}^le-.
    (e)

    6Li9 z.ss 4* +4Hql^l= olgplqTl d ge4 ole+g oJoleel


    2.e3 flu143 +Cxl-= dal sq6}q, ?-1E ++9 7.so/o 4,
    ,J4l7IA++.
    E7l6Li E9l gcoltrl-. crJ49.e q+7lE rl]ts6}H qlql d=Jol
    (") 'H4'H*9 de*9 ilolE +El47l 916ll^l= +e- i^I
    +i ++ql
    = +r.16tfl+. ^F*6I71
    9l6}q 4*9 r]E¤ z]?.l6}q 6Li
    a4qE 4E.9 uriE +=6ln ts H zI4zt gs6J7l?(E 2.r +v)
    = ^l^Jql^] (b) dalel dz*g's 9zI4e*9 q qdtrE ilzl6]+7|?
    3 ++ols.+.
    (a) 6r,iel'ri flx}q9 +C E4-= S9..Jzl? 2.100 Ar, H, Ga, Al, Ca, Br, Ge, K, O g4 + (a)-1i1 a}E gg
    6LieI 7ri$ ql 7I+ 4t}+ ag 6J 7l^lEl dq4^le.
    O) fl21- 4*e ?:,+ 6.015t22 amu, 7.016004
    amuolE|. 6riE E4aln tsg r]E 74. ,r.l-e= E^J61fl (a) .JJ4 ?+ O) "J,Jr,] tr++ (c) ElSd zl;ll (d) tse.41
    cl! uri9 olol r.442%o9(4. ol *4 BJ-g^lr"* (e) 6*4 (0 r4+el ul#4 G) 3+ olgg Bt6I= ++
    ^lEe.l
    3 g"f"Jz}? (h) 2- olgg Bc6l+ Hl++ (i) gFolts4 ulf6-f, fla

    2.e4
    ^|fl41q= ^il ++q
    &^ flzlzl 9lirll, 449 6dzlE e, 2.101
    ^Itrfr(Sg)9
    !a fl4s=3 leT4LJql "JEqAq. "JEqd
    e. l0zlol+. +, 7l* sqSq} t.+l g^E eE*+= 26601 *.trI.
    =zl]+
    E+l gr9 sd.J++ TlqE r
    (a) ol ,q TIzl (")'uuSg gz}g oJ^JzI, ?Cat, dzlE +E?
    ^ls. (b) sg S4+,ll+ B"JA6l7l EIEqI g^IE 5Cg ¤+61
    (b).rll57e14I^ gzlE Ae e+ +g dg ¤B6I^le_.
    7l7I EI+
    2.es zl-gZlql B(pb) E9l g^9 A*e 2$.e7302, "184. fzlgE.ql^lE ssg +laE nqEl
    =xll6}.=
    20s.97M, 2M.97s87, 207.9763 amuol4, 4 Ffl fla9 ¤xll
    ull, sg9 p+El4 5dg qg $l9l zl$ zl,l$zll
    +7lE+ E^ll 89

    2.102 il^l SEol eBtr Ellql= Ag *^l-C E 2. 108


    ^f
    ol t (cyclopropane)$ *"1 eS tsp++4'ol +.
    Etr :a
    -tr ull
    ^EEE(sr)_sor+
    I fl4z} B^J"JE}. +7lgsq^lg srel flzlS reJ?'lq 3419 +^ g^I7I oJg.E HHtsqq flzl ?*r nil BqE
    ol f,gl glrz|.Jilql561 6liEg ol+= ¤96.t^li_. HHgqq fl+. trt+ fBg ol sI.JEe] F^lEol+(+zlE
    2.103 rrl+9 ltlE EAg zleol le mmoli AAI t.s mmol4. 5,r.lEE rB 2.18 +a).
    Fdg ++d +qe "JEqAr, "JEel 7l4ol44 8.e sl
    cm3el uf-$=B 2.40BEl4l. 7;C61zl. EdE F4lrI t"J

    2.104
    6IEII 7lC6In, Fdql^l +Eq Ag Zl4I6I^le.
    El+ 34+e ZE +3ee. tEqd olqqrJ dcl ol3
    .>,
    (American Silver Eagle)ol+-7 Eq: lBBl 5dg
    H
    ^J,tI+
    +. ol Fdg xl.=ol 4l mmoltr +4]712.s mmol4. 3 ^Iol=eE+qltg Elq ulfxll_E ,r.l-grlzlE 6i9s+, t
    3rlCol q+ rJ6I^l q oltl ?+r 9l+.
    el "JE "t ql+zl"J rlat
    zl43 :tqcl7:7f r0.5 g/cm3 "i ^l-+q^l
    o.slgelol+. Fdq F4lrI +"J61+i1 7IA6Ii, Fdq^l
    (a)
    ^Iol=EEEq{el de^lg Ft.Jz}? seqloJ
    (propane)9 ¤'¤{q=
    ge1l}g 4l4}6l^le. "lBZl 4Ezl?
    G) rzll9 +a gal+ BEql +q 91trt. + ao+E 4lTldol
    2.10s o}4el Ezl +4 + rts slBEql 6il"J6I= 4g?
    9olali 43 tttzl?
    (a) ¤4 Tlal O) E-etlloJ (c) d4I ol8 (c) ?l :H I +a6lq E ol (chlorocyclo-
    -tr ull
    (d) at4lc+ * (e) EpI EllB(cH3cr)
    propane)$ rE =EE^|ol =E
    -H-^19. ol^J

    dillTl
    =Etr^tol=eEsgl'J*
    =416|=71?
    2.10e +71&e9 ?g +ql *= giEol "Js5 469 olee
    glq^lol +^16I+. +olgE eg BIBSE BBtl4. .lel
    + a"Jql 44 trI.* 4 ol89 cl.q}^l EE olE$ *.tle.
    (1' (ii)
    Broa- (b) SeO32- (6) ul4,l!(arsenate) ol-o
    (a)
    (d) B+E& fi(hydrogen tellurate) ol$
    SI 2.n0 +tl*.E +ql= +oI 9l= ol^IE+ E^tr+q et
    lcl (carbonic acid)ol El-=qd4. B+Iol ++cl qEr+ qls"6t

    H +& 4E.l "JE"lrlEl, ts4} rlEe +960l+ 4¤+


    (iii) (iv) ilEq tst}, +4lp+ 4E, ts& EEq Elq4g
    ^l-8-9tr1.
    .*^19.
    \
    2.lll +Eql^J d4 g + 9l= q+ +'JEE ol$$ ;rrle.
    (a) NaCl (4'+) O) NaHco3(tsllolrJ (c) NaOCI(S.Eq
    xll 44) ^trD
    cE) (d) NaoH(7I^J (e) (NH4)rco3(ts6}9) (0
    CaSO+(}'!J.)
    (v)
    2.112 +Eql^J y*ol d6lE ++ Eag Eli.ll4lzl.J oJHlH¤. ,*n
    2.106 El-g 4 &+Bq olg$ A.r.le. 4 +{}Eol olg AB e+E} 914. trtgE}*EE xl4Be?
    gol4r 7IA'J 4, ++ g^E d6l-t-? (a) a^J(KNo3) 6)^.44(NazCo:) (c) 4sl(cao)
    (a) NiO (b) MnOz (c) Cr2O3 (d) MoO: (d) +elolqt(Hcl) (e) Epsom $(Mgsoa)
    z.to7 cl+ tg ill+^le.
    sE Hl (0 EI:1LJI
    ^l
    of+(milk of magnesia)(ug(Os)J
    gole Bo|8 Eltrt^l ol= 2.113 E*g olgr+ e}6J¤ol ,ll+ Hl*+ olE¤ 7}zlq, olg ola[
    A}E} EE q gE6l7l d4. trlg 4 tlg +q^lg i!^ls.
    Fe2* POa' (a) *pl A+, +E++d rJ+. (b) -E--aEJE++44I, +"J4I,
    'r
    Al2(sor3 (c) ds| gFolts, old&.JF"]ts, (d) tlsl e(rD, tlsl e

    e& +4(rr) (ttD, (e) "Je-qot, oJEts olg. (0 oI+41Eq+, ot+&+


    Cr3+ I_ EEls:, G) HpI4l"J+9, $a| xllol4g, (h) g4^1, 4
    MnClO2
    ^E+UL^L
    cd

    EAi sEb 2.14 g^l.E qtr 5+ql4 ,Jr.J qqol 4+6lb7t?


    r+gd^l oi¤
    q

    I I
    tt
    ,/
    4
    )r/
    "l
    I
    A
    I

    \
    ' :rar'
    +
    \
    T
    \
    !
    !

    I
    rrl
    H.
    rIt!t{
    :*(H il
    r*t'.
    i ,,

    r I
    ,. I rh#l
    iil |ill
    t L

    4r
    -i-.rrat---r-r.. tI tl .+{
    ffi
    I

    l-lr - '- t
    L a--. f-
    rc
    l.EfE
    t" ..,
    {
    -a 6-''/
    { \ - ¤:7, fr
    I. ,l
    i* IB.jr
    7i'
    \
    .rS
    l.i
    l. G$
    fi
    ,.< :L
    : ) sp
    /r
    /
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    Fl
    \
    /
    L
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    /

    L-
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    7

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    I -

    7
    , -t
    7
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    7
    ,r'
    7
    3.1 > Ettrl UA4 slE^lg ^l-*4q Els+ H]
    +g +4{= +s".^lg 4= %IHg "J
    , olB4.
    3.2 > al-* uSet eil HI+, Eix HI
    E[6[ I
    o *, 9a Hl*=+F +q Hl*E ++E
    *l
    -
    -t o
    I

    o J 3.3 >
    o_IoL-H-LL

    Et-*^lB ++^l*g E+al^l


    I
    oF
    +l
    -l
    -l (D
    *E-
    L e.e+Ei c*4 atrE^I+6Iq
    Ets %Ltsg "J
    olB+.
    I
    3.4 > Avogadro +et EIEI^lg
    q Eeq d=Jg=flzl, ExL ^l-+61-
    ol¤9
    +e+ t+^la+. gol+ "]tr
    .JzI
    Bllole AElel4{ol E 401 ?1ts7|.? ue ==.r 6ll"J6IE
    6.022 x t0232)loll tlg(fl2}.
    ^liE=
    E, ts grl^ltrl ",Je 7jE0l gqu+. 7lEoll= Eilole aq-q fl= EzL olg F)ol+.
    EJtl+A AE4 =44etr
    fl= ofrtlett9 Etqr'HJ8oll 9"-ll SdEJ oltal EJA 7l

    illTl's:EtElgl
    ^l*q
    gltl. 3.5 > al+ EAoE g= d-d^i E ,llBg
    4+6Iq, +qd clqlEg 4 fl^ql
    , 4t d=j.ee+q +q^lg aa+4.
    tstlolrJ i+zi 4ll} HIa".$ o|| '+9.= 4Ee qlg += r1l f-eel 9 3.6 > EE *= U8^.Ietr+El E= daJ4
    Bg 6}=ql, 7lA1 co27l uu|{u}zf,eEal ulr-zl t}4o14 ST]lol ?l dE +44, slq+ HI+^], E 4lH
    s4B rll co,E I,JE= 4= %IHe ol^E i ^Iolg aElzle +4lE ^l+6le +q+
    =. EI+g +=4 *+. HI*ql^J Ede.l
    ¤=Jg coz, q+g "l zl4 $zl Elaj$E H{}61+ + ^EEl7l+ ^JcElb
    "Jg ql+oJ+.
    = ^l¤-6l]^J
    ¤¤ 0l+6l.= 4o14. ole+ +g e+q} +¤+ +a 'J Eql Bg +=
    3.7 > El4 [J8E +E H]+q^l d-+q H]+
    ^Fsqq *r, E++
    ql sE+e+ ,J3 ++E "JE= EJIE
    ^l-8-q Ee B?glol EF ^I+E+. ol= +
    q *+. "J5qzl= alqr-HI¤+ sEql"J +6Jqzl 9+r, ^l
    cozTl Al HI¤-Eol4i1 +trI. 6J4l HI+gg
    Er-+el z|Fi} el1| E +oJ* *ql^J B + 91trt. + iEE]n, rle}g.tr +^l|6l-: trlE
    ^llELI ¤B Eaol tssB^J uJ*ol ?zlB4.
    ol t}ql^l= slq HI+g B+{}tr}. +d H}¤¤ +E},-ll= e}o}^l
    4 HI*ql +¤g E{EE CeJ4 AEql +6Iq +d4etr trl-E a
    ol+. s+o+ H}+ql^l E4E "Jql +6Iq +44
    ^Eqrl+ ^Jdq=
    o-+. 1155 BotE llffJ.!(slsi.hiometry)olap. a;3r1, ol +q:
    r4 1q I stoicheion(fli)r-| metron(=C).I 4= +q ql ^J +4 6I
    *.4. ol Eoh= e}+q^l 'J4 ^F&q= g+4e E+e+E e+.

    < 0l .\ElloJal^3 HJ87lts E+tr galT] rJti griE"BeE oJs! ep+ E1=
    0I g0lLl"= !0 lt[. ii:;smspsy/Shutterstock

    91
    slq=JEE 7l4Y flzI ae} ..=. \2.4F), e+o+^1, eg t= llEl .:r.= (2.111)g olollolf
    Lo14. oeJ49 fl+olfltJ Antoine Lavoisier(l.al 3.1)E tzoouJtil +Elql qlq B
    49 ga6l94. := r H4g +gr+ eol HE6I4I zl¤al.g4. "oJgl4olE zt¤4ol=
    ==-g-6J

    -EE e lql^l ot+aE +3Elzl ?+sq, + de old4 ol+ql Cqd}rll Ag "JE E4ol
    6lq. q+^l 94 eFb 3r+ql ¤Eql +oJ E= zlHol o1 gqql E44q q6l]
    =7l]6l]01
    zloh.J+= ag E{E 4zlzl fl= +48 Eo|=qot 6J+.',k Daltong flzlEol qlFrel
    Erl sl*zl¤g 94+ 44 HI+ E+q ]8CEIZ+ ?*=+= ol H4E +42
    ^gq4
    ol6ll6lrll qHq. ¤xlls e+qt HI+ eq gq+= HEI+ SxI9 zlltsHg"J gol+. qI+
    dr+ +ql Ag gzl¤ol ¤4]6J Bol4.
    =
    A rH 3.1 Antoine Lavoisier
    (1734-1794) LavoisierE E4

    3.1 I El'J HJ¤4r


    HJSoll rH-sr Lr3 ¤;a.-sr E+=
    ^6H^=foqLr.ll
    I OvtML-rr,
    -r ol olal-g. Eal,\
    L|]q$ql ol6H cJtrElflLl. r:.
    E !e= ^El exl +:"J EI+ E]¤+ rtEt E!¤A(chemicalequation)o.E E^lql+. qlE EE +i(Hr= +rl +ql
    ^trEnle xla['^]oa
    ;tcts.-'t
    U|Mlllv|=oO-,-ovlM Exl;lo4 grB rll ctlo,q Hlso 6tol E(Hro)¤ ^Jc.J+. ol +¤-9 e++ HI+4g q-q-r+ eq.
    7l nl]Eoil sl-+sl ol*l^laf ^l
    =LH ZHzO zHz + Oz [3.1]
    -
    +4= + zl_aE','4(e+) HI*,*+'tr, r4r el+E='dde}4b.oduce)'4l 9l=+.
    F+gs. g+E slq^l(chemical formula)9 U8E(reactant)ol4= E4g +4'llr, E]
    ¤.ee+q ^l]tr ^Ja EAg StlE(produ.Ool4 6Iq, ElgE9 =g
    s--ql +ElUEl. qlq
    *ql ¤ *zl* 4l+olr. HI+q +q4: Ez[9 ^J'Iz] +E F6Jtr](ql+ ,JA^lql^le]
    ^l
    *ol, 7il+ lg -trE ?*=4).
    'rzl e}aq4+ u}4qzl ?*eIrE, +¤ jrtE+ Hi*^le q¤E
    qts q]+olE flzl"Ee ooiq

    9 4 flaq flzlizl aofot +q. q= ^l


    3.lei sE+91 zz;E H2o tsz}7t 9l=ql,
    =E
    4 E BzI.= +A gz} zzHel 414 flzI rzl]E sEI+rI(raJ 3.2). relEe 2 HzoY 2x2:
    azll9 H flz|q 2xL:27\E o gzl-= 7l^)jt- ql4. Sz[9 += 4l+e]+4^lq "til Az]
    el Err-e-.e. Eqdg +el6l.4. HI*49 'J+q zJ4 s2114 H gzlel zt1l4 o 9J^l7l9l-9-s
    -s, ol HI84e +B "*= tl*4ol4r g + 9lr}.

    A 3 Mg(OHDoll ?lE lus, O, H fl^lel +=,+,] P )HoJ)l?

    tE *+,Jt^l
    ol4zli .J^J H}*ql^-l HI¤¤I+
    ^JC+g 44421 9l6lq sf$
    HI+^lg +El. rfl+
    gsoJ Hl¤¤g olg aa6}7l +16ll e+q} HI+4g +
    "JSgzlE dcEg "Jr+
    uo= ad= B *= Ee-21914.
    2H2+ 02 ---------------> 2}{zO
    +B "*= EIEI HI+^lg trJE7l fl6ll^l= H7l g+ql= HI+E*=g 3rlE^lg,
    I
    sE{q= ^JCBEE
    plqtlg ++. +ql Hl*!g r
    "J+ql zJ $zllzl zloy

    w a zlE+ Al+= aA6fq plq +8^lg $a.J+. "JHlzies ,lt} zlg A+= 4l

    s 0
    +E ^l-S6J+.

    e
    + ------)

    HI*4g sa6J qlql= slq^l *el al+e+ s+o+^lel ol4 a^lE ilol= 016l]
    6I.= aol +s6t+. f.al 3.39 -trZ}. 6J Elq^le.l oleN frzlzf H6]= ag(ql=
    arH 3.2 EE "f= il-qt HJ8^l 5E urozl H2o2-tr-) Elq Eag +ol Ht+l= 1o14. J+&E+ +A(Hror) E4
    *Lavoisier, Antoine. ":449 7l='. 1970.
    92
    3.1 | al-+ EJ8^l 93

    <.fB 3.3 trtqt u3^.10il^l ts^|.


    EqtetZl+ Ee[9
    ^lol
    zt+ EE|E gel
    EaE 7fr18r[. ,,,o QQ s'[lg=1,Ju#,,

    e Hzo

    E^t EElts ?d
    ,\1-q ql 6L6lZSOl
    EilE TtrlEEt e rl&6tt4 E^l l7l|
    QTHEHeIZTHA
    o g^E EEt-.Jtrt.)

    3 E(Hzo)4 ot? 4s4. ot4 EzlE ++ HI+4g SAE 4 ¤a H6Izl ?*otot ++.
    ole}= 84, p+ql^l g}ql 4l+= Eol= 49 E4 E¤E o}(amounool H6I= 4olzl, E
    d9 t(identity)Tlzl H6l+ 49 otrl4. trI4^l z uroi E Ezl2zllg elulalf 4ol:1,
    a uroi E ExI:zfl$ slulflr1.

    E.l'j U$^l ,Jrylsl .J4l,j ql


    tB
    ElqI Hl*^lg SA6l+ rlCg gle, d¤zI^E +CE.J ,ll4l?l(cun)ol +71 6ql^l Ei
    aI{ olt}c} +a(cor) zlillq ;i'zl(u,o)E ^Jc6l-= H}+g c46ll sz}(:al 3.a). o1 ;
    ^JCES *71+ oz9lrj
    sE 4Ii g1-= zlzlt- gltrt. qE^J ozE HI*Eolr, +B "*zl
    *e Hla4e +-gn+ a+.
    CH4 + 02 --------, Coz + Hzo (+¤ *zl S+) t3.2)

    E-F HI*^IE oJ+q^l E+o+4q 7t* 44l+4Lr= gA= zlH E4-= Exl EB *
    += aol ++. +19 qlql^l c:6J zlzl HI¤¤(cHJ4 t ztzl CCE(corql +4++.
    11s u|$zlx1o1r|(cHa4 Hro). rfl+ o= + zlxl q1s--e1or4 + Tfrl
    ^JtE(coze}
    Hzo)oll +4ts9 +s-6I4. ui+^J c+q H]+E cH+9 e^+e+ ^JCE coz9
    ^lz16}z[.
    +a+= aq. Irl4^l ol= EaE 4l+= aoFt 6IE.-8, +d 4+E E+ 1(471 ?+g)tr
    6tA+.

    t?7 :Eoll Tqd BJ¤¤ E^t++0ll^1-EiIg 0l UBEollts C, H, o B^P|.H Ttlul oJbTl? I


    dEoilE'J= +el flrl"7t ?l=7t?

    lll ls
    !oa
    I u

    {I
    +
    l
    )
    (
    CH+ O2
    COrel grg

    ArH 3.4 ollEil?.lP Bunsen slLl0ll^l ttAel.HJBEltt.


    94 38 olqr HJBII tt8 of-+aJE

    O o
    >:lH 3.5 CHa EA HJ39 EE
    "*=++ HJ8^l (}
    t.t
    O
    + --------) +

    CH, + 2oz COz +


    e
    2H2O

    (1 C,4 H, 4 O) (1 C,4 H, 4 O)

    rE|g Hq ++6IzI. HI*^l g+ql= u flzlzl!lll, HIB^I s_E+ql=


    cH+oll +zflel
    H2oql z4l4 H flzlzl ?l+. HI+^Jql^J H g^IE +¤g "*izl glall H2o * 4l+E 2=
    *4. :4H 'J+ql E+ 47Hel +^E r*al gq.
    CH4 + oz Coz + zpzo (+B
    "*zl 9+-, [3.3]
    -
    HI*^le +de+ +^_ts= +Bol *xl*,t}d= olzl +¤ol "*zl *E4. oz *oll 4+ 2=
    BeE .J+q o flzl-f(g+ 2x2, e=4 2+2xt)zl z3711gq +B
    ^19 "*+ HI¤-^leE
    sa¤+
    CH4 + 2Oz -+
    + zHzO (+¤ *s-)
    COz t3.41

    ol+rll sa* +E "*= H)¤-^lg ral 3.sq $z| Es e-tr +4L}]fl+.


    qH 3.1
    tg q+ HJ¤-4J r 7l

    +3 rge Ae tt^ fl^l'o|r. +E^{ Ae E4 3r[0lrl.


    olE El-+ U8E LlEl..! aolq, olq H=^q
    (a) 0l HJSel U8EI|8dE3 ^ (b) 0l HJ- EE "f= U8.^.lo+ LfEfLH^le. (c) ol U3¤ traJ H= g4g rleEzl?

    lrl
    ^19.

    8tlff
    1* +
    g.tr qel
    H *qr^t+ 6IE^-l +Bol "*9 ullzlzl a34e1
    (a) Hi*E9l oll*6l+ g+ tr-zlql= + ++E +4, + 27H 4l+e} r+g +E. +E zl+¤ HtE gsTf ?ltrf. ¤x]]g
    9 &e flzie o15qd ExKoz)el, liie+ ei gz}Tl- a+ql= Nor9 4lf 2= 6lq el84 s-E+E o g
    ^l-s:o
    44 v11a1" s ol+qd +zl(No)7} 5q fl+. ^JcE xlf$ ial5:+ 6}zl.
    ql 4'J6l-= e_=+ /*zlql= ar gz1 rzflo{ gz} t}i 02 + No + (+¤ "*zl ?+9
    2NOz
    27l]E ol+qA 6J ++q +zt(No,)EI Eq fl4.
    :r.BlE e_E+ql= zz11g N gzlel azHg o sztzl gl4.
    (b) +¤ *zl ?+g HI*4e q^s=r} A+. ui+^j g+sB EotTt^i NoE al+E 2-tr 6t8 N4 o
    02 + No Noz G¤ "*zl *9) E+ +¤g "*+rll ¤+.
    -
    +l Hi+^l .J+E gzf 02 + 2No zNoz (+E "*eJ
    +E¤ !.H, E+¤E 94q1ts rz11

    9 N4 37n9 C7l lln, e-E4ql= rz11E N4 zzll9 0 (2N,4 O) - (2N,4 O)


    ,I 9+. oE +"Cg "**zl 9l"ll Noe+ No2el Al+= * (c) Hl¤¤ +7'1"il= a4lg oz E te+ azilg No BrtTl gl+.
    ,ll qlEH^l s_=+ql 9l= oE 7l]+E EI4. qlql trl+^] +¤ "*+ H}g4g olgzl fla|{ &a +ztB-27l]
    s ^lq4s gs'Jql, =EloI
    d+ol HI+49 6J+ql^l += + 9 No $zfz| llolo| 6J+. ^JCE ttzlql= szH9 No,
    3.1 trl-+ BJ8^l 95

    *,.ltl ilr, ol= +¤ "*+ HI*^lg olfzl fla|{ ,${ e. HI+44 g+(HI¤¤) *z|9 48Eq q4
    =A6Iq,il.r1s.
    E No,E ts2145 HI*E No9 +4+el gil+El= a 9 NHr $zlz|e.g{(^JCE) ,g.z}oll ilgotolizl
    I9"1{}4. 2(a) 3 (b) (c) a (d) 6 (e) e
    **E ttz}"llE No Eztgl azfel N flzfz} 9l
    sz11E >gEqIfl2
    +. E6J Oz tszt"llE 4x2:s7HE O flzlz} 91r., NO + +-S:leql^] ¤4 +g +^ gzl-=, Ae^q =oe +^ g
    zloilE szHg o flzlz} glq + r0zHg o gzlzl ?14. d ,l-=, grJg 3o9 &t flzl-E 44t4.
    gzte+ 8x2
    ^JE ^Jzlql= azH9 No, Ez[9]^] azfl$ N 02 E^[ g+
    :167Hq o flzlzt 9l+. +
    ^JzlqlE +rJg +9 N "f o
    H,.l+zl gl o o-tr rHe ¤=J= !_= Bzl¤- EI+6J+.
    a
    t
    >H=qFfl1
    +i gzl-=, ei g
    +
    ++:r.Hql^-l ¤4 ""9 +¤4 :7og
    zl-= +4u+.
    ry#'s ry
    0
    tm. ffi + ?
    olq}*9lr] A zlxl Hl+Eol 9lErll, -aolE utpl zJol
    Hfll(czHJrl rJ49 orzl 9ln, + 7I7l
    "il
    core+ ^JdE"J
    ffiO#om H2O7l fla E.+ +EI+ 9lE+.
    (a) t¤ "*= c++ HI*4g 4 o^ls.
    + HI¤¤e aql4q 6l+9 ^JCgoJ oJEqoKNHr= ¤ (b) g+(HI¤¤) txt9l flqot d+ o, EzlfE .tt,tle.
    pI4 HI+^lg a^l
    ^"r4=q, 444 ilzl ?++. +¤ "*+

    u¤¤al ^8tEsl tr.Ell E l

    slEI H}+^lql^l ++Eri


    ^JcEq 844 tr-4= zlEE ^l-s6lq E^lB f
    ?14. zlzil,
    olill,
    .Zi]l, ++.le 4r+ @,), (/), G), kd+*zlt= tr}4^l H}+^.1 :.aE o}4
    ^l-.&6J+.
    4zJol ++91+.
    CH+(s) Coz$) + zH2o(il
    + 2o2@) [3.s]

    a+ql IrI4 HI+ dq 349=_ +4LI= zlEE


    - .J4 p+¤E.el 9l4ol4 ol
    ^lE ^Iolq flE
    4+q +4Lll7lE d+. qE ol *ql^J Ll^eql tral q44"J zlE A(:e]4"l 4Ezl
    =q
    B4)= ¤9 dzl¤'I44zl +l6}q 4¤e +lql ^H:6rzlE ++.

    t\s qH 3.2
    VA Et6J {lg{ tE q+71
    tl.8 HJ8^lel Je= "f+^le.
    Na(s) +H2O(/) +Hz@)
    -NaOH(aq)
    Ttl'J

    ffi+ oJ.aql q= 4 fli$


    fl44-= ^lq trzi. g+ql
    .b Naflzl rzl], o Szt t7H, H gzl z4zl 9)t-, _e-E4ql
    E Na flzf rzfl, 6 gx1 rz[, u gz1 37H71 o]+. Naq ob
    +¤"1 "*zl"J. H gzh+ r+zl ?*q. 949 H gzli¤
    54zl 9aI9 Hrogl 4li 2=.-Jq Ezl. Na(s) + 2H2O(l) + NaOH(aq) +HzG)

    ol$zll allr u flx}9 +Bol "*zl ?+al"J gs,* u flztf


    Z ftzlx1z1q(sal uzo9 Ali zE_'J6I] oE +¤ol "*^l
    96 33 al+ ElSrlUB alqaJE

    ?*zl"J HE tBg "*= +ql q+q Bzi). g+ql 2 H2o


    zI ?1" g-tr NaoH $91 zE Bol HE +Bg "*+E|. Na(s) +2Hzo(l) + 2NaOH(aq)+Hz(6)

    olc4l 6|q u szl9 +Bg "*iE o gzlE +¤ol *rll


    9zl"J, 94"11 rz11E Nae+ e-ql zzH9 NazI ?l"l N"9
    +¤ol "*4 ?*:+. Na9 tE¤ "**zl 9all +¤¤ *ql
    A1+ 2* 4=trI. 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) -+ 2NaOH(aq) + H2@)

    olEl .J+ql zzflel Na, +zl]9 H, 244 o ilxlz| !lo nE,


    Hl+^le +Bg ol+rll ¤+.

    +el al+= *tr|r*trI 6rE^l Zl+= "*+= +^J= H2o, _CH+(S) + _Br2(r) _CBr4(s) + _HBr(g)
    NaoH, Na t^lgq +E6I+. Elq qI+4E +Bg "*= -
    trll uE"J BrrE
    +¤ol "*g Al+=?
    ull, HI++seq .J+r+ Ei= +g *+r*+ 6tE^'l 6J+E (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4 (e) 6
    4l+E Hzl ar. +l1 += +9 4l+E *+q 4a +Bg qtfl
    > -H.= 2
    "*++. Hl+49 +Bol g "*+qa=zl= +"J6lE BJHS tr|g 4 HI+^IE A|f= *"t HI*^IE +Bg "*+^ls.
    El¤s oJqql 9l= g^9 flzlf¤
    ^]q
    tr: Xol4. :4 (a)-Fe(s) + +
    I q}*alql +Bol "*:4^el 4l+E dq++. -Oz(8')
    O)-Al(s) + _HCr(aq) +
    -Fe2O3(s) +
    (c) _CaCO3(s) +
    -AlCl3(aq) -H2@)
    > H.= qlr.fl1 _HCl(a4)
    + _co2(g) + _H2o(/)
    4ql.Jq HstrJ ^IolE Hl+B Hi+4g q-q=4 ar+. _caclz@Q +

    3.2 lEEl''Js"E ¤+
    olxll+El= ol 6lq^l ,I+ r}+rll 9E,rll zl-zl #¤9 Hl+(aq+ EI*, +6]] EI*, HI ¤i
    s")ql q6}q olfl ao+9 ql6}q a^I6-l= a H4l ol+=E+61
    "Jol^E 3o14. HI+ql 3I+

    r
    q HI*II El¤-^lel +Bg "*+= "Jql A+6114o| alzl ullEol4. + Hrll olfi H]+
    +g .Jil 9lg tril r ^8CEol +9."J^l=
    qltr.6J + 9lE+ 6|71 9l6ll^-loltrI. +q1l= HI*
    Eql E6Iq {¤q= EAg ql+61-b qd
    s^= s+o,} EiAq "JH}4.J "Jo}B=
    4o14. qtr ++9 Eaol q$Tll Hls"6l=zfp go[E_fl, =Cg
    ++61 +Be H]¤¤.J"Jol el
    += a:r+ +Hzl +qI EI+ql Qla|{ olaqa3 + 9l+.
    EEr-H.Is"rl E6|l HJt
    EB E!8(combination reaction) ol t + 7l^l ol^Jq Ee$ol,tl E Hls" 6Iq * zlzl C ^dE
    g ^Jc6l-= t}¤-"l4(e 3.1). ql= Etr trlrql+ ++e +71 +ql^l 5q-,r14 4g Llltr^J
    ¤+ap 4}sl "l:tllf9 ^JCfl+.,=. (lH 3.6).
    zMg(s) + oz(s) 2Mgo(s) [3.6]
    ol RI+g aB$ol4 E*Eol{lrJ Ele Elgg - +16ll
    ^JC6[7] ^l-Sg+.
    ++!+ El++ ^[olql^l EE] t]*ol "Jqg ql, 3.6q1^l EFol scEe ol$rJ r.xtl
    ^l
    oltrI. olg A!} e+lrEg plql^le +C olgq d6[ql q4 aAq= 4¤ trzla]4 ,.-,-
    (2.t4). u|:ujlf,$ *i7l Hlso ¤ ufl, u|:ullf,$ d4¤ $l u|:rJlf, ol$(vgz+)og q
    r, &dE d4-= Eq^l &E+ ol$(6,-) o g g+. trI+^J HI* ^J{Eg Mgoolr}.
    ol4 qqBe q}¤¤ol ++4 El#+.J aq+ +8e1
    "lE t}*ol ¤!* t}*"Jzl, ^JdE
    ol +EoJzlE g"l-B f gl"lo}6}4.
    3.2 alqf EJ=sl=+ 97

    x.3..t HJ_"q4.E6ll
    fr8
    =oJ
    7i=l
    aH Ht9
    uO

    A+B+C A zVl oltr-g Hl¤¤ol 6J44^l qI zlzl EAg ^JC


    6J+. "*g gi= ol*l+ EJ^lgs s+i.J
    C(s) +o2(s) ^lE Hl-qo6}q
    -Coz(s) +g ^Jd6Jtri.
    Nz(s) + 3Hz(S) 2NH3(s)

    Cao(s) + H2o(/)
    -+ Ca(oH)2@q)

    E6llEtB
    C+A+B el zlzl HI*Eol *
    zlzl ol^Je.l EeE +?]g+. "*g
    2Kclo3(s) 2KCl(s) + 3o2(5) +6JEol ,IgqE ol;lal grlee Hl+++.
    PbCOr(s)
    -
    -+ PbO(s) + CO2(g)

    Cu(OH)2(s) ----- CuO(s) + H2O(g)

    #
    ? C
    I I
    t G

    I I

    Mg
    r.
    e
    +
    ,I" v, Y Mg2*
    l
    Y
    /. 92-

    olrLll6 alES 871 MgTl Ozel U3-Etoll qal HJB + eJ^{gl olgd aiiloJ
    tt^ =+tr+6ll ?ltt. =el
    Tlillel ,Jg:Lr Eco1 uEoltltrt. MgOzt oJEolTlct.

    UJ- 88E
    2 Mg(s) + O2(g) 2 MgO(s)

    A.fB 3.6 El.rLll6 6 E4 o;2tr3 ff8olll.


    =+9 =71 =-sr

    @ Na(AE)elS(Ef)71
    =-ct
    HJ- go7lE, r SdE9 Et-qt^lg +!?]71?

    + Eeol + 714 ol^JE Edg ^JC6l+ tl*ol4


    Eolf ElB(decomposition reaction)$
    (E 3.1). qlE 5q 4++e-l ++ +&gg TlgBJ trfl ++ &s}+r+ ol&p+ +aE
    ^Jd6lH
    ^J
    E"lig+.
    CaCo3(s) -5 cao(s) + Co2(5) t3.71

    CaCo3 E6]]= tlfizl-9-E +S-6J 4Col4. CaCo3zl +CB"J 4El4(limestone)olu| ezl


    44+ 7IS6IE CaO(ol{e- 490ime) E: ^J4pl(quicklime)e}-7 .Jd]4 91tr}.)z} ^Jd
    98 33 al-q uJ8rlEJS +-+aJE

    94. ul+9l^l= oH'J +aEl E ol^Jel caozl +r]= "J=4+, 'J4eE+q ++


    I 9zl 916il ^F$qrl+, E+Eg rll46lq ,Jag EJE= Ell ^l=$.g+.
    olzlolrq- i$(sodium azide, NaN3(s))ol +6llElH +461 Nr(g)zl tsS.Jtrt. tr|?+
    ol il qqElg +¤4= rJl ^l-$flrl.(:H 3.7).
    trl ^l +¤+ 4so
    2NaN3(s) -+ 2Na(s) + 3Nz(g)
    tl
    [3.8]
    \ \
    ol .rl^H3
    ^1+^l7l
    ?E=6J oll : +4ol 7l+ tlzlg "IzHE ¤E+6I5a+ j1qlqfl
    A fB 3.7 0|-^|'0lEtrl 4E 7l qlEql NaN37| +94etr +sl]gEl. qr roo sql 6llBq= 49 "Jel NaNaE 4eJ
    (NaNs(s))ol E6H=
    oHE ql ^F=^l'
    oll0l E e4 Tlill(E s0 L)E C^d+tI
    +Eel=
    ^lEErl.
    O Vereshchagin Dmitry/Shutterstock

    qFjl
    IE
    7f
    3.3
    ?6J ,Jtrt 8"1 HJtel +E *+ HJ¤41 .\ 71

    tlE U39 EE "*= HJa^lE l (a) 4E TlxllTt HJ8-g q gqLlts HJS, (b) rill EJ{t HIE¤ 7lE:g tttl
    ^le. =+al=+eal
    gqLlts E6t| U3+ 7!^l 8dE0l EdEJtl. -.Jri1lel -d 7li1l) =-d
    =
    ,iHtrI.
    "llu HI+6J aol{r ^J45J + "J+.
    (a) f99 zllglt E= ++e ¤eql^l ?iiloltrl. =+sfl BaCO3(s) -+ BaO(s) + CO26)
    ¤. olflz} E Itr ^8C¤trt. trI+^] HI¤¤g Li(s)e+ Fr(s)
    > H= qlrill
    ^JcE3 ++rl El++ee qq flo
    ol+. E+ olgc
    trI-g HI* +qL aol &el3(r)ol ztgqflg Eil .Jq+
    r.!l-e qltl-¤q. r-l$ olgE d6l+ 1+, + Li*ola,
    = +¤ "*+ E6}] tI¤¤ 444=zi?
    +e-fl+ olgel d6l.'= 1-, + F-ol+. ul4^i ^JCEel = Ago(s)
    (a) Ag(s) + o(g)
    e+E+4g LiFol+. tB "*+ +q HI+43 q-q=4 aq. (b) 2Ago(s) - --- 2Ag(s) + oz(g)
    2Li(s) +Fzr6)-2LiF(s) (c) Agzo(s) zAg(s) + O(g)
    (d) zAg2O(s)- + 4Ag(s)+ O2G:)
    (b) +tI El¤E E+oi^]g naco,o14. fl#6J ulel rJol 9el (e) Ag2o(s) 2As(s) + Oz(S)
    7l^1++ +4}gg 7I$6IH. +tilElq #$ {}ffi$ o1 -
    > .H.= qlrll2
    tEI Ea= ^Jt6J+. ¤xlle rl 3.7i+ rJol CaCogE E q-s q}+g +¤ "*= Hl+^lg r.A^ls.
    all9"l caopl cor= u[{z}zlE BacorE E
    ^8c6Jr|. (a) lll *s+ +3(II)= 7Ig.J trll g^E ts6118trI.
    ql^Jg + 9l+. Hl+
    ^8rd6J aetr
    aH99 Baos+ co2=
    n+ a+g E+ +7lgs 24q1 9loeE, eg EJ^lee
    (b) 'J*"lE ++ sBg *71 *4.t}}e+ Aq] Hl¤¤ +tr}.

    t "dA ut
    T t:_ ELA u..fEi(combustion reaction)$ ++g *4zl B + 9l= 'il+Eq
    L}]= UBI= t}*o14.
    ,l t- ¤^ HIgg +71 + ozE EI¤.EE ^l-&+r+. ^l 3.s= +sl+A qlqlE(e^e+ +i"Jg s
    +6l+ Elq+E)g gi HI*E "JHI4ql 4E eq 64 * Q.s9).
    pffiaz| t7l +ql^l gd¤ 41, olE=g oz4 Hls"6|g cozq H2oE ^Jc6.J+.. ol HI
    8ql ge+ oz Ezlfq, HI*ql^J ^JC¤ Hzo "i co2 $x145 ol HI+e.l ¤Eql 4'J6I
    +q+^E a^dql 9=6Jtr1. qE Eq g.ELl klHlq ^F.S6l-= E-e.qloJ(c3H8, .r.H 3.8)
    =
    9 fla= q-9. ^l-q-E +48 + 914.
    A rg 3.8 E7l se4l?19
    EA Eoll = EeqloJ
    fl= q^ll CsHe(s) + 5o2(s) Jcoz(s) + 4H2o(g) [3.9]
    (CsHaE 6"Jdlq tTlel # -
    H8l^llf3 BTlelAl?lrL csHe
    nfl .orel o3.o1
    *C q]ql= co,e] Bzll oJ&+ tsi(co)7] "JEq{q. ol= EgA Si+r1 {}4. orE .}9 ,ll+
    +ts6lal
    el oz"l E4 Hr8e E+ 4Zl +;!6IE * dB(soo0ol4-r. +q= El^ll+ gr gzlolzl- ^gtE+. sd ¤iqB co,e} H,oRlg ^Jt6J+. +861
    E
    -^!
    .J tl-. O showcake/Shutterstock
    t+61^l ?J:= 6J. ¤i: +d S^= gElt+.
    3.3 .l-E4al 99

    5E tlel= H,o(g) EE Hzo(/)E E7l6l+- ae Hl* aaql q=+.


    ol HI*ql^J ol a+
    H,o(g)i +7]r+9 +g gEql^J ts^g ql BC¤+.
    4Ie fl4-E 6J+61= tssl+A +Exll sloJEE=E EiqE co2e+ H2o
    cH3oHe+ rJol
    E ^Jd*+. +s}+^e+ &^ g4¤ q++61+ +e++A +Erll slaJEsol +71 +ql^l s
    dc- trll cozq H2oE ^Jc++: ,J+.J H4e 4}A= TItl E 3s6uJ zlzl slqlEq Ei
    r+cg se++ 4ol4 +EH+. *4 Eol qlqzlg-e_+ EEtrJ(c6Hr2oJ ae B
    ^l=&61+
    +59 +i-l E oJoll^] ozel Hlg"6Iq cozel H2o= ^Jct4. :1El+ dzlle +r] E+ql
    ol+l'* q]¤¤ol olfl HI¤-E=* ¤i Hl+ol
    ^l= ^llgql^l ¤+4'J +4lE 44 'Jq++.
    4zlB4E &cl H}*(o*idation reaction)9-tr ¤E¤+.

    \\ qH 3.4
    IB $tE tB q+ t1.¤4ljr7l
    oJa

    ollEJg CH3OH(/)ol87l601111 EA-E| ttll gclLl= HJSE J-d "f= HJ8^lo+ r ll9.

    6H'J ¤q.J ¤EliE +4Lllrl= *9I+.


    TI1I .J+q zJzJ z*
    ^le-l
    c, H, o= ql+6l.= EloJ¤ol ¤i+ E]1, ol +qlEg +71 B6IH E+ fliE S"lzl1, r}-e-q- rJg +¤ *+ Els"^l
    6 orG)e} qls"4q co2k)e+ Hro(g)E ^JC6J4. fqoE, ol E+.
    +¤ "*zl ?+e HI*4e EP-r+ A+. 2CH3OH(,) + EOz(S) + 2CO2@) + HzO(S)

    cH3oH(/) + ozf) coz@) + H2o(8:) > H.E qlr{|1


    -
    C gz}.= "J+ql 17H4 9loo-s +"Col *=+, CH:oHE trlg+ qlBfl +zl +q^-l si6J
    =?+olE(c2H4(oH)Jol
    +z}l9 H g4¤ 7l-^lEs H g4+E +63¤: "*+eJH sro ql "Jq+= +¤ "*= HI+^lg A^ls.
    *q 4+ 2=.;=+. (a) C2Ha(oH)2(/) + so2(3) 2Coz(8) + 3H2o(s)
    O)2C2H4(oH)z(r) + soz(8)- acOz@)+ 6H2o(g)
    CH3OH(,) +oz@) +2H2o(g)
    (c) C2Ha(oH)r(/) + 3O2(g) - 2COz(8) + 3H2O(S)
    ol4e HE +¤g "*+zl+, -Coz(s)
    dcE * +49 0 flzl-= x{* - 2co2@)+ 3H2o(s)
    (d)c2H4(oH)2(/) + so(c) ------
    6J+. EI+Eql o flzl7t 37HrrJ flsEe, ot4 gcqzl ?+?t (e)4C2Ha(OH)2(l) + 10o2(S) 8Co2(g) + r2H2o(g)

    4. HISEEo] +zl]g o gzl-= r*E+ oz *q Al+ +g .+ -


    > H6 qlr1l2
    E4(*ozllE ]xz:tzll! o gztT}9l+). 9lB9 crH'oH(/)ol Szl +ql^1 ¤i5J trI "JqLI= ++
    cH3oH(,) +tzor(g .-----cozk) +2H2o(g) g +¤ "*+ Hi+4e-tr .rA^le-.
    HI+4e +¤ol *+qfr.zl"J, alol ¤-f al+= s6J6tE_-s

    3.3 I E|6J4]%F
    s+q}44 ElqI HI+4e c*4 +ecg i*=+. + 3+ql^lel oI4 Szle+ slql H}+^lel al
    +: d5+6J "&g+48+. ^l H2o= H2o E:^I 17HzI Aq+A zzilA H gzlel t7H9 {}
    4 gzlE s.6J6}J 9l+g Ll-4U+. ole| $;.|alzll +¤ "*+ El8^lql^lE 4++ HI-&E
    r+ 4CE9 .Jg +E}Ur+. rqB *4zl ¤Edql^l +46l= oJn+ Ez|q + E
    ^J'il4.J
    gzlel += qtr sAlTl il*tt? +oJ H2o= "J5zl +1611 4++ ule f^4 4I^= Hl
    =
    ¤.^l7lelr. ++H, HI¤¤ol 2 : 1 Hls +4 flz}e+ &^ ?lzl-= golo|-7 9l+= ag qB
    ,ll qt6J f flEzl-?
    449 E4¤ ¤ +: $.zlEI, A%Eg ?IrlE ,Jd4eE flx}+ EzlE izl-E ¤
    gz14
    + 9l+. EI4^J +qd ^JCge_l oJg gzl 9161] gs_6J H]¤¤g "&g 4l4I6IElE, E= trt
    100 35f 6l-sf EJSrlrlS al+aJE

    %LBqs slel H}g^lo]+ 3r+E+,.l9-s+q c*4.J ctr= +a6lElB, flx|* EzlE


    =
    a+g .Jotot'*4.
    EIEJ^l*al +ztaJ
    + geel slEt^l$(formulaweight, Fw)g r Eeg +EI'H= slq^lql 4 SzI
    =z]]6l+
    $ $xlej(atomic weight, Aw)g Eld 4o14. q= Eq +Tlgsql 9= g^I=J Ai9 ol8
    6rq 4tI6[8, !]t(sutturic acid, H2So4)g 98.1 amu(atomic mass unit)9 e+q4+g r*

    =E|.
    H2SO4E Fw : 2(Hel Aw) + (SE Aw) + 4(Oel AW)
    : 2(1.0amu) + 32.L amu + 4(16.0amu)
    : 98.1amu
    ¤el^J, 4 flzlz}g i+d o16| a4l zlQTlzl HlgH6-lgq. *ss ol z4ql^"1= olEl+
    H}4se flzla} &g HlgH6J 4.o14.
    "J"J * EAg :+olalol Nae].
    pol 949 elql^14 gg ql=, gdg g4elol plq4*
    !+ aeq, ol a+= 23.0 amuol4. E * EdE :+el^lol +zl^lr+ aeH, +q^l=*g E
    rlff(molecularweight, Mw)ol4rE +r+. qlE EH *s.61C6H12oJE tsxlu}9 +s-r+
    ?JL+.

    C6H12O69-I MW: 6(12.0amu) + 12(1.0amu) + 6(16.0amu) : 180.0amu


    olg AEI EAg olgs.l 8ilg4 ts}]¤e trlEql(rH 2.re +4), +zl-= t+
    6[= ag 4¤6]zl ?++. =xl]6}7l
    p+q]^l Egle d¤^lg.(l-gap, olg a6J E¤s] s+q]^l
    'll+l
    *e ¤E4q fl: grl-=9 e*9 Bes LlEu+. qE caCrz9 slq^l E9l= rz11
    el ca2" olgr+ 27l]el cl- ol$eE +cqq 9lq. q4^l =E caclzg e+E4%lg
    CaCIz9 FW: 40.1amu + 2(35.5amu) : 111.1amu

    qHl 3.s
    El.*Jqal 4htBtTl

    tl-fi Etr$ El'+^laJE 4l+l6l-^le. 1s1 4=er(CrzHzzOrr(¤=J)), (b) tr{J ,J6(Ca(NOgh)

    6llS > .H.5 qE{ 1

    (a) #=slE +Cfl-= gzlE gzl"*g tr16}tr Elo+!=*g trl-g + e& ,J+q qlfl gts|= +q^l*e?
    342.0 amuol4. (a) 310.2 amu
    (b) 135.1 amu
    C gxl D7n : 12(12.0 amu) : 144.0 amu (c) 182.2 amu
    zzzl\:zz(r.o amu) :
    119.J,z.l 2L.oamu, (d)278.2amu
    (e) 175.1 amu
    o gz} 11Zl : 11(16.0amu) = 176.0amu
    342.0 amu > -H.= qH 2
    (b) slq+^lq EazI 9ietr, gE HtE ot4 BzH= gE oJ +* E4e.l El44=Jg 4l&6t^le-.
    4 flzt9 ,H+e|#6Iq Zl&ilE|. tr|+^l ca(NoJr9 4 (a) A](OHL O)CH3OH (c) TaoN
    q^l?tg 164.1 amuol4.

    Ca$z| 1Zl : 1(40.1amu) : 4o.1amu


    N gz} zzl: 2114.sarilt1 : 28.oamu
    o gz}6zll: 6116.6nmu; : e6.0amu
    164.1 amu
    3.3 I alqf^lal 101

    Elqt^1$ at ,4+g
    7l+ aC u{B8(percentage composition), + EAg +^J6k zJ $lzl zlzl
    oJ E+qlEs.l

    d+ A+ E{+gg 4l&6fiot.! 4*zl9l+. qE 4q +^L= alts:*qlxlE trlzl +


    =tr
    gq +q}+g 9zl +la}¤ aC EIE+g +C6Iq, eldqE Ee(qlE EE ¤%I, a
    71""J)9 4C EEg4 Hlig Lol4. ^+,
    slqralol .JEl4 919 ql ac EEg(triltrItr 94. ac(elementat composition)olep oj)
    g 4l&61+ ae +l+ EzlloltrL ol Al4Ig EAq clql^l=*, giE flzl*, e+ql^lql fl=
    g^el /l+ Fql qq B"+A+.
    g49acE+g:ffiXloo7o t3'1ol

    ¤8t*: +41 g?l


    g+g Er] +ol c+E ¤alol4. ¤+g "J "il,
    trlgr+ ae aoe Tlqlq-z, E(gzt"*r+ ae A)= 5"]] g +E 9l
    +41= tr+.eB Ez]E *E b49 zl9 + 9l+. +. E6J Zlqol ,* R4l E= +Aql Bol gl= ElE4lE
    r. E{lE Exll= +grJrll 9l=+. Ezllzf f99 9
    E4e1E1. tl¤El=zl-E "J^leI+.
    El6l+-7I? Exl)= os LIE|4 +::aBol+ TljqE 3. Er{l= 8tr1. .Jeld Ctr, 4'}6J rlol4 *4lE
    ^144 ^l-S6}q
    rfl+. +qA zlee+ +6tBJ= oj=(r_eE a)g 4 E^ll= +Ei. zl¤ E4 .:-. (r.z¤)g *g Ezll= += ql
    = ;4-t} r7z| g+. +a +zl, +s, ++lql +E++.
    =4.
    z. aflEol llElE +qTl atre} Ee= a .<|olel z| 4. g= eEt!E,t. Ex]= E|^l glr E= Bg q
    so6J %LBg ^ilEtr}. .JelA
    Es= 7tE= S* olzlql Bol q#L]=fl=zl=
    $.ol
    ^J46J+. ^tEeI "Jf,+. E-ol "*EzI?
    =71,4
    gE+ rl3 Ft"Jzl-7 qg xI-eE Ezllql +qzl g7[, E= 4BaJz]? u[zlu-]e-E = +9le] +E iz]zt
    ^l7l= "*E
    qE .Jg "Jj1 9lg
    ^l 9+g +E 9t4= ag "J^lt}trt.
    7l?

    \I qH 3.6
    /7 a¤ qs8 4hraPl
    CrzHzzOr0ll.\ EJ^, +4, tag gg 4d '-{EEg /l^fdl,\l.".

    6tlU (22\(t.Oamlu\
    o/oH:
    -ibn# x 100o/o : 6.40/o
    ol +4= 9lE "d*d+: Szll $zl"oll,rJ cfllal E^llE + (11)( 16.0 amr)
    +4lql 44 Egezl-e ,J4. oloO : x :
    = lnZOuna 100o/o 51.59o
    e4 ++^lol +qzla, 4 g^e] e+ a¤ E++g Aru ,JE 4 g^el E+gg 4^l q+6}tr 100o/oqot ++. +E *
    alf $xllolcl.. ztE +E trl Bol ¤l += gle+, szte"rg +-tr *4E
    llq 3.109 ^1.*6Iq +Tlgse+rl 9zI*9 Tzlt
    ^l
    Al d oI4 a4 zlzl AEql^J ^]-$6[floee, BE +E ^+ +zt
    4I6IzlE olz|. C12H22o,,9 444%I3 qlxll 3.sql^-l Al4I+ s {golfl "J+^H+.
    ol
    EI fleq, :42.0 amuol4. ol &g ^l-&+q olxl| .!l TIzl g > !e= qtfl 1

    iql ql4q A1&6I71-E 6J+. e4I A+ql^l e^e.l e=* 4C EEgg g"tqlz}?
    E0l (a) 8.54o/o (b) 17.LVo (c) 13.7o/o (d) 24.4yo (e) 82.9o/o

    (1.2\(1.2.O amt\
    : -iirn > .H.E qlril 2
    "/rC x 1007o : 42.1o/o
    a+ftit- K2Ptckq^l EQ$E A%I4C E+g-g +61^le.
    102 33 atq Ff8,rltl8 al6leJ=

    3.4 I Avogadro +sl +


    ¤e¤ql^l +l?61+ oI+ z+e rleep tsxl4s, ole=g ga+4 Be +el flzl, olg,

    Egalfull, ol ixl+ oloflalzl qeg aEE izlol+. trlri^l ol+al gzt+ tszI
    = =
    gt^}gql^l "}-g rl-= trll 4= ++l.J 4^(dozen, r241)t+ r.-tr^(gross, 1447H)= q-
    CE Bg ,l]+E tr|E ql ^F&.J+. E}+ql^l flzL ol9, +zl-= trIft +fl= dE* ezl
    mol)olr1. rE(mole)3 Cq6I4 ++d Ffl fli rzq flzl t2g
    ^lgql^l E(mole, EzlE
    ql fl= flzlf"ll 6l]'J6l+ Exll(fl2t, +zr E= :a Eisl qtr Exllol=zl)$ aj$al.= ${
    el "Jss AE.Jr+. 4qrzl-==e ¤egtr+q ol +^l¤ 6.o22r4rsx 10239-E eA6|9r,
    HigH6lH 6.02x 102301 g+. ol <I¤ ol$4otg 4elxl Amedeo Avogadro(1726-t}s6)
    7lE6I7l $-lo[{ Avogadro #(Avogadro's number, N)-tr HE6}9r, ++ q+ +
    = l-e oJ8S4.. ol =
    ++l(Ei E(inverse mole) s.t: EB(p.r mole) o
    9oJ o.oz x 1023 mol
    tr 9l=tri.)= E%r o.oz xroz3t\zl9l+g 9"loJ4. flz[ t mol, Ez] I mol EE qE a
    ol=zl I mol$ Avogadro itrJ* r E,ql= ++Eltrl.
    tzg flz[ l mol : tzg flz[ x to234
    o.oz
    H2o Ezt l mol : Hzo Ezt 6.02 x to234l
    NOt ol9- l mol : NOt ol9- O.OZ x tOz3tl]
    t= tI^J6I7l qeg
    Avogadro AEE rl]+ iol4. 6.o2xro234el
    ++g zl*Eoll
    3o1$eE t *4\zl eI :u1go1u1 g+. =
    ol qlB"l+ Edg 6J
    "JE +"ll +g6lE,
    =E
    et:oa1: x ro'a)H Ag + 9ltrl-.
    qH ^l+=
    3.7
    F e,Jxls.l 7|.|+ qhr'61-?l

    AlttTl= sr., r1g ga fl^l7H+7l67l6lE +^1e L[E6l^le.


    ^lE6lrl
    12C g^l12g,C2H21 ^lE=
    mol. CO2 Exl9xt023zH

    6[l'J
    E{ 7}xl9 += Eeg rB, E, +z}+ *fl-e *r1a}g to23zH9 c flzt) .-CzHz I mol(12 x t0232fl$ c gz[)ol+.
    ^ll
    7, ol+ql^l +d gzlel 7\+7171^\z+ce +g6llotd+. ,Jtr g+: flzlfql ulfllols_tr, 4 c g4E E+=
    ^lEg
    ^lEE +A+= "JolBelH '2C flxI
    Al¤J r_+ t2 g, C2H2
    I mol3 2 mol C 9lz|, CO2 9xlo23zllts 1.5mol C gzlql
    I mol, COz 9x 10237H E^I + EIE ag Avogadro +E- ol
    +6Iq +&dl]ot +EI. EI¤F6}sE. ?8 tdzt ¤4.
    > ![B qlr.il
    Eol I mo13'2C flzt rzgg oliE flz|$ zflfol+. III4
    1

    q-e-^lE + 7l* 4e +9 4E g4-=


    ,<l '2c Szt t2gZ L molg C flzl:c gz}6.02x10237H= '*E A9;?
    (a) tE &P+ iE (b) +s g iE
    Eql6El 914. =+efl+
    (c) so g ge+ (d) 1 mol e& AE
    c2H2 t molollts 6 x l0237HE C2H2 l+zlql
    +^l7l9ln, c2H2
    > E5 qlrll2
    ^E
    Yun4 Etzl glo Ee s+D.o4xro23zll9 c gzPI9l+.
    Co, $zp tzl9 C $zlzi- X[o Es +z]lE Co2 4l&zl= ^l-8:614 "5, u1"9. ^leg &r flzl z\fzl fi
    ^lEql= zloft trr'le +g6t^le.
    exl0237HE c gzITI 9l+. Irl4^l ol# +^lql-+ +g5l
    H2O I mol, CO2 l mol, O: Ezl 3xl}237i
    tr, rz 99 "c16rl0237l]el c gzD<9x1023 Coz +zI(9x
    *Avogadro fE Avogadro ^J+4J1E {l+. +zl-= National Institute of Standards and Technology(NlST)9+ ag 7l+.il^l
    4q6J olEiol+. _ael{ Avogadro +r} "JE ^}-sqjl flr, ol 49 rl++ql^l t"ll gl4.
    3.4 Avosadro +el= 103

    qBl 3.8
    ¤¤ fllf+e Hl.+71 I

    0.350 mol CoHrzOo H fl^lsl+= Zlu6l.,\l9.


    =
    TtlU g+ c6Hr2ou9 EzffE 9E cou,zou 94 rullts H fl
    E{ Eeq s}4! cuu'roool f94 ?14.
    o}(o.lso mot)4 tl rztl)$ r*r 9i+g ++.11= E+^lg
    ^Fa"
    oJ + 914. r
    E E= ag ol ,r1tr 6 H grlg +olq. 7lE-tr C6Hr2Oo9 Ef¤ CoHrzOo9 +z}+s +t&El +ql
    4lEl Avogadro fE CoHrzoo9 Siel C6Hr2o69 +zl+ CoHrzoe9 Szlie+q gztg += AA.J+.
    H
    ^t
    olE +4I oJzl¤ xllao6.J+. C6H12O6 molf .--- C6H12O6 tszli .-..- H 94+

    C6H12O6 1 mol:C6H12Oo SzI 6.02x 10234

    E0l

    H gzl : (o.3so more6n,,u.,(ffiX###k)


    : 2.53 x to24H flz|
    AE 4q4 a4l, 0.3s(6x10')= 44 zx
    414|9 6l] trz}. > H=qfl1
    10232fl$ c6H12o6 EzlolJ., +^14?+2 H gz} l2zl= .E.E- +¤-^l-Eql + g4+ 9 zH "Jizl?
    EI+^l l2(2x1023)= 24x1023:2.4x192ao1tr. +l Ar+ (a) BaSOa 0.45 mol (b) ++ 9*"lt: l.l0 mol
    'Jtr}.
    e+"J7l6J+. H flztq +=+6}qnofflos+, +6J61]BE > E6qF{2
    t9ls. +E +^IE Aa6J+. +qT1 zl.E= ^ll
    "3z1ajq. E6J ++ ^lEql o gz}: H zfl 9ltszt?
    7llE +E fzl-$ zlzlne 6l]BE ,Hel +E +zl-= ,*=trI. (a) Ca(NOJz 0.25 mol (b) +,t} 4.S t.sO mol
    ^-il

    -E-zlat
    EO
    =
    r4^(dozen)= BrJol= avlq= ro*$.ol ++ol 12zllo14. rq+ +E6l *zJ tz49

    7l4L+. ql= 5q 12c 1 mol, 'nMg I molg Hlir.6ll ts-


    += ^lE ^lE +e d%Ig 24tvtg
    I mol3
    12CE
    21. 12 amug 4g*g zlzlzlu.!, fl21-E F HH +4g 24 amu= 7Id+(+E i
    zl + TtdlE +lc a+). I motS .J^J ag .Jzl¤ zfzlrttr, rnMs I mol* r2c
    'H+E
    I mol-84 F ull rl +a+. t2c flz| t mol* tz e(C9.ll tr+4)g e"*g z*zl ullggl,
    24rvrg
    sxl I molg z+ 99 4elg 714"1t4. ol9} ag ql= flz[ rzfle] ar+4 ol gz]e.l
    Avogadro f(t mol)9 ee*g +41= -H-q ++. flxt d=* ++l"ll^l gAE gz[*g g^
    r molg rfl
    ++ls +4U e"+4 +zle e A+. q= 5E
    ct gzl lzHE:s.s amuel flx}*J9 r*=+. = cl flxl 1 mol3:s.s 99 A+g r*E+.
    eu flz| tzlly rgz amu9 flzt=J9 r*=+. + eu flxI I molg re7 e4 e+3 r*=4.
    +E ++9 Eeql qlql^JE 5"J+ i4 *Alzt El+^l+n+ Ed t mo19 A=J
    ^Iolql =
    ,l]*trI.
    H2o ¤:xI rrllel slq}.le&g rs.0 amuol4. H2o Ezl I mol9 e=Jg rs.0 golu|(=al 3.9).
    =
    NaCl9 e+E^l=Je s8.5 amuol4. + NaCI 1 mol9 e%lg s8.s gol4.

    n (a)HHzO)'1 molzl+trEJ(C6H12Oo)1 mol6


    (b)= t molTl++EJ 1 mol6 0]! aolE^l+71"q
    ol! Aq EaJol=71'?
    .Pi=71?
    '104 33 al+ EJ37l-fi8 +-+aJE

    Nz qE Ee I mol9 rH e%i(= E%+ g)9 r EeE E#teJ(molarmass)olrJl ql+. q¤


    1 mol9
    Eeol=4 r
    Ee9 Ed*(s ++l.E s^l)e $4+ r Eeel 44^l*(amrr tfle s
    B H TtlE
    ^l.E.ollb
    Ex[7f Eol glts7l? ^l)!} E"J+ +ilol+. qlE 5q Nacl9 p}+^l+¤. 58.5 amuola, E.e.*g 58.5 g/mol
    olr+. olBl EAql ql+ Eql +.J +ZlE E 3.2 ,i fal 3.10q +Q'Ifl+. rH 3.109 gHI
    H2O

    E"J EXI
    4e p Ttzl Eeel r motgl 6l1Bq= "&g trq
    s 3.2q +Elu N4 N,i 5 zll'd¤ ^F*6J ql=q. qE E4q slq}4 BEI= Cq6|rll ¤E
    ol-b lol +eBJg zl{ap 914. zt{ qB H}+ql^l dt t mol¤
    ^JCaJ+E Et}g 9l
    g+lt 6lzt. oltrll ol Etlg ei g^l 1 mol(14.0 s)g e_ltrl6J+r. 6114g fE. gl4. :4
    H2O E^r Ufl
    (18.0 amu) q +g6l 94 fl+61-zl ?+sE, ol E lol 9ulatE ag e^ $z[ t mol, 4 N2(zs.o 9o1
    4. glr*-.IB Nrz[ z giE .JH]4.J e]q]4 ¤4olzl rllEol4. ollullEEt dg ul6]El
    Plmololl,\'i EE^lel
    Avogadro f E, ¤B6l+ slq4 BEll= +E6trll ¤E6l+ 4o1 fr:ealr|. ql= EE N E= Nz4L 4
    l6l-4.
    ql^.lse E^16'[H oll4EEoJ ¤g !l6J + glE].

    (
    :1
    a7l LIH

    83.2 ¤q +al
    -=.Ila! r-E
    t= E6
    =t6t/\tat =46
    EEq 0l= EtEi^l (amu) (g,/mol)
    "Jrteliel=+
    e^ gzl N 14.0 14.0 N gz[ 6.02xrc2371

    H2O l mol ei Ezl- N2 28.0 28.0 .[N, E^f 6.02 x l02]?ll


    (18.0 g) lN flzt 2t6.oz x 1023)2}]

    a f.B 3.9 H2O Erl- 17lle[ o Ag t07.9 t07.9


    1 mol9 E.J HI.I. traJ +^l
    \-L 2lot L E:ol^l! cl
    o ol-q Ag* r07.9u t07.9 Ag* ol9 6.02xrc237i
    4-vtL
    =_uti ^lat.9.
    =o=
    I

    gl(fl^ltraJ .JPlel ral .Jgl) ggl. H}E BaCl2 208.2 208.2 (BaCl, alqralS9l O.oz x 10237l]
    7[ +e+= 4g +s]6fal _" olg 6.02xrc234t
    {ru'*
    F ral Uge EEdtE ZtH (ct- olg 2\6.02xrc23)71
    -Lr ¤aJ HzO E^[
    ^t017l'?lr[.
    17ll= 2.99 x 10 23 gola, "dzlE e+g oJcz| "l +ca}el e+trE} rsooull 44E ag 7lq6I4. trI4^] olge gzle_l e=Jr+ e+
    HzO 1 molP 18.0 golrf.

    O2(9) 1 mol3 32.0 golr[,

    i
    I
    H2O(/) 1 mol8 18.0 golrl

    r'

    'T*
    .1

    NaCl(s) 1 mole 58.45 g0ltrl.

    AfB 3.10 r.ill(NaCl). o+i1l(H2o), 7lill(O, z1z1! 1 mol 4r-roll/.l 1 mol9 EaJ(EtraJE g^ltraJ E+l
    ?.1 trlqf^laJ4 +^1)l2JLl.4 /.|e= 6.02x10237Hs1 trl+^l E9l= s-J-slrl.
    3.4 I Avosadro #el.E 105

    qF{ 3.e
    '.
    Ee%r 4ltr-6l.rl

    ++EJ(glucose, CoHrzOo)1 molS E goJzl-?

    6ll'J 6.02xrc234)9 a="tol 180.0 gol+. + C6H12O5t: EA*ol


    E4 +q'Jq Elqlalol +qzlr, raq ge+g E= Erll 180.0 g/mololc|.
    ol4. AE *E q4lql^l Ei}=ol, 2s0 01619 geelg.Jel4ol
    4tqEaE E-eElg izte 444tr Elq4?*r+ asEe a, g/molE geelE 4¤+ E+lol+.
    *d flz}9 gz}+g cla|{ EEE6}9 E}E}4+g +++. E >E*qH1
    q^]rd:g amu E?lolll, EeeJ E9lE g/morolE+. aq eAE sQl6I= olg ai+ *gg rl-eE E46IflEJ
    ¤ol a E4= SE"JE Elq4'*g +q-= aol4.
    gg*ol 126.8 slmotols,4. ol E+qlEql^l eE d6l
    '1,
    gEloJzI?
    cflu[ 02fl : 6(12.0amu) : 72.oamtt =
    gzl- : : (a) 1+ (b) 2+ (c) 3+ (d) 4+
    H 127l] 12(1.0amu) 12.0amu
    oflzlozl] : 6(16.oamu, : > EaqH2
    #H 4,t} ?*(ca(NoJJg se+g 4l&6}^le-.
    +trBg E]4al=Jol 180.0 amuolE-ts, ol Ee I mol($x|

    E%r'a^t

    +4 Ee dat ql++E +4g EEr*-q-tr Hl-E+. EEB (rtJ 3.11). EllolEl= +tl6l+ clrlq=e +il EqElql EI
    g islg + tl= 516ll dB¤+. {s= A7l +l"ll E + 4=ql, 4e d+= gla+ :llql HISq^l +eb Hg +
    ^lls-s,
    ErJol gs6lr.. .J+fl$ sE%Iol ql g_s 4B 4o14. +C.J +zlql q?+ Bl=B ¤lzl-i "J¤fl ?rl¤
    ^]lsE Eq9-E
    6ItrI. trf, +e + BB4,*41 e+fl +EE C^J C "*4+B+A+ ag Hzl "=F.l.trJ4.
    ^l^I
    B EoEoJ 70-120 mgldrE zffi!9E. 3et4. r3l+ B
    r.H +IzI= 49 E= d4 "J¤flol EElq4 *44(r¤
    '#.), ?l+flol EElqqals,rllezl. 4a6}rll ^l-8:6rzl * 4

    6J+(2¤
    'Jr-). + a+ E+ eB +rlzl C^Jelurl 5r1. I
    8^ln ol^J 6}zl ?jar 96o1 t26 msldL oltolE
    ^l^l¤
    '*ktr +Cg+.
    t
    ¤"& +a7l= tr5 3zt*9 4Bl^l 'F+ HI36l+ alts¤
    ol 9l= +olql ¤Eg +.J6lq +46J+. a:r.q} adzlE
    4E6l= atl{ tolE dq BsE CBE bE= glril g+ A fH 3.1 1
    ffi]
    EB IO Proxima Studio/Shutterstock
    =¤7
    -
    {aJrl Eel EtJ
    e+g Etr, +g eelsE +lt6l+ ae E9 ,llHg 0l+6r: 94 zlzl 4&q xl-+ ^t
    +.J+. olfl al&g q-sq ,il^l+ ql4 3.10r+ 3.llql^J -E-*ol, ;(l-fl 6ll^i * (1.7¤)g
    86il ++Elg+.
    ql4l 3.10
    faJg Ee +{-al7l
    + trEJ(C6H1206) 5.380 Sol E+= Zlt6l,\19.

    6tl'J Elol4.
    E+1 Eeg fts+el ElsFlol +q4a, E+E Z1416l+ + Il4 EaE Ee;*e rBg EE H+Id+ +l& 'J4¤ 4*
    106 33 ale.i HJBTIBJB El+eJE

    *tr}. c6Hr2o6E 54elg 180.0 g/molol4(q4l a.s). 5+= B"loF *4. E +fl= 4e4q. il¤.ql xil^l+ ziE
    EOl CoHrzOe 1 mol:C6H12O6 180.0 Col+= +Al= 0l+61
    q, 4%+qI9++.Jzl-= q-s=4 a+. > EE qlr1l1
    ^l*s"6tH
    e&+4 AE(NaHCo3) sos gg p moloJzl?
    c6H,2o6E E+ : (s.380 *,r*,(#ffi#) > H.6 qlrll2
    : 0.02989 mol C6H12O6 E t.oo LqH H molel -$ol ?lEzI? (*, Eq "Js= t.oo

    eE s.3s0 sg ge*Hq +e-Es 4Bq^l I mol-H-4 43 g/mlol4.)

    -rc qH 3.11
    ''; rEJ_e.EE,tEPl
    "ffi ¤¤
    Eu rJ#(calcium nitrate)0.433 molS P raJ?.!7l'?

    6t|ff 7JE s=+71r-E_c[ $zl 4+q r*+E Ede] r0+.r ss4


    Eq EeE E+e+ ol$ol folzlil, rts+= 4l&al-b Ezll 4olot il4. HlgH.J fxffii. ,tl-$alE o.s x 15e:75 golL,
    olEl. trt+^l Bg qlrl4olEl. t+lG)e+ +n *zlE zHf(a)= *
    4lElE+= rEo+ H+6ielH, slo+^l+ "fl2|ffi ol-o-o;i +.'
    q 4ltg + 9l= 5¤*ol g9-6t+. > E= qlrlll
    Eol a+ ol¤9 Ca2*oln e& ol93 No:-olos, a4I
    (a) NaHCO3 5.33 mol9 A"*g q :atsoJ7l? (b) +41
    lo-s molg H :HoJzI?
    A+9 clq!$ Ca(Nor)rol4. ol slaJ$$ +C6h= 4 g 3.0 x

    a9 flzl=$g 6J6IE t0+.t umu9 *44*g ?=+. 4'J6J > lrE qld 2
    (a) rlololsg(c) o.so mol9 4*3 q f.gqlTl? (b) g
    s+.JEk 0.155 mol9 e*g H rHoJTI?
    ca(No3)2$ rts+ : (0.a33 morcawodr(ffi)
    : 71.1 g Ca(No3)2

    eaJal "Jal+e] Et
    Eg 4H* e=d.J} "Jzl+ ^iolE ga6l+ r.* q6Jg,*q(r=J 3.12). qBal 4=},] flzl
    +E +&61-=zl oJolBzl +l6}q +4 Ed r4q1 *= +?]E fl2145 Zl&6ll trZt. +4
    Ed 12115 dz}"l *: gol4, ol{ol 100%o ++6J *441 7fA6}H, tr]-Sr} rJ"l 4l&E
    + 9+.
    cue nzr-f : (3 8¤")(ffi)(te+#;ryn)
    : cu flzl 3 x 1o227ll

    EtrgriAvogadro 5,t l'$.aH E+lE olg1l EltJal=zlr

    EAIAF Avogadro
    r aH- ==6 9 El-*^lE?l
    =T rLQ
    ^tE:

    a.tts 3.12 traJ4 Etrsl El--qt^l trJ+lel +E s^l6l.= +^l EEel E+: zlc rfSol 6c0lrl. qal^1
    THLJP rH E9] ¤eJ4 al-+^l -JPl= E=61= ?BFrf ,JLl
    =sl =!9
    3.5 trl-+ E4o-+ E: d--J^l 107

    qHl 3.12
    !%ros+El sxl+ rLE.fl7,r+ +6|.71

    (a) CoHrzOo 5.23 gollE +trEJ ErtTl-9-7llil=71? (b) 0l tt^ fl^t7[H7llo,J=71?


    ^lE01l=

    6llU t+. A H4l +]&ql^l C6Hr2o6E Eaz"l 180.0 g/mol9 rl.


    E{ +q4! eE*e-l rts+e} s}q^lg *zls (a) +zl+, +6J+. + E4ll i+^lq^]= Avogadro +E
    ^l-8:6J+.
    (b) o gzI+E 41416I= Ezllol4. (b) o gztg += 442;l7l +ld-q c6H12o6 ts4 l7Hql o
    z{|fl (a) t
    EeE +qd o}-e--E*rl EzlfE 446}= * flzlzl azll tlEI= ag ol-o"aJr|. r}4r-l (a)9lrl 4l+ItI EzI
    E9 f-H 3.12q1 g-Eqq 9i4. CeHrzOe s.n g9 C5,H12o6 +q +C oJzt(o $z[ ozl]/c6Hrzoo Ezl rzfl)g go[{, s
    sl E+e ¤i4l+ 4*, olX.¤ cuH,ro6el E4+-tr Hl^+qot flxl9 fE "J + 9l+.

    E0l
    (a) cuH,rou rfli= c6Hr2o6 E CuH,rou$ +zI+ : (5.23 gl6IIr2O.,(ffiX c6H1206 6.02
    l mol C5tl12O6
    x 1oz3

    zl+s +l&+4. : c6H12o6 +zI 1.75 x lo22zl

    (b) c6Hr2o6 Ezl45- o gzl+s oE g^I+: (c6u-effi*1 t.ts x to22\1


    ( o H^l 67]11 \
    \ c.r+ro;gz1 lrHl
    +^l++. : ogzt l.os x 1o23Zl
    Atr zi'J6I4.
    (a) ,\lzlg 4l de.iol geelB+ zizl ollE9l 6.02 x
    ^l-E= > -H.6 qF{ 1

    ro23zfl!-Q zlg Ezl-+E z|!o[ o[EE, 7oj gg cct4r2.2 cqlE g4 gzIT| P zll ilEzt?
    =zl
    EIE-140I+. ql+4eB al+6tH slzoo:z.sxro-2 (a) 4.77x1022 O) 734xrf4 (c) r.srx1023 (d) z.ozxtf3
    =
    mol, 2.5x 10-2x6x 1023:l5x l02r:1.5x 1022 +4+.
    > .H.* qd 2
    t+l(Ezlas+ +E izlE zflf(rzll)| 4B6t+. g9li e4I +z\7l H zll 9tszt? ft) ol ,t1
    (a) HNo3 a.zo
    (b)+6J 93 (a)"ilr] +tL {}9l 6Hl]olqo} 6IsE, C+6Ial
    Eql= &^ gxlz} H 4 "AY7l?
    "*+. +E *zI 7l]+(37l])e+ tgi(o $4f)$ zflfz]-

    Fd 4e+E f_s. izlzl rzllolzl q+q], BE HlgH6.lq +E i4¤ rz]]-+ *ifl4.


    flzt9 r++E+q fl214E 41416l+ 4d4.J %IBsE iFg ql^lg qEal ol+g +
    flB.i'zl oJolBz|. gee}l+ Avogadro fE :Hf -+ $f + flzffE Hl+ts +& oJzt
    _+
    ^l-s94.
    olull +6J +^l= ql+ irt+ts {$ aq-q16t'Jrf. _H_E ^lE Eae_l g
    =
    zI, EzI, olgE +E Zl&g trll ++ +zl=,]]+ +eir qltlg + 91trI. El$ql ^lE E
    =
    Ae] E+= 4zl] re4.I+ +4+ Et 4Ig fol4.

    3.5 lEls-[E4o e "JEttJ^]


    ,.'., (2.6d)91^J ++S.Fol, Eee.l de^lg r
    Eeol !++{+ 4 fliE tlql4 gzl+
    E "J6l] dE4 H2o= o gzt rzHoil 4at9 H gz}27H4 +CE$ $ulflr]. ol ul
    =+.
    gg E ++lqlE 4+g+. l Hzo 1 molg H gzl 2 mol$ o gzl t molg EEI.J+. Ht
    +q + +tlEg +c6I+ 4 flael gHl= r 4ilEE dE4q + ot4 az}e}
    "J6IE,
    E.J6l+. r4 oe. gq 4He e+q} EAE de^lg ,Jlt}6l+ t zlzl %IHg ,ll+,{}+.
    f¤(ug)4 gi(cD7l. Aql6l.l eelsE iP ts.ovoe+ H4 26.00/oE- +dg EI*+g
    108 33 ++ uJ37tU3 +-+aJE

    +clT! ,"I +6t='J:


    g,\ol 100-g EXI= t
    /.lre + 4 8^el ==6
    4 Sael EHI
    +
    raJ+ P ¤-'J^l
    4=z.l Vo
    )tE =T xttt
    ^f3
    I
    o @ o
    arH 3.'13 EEg EEEe+El ¤-'J^l= 4ltl6l'= rl'8
    ^¤
    olag EItJEE t3.e e4 ga 26.1 sg +++tr}= ag el
    ^lE oJgsol +g
    100.0
    ^JCElEl.
    ^IEEE ^l-&B f flzlqi,
    ul.J4(olfl BEI9I E4lE qq+ ulEge+q eE*g d
    41 4141617l +lEll "JHI4-q--e,
    ^l.E
    a"+g 100.0 go-tr. ^l-&'*+). fl49 flxl*g 6J6ll^l
    ge+g *a[gFol, 4 g^E E+E +.J El] flz[z]e-e+q 414]++.
    / lmolHs \
    (74.0&Hg)(2'o.ffi o.36e molHg
    ):
    (%.os.er)(ffi) : o.zszmor cr

    trl*eE, ct : Hg9 gtsl$ +i;l7l fl6}q g+E zls g+E +b+.


    =
    Clg E+ : 0.732molCl: 1.98molCl
    HgE-EF -"t Hg 036, *rt Hg 1

    ¤E silE "J6rq, +'* gHlE 9zlr.l 4l&t ailH 4+.J Aizl otH +E gl+.
    1.e89 2ql7lq7l qlEql ol 3rltlEsl del4g Hgch4-a qd6l acg + ?l+. ol El6J
    591 ¤4olE flz}9 HIE Ll4q= 7l* +e a+E o|=ll flzlE 61971 Ell+ql ol ¤
    ^]-s-o
    E^le *q.
    dql^lg aC6l+ "JElzl $Ce f.zJ 3.t3ql eEqq 9l+.

    p al* EA9E+E1 0[^11=aJ](C2H2)r[ H]d(C6Ho)el ¤-d^lE


    =8dlE
    +E0l 7lE-e]7f?

    qH
    F tts{|+rPl
    3.13

    014-"._H^!(Hl0lEl-.J c)3 traJHltr c 40.92%. H 4.58%. O 54.50o/oE EEr'-.Jt[. 0[4-"rr{lel ¤-.J48 ?6|.119.

    6llB
    Eq ol^iE-4}q 4 SIE ee} EBg.l +qA 4le dEl4g aa6l+ %lHg fB 3.r3ql +qd 41 +41=
    tl4q^l ,J!l^lg =4d+
    foli $xllolr|. ^F&6J+.
    E0l
    (1) cqd Ea 100 gol gl+a 7ta6J+(^Idt qB zzlE e=*<tg ++). 100 gg otaa-E^Iq: +
    'J+6lrll, ^l-*6llE
    4 40.e2 C, +i &4
    a.ss g, gui.
    s4.so gol

    1oo g 7r s,..or
    fl^el gllzl
    aao + 4 Alel EBI +> 416{,\l
    r1+
    4a! Vo
    f Lxl -,
    rdr
    -;; E
    ET ztt
    ^lB

    (2) ++, 4 gi$ E+= 4lt}{trI. dezJ ¤;*el A"JEe* *+zl +16]l +E izf +z]|oJ gz} e"Jg ols"oJ4
    3.5 | a|-+ E4ee g= d-d^] 109

    r;il
    100 g tlte!
    34"1
    -'-'+ .,\le+ --) 4 flaq H ==d
    4 fl+el ----+. d:d^l
    f afl^ IL.Q g
    EH 7n
    7tE I

    cE E+: (+o.rzgc)(#ffi) :3.4o7morc

    He E+ : (4.s8cD(*H:?) : + s+morH
    og E+: (s4.soso)(+ffiS) :3.4o6moro

    (3) 4 g4q gf= zl-^J 1tg E+E ++q 7L+ a++ a+E EEI= ea+q.
    g^el 100 g g^lah
    ----+ /.lee -+ 4 Sasl aad 4 fl^el EUI
    +
    eeJ % raH^ 9
    lttl dE4
    lxl
    -to
    7
    ^fE =T

    .,#: 1.ooo n,#: r.:s o:ffi: 1.ooo

    Hel gHl= dE e^l-ql q= aol+:il BTlql= 1r+ q+ gl+. ald ol43 r+"1l rl*Ll. olzll r9 4 EHlql *6IE
    ^Lol7l-
    c+= eg + et+.
    C: H: O: (3 x 1:3 x 1.33:3 x 1): (3:4:3)
    trI4^l dE^lg C3H4o3ol+.

    Etr ot4 frxli ul:r.{ 4B*


    =-7lel ¤+.Jg
    qoJ.J + ll6.l,{l-S-9
    ilE-L:

    91tr1. E* c3H403el a^d E+sg 4I4I6IE g4E E+g (a) COzCle G) COCI2 (c) Cq.s22Os.s2zClo.o+n (d) C2OCI2
    4,H+ Tlvl&<kg eal ¤+. > .H.= filrll 2
    > :e= qlrlll 6J+ z]]aq ollp Hla.t}(methyl benzoate) ::}.JE
    ^FS6l-=
    4lrz}
    ^lalrld
    ,ll Elq +7lE
    ^l¤-¤
    +^ALzJ+qsqlE c el
    ^le
    s.32s gglts +^. 3.7s8 c, 0.316 g, +i &i 1.2s1 g

    0.260 g. o 0.347 g, Cl t.537 col E+qq fl+. ol Eeg ol rlElqq gl4. ol E.49 dB^1.g .+q.JzI?

    tEJ^lql^j+al^] +6Pl
    "J"J E+ElEel Ez}*ol4 sd+g
    .Jr gl+H, dEl^lsE+rl Ezl4g dril +6J + 9l
    I 4.o14. EeE +rt^]q 4q q= oFt A4+ S4l+ ¤E^.I"il 9l= ot;t dzl9 4f
    tsllol+
    ",- 12.0¤). ol H}li= dE^l%Eg +zle*4 Hli6ll^l +++.
    cfult:im dE-o
    [3.1r]

    qlE 5E ql4l 3.13q^l trFol, ollitr&9 dE^lg c3H4o3oli1,


    q= ol dE^l olq
    I s++4r*g:(tz.o amu)+4(1.0 amu)+3(16.0 amu):33.s amuol4. dE4sE ++ ol
    EItJEE E le+g rz6 amuol4. l4 o e dfl^lg +z}^l_s=+ +&61+ {ful|E

    Cfuli:"-*:#H:,
    ol4. ar+zlee. dE^lel ol4 ezlql ol a+HH= *.6110} *.3 Ezlrlt c6H8o6g +6I
    ,il g+.
    110 38 ot-* EJ34 EJA 6t+aJE

    qF'il 3.14
    F +al.{ +I,1-71

    fl8q 4aJ9E -d Etit+^oJ 0llllEJaJ!(mesitylene)9 t-.J^le c3H40lt[. d:d4oe 0l Et-Er'Eel E^PJS 121
    =^1161.= =EE]
    amuo lrl. ql/.l=aJlg E^l-^.l3 +1oJ7 l-?

    T}lff I =',dl csHiz9 +,1^lg e=4.


    E^l q^lBHlE d{l^lr+ eri+g *4s 6Iq Ez}!g + ,Jtr gzlgg- dE^l=*g.tr +hq ge. lkol 4+oll711d7]|
    oli.Sxllolc|. qlEql, Ee a+= Bg qI6I+.
    alq e+EiEql 4* +zt4E ot4 azlE dil4 ol4 Ezl >.E=qH1
    9 CfuH¤oi e4. rlg zl%I+ 4+tsll= E=+.
    3.
    ^tol=Edl^]loJg
    a*g.e c 85.60/o, H r4.4o/oa +dq.]1,
    ^F*6Iq
    ^l
    gol ¤ql^l c:Ha9 E+44*g Eeeli9 &.2 glmotol4. ol Eeq +zl4g?
    : (a) CoH (b) CH, (c) CsHz+ (d) C6H12 (e) CrHa
    3(12.0amu) + 4(1.0amu) 40.0amu
    ol4. trl¤_ql ol {tg al s.rrql 4.Jttr}. >H5qm2
    zl-EiI +FoloE qefl 34olEe a* E+
    ^l-+q=
    cfurt:#-:ffi:'o' gE C 38.7o/o, H 9.7o/o, O 51.60/o1 +Cqq il+. olaq
    EA*g 62.1glmololr|.
    E4* 4f9 flzl$ r$olr. 9ls EE s4 A+HlqI E4
    4 oe $ulz| il4. ol EElql^l ee a+Eil 3.03e +zlu}
    (a)
    "llB{l =+ol=9 dql^le Fi.Jzl-?
    0) r-ag Ezl4e *i.JzI?
    E de e-ilq^l HlEg4. ra4, e dql^lel olql Azlql 3

    o{,s !L,$

    ¤Edql^'l dil^lg 4A6I= 6J HJ-B-e--E 94 g!(combustion analysis)ol ilErll, BE


    tsre+ iLzl +CE g^ql E+6JEql ^l-'8:61+ uJBol4.
    +ie+ +^E s,*61-= 6J 3+BJ=iol f.H 3.14e+ e¤. tlzl .Jq^l sd6l gi6J ull, r El
    6JEE -E= E^= CO2-tr, EE +A= H2O.tr Hir++trI "a".,, (3.28). COrel HrOg a"*
    eE+q g4 elqlE + ce+ H9 E=.+E aa6lr, rl {o}z} dE4g ad++. E}E B
    ole-lE Hz<ll flaz1=40J+H, ol g^E *"6}e ?l4E a*eE+q +de+
    ^el+i ^ll
    +iE e+g U d%Iee +6J+.
    >rC 3.14 E4E4 8^l EAE HzOe[ COzTI q=
    COze[ ^IE,
    HzO 8d ^]e
    .Eottlrl.

    r
    =+illoll

    Oz'* ^lP
    I I +

    HzO E#i]l Coz Efill


    E^+
    4 E+iiltr+E1 gol^l= tr=J3 SdEJ
    CO2LI H2OE EeJrt oJil-sttrt.

    qH 3.1s
    F H}. Sl{{se ttJ^l +6t71

    4!g g7e= iiJntlEl= opl^s+g f.i.Sisopropyl alcoholE C, H, OE 0l+q^1 ?ltl.. ofolaEe=J giE 0.25s gE fl4
    /.l7l COz 0.561 ga[ H2O 0.306 SE Efltl-. o[olaE+rJ g?Ee] t-d^l= ?6iAl9.
    s.s I +* E4eE g= Ae! '111

    Ttlff
    Eq olol:rE+g "J7¤.g c, H, o-tr olFq4 9lr, gr q Eel zl]Hg ol+6J+. ol aelg ¤uL d ololis.-Eg oJ
    +4 ar+ SC¤ core| Hzo9 oJg +z}^lg +61= ?g +9 cel H9 e%hol+. gI"JE + oE 4r*g plqlEg
    =48 c, H, 09
    ^lEql fl=
    Exllol4. + c, H, oE E+= zl4l6lot *+. e*ql^-l ce+ HE 4=*g U ;lolEl.
    ^lE
    4q co2 + c9 :tsic+ Hro ? H9 ]B+E 9zl gal e+g'J+'JH. 9lxll :.tl9 EJH9 ol+6IE 94.
    gol .rl.e9l 9l= E= +r= co,E E++qfl" Ee zl-g "l]4 "t trI* rlcg Er e+g 4l+6J + tl+
    ^l-ssH ^lE +
    8dE CO2 CO: EEZJ 8dg co2 CO2 EITEJ + aot
    v-l
    Extat
    xla! 44.0 g/mol g
    C17|l ^lE
    /'q
    L=T
    ==d
    g/mol ^le+
    C trAJ
    =d =T -
    {lxll9l i"ttl al- ^l-+6tB
    cg eq}g
    cE :a++ : (0.s61 r*r)(ffi,Xffi)(ffi)
    : 0.153 I C

    EE +a= H2o.E H+qfloEE ilg q]4n+ r+ag + H aElg 4ltlg + gl4. s,o
    ^lE +
    El-g d%rg
    ^Feo6tg ^l-E
    azH9 #E. izl.ll "i4 n 4*91= rzll -ss. izlE
    ^l-*,+El.

    8dE HzO HzO EtraJ 8dE HrO H2O EI['J LIol e^lal
    rr- ,llP +
    Ita! 18.0 g/mol q
    HDI ^le+
    UE
    rr 1.01 g/mol+
    = =6
    HEg
    =d =T =T

    ql4lql+q4l {l# ^l-&61-H


    He.l e"*3
    Hel r++ : (0.306gr2o,(ffi)(ffiX#) : 0.0343sH

    o.2ss g3 c, s, o AeJq Boloe., oE eeJg


    ^le.
    oq 3*: a* - (cq d* +u9
    ^lEg e*) :0.255s - (0.1s3g + 0.03439) :0.068so

    tri+^] c, H, o g+=
    ^lE 4
    cel E+: (o.1s3s¤)(+#) : o.o128morc

    H9 E+: (o.o343sr{,(+#) : o.o34omorH

    oE E+: (o.o68so)(ffi) : o.oo43moro

    9l4l :.rsql,q tr9l=ol,


    ^l-Eq
    fl= 4 g^9 tlE}]zl 5+= ul:roH -E_H dE^ls eg + 9l+
    .,331#: s.o ,,f lfg:,.n
    ",!!ffi: '.o
    zlg + +ts A+ 3rl8ql ufl$ zlz[$ +olEe, dl]4g c3H8ool4.

    >H5qlfl1 > H=qH2


    +ol+^ll.Jg +g +aq^l ¤:EHE ^l¤-q=Ell c, H, o-E (a) trlBl+.Jgql^l += fl.J + 6I+oJ 7Ig-E4l:
    H^HE
    +Cqq gi4. ol 9I'JEE g9 ¤aal-H co, (caproic acid)$ C, H, os ol+q4 fl4. ol EI.JEE
    ^]|E-2.203
    "JEq4l+. += deee+q 5
    4.40t g. H2o 1.802 col
    ^lE
    0.22s g9 ¤l:ot{ co2 0.5219+ H2O 0.209 g
    a"d=ol 88.1g/molol4- ag "J9t+. cfol$,rllolel $u| g eq+. zlg.e4}9 ge4e +6}^le-.
    +zl-^le? (b) TIEg&E ga"#g tt6 g/molo14. olAE +z}4g
    =
    (a) CzH+O (b) C4H4O2 (c) CHz (d) C4HsO2 +EoJ7l?
    112 35l al-+ BJSrlEJS ol-+aJE

    3.6 l+e q+ tl#lee+Ei "J=¤=J4oJ ¤E-


    slq H}*^lel 4l+= EI+ql +q6h= Ezl9 tlq4e +E +r+UE}. E9 zI]Hg ol3-o 6|
    g ol {-H_5 EeE e*9.s HIg + 9i+. qltr^J tr}+ +¤ "*+ H}*^lel 4l+ql ql6}q
    go1ex|.
    zHz@) +oz(g) +)H2o(l) l3.t2l
    H, EzI 24l:. Oz EzI lzle+ Hlso dlq H2O B^I 2zll$ .${a;-g gel oltrll t}44 E
    =+.
    += tr-44 +{+ql 6]]BElEl.
    zHzG)+oz(S) +zHzo(l)
    +^l zA Ezl 17ll E^l27\
    2(6.o2 x ro23;2fl gz| r(6.02 x ro2)2fl $z| 2(6.02 x ro2)2fl gz1
    Zmol l mol 2mol
    +4= olag -EE +B "*= Hl*^lql ql6[q "JE]3r+g + 9l+. +B "*= q4 H]*^]gl
    4l+= HI-&q +q+ ,t.x4 gz[(Ets ++4 *+l)+e] d[,il4 E+E q4E} 94. i :
    aJ 3.15q1^J= ol
    E4zl e%B H= Hzl+ 9tr ¤SCol 9,lEzlE Bq +r 9l+.
    ai :.tzg 4l+s+q{ H2 2mol, 02 1mol, H2o2 mol9 oJ94+=6}E4 B=*
    (stoichiometrically equivalent quantity)olQI ++. ol E4= +41= +*!+
    ^Flql^J "Jel
    *Ll.
    ZmolH2: lmolOz = 2molHzO
    q7l^l +E =E ::14"*E4 'Jrj'g ++U+. olel Ag qlqr-*e4.J +al= oleo 6[E q
    ¤ clq Hl*g HI¤¤!+ ^JcEql ql+ "J ^I"le_l +41= 4lllB + gtrt. qle^l 02 r.57 mol
    tr+q stE Hzo9 g++ q-q-r+ aq
    Hzog Ei: (1.s7*"+ol(ffi) : r.rnmorH2o

    A C|21.57 molol HzetHJSslq HzOE

    q= qlE, 'Jsl+ E}u]l 4olrl9 tseE


    d¤-$ ttfl, 0l 7l¤0ll,\l atrEl= Hzel EfE g0|-?]71?

    ^l-&6I=
    Pql"J(cnHro)el ¤i= ^Jr+6l]
    trzl.
    zC4HrcQ) + r3O2(s) .----- 8CO2(g) + 10H2O(g) [3.13]

    rH 3.t5 EE "J= HJA^I=


    > e.te{
    H l-Q-ll.
    2Hzk) + oz(g) ---------) 2HzO(l)
    5aJ4oe dtl46l'71

    o
    HzE^l D| 02 E^l 17fl H2O E^l

    g=g
    27H
    E^l +=
    6tl4:

    e x H2 2 mol 02 l mol H2O 2mol


    =rc
    6tl4:
    relo a l ta;l\

    +
    H2 4.0 g 0232.0 g
    &
    Hzo 36.0 bo

    4g e=oll-6tat
    (4.09+32.09=36.09)
    3.6 I E-d "f= EJS4qe+El E= 5aJ4"J gE 113

    c4Hr0 1.00 sol tsae- trI^J¤El= coz9 4F*g 4l4I6H Hz|. ^l 3.13q1 +4+ 4l+= ^t
    *PI cru,oE oJol ^JCg Coz9 "Jq
    qq+ *?lz} 9l=zl= "JEl f 2 mol CaHls
    =tt.
    6lEE C+Hro9 gA=}"J s8.0 g/molg r|
    = 8 mol COroltl. olBl'* e+qi=JE4 +4lE
    ^l-s"
    +6Iq cnH,o9 e.+g E+E *4lollo} aJ4.
    C+Hro9 E+: (t.00gaaH6)
    / I mol CnHto \
    \s8.ose4t6/
    : 1.72 x 10-2molCaH16
    r.q¤- +¤ *+ Hl*4etr+q slql=*E "Jzl-= ol+6}q coz9 g+E 4l4IqI+
    ./ 8molCOz \
    COzg Ef : $.72 x r\-zmu|+ffifi
    '\z*d CnHrn)
    : 6.88 x 10-2 mol CO2

    ufzluJ9._tr Coz9 Ee=+"J 44.0 g/molg ol+6}q Coz9 e+g:aE oe. Al&.J+.

    cozE ].B+: (6.88 x to-zm(j+ffii,(ffi)


    : 3.03 gCOz

    ol s+& r+4e feJ 3.16q1 ,ll^l¤ 44 rJol +41tr ol+q4 fl4. "lele t4l9 +
    ^ll ^ll
    tlg 6I+E ^lsE -tr^l6l.H q-q=4 e+.

    co2e_l rEJ+ : (1.00 844+16)


    / l mol CoHr,,\/ 8 molCO2 \/aa.0gCO2\
    \. sa.o g crH,u/\ 2 mol CaH;o /\ r mor cor/
    : 3.03 gCOz

    HISrl E.l3ql^l aHlg oz9 oJg '1141617l +16]]^l= +B "*= HI¤:^19 al+E+q cI
    q=JEzl +4I ?lzl-= oJotqo}.J+. + 2 mol caH16 = 13 mol ozol4.

    or9:Bf : 1 mol e4II16 / 13trwI02 \/32.0g02\


    (r.0ogaaHfi) ( 58.0 \z met CoH,n/\ l moloz)
    : 3,59 g Oz

    +cltl "J: ?olts oJ:

    A9 A E¤g-I so E|^
    =a xI Ht.g/\l
    uof Bel
    A
    r =89
    aI- -+ + g
    PT
    0il^l Ael B9 + B EEq
    g
    AT
    .+ El-J + B
    =¤el
    =EaJ 4l+
    ^tE ^[E ^t3

    o
    arB 3.16 HJSoll,'.l ^trEJ HJ

    3E !E= EdE SdEel g=


    A
    g ql^rlotl^l
    caHro 1.00 eol oz 3.5e srl ggat* coz 3.03 s= 'J=fltt. Hc I 'gc Zltl6t= rt8 HJSoll^]
    O= 8dE Hzo9 gE zltbt^le. HJBEeI raJf lEE ^.eE
    HJBoll^j
    i ^l'E6tG
    88E SdEsl rzJt= "Je.lg
    oJ- lEts 85E9 raJ+E
    ^f
    86[q Eale zN=J + ?,lrL
    N\q Qlrll :.to ^ll

    IR HJEBII ^8{Eq
    oJ 4l{-61.?l

    ++cJ(C6H12oo)1.00 gE E46l'E E E raJol 8¤El=^l=


    C6H12O6(s) + 602(g) +
    =8dt^19.
    $ COzG) + 6 H2O(/)

    T[l'J a+g .JotLll: E^llol+.


    E4 +q1l H}*ql^l HI¤¤g eelol +q{a dc¤ Eel 4lEl rH 3.16q1 seF6J.JEI4 %IBg tr].=+
    114 38 at-+ UB4 UB el-+aJE

    (l) c6Hr2o69 5e+g ^l-&4q c6Hr2o6E }J+E g+ ¤-6[q C6Hr2Oe9 E.fE HrOe] E+-tr El-E+.
    tr Hl-E+. (3) H2o9 EA+g Hzo9 EiE fH+E El-E+
    ^l-S6Iq
    (2) EI+=JE4 +41^l'J I mol C5,H1200 = 6 mol H20E-^l

    E0l
    (l) E^1, coHrzor9 rH+E E.e+g ^l-e"
    6Iq E-+tr Hl-E+
    A9 A aE "f= HJS^I Bel
    A EEE B EEg B EtrE
    -il1 =Eg
    rLQ
    + E=trE
    l-* oil^i AelBel + E ---+ E¤eJ ---> -all
    =T zt+ =T
    J ^tE ^tE

    C6H1zo6E g+ : (1.00 gC6}ft2oj)


    / lmolCaHrzOr \
    \ tso.o gcuH,rou,/

    (2) tri¤r-s--e clo++84 +Al^l-J 1 mol c6H12oo = 6 mol H2o= c6Hr2o69 Ei= Hroq g+tr El-t+
    ^l-+4q
    Asl gllol go EIE
    fa xI BI.9../.l
    uo- Bel
    A EtrE
    r all + EEaJ-+
    rra
    q==- oil^l Aet BE + B EEg
    E
    =eH
    + B EEg
    -afl
    r L.Q
    ,\lo =T zt+ =T
    ^l"E ^|'¤i

    Hzog Ei : ( 1.00 g c6H 2o., (


    1
    *1ffi X *".=t]ffi )
    (3) nt^lEe_E, Hzo9 ge%hg
    ^l-S6Iq
    Hzo9 EfE:a*+s El-E+.

    Ael EE "*= BJ8^] Be.l


    A EEq
    r zI4
    -+ EES -+ A
    E=:E -+ oll^1 Aet BE -+ B EEg]
    g
    .+ EtrAJ + B EEE
    r aH4
    =T At+ =T
    ^l.E ^t^E ^tt
    lmolC5H12O6 \/ 6mol HzO 1/18.0gH2O\
    HroE :1B+: (1.o0gC6W) /\ tao.o g qu,roo./\ t mot c6H12o6 )\ t mol uro /
    :0.6009H2O

    AE H2og A*g qqzi oE al&6}q ?19 ¤4zI i+'.1+


    zlE dAB + 914. EE*el Eezlol 180 g/mololE-E -T. =tr[.
    2NaOH(s) + COz(3r) + NazCO3(s) + H2O(l)
    E* l gg r/rsO molol4. .+.E J 1 molS 6 mol9 H2o= NaoH 2.40 cs.tr.+q Na2Co3 q :gg gg + 9iizl-?
    EJEsE 6lts0:rb0 mol9 HzoE E¤. aol+. Ee.l EA
    (a) 3.18 g (b) 6.36 g (c) 1.20 g (d) 0.0300 g
    r3=ol 18 g/mololp e tlEOx,s:Ah0:0.6 g H2Oola, fl$
    > lre qlrll2
    Zl&r+ .Jzl++. Hzo9 fE ++lE S4. zl+ql 4l^l,t} xl
    ¤Edq^l= ozE qlEzl glal{ KCro3E E6I] H}
    Eq +A +4-= zlloleg rll zl]9 +E izl-= r*= 6llB ^e}g
    ^,ll ¤¤ ++ ol+6J+.
    ol *+. .+
    2 KCIOr(s) 2 KCI(s)+r Ozk)
    > .H.= qlr1l1
    iEg ol&El *co] {e"4q +t} rE4 +9 KCIO3 4.s0 cs.tr. q:89 ozE gg+ 9l=71?
    +&cl E}

    H qEl 3.17
    B u$gal^8{Esl.J 4lt6Pl
    aillanal-alE(rithium hydroxide)g ++,!011^l ?ToJolEEe-e L||Ee olttrtEJ^= 111716l.= rll,\fEEJrl. + lEl.alE¤ olti
    Et EJ^et HJSstot -rr.ll EJ^J alfi(lithium carbonate)al.-4ill EE 8¤-drl-. +ts[ alE 1.00 g0l E+61'= 0|t!a|. EJats H raJETl?

    6tlg +61+ Ezllol4.


    s4 HI+5 r.oo g4 Hlso6lt E E+= EI¤¤g ril+= 4l fltEt HI* ¤BeE+q +¤ "*+ HI+^lg +4.
    3.7 I -ufzl BJBE 115

    2LiOH(s) + COzG:) -+ LizCOs(s) + H2O(/) molx2 mol LiOH:4s g LiOHol+. @+ e COzlmol)/(a8 g

    LioHE r+ eelol i94 lil, corgl -f.H eeJg 41& LioH)= lts+ ErJ ++= aql +E6I+. trI4^l BE a
    6l+ EzllolEi. rB 3.16q1 il= E4lel H{} 4Ag 7]r, + o.ete I coz= LioHg oJ¤- zl=-e--E ts
    ^ll ^F8 ^l+ ^l-8.+
    g Ell 4B6t+. +E iz}e} sgE 4e4+.
    4q Ezll= + 9l+. r+41 H+ql^l= LioHE Sa-J
    ol
    (o. sa + re. oo + r.ot :23.e5 g/mot)ol 9s-a14. 2+41 H+ql > ie* drlll
    el+ H}+4_e_tr+q ciq=jE4 +al4g iaEqoJ(c3He, :aB 3.8)g s4el rtC+
    ^l= +B "*+ ^t \+%Iql
    ^FSq
    +++. 2 mol LiOH - I mol COr. 3*Zl H+ql^J= Corel flEol4.
    "JHI r.00 gg e_Eullolol B46l+ Ell ozE
    ge+g t2.0t+2(r6.00): 44.01 g/mol
    =
    H rHol
    ^l-s+El. ^Elq=7I?
    E0l (a) s.00 e b) 0.726 S k) 2.18 g (d) 3.63 g

    > le= filrll2


    (, oo g r,ioH)(*Hffi )(#ffi)(Hffi) Ell+g(cH3oH)3 *zl *9 .$ap+
    ¤A Hls"6lq E4 ol
    +i= "J=+. oll+S z:.0 rol flaafE 5 H r*ol
    :0.9199CO2
    tl3rl
    : qlEqxl=zI?
    AE 23.9s g LiOH/mol 249 LiOH/molol!.,2agLiOHl

    Be ¤ol B^J'J4(:H :.s). ol gg EJ Ei+*E4 .Jql 6l]'.}gq.


    q++ HI*q^J ql
    +qd HI*ql^] 100 lel tsol BrJ¤ ql HI*5q "J-g 2HllE alB zoo IE gol g
    = =H ol= strollrJ EH+rll E
    ^J6J+. aol+.

    3.7 l6J4l 'Jt+


    {} F a4ql il= 6J t}g Bg d=9.1215 ^Jq ,ll "J=4.a z}C6ll -H-z}. Bd:uB-, ch:^l
    Z, Bd2ch:&E+lrl4r. zl.Aqr., dlgzl EIE= sEHg slq+ HI+^I4H s¤6IE
    q-94 eq-.
    zBd.+Ch-+Bdzch
    qlrroa4q \7 7$ol 9lrlB, "J= + 9lE s=gz1E szlloll, 2*ol tsg aol+.
    ol* zl-b'*'Br9 zllfzl d=91219 7l]+E x]loJa]z{ $c}. ^lz
    ols] g;.[a]zll s]o+ H]+q^J.E q] 7[z] E]¤¤ol += E]*8tr4 HzJ Adq= 4*zl
    9l+. qL t zl-zl t}¤¤ol Sd6l r}=Jel HI¤¤ES Br,
    "lull HI¤+ H=+.
    ^HlqE
    q= Eq Hz l0 mol4 oz 7 mol$ 4lq^l Eg ^JCoJqr 7l4tJ'llE EI¤+ +-q-r+ A
    +.
    2Hz@) +oz(S) +2H2o(g)
    2 molH2= I mol O2olE-tr EE HzeI HI*6IE ql ggoJ Oz Efi +s-l} eq.
    oz9 Ef :rromo+fr,(ffi) :Smoroz

    02 7 molol eI* azl9l HzE 9d6l A.Elg rll (z mol 02-5 mol O2):2 mol
    =zll6}u-+
    o2z| fxllal 4,o14.
    + iHlq= HI¤+3 EUlEltE(limitingreactant)olrlz 6Jq. r ol+
    HISql^l .sd6l
    ulEol4. r elel += HI*EE¤ r+* HL
    ^JCE9 "&3 AC E= ^lle6}zl
    ol Eeol
    =
    *E(excess reactant)ol4r Etq. ql= EE :a 3.17q1^Jz]H, gt lt= H27| Sd6l A,ul
    gH **ol H+sE HzE 6J4l HI¤¤ol+. oz= 4* HI¤¤oloe H}gol H+flg trl
    Bril g+.
    {H rISolE tril* HI+EE "Jq qq HI*q^l +
    ^il+ol S+. d4lE
    EI.$ol
    ^l4g
    116 33 El-+ BJSrl-EJ8 6t-+aJE

    I Hz Sol2Hile E|E HzO E Eol trJEolrlbTl.?


    HJ8 d Htg

    eroi
    =

    :{eI
    :.i-t cga {
    1
    +
    e
    l0H}el 7 02 10 H2oel 2o2(H2 ErE fla)
    AfB A.t7 -dXl HJBE HzE eJE6l AElElo+ -dzl EJ-olrl. or= HJBOI S=E + sfz H7l rrtlE
    0llaBF HJBE6lrl. HzO9 $¤aJe -LfZl EJ- Hz9 Soll q4
    =!Etf

    7[zl r]E]ss
    ^lEg ^l-8.*+.
    rq'+ dHlg +¤¤E "Jr] ^Jcg ^J^JEel o]g 6.J4l +
    *Eq E6ll ,ll+g *=+. qlE EE 4zl 69lrJ ¤^ Hl*ol "Jqg ql &^E +E
    oJql
    6|E.tr 4=J *¤¤ol4r B + gl+. zl5" il¤ gq6IH E+ql 7]+ilol l_+ 4_E.qH ts
    4 HI*ql^lE *4 HI¤¤'J Ee.zl EF
    ^qqfloE-tr 4s"il-L 4zl6J 1o14.
    :H :.rzoll ql= trlil7l
    +qd z[_eE Xql -9.lta]l Bz[.
    2Hz@) + ozk) +2E2o(g)
    HLg
    uo z.lu.
    .
    l0 mol 7 mol 0 mol

    Ep+(Hl*) -10 mol -5 mol +10 mol

    uo 6'
    HL_Q- -r. 0 mol 2 mol l0 mol

    s9 + Hrll 6(HsI)9, +*ql^l aElg EI¤¤(-+iE s^l)r+ scg ^JdE(+B


    E-tr s^l)E "&g sqh"J 4014. "J5e +4 Hl¤¤g "Jql trl4 zl*qq, +e "*
    ol
    EI+49 4l+qlE 9=++. EHI Hz i02 iH2o: ro :s : ro¤ +¤ "*= Hi*4E 4l+Hl
    =
    z:rtzg tsl]+ol+. Eel ulzluJ
    =q "Je:izl "J4 aaq Helql 9=6Iq, ol 6:]$ izl
    .F+ B+*g ql8^l eqTl+. HlAel ¤ql= tal HI¤¤(Hrg tsot 9lzl t*4. BoI 9l
    Ag or(ri* HI¤¤) 2 mol4 Hzo(SCE) t0 molol4.
    =
    ql7'll 3.18
    a341 u,1ffi-a.+q UEqil {{Ee.loJ 4lthal'71

    B7l 6sl NzE tr4 EtEtEe Hel6lE 69.-d 894 rEl3, Nzel HzE HJBrl7l NH3E trJE= aolq
    Nz(g) + 3Hz(g'-------+ rNHs(g)
    Nz 3.0 molal Hz 6.0 molEtsEj NHg E E0l 8¤=J + ?1ts7t?

    Etl*
    E4 HI+q ^F+q= 4 qI¤¤ Hzq Nz9 .Jol +qzlr., ^J HI¤¤E .Jq 4+ 4l4I6J+.
    cE Nu,g olg 4l&6I= E^llol+. +zl Hl*E Exllol Eol Nz 3.0 molg Sd6l 4Hl6lts q g.s-+ Hz9 EiE
    +.
    = El-gr+ eq.
    HI¤¤ol $d6l HlsooJtrlH, += Ql Hl*Eol gEI
    4lEf 6J
    Ef = tr.o*.tl;)( 3l moHq ) :
    mol Hz'
    Hz9 e.omornz
    4 9s-"}z15 4l4}g + 914. AllI*.J+ +qd o3$ ul.:z
    6Iq qtr aol 6J4l *¤¤"JzlE ae + 9l+. relH +41
    3.7 Efzl EJSE 117

    H2 6.0 molE}+qd,o Ir.E N27I Solzlzl d9l urzl Ez'l Nz(s) + 3rr2(8) +2NHs(a)
    i4l$ 4o1p tr_, H27l +4l elt=ol+. tr14^l H2el oJe-+_ HI* d: 3.0 mol 6.0 mol 0 mol
    ^JCq= NHr9 ""t9 4l4l* + 9ltrL EE+(Hlg") -2.0 mol -6.0 mol *4.0 mol
    NHsg E# : 6.olllat:H;,(i#) = +.omorun,
    BLe- 6'
    JO -r' 1.0 mol 0 mol 4.0 mol

    > E=qF{1
    NH,g "$g 414}ts + 9lg B olq4, eI* I BoI
    ^JC¤ ,ll+g za mol4 tlA gA Hlgoe *ll r+=J HI+
    15 molol
    9l: HI+Ee] .JE 4&g + 9l+= aql ++4+. E HI+
    E.g +9oli1, HI+ +ql H molol tsdlz}?
    z7\4 H29 "Jol HI+ + Nr9 oJtr+ q "*zl"J, +B "*=
    2 CH3OH(/) +: Ozk) z COz@)+4 H2O(g)
    E}*^lql^l Hr9 4lfzt 4 zzl4lE9l HzTl6JAI HIe--Eol -
    q= aql ++6I+. (a) CH3OH(/) 9 mol (b) COr(g) l0 mol

    sq fl:AHl¤ HI*84 "JEq4l


    (c) CHrOH(l) l0 mol (d) CH3OH(/) 14 mol
    AE e-o+dJ a4l
    =e, (e) O2(g) 1 mol
    ^JCEE EuloJ z:6i471+B "*= Hi849 ZlioJ r:::z
    9 EI+"JS Bq HzE sIZl *¤¤oloe Hl+ql^l S >E=qlfl2
    d6l qI+=+.
    +ql= 0 molol g+. 6.0 molel Hrz[ $ HI+g n3l6fl Ezl.
    (a) 2 Al(s)+3 Cl2k) ------ 2 AlCla(s)
    ^r/qr. mol9 4ol HI*^laE+. 6JZl HI¤+
    .o. izl z4,Z zlzlve, B-E 27HE +.tr. *zl-= ?*Yt+. Al 1.5 moln* C12 3.0

    +et sq +* qlolqE s_E6ll +e_tr f+6I+. 3 F{.Jzt? 0) Alcl3 P Eol ^JCEEz}? (c) Hi* *"ll
    r+e} Hi¤¤ol H mol Bof glEz}?
    =

    qHl 3.le
    F sJAl U8EE+E1 EJEq{ ¤tEq S 4l,t_r-6l.rl

    rl.3 HJ- +4 E_E E^10fl^1 C7l= g^l-g trfl golurl.


    2HzG) +Oz(g) +)HzO(g)
    EE E^loll H2Gr) 1s0 9, ozkl) 1500 g(?E *^f 27llE 9ltE 7[¤6tl E.^L Ee H r.Jol UEqxETl.?
    =¤=J)01

    Ttlff 4I+EI. fqtl


    Hrel a*oJ rsogoE E9-"1¤ 4ltlg
    ^14
    E4 + +¤¤9 oJ.ol
    +qzln ^8cEq olg 4l^I6.J+. ol 6J +E 9lxl+, Hz 74 molE +g-.lq 6J +41= ¤"J + 9l
    6J4l tl*.5 ExJol4. trI. 4l&6|E trl-S4 Aq.
    = .J4
    4q HI¤¤g 9zl ?lal 4 HI¤¤E E+E 4l+16[-7, rH+ : (74motlr )f#1\(19'ogHzo\
    H,oE
    +B "*+ HI+4E 4l+E Hlel Hljr'dJq. :zll aJ4l HI*
    ZmoLtt2 )\trr,a+rp )

    EE olg ^l-.s"6lq "JEqd EE "$g 4l&+trt.


    : 1.3 x 102 g H2O
    Eol +B "*= +*^lee+q Elqr*E4 +41^lg E=4. AE B9 r7l= HI¤¤g olq Hl+q E q 4B6I+. *91
    E *a, -,$a fz(zzll)E Ex{ql +qd i}ql 6l]B++.
    2molH2 : l molOz : 2molHzO

    4 Eeel EA+g 4 HI¤¤E E+¤ Zl.ilqlq. +9 Et4l Hl*E nrg "Jg iEl¤ oz9 ""Eg. Zl&q+ qlql
    ^l*&6}o1 E, + 9t+.
    osos]r,)(ffi,) :
    ^l-&¤
    uzg Ei: z+morHz
    oz9 :tsf : (7 4 m*tr)(ffi;)(ffi)
    ozg 5f : (lsoosq)(ffi) :47motoz : t.2x 103g02
    +e "*= HI+^lql^J 4lf= o, I mol%+ H2 2 molol g9-6t HI*ol gt + Bot ?lE orE ¤*3 az19 olql^l iHlg
    "&g u a+rJr+.
    47:e4 mol 99614 . Hrzl Z+ mol"J ?19Etr EE OzL HI 1500g - 1200g: 366t
    ¤¤ tr + S.jr., r14,t] orzl-r+"* HI*EoltrI(.J4 Hl+Ee >H=qll{l1
    7l* 4? o}e-tr ¤7l]61+ aol olq4= aql+E6I4). ¤+¤ a$ol Hl^e+ EI+61-E g%l trIolsEe+ 4oJ d{
    ?qd Hr(f,al HI¤¤)q "Jg EE o&9 al ql Hlr^1o.1 Hl^!+ aE(caes)o1 r34uo.
    ^l-s"5Iq ^Jcg ^Fsq=
    118 33 6tqt UBrl BJB al-+aJ=

    Ga(/) +As(s).+GaAs(s) 6Jg +¤-o-4ql BeH El-¤. HI+ol gqt+.


    EI.J aE a.00 gol El^' s.so s+ +s"*.trIE, HI* +ql 4 Zn(s) + 2AgNo3(a4) 2AB(s) + Zn(NO3)2(aq)
    eJ HI¤¤e P rE *AEzl? (a) olE HI¤¤ol -
    (b) egE H :H 4zli
    rleI"JzI?
    "J4l
    (a) As 1.20 g (b) As 1.s0 g (c) As 4.30 g (d) Ga 8.30 g zl? k) zn(NoJzE P :Hol 8zlbzl? (d) Hl*ol Eg
    > .H.= qH 2 ,ll+=+ +¤¤e H:Bol *Ytl?
    oI¤ ++ 14 2.oo gg e& SGilver nitrate) 2.s0 gol E

    olE4 +++zl.tri^J!E ++E-


    t= 6J4l HI+Eol qI+B tril ^JCqE 4l&g SCEE "Jg 0lE4 ffi$(theoretical
    yield)oleft.J4. ¤z]le g= ^JdEE oJg d4l f$$(actualyield)olep, 6l+ql, 6]^J
    olE4 ++e*E+ zlq(ea olE4 +=r6tstrI + fl+). olelqi zlolq= 4*l zlzl o1
    fz} 94. q= 5q HI*Eel .J+¤+ HI+61-zl=9*g +E 91r., elE6IHH ar+ q= "J
    6}e-e Hls"g +E 9ltrl(+Hi$. E+ HI+ sqlEe+q E= HIg
    ^J¤+g
    q+d+ a
    ol o"r^J 7]-L6J 43 otul4. qtr HI+E E{.u!Effi(percentyield)g ¤ril +=eJ
    "t 4l&
    oJ olE4 +=.F+ o e+El +g + 9l+.
    llztl *5e*
    ultl-q ++¤-: --5+rr;:- X l00o/o
    otEq ?+%r [3.141

    qH 3.20
    HJtsl ol.F4 ++aJrt EJ.I!E +¤¤ Zltra[7|
    0lrl::t(adipic acid, H2c6H8o4)g LtgE 8d'0ll/.l.E6l.= EtrE, .3g4oe /.pl=e-dlAll?.!(cyclohexane, c6H12)al-tlael-sl u
    30_e E= + ?trt.
    2C6HDU) + 5 O2(9 zH2C6H8O4(0 + 2H2O(g)
    (a) goe u8E +=d6lgr, - Etzl HJ-olatr 7186fl Hx[. olrlEtlel 0lE4 ++aJe gEt
    ^f0l=tr-dl^il?]zs.o ^t0l=E:dl^11?]01
    E7l.? P) trJ"J ol'tlE{J 33.5 gE eflq$, oftlE.llel trj.llE +ifig gEPJT[?

    6flff 1E
    E4 3+q HI*44 aJ4 HI¤¤q oJ(CuH,, 2s.0 g)ol ;q (a) olEzl "JEqzl= olqs&el 4l4I¤ "JeE.
    +=*g
    A+. +d CCE"J H2c6H8o49 olE4 +5"J9 4l&6}r, -zH :.r6ql +48 E++ 4Ag ^F.&6IE 4l&g + 9l+.
    a:.s s9 dxlls Eflg tril q41e ;# 4ltl.J+. (b) rl :.r+E: qdE +=¤¤ 4l&6}r. +qrl d
    ^JdE ^l-&4q
    ^-ll
    +="J.(33.s d4 olEzl +==o}g Hl.il+4.
    E0l
    (a) olE4 +5'*e +-94 eq
    H2c6Hso4e rB+ :
    :
    (zs.o sa6+ri) (ffiffixffi)(ffi#)
    43.5 g H2C6HsOa

    (b) uldlc +=Eg Elg-r+ a+. qdE +--;ffi-tx 100o/o : ** x r00o/o :77.0o/o

    ee Bg ql+zl'J 4ltlgs daB + ?l+. +


    '2JE 1a;q1.t1 -o1 ^l.olltrdl^ll"Jol flq otqstl 0.3 molol ql^Jq=
    ¤ "*+ H}¤:4es+q ^pl=_edlr-lloJ r motg otqs4} Ell, ol=0.3x150:45cos, *ql^l aqd-4l 4l&4q gg
    I molg SC.J+= ag gr il4. zslsq - 2sl7s:0.3 +t.s s4 49 ?JZ rzlol+. E+ Bg gHL= +9lel +E
    ?qr "! 69 gGl 1i9

    izl-= ?**L1.o)q^l B3 too"z-u-+ }gql, u'lr3le ;E > E.Eqlfl2


    E9 CEql u++'Jg6J <iol4. FezorE s6J6l+ e*^lg e-E E+61+ *A 4d %IB
    > .H.6 qF{ 1
    g s+ +ol+r 7}a6l] !_zl.

    4olq+++ 3.00 gol ¤t


    zlill 6.00 g4 Hlg.at{ 9o} Fe2o3(s) + 3Co(g) + 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
    EtolE+*.(lv) 7.2 sol +=iq11+8,
    ^Jdgq i4ClE +=. (a) Fe2O3 tso g¤ 6Jal HI¤¤.e. Feel ol-ez1 :'
    ^lz16lB,
    E9 g"I'JzI? E="re grttzl?
    (a) 650/o (b) 96%o (c) 48o/o (d) 867o (b) dxllffi$ol e7.e golB, qdE +-e. goltz}?

    ^"ig. {*: tEJ ¤Al Edl


    q}rql^l +.E-6I= +sdJ + 6I+= 4olzlzlH ^lj16t 7t? ++E fld$4zl qlql +4, ^JEdildql^l ^l-S6l-F
    4}J*o14. "ol 7l-¤g ^oJ qtr d¤g aflof alu|f", ol Eq^l + eql -r.ill7l 7|+*ot gltszlE ++'*4. olE
    E ^lc6IeJH
    "rllolEl= qB4l "'JlolrlE r}¤g ?Ba4q?" +El 4ql Bzl-= +49 + 914. + eq zi49+g az{E e
    "l]46t4?",
    olag slqr-zl¤ gala;! $qtzlfE .J^J4"J dEol4.
    "*g +C6Iq ++ +ql 9lE zx19 ea}
    El{ltr='J + 9l
    r-el4oll, n g
    4. :-4-:r ++7]. {4 e.{}Eol4ts ag + 9l+.
    "lele"l qlr-l6t4l ^J46I:a, *g6IE^lE
    Tldol "*g qL^JolrJ Ht*+. ol= 91611 3t+El 4 + gql trI.$$ 94. flC$4zlzt H_qH ++ +9 rill$ +?]
    'de ¤4 E4i'+= g+ +z]E "J=9.+. ql= trI 6l+ += ttBS fltszt? oI+ zle +Bol 9l= gq+ trl^ll
    =E =E
    +n+ e+. +Bol 9l= {4zlE ^J46J + 9l+. ++= eEql +fl9
    u11 3 lzili gEl gql tsr, E4 43 Ezf4 olge E" r+g
    ++= +++ qdlelzt, E+q g= qE +qls=E sql
    E"J4? ol f zlzl 7P" c¤. +E6l+ ¤B 4qg ^ll9l4. aolal= ag ^ll.Jg + 91trI. r Ar+: ? fizt E6JEol+
    qqEg olufr olul BS 9r flg a"l+. +f+ E+ Y +A7l 94. fel6J $elz| f{a}iz}? 9lzl"J gq= +
    ql fl= s6Jgol+. rq+ +s= ¤7ils olag qB4 + s_6}zl ?l:-r1, +s+de qBl+E ^Jtr+ Elq zl^l¤. ^l-*
    E"t+= aol+. ^J4.ll tr$, "l de9 +s sdg 844 6Iq .Jr.l4.J dEg 4qB + 9l=7}ol+. 'dE ¤41 Ezll'
    aol+. cEg qB4 +E.l6}=zl=.Jol-.llH ++ ¤71 +16I Aqd ge-6J ¤E E+= 4Ag 9s_21 94.
    =
    7I
    =.JE
    ag 6H6J + 9l+. +s= eEql Bg 6IqE gst aol +qola, qq6J ql
    =
    =6JEol4= olEl= g= {ol $erf,zl-$ ol.= aol+.
    7f¤g
    ^le6J+=,JHol
    ag +94.J Lqol gs6}tri. ¤e ,J "J.J BB} E+H
    H + q sg4.J gl+8. 7l¤g ol -.lqoJ+H. oPlqq= Ed^l717l +16ll += qd$r+ *
    ^le6}='JHql=
    {4 ztul +g *B"l 9lg + 9l+. q= EE ++ql +6J F g+= g +E 9l+. riolrl+'JtL 4= 44zle+ ^J49
    aEql^J $P.zt -,r.i-ll7f B ollzlzl #4 dEeE a^LB + trE+4. ^J4g trEol-r El-Ea 6Je.-e.*1, rl ¤.EtJ 4pi
    9l+. "J"J _/iI7I B=+H. +ril= gol- ++ 491 9l= -r.;1 zlzl ula- +c-6J AEql +Fes Bg g + 914 6ll
    Elgg 4ltlg + 9l_r, "l= +Pr7I gBE"l4= + ag.Jal g+.
    =4=
    ^d+el
    2+471¤+. "J"J #.J +ql ot+fl +olEol H4H, olzl n++ dflg 4lq6}r 61146l+ ae r+qzi *89 fldol
    ? * zlzl Tl+.c¤. +E.J + fi+. +. dE ¤al +r,llE qBl B'-Bee q]a6J + q= q=e d
    ++7I sqlEol+= ag "J+al-71 96ll trl= d¤3 fl= 46Ia B+=
    =Aa+.

    eEg6stq
    Et+ HJ84(Eg H 3.1tr) slq}^14 slq} HI+^l
    ^I.19 A=J4 + *+ sl¤t uf-al(chemical equation)3
    HI*^IE "J+q Ag +E
    Zlql ql6J ¤*3 aee*=(stoichiometry)ol4l ++. slE*Eg ?zl¤ol +4lilg Eq +E+. HI+45e s}+^lq^l ezF= HEI
    T]]Lj + 6I+b EeJ E= E4(law of conservation of mass)9 olq4, 6J H!+E s.!=t(reactant)z} U8E(product)
    ¤!g6J ^l7l= aol
    E, qtr H]+E ^J^dE e=JE .Jg HI¤¤ e*9 'J+ Aq= a el s|+^-l *q 4+E Eq +Bg "*+tr}.
    oltrI. e++ HI+g dr+ +ql 4 gal-= +.J-J i_e 3x1.3q. 7q at+ uSq E+(3.2tr) ol *ql^l rI+= HI+el ¤EllE (t) +
    120 3Lf +q EJSrlHJS +-+aJE

    7I^l +*-3ol 6J ++E ^8CEg ^JC6Irll a6J6I: ee uJt aa"J + ilq. r Eeol tsxl-q BqlE z}¤alql .+xI6.In, Ezf
    (combination reaction), (z) d ql*Eol F zltl ol^JE C^JEg e*"1 94zl ?lsE, r E49 Eu|43 dEalee+q AA6J +

    ++q^li EEll ElB(decomposition reaction), (r) $1144t1 o1e1 *4. ¤a B4e +r, +^, E=/r4j1&^E Eqlq+ s+qlE
    g;.fal rlaJgol 4}4el HI+6Lq co2e+ H2o=
    ^JC6l= ag E4 I ¤elg a{6l+ tll +E+ %l$ol+.
    ^l=*E]E
    E!8(combustion reaction) 4.
    ol
    aE "*= u8^lee+E1 ets gHqE EEet -dxl u3E(3.68,
    E[-st^laJ(3.3tr) flzt=]g ol+6]H +q]^14 +¤ +q] H]+^l 3.79 EE ,HHe Elq,I H]+ql s6JE H]¤¤-==r+ ^JCEEE *ql
    es+q g3 a'6+4 aBE Eg + 91trt. + E|6JEq 4Et^t 4"J "JE 4l4}q ^FSB + 91trI. +B "*+ HI+49 4l+E=e HI
    *(formula weisht)g r s}+!g +C6I= 4 flxf9 flzi=J ¤¤4 ^J^Jggl tr-ql4 Ef= xll*{}+. {} u*gg fts+e+
    g +.F+ aq. El.J Elol-alol tszlalolH, : si44*9 +rlg El r*+E 4lt6}elE. +d Hl¤¤E rBg HI¤¤
    "J ^JCEE
    (molecularweight)olelz 6J4. g^leJq EzI*9 ol+6}q F+qt I E+e ++4I6J+. rq+ tB "*+ HI*4E 41+# ol+6}q
    E9 flA+e(elementalcomposition)¤ aA6J + 9l+. Hl¤¤q g+E ^JdEE g+e +^I"Jtr|. ElxlEoE ^JcEE
    Avosadro +et E(3.49 qB Ee I molS r Eeg sF+^l Et g+= ^J^JgE
    rH o-e, +4}qiEi.
    $lzf Avogadro *(Avogadro's number, 6.02 x 1023)EJ+ +z116l+ t!z{l Ettt(limiting reactant)g H}*ql^] Sd6l dulqE aol

    4ol+. gz| tszl, ol99 r molgl EI{} A"*(E{*(molarmass)) +. "J4l t]*Eol Sd6l rElqE r HI¤+ B+i1. tr+4^] ^J
    ¤ zH o + E^l6I= r E.eg slolal*o]4. ql= Eq HroE E cElE ^J^JEE "Jol 4lt¤EI. tl*9 o|Eq ¤*(theoretical
    ta.o amuoli, tr++^J HrO 1 molS ts.O goll 6ll"J.JtrI. yield)e 6JAl E}*gol E+ HI¤-S trI Zl4Ig dCgE olol+.
    ^l=Jg =
    HrOg Eer.l3 ts.o g/molol4. tI*9 dz] +5"*3 olEzl +5"*!.+ "J^J zJE+. 4.u!E #t
    (percentyield)g dxll ++*r+ olE4 ++"*g HlrL6J Tiol+.
    el-4 E40e E= d:d^l(3.str) qts EaE de^13 r Ed roo
    sol ¤xlati 4 gz}9 ^Jql4 g+= 4lt6}q 4c E+ge+El

    EJf. ot BE E+:d +o1 qalEe +ss :s


    + elotot:dtrt
    'alal
    . olE HI*^l E +B g "*=+(:. r ¤). +A g+ ¤:{l : 3. I r, 3.r2 .aC EBgr+ Ez}r*g E+6JEE dB44 e^I4g Al
    ^l-S6Iq
    . a++ eql, +6l], s^ HI+g
    ^Jc+g {l+t4(:.2¤).
    +d ¤+ Exll:
    ,tI6J+(3.s¤). 3.s3,3.s4

    +H ¤+E4l: 3.re,3.20 .+Zl Hl¤+g ++61-r, HI+q^l AHlg EJ¤¤r+


    ^JCE ^J^d
    . olE^l?*g 4lt}+Et(3.3¤). +A g+ +4|:3.23,3.24 EE "&g r*ie+ E+tr ,llt+trI(t.od).
    . gd"*g r"Jg ¤.+e. E+¤ rB o-a H+'JEI +d g+¤.41:3.6s,3.66
    ^f+6}q
    (1.+¤). +d 9+ +-41: 3.3s, 3.36 . rlgE uldle i+Eg ZltI,J4(:.2¤).
    . Avogadro += Exl45 E+E, E+= g^I.+-e H++ +H S+¤.41:3.83,3.84
    ^l-8:4q
    +EI(3.49. +B g+ ¤.41 : 3.3e, 3.40

    Z O HF9-AI
    OJ'r- l- o i
    g^9 (Sa9 flxHxflae] gxl=d
    .
    =4 ***: E+{}EE +44"* x l00zo t3.l0l ol 49 s+6Jgql^l 4 fl^g ee; EIeSg 4lt6l+ ^lol+
    s1*Es1 l.= gis1 Eggsl s3100%ool4.

    .ed= +-:-fffixroo7o [3.14] ol 49 H]+el qdlE +-¤ ah]61-=


    ^lol+.
    sliJE +=-
    E9 tooYo.l^J"J + fi+.
    EA E^lt 121

    oJ+ E4l
    tso..eE= 7flLJ 3.s f,zl4l9ld +Eqag EJE= Eil olulk&?l
    ^F&q= =?+ol{
    3.r Hl¤¤ A(+=-.4)eI Bee^q) HI¤e q-g :1Br+ AEI +zI EB
    Gtycme)e trl-S
    o e +49 + 9l+. [3.3¤, 3.5e]

    oo o ^lolE r^^ls.

    t r, OO
    (a)tszFl9
    (b) g4+g a46}^le-.

    t.t I (c)

    (d)
    34olt ^l-t 100.0 g"il Ei
    416I^le.
    e^el e*
    9l=
    =4ol41e]
    Bqe.$tg 4l&6}^le-.
    E+¤ 4l

    :1He qH eI¤¤ zI^J g ¤E6l+7I? t3.lel =+ol{lql^l


    (a)A2+B+AzB
    o) Az + 4B 2ABz
    - 2ABz
    (c) 2A + Ba.-----
    (d)A+Bz-ABz
    3.2 oI4 rBg +^(Hr)e]- 94}ri El(co)7} Hl+6Iq 4Eg
    (cH3oH)g EJ=3 zra;- HISS LIE+U+(¤4 +g H, ag
    3.6 rl9 r?3 CH4ef H2o ,tfole-l n& E}*9 44U 4.14.
    4 a"9 c. Bea! r"3 0). ol Hl+ql E*¤ co BzlE g
    EI= i=
    +4q4 g.9ttrt. t3.ral "l E]+ql 7la6}q E ol, Cun 4.0 molE =g'-6}q g¤. +
    9l= 4 ^J^dgel g.+s-? t3.63l
    (a)94¤]¤¤) tz}9l 9lolot ts co +zl9 +E aa6}^le_.
    0) +e *+ EI*4g
    co E^l=
    zl o
    ^ls.
    #ffi + o a
    c
    #a (e
    LIEIL|1^I g=
    @
    (B(D
    \, J s (a
    ,4
    s
    rJ)
    0
    .& *
    t, I 1.7 a^Nre} +4(Hr7I EI*6Iq oJEqoI(NH3)7}B+. q+
    :zHe Nze] Hz9 ¤BEg +4U aol4. +Er-qg Ng, g
    4e H= *4t4. t:.2¤l
    (a) tB "*+ slul HI+4g;rrle.
    3.3 EH-rHg e4 Hl+sE ^JC¤ tl4=¤. LlElu aolE+.
    (b) +41+¤¤et9..JzI?
    72.24)
    (c):H9l 7li6}q g ql, SA eI¤¤ ztCalE, ^JCq=
    (a) *E4 303 N S^l¤, S3^! n"* o 9zl-= +4U+8, oJEqoL
    g4 slqlEE 'JE4e F9,"Jzl? E^IE +=?
    rg f (d) fHql zlao|{ g ul, E}+ + tsrll EIE +z} q e^}E
    (b) +sl]E EltlE +^l-= +Elt]lE rHg 9lEzI?
    gl :dzL olqE e-ll r+zl g:g7p -r:-'LO j

    !i: o a o
    & Oo
    oO Qa
    lp rn
    1.4 El-¤. f.Bg EEI+^= Sd ¤46Iq ^J^Jqb Co2e| H2o
    3.8 g+Ipl e4= &4e+ Hlg"6lq ohlcl eA= Bd+EI. E+g
    e^IE dl}g +Elu aolq. ol +sl+^E dB4e +E.J rB4 Ag Noq 02 g*Eg ^J4oll ez}. +¤.q *g N
    tl? lt.z9)
    g. se4 +e oE +4u4.

    Go* ot-
    (a) HI*ol SAgfl+j1 7lA6iH
    ^JCq= No, E^IE +
    LO
    =1

    a c , (b) +41
    (c) dull
    HI¤¤e +q"J7I?
    iSelol zsot4B. H]*+ 44e.1 +4g
    o ALO
    ..-l.--I
    =461+
    122 33 al-+ UBT1HJB al+aJg

    ool
    o oo
    (c) r4l o|$ frtr$ ql&r+ Hl*61-q +i
    ++"lg "JEtrI.
    +lggl .Jg Eql zlalH ofol.l!(H3po:(oq)) f*"1
    (d) .-Iill
    7l8le+ +4I ol¤

    I oo c + g.tl ++Eg EJEE}.


    (e) c"t3r}+i TlillE Eag lr.iJl +4lE| a(rr)ql E4^l7lH

    O ro 3.16
    a4l++ eoII)+ i?zlE "JE+.
    trl-getr 4 ¤Eq ql.J+B "*A ElEl HI*4g ^A^le.
    EFq Ela^l "J ,JEEI Et-* E!3(3.1tr, 3.2tr) (a) 4ltF l r* 7vll7l E+ qI+6Iq Elt +.lg
    "J5trI.
    3.e 4 E4lq ql6l '**' .E='EB'os B-61^le. (b)++ Bd(B2s3(s))71 Er+ 496}rll El¤'61"1 +,lI
    (a) ollulzlz|E=qE+ ++ HlAel t¤g *+4. (H,soJ +'-l!+ ++ +4 Tlillg EJEtrI.
    (b)
    "J'J 2 o:(8)
    -- 3 ozG) HISol SAqB, HI8 d orE (c) +r-g(PH3k))ol gA6Iq d4}s+ #zl*
    EI=.
    ^i.Jg
    A-;*g HI*I o,9 4"*+ AEI. 4.
    (c)'E dl4 U*'Hro(l) - Hzk)+ozk)e.l +Bg "t+E e^I +e(r)g 7Ig6tH tI+ +e0r) r.ale} olt
    (d) ir.a-ll
    H2O2(l)
    - Huk) +Ozk)o14. al-31e1&a-a 3a11gq.
    3.r0 s+q HI+4E #Bg *+= q\ 7l* 6s6J talb EI¤¤r+ (e) 74E E43 +t *En+ Hl+6lq +4I +4(ID ++'-l

    ^JCEE +q^lg BL-.l: a.l+.


    qls^] tlc+ rJf,(cao1s;;4 + oltlcl * zl^lls+ E¤ "J=4.
    H,o(l)ol HI-&6Iq ++lcl at| +.-qg "JE= EI¤¤ gqtr EtEt HJBq=F(3.2E)
    x|.
    3.17 (a) ++ g4 4Sol u1;4. ?li H-EEl(Brz(/))rl
    all6}q
    (a)
    ^JdE¤ ca(o[)z@dE 6lJ, ol a+ Hl+"ll ql+ tB p}+4e F{.Jz}? (b) deql^l dCE
    *+ s+q HI+4g i!^ls. ^JCq= ^JCEE
    g nill, 9ull, zlill + qL A"J7l? (c) "J.J +B "*+ HI+
    (b)
    "J'J ^Jd+g
    g*6[q CaoH(aq)E 6]9tr]8, +B "*
    al9l,q err(l)9 4liz} tol4B, gEI.JTt?
    A Hl*^lg 4= aol 7FE6J7I? zl-b6}+8, Hl¤-^lg ^JCEel Alt=
    rr.,rlg. 3.r8 (a) c, H, o.e +¤g slElEol t7l +ql^J Sd ¤ig EI
    11* Hl+4E +++^ Eel +e HI¤¤.3 F9..Jzf? (b) ol +*9 ^JC
    +Bs *+^le. gA
    (a) Co(g) + oz(s) Coz@)
    Eg +iqlrp (c) I mol oI^-llE(c3H6o(/))E H}+ql^l
    -tr, O) NzOs(S) + H2O(r)- HNOs(a4) +¤ "*= plE H]*^lE EE 4l+E qlg gEI"JTI?
    (c) CHa(g) + Cl2(j:) - CCle(/) + HCI(3) ers tl^g 4 a+ql 4B6l-= +B "*= s]..+ E}¤-zlg ;^^le.
    -
    (d) zn(oH)2(s) + HNo3(a{) zn(NO.)2@il + H2O(t) (a) Mg(s)c+ Cl2@)zl Elgo g trll

    -
    3.12 ++ H}*^lgl +B-s- *+^ls-. (b) +tl uffi$ zlpolq t}e} Hl-Er+ ol4}sl ts^ 7li]ltr E
    (a) Li(s) + Nz(c) LisN(s) 6l]¤ EII
    -
    (b) Ticl4(r) + Hzo(l) TiOz(s) + HCt(aq) (c) ,'-5|olfll(QHa(/))g +71 +ql^l ¤46J trll
    trElf^
    (c) NHaNO3(s) .+ Nz(g)- + Oz(S) + H2o(g) (d) qolqlB qlq(cH3ocH'G))E *zl +ql^l s^g q
    (d) Alcl3(s) + Ca3N2(s) .+ AIN(5) + CaCl2(s)
    3.20 El-g 4 a+q 4B6I= +¤ "*= +El HI+4g .a^le.
    q* HI+{g t$g "*+^ls. (a) ri ++ol o,(g)e} e+ HI¤¤ B trll
    (a) AIaC3(s) + H2o(/) Al(OH)s(s) + CHa(g) (b) tlpiS(r)9 zl.galq e4 t^ 714l-e.86il6J trI
    -ers(b) CsHloo2(l) + oz(S)- COz(g) + H2O(8)
    (c) Ee*9(CaHroH(l))ol +71 +ql^J B oll
    - +
    (c) Fe(OH)3(s) + H2SOa(a4) Fe2(Soa)3@fi + H2O(l)
    (d) MggNz(s) +H2SO4@q) + MgSOa(aq)+ $Ha)2SOa(a4)
    *t\+ql^J g4g oll
    (d) 4lE-rerr-FB ollel(crs,ro(I))zl

    32r r]-s ++4q +¤g "++n, aEI, +6L ¤a $$olzlg g


    3.14 Elg HIAIE +¤s *+^ls.
    (a) Ca3P2(s) + H2O(/) .+ Ca(OH)2@il + PHs(g) ^l6I^ls.
    + (a) C3H6(s) + Oz(g) Coz(g) + H2o(g)
    (b) A](OH)3(s) + HrSo4(a4) Al2(Soa)3@Q + H2o(l)
    + (b) NHTNO3(s) .------ -NzO(g) + H2O(j:)
    (c) AgNO3(a4) + Na2CO3(a4) Ag2CO3(s) + NaNO3(aq)
    .+ (c) C5H6O(I) + Oz@) Coz(g) + H2o(8)
    (d) G2H5NH2@) + O2(8) COz(8) + H2O(8) + Nzk)
    (d) Nz(S) + Hz(s) - NHs(s)
    q4-, 4 ¤Bq +B *+ 5Iq +*^lg ,A^ls.
    qldJ
    -
    (e) Kzo(s) + H2o(l) KoH(aq)
    (a) azjl Es] ,J¤{cacre E I HI-&4q +4Ic+ A+4 oI
    -rrs 3.22 q+ HI*4E +¤g -"*+r. ai+. E6ll. ¤^ HI*oJ^lE E
    7l ill= dC+trI.
    ^llBel(crHJ
    O) -r.ill g^+ EEli¤ 7Ig6lE Edlqq nA gs+ s4 ^l6}^le_.
    *
    (a) Pbco3(s) PbO(s) + COz(Jr)
    64 tI+ ,lAE 4C6JE}.
    E# E^l 123

    (b) czHa(c) + oz(g) cozk) + H2o(g) HH H o


    (c) Mg(s) + Nz(c) + - MgN2(s)
    (c) H3C-C- C-C-O
    I tt
    (d) C7H8O2(/) + Oz(g) -+ COz(S) + H2O(j:)
    (e) Al(s) + Cl2(g) AlClr(s) HsC HH
    tt CHs

    - 0f^llE.|l ol0l^trJ!=
    itEt^laJ(3.3tr) (uLlLf-Bt)
    3.23 +g EI*EE El44+g +6}^ls. 3.2s q+ EB oe. +El.J 4 EHIEq^l ts^el e=J EE$S 4l
    (a) d&(uNoJ 0) runon (c) ca:(poa)z (d)4g(sior)
    4l6f^le_.
    (e) *p] aE (0 silI re¤. (rr) (g) ,d:¤E].J
    \

    0
    3.24 cl+ ++EE El+^lr*g +61^le.
    (a) oI^lE+ ei(N2o, *+ TlillE "Jq4 9eq, ilr+ql^l

    "IA4le ^l-S¤+.)
    (b) HI3&(c6HscooH,
    ^FSq=
    4+ %I+rlltr Ee) (a) (b)
    (c) ug(oH[ (E]rLil^lo]+E gC d+)
    (d) a +((NH2)rCo, e4 EIEE sI*E)
    o|,rlle{!
    ^h+q:Ht++6]q gql Ee)
    (e) ololi¤lB(cnaCozCsH[,
    t I
    3rs rlg ElElE.ll^.] 4149 e=t E+Sg 4l4}6}^le.
    (a) qefl(CrzHreNo3) {
    !
    o) ?qloJ(cr8H2rNo3)
    (c) nTtoJ(cr7H2rNo4) (c) (d)
    (d) ql E r+^lol=fl (c22H24N2os)
    (e) qzl+tl(c{Heaol3) Avosadro +st E(3.48)
    (0 Elz"1o1 41(cuuHrrclrNrorr) 3.ze 4 Erllql ql4'# E='All'eE B6I^ls.
    + E^l¤ giE e=6F q++g 4l4}6}^le.
    (a) I mol9 99lb t mol9 'J 44zl 914.
    3.26 L+* slqlE
    (b) 1 mol9 E3 ts.o go14.
    (a) o}^ll gql(c,Hz,sd oil ^]-sqE zl xll)oll.! s+
    oJqe)ql^l (c) E IB^IE ¤r*3 rs.o go14.
    (b) oI^?-E-^(HC6H7O6, ulolE|"J C-e +4
    (d) NaCl(s) I mol9lt:2 mol9 olgol 9l+.
    (c) *& "JEE:((NHrrso4, ea HIEE
    ^l-.8'q=
    ¤e)ql^l
    AL
    -_T-r 3.30 (a) r2C 1 mol9 e=6tg H r+oJ7t?
    (d) Ptcl2(NH3)r(^l^=4H(cisplatin)ola-p 6l+ ++ s.B (b) '2c I molglE P z1l9 E4 $zltl o)lzll
    q? rl"g. gzlE 7H+7I6zlop +^.le +g61^ls. C
    ^l"+)ql^l
    qc EsE)ql^l ^lE5g.
    6}al gr., +TlgEel szl-*g
    ^l-&6lq +a6I
    (e) 9l^trEI4olg(C,sH24O2, +BJ Ahlg
    (0 a^Iol4l(c13H27No3, aql n+ql^J ql+ *g^IAL|]b +.J -331^ls.
    gql^l ts^ H2O 0.50 mol, Na 23 g, N2 tszt e.o x 10232H

    3.27 L++ +a4ql +rl4q, 44E +*5 6 tslE ez} EE n2 E+*


    ^lE$$fl2|$
    zllfz|+7161++^lE+g6t^ls. A
    ¤g +6}^le. q"J 4ltlg 6}xl grr., +7lgsE flzle}9
    ^l-&6H +c6I
    H
    ^ls,
    :C o NaHCO3 42 g, CO2l.5 mol, Ne gz} 6.0 x 102441
    il E'|^gEll6[0lE
    (a) H- C ,l1H'E E+ e*ol 160 tbqH, Avogadro +EI+e.l
    / -C -H
    /nL-EEo:!\
    ^tBE
    + e=*g H ksoJTl? ola.!+
    ^l+ei d+
    C s.ssx 1024 ksg El
    -rlr r.6I^19.
    H H

    H
    3.34 Avogadro i
    ".H9 lCjE Edg El+ql 9i= 3E 2l00EJ B
    9 tszL qz| qflolqlll +E"6tZl ++q 7]]7]]"J$
    C o gE4 =48,
    BAI qE p olE El+ +ql +^J4I(cDp)(201sLJ
    il
    H
    UPJAJ
    (b) Ho- C_ C- H (Hl-Jat-d) 4l v.qrgz g4)r+ El.il'6l-^le-(cDp+ +zl9 xll+e+ +q
    /
    E + ^l4. TIilolEl.).
    -C
    H H q¤¤ 4l&6}^1e..
    (a) f,=E^(CreHzzOrr) 0.105 mol9 r+ B9l e*
    -3.:s
    124 33 6l+ tISTluJB EIalaJE

    (b) zn(NoJ, 1a3.so g9 5f 3.44 ElEl++9] s+lqzl


    +1611^J.=gC ^JEql 41e.4o1o1=9r.1
    (c) CH3CH2OH l.O x 10-6 molgl $xl4 +ElE(tetrahydrocannabinol, THC)ol al.ial zs pg Egaf
    (d) NH3 0.410 mololl.rJ N9 gzl.+ 4. rnca +^I43 C2rH30o2ol+. THC 2s rrg9 EfcI E
    3.36 trI.gg Zl&a|^le_. zlf-L- Sulolzp
    (a) CdS 1.s0x l0-2 mo19 -f.H +fl e=* ilet EIY o e ee ¤-d^l(3.5E)
    (b) NH4CI s0.0 g9 Ef 3.a5 .tlEz| 4* CEee +C¤ tr]], 4 +BEE d4l4g +6I
    (c) C6H6 8.447x10-2 molg Ezlf
    (d) Al(No3)3 6.25x t0-: mololl.rJ oel gzl^+ ^lg.
    (a) C 0.0130 mol, H 0.0390 mol, O 0.0065 mol
    ?i3? (^) t& .Jlrts 2.so x l0-3 molg 4*3 H :Hqlzf? (b) ? rr.00 g, &4 s.or g
    (b) g+ gF"lb + g+
    0.2550 g olg+ H 50J7I? pe} UIES-tr. c 40.0%o, H 6.7%, o 53.3Vo
    (c)
    (c) Tlqlql(csH,oNaoz) +^l 7.7oxl020zlel a%Fg q rfl
    3.a6 xlazl +g ^J+eE +Cg uL 4 ElElEe.l dB4g +6I
    "Jzl?
    (d) gql^qlE 0.0010s molel {e}ol 0.406 solE, gql^ql ^ls.
    (a) K 0. 104 mol, C 0.052 mol, O 0. 156 mol
    Ee.l Ee*g g"f.Jz}?
    (b) Sn 5.28 g,F 3.37 g
    3.38 (a) +4I eoD 1.223 mol9 e** P r+.J7I? (c) d* EIES tt 87.5o/0, H t2.5Vo
    (b) E4I oJgE 0.sss g 6.J.eb olgg P E.J7|?
    (c) ol^.v]fl(CqHaoJ Ext t.s0x l02tzllE eelg q :a*.J
    (a) C l0.4Vo, S 27.8o/o, Cl 61.70/o
    712 -uzgrE¤z6ra{u1zyr1-o--4eg+q}EE¤E^lg+6}^le-.
    (b) 21.7o/o,
    C O 9.60/o, F 68.70/o
    (d) ulolofx{g-(gE ) 0.0ss70 mol9 4Ed,ol 1s.86 8olH, E Al 13.02%, 4"lzl f
    (c) Na 32.79o/o,
    d"*g gEloJTp
    3.48 g^E 4$ a4u1z1 119.4 Ae +,*Eq dE^lg +61-^le.
    a-ls ,1-5'J^llE +¤E"J gEtq +zi4g c6Hroos2olq,
    (a) K 55.3%0, P 14.60/o, O 30.1%
    (a) $zl.tl9 ge"*g tstll"Jzl?
    (b) Na 24.57o, Si 14.97o, F 60-60/o
    (b) ol ge s.00 mgllS "JE]4lol P g ?lE7l?
    (c) C 62.1%, H 5.21%o, N 12.1%, 4elxl O
    (c) ol E? s.00 mgglE oJ4t EzlTf H zll glEz|?
    gg4ol xrroJ clql5s e+gs F7I6s%olE+. xg gzle*
    (d) "JBlt s.00 mgoilE * gzlzi H zl] glEz}?
    3 g"IoJzI?
    3.40 NutraSweet"o+ 94b O= 6ul-EoJ ot^ulBE EzlllS -1aepl6J¤
    cr4HrsN2Osol+.
    3.s0 xcL: er*e_-e. clol 7s.o%oltrl. 94. xb F{.Jzi?
    (a) 0}.^489 ge*g
    E"I"JzI? rm- 4 +*Eq +^I4g +t.J7p
    ol-/-+E r.o0 mgglb ol-^+Hol H E gllz}? (a) Ee"*:84 slmol
    cHr,
    (b)
    (c) o|^u]$ r.00 mggl= oI^ElB Ezlzl H 41 9l=7r?
    -lsr (b) dQ14
    dB4 NH2cl, Ed*:sl.s g/mol
    (d) oP-iilH- r.00 mgoll= i4 flzlzl P zl] gllz}? 3.s2 Elg 4 slElEE E^I4g F9"JzI?
    :.+r (a) d¤4 HCo2, EA"*:eo.o g/mol
    ^leql +}, +)^l7l
    s.E.*lc6Hr2o6) t.2sox 102141 .E+qq
    9ltrl-.
    (b) dEl^l c2H4o, Ed*:8s g/mol
    (a) ol ,rlEoll gzl-= H zll glbz}?
    +^ rle. 4 Eefl ¤E^14 B^I!e +EoJ7I?
    (b) ol iFtrr*
    ez}= H zll glEz}? (a) d4 e¤^lle ^4ols.Ee]
    ge.J
    ^lEql -3s3 A* 4dul= ^F&qb ^4o1q1o1
    16; ol rl-891 EEB +^Ib P I glEzl? c e2.3o/o* H 7.7o/ool4, E3*g ro+ g/
    (d) ol e+g H }JoJ7l? molol4.
    ^lEE
    *4 (b) ,liil +q
    ^H Ea"J
    3.42 E-eEgl ql/.E-^qlE(CrsHzaOz) 3.88x102r z}41?1e C 4e.so/o, H 5.157o, N
    ^lEql=
    7llE +}, Szlz}914. 28.eo/o, o l6.s%el e*Ele ol+qAsq, E¤=Jg tss

    (a) ol gzl+ H zll glEz}? g/molol4.


    ^lEql +4
    ql/.E'.\qlE
    151 ol r.l-E9l Ezlb H 7ll 1l=7t? (c)
    =ul-E-tr ^I+q= =+EI& E-L4.8(monosodium
    (c) ol ql^tr^qlEg H Eol 9l=zl? glutamate, MSG)g C 35.51o/o, H 4.77Vo, O 37.857o, N
    ^lEql ol+qaeq. E.e*g
    (d) ol
    ^lEel
    ?*e H r+.J71? 8.2e%, Na 13.60709 AEIHIE
    g/mololQ.
    enl +q +t}el 4rl 6 gc| HlolH(crH3cl)g 6l+ +.EE 169

    2.0x 10-6 g/Lol4. ;Lzl r L* g+ HtolHe-l EiE gut.J 3.s4 4g 4 EeE dE44 +^I^lg +9.J7p
    7l? *711 LB ge+ HlolEel Ezl45 gotoJz}? (a) ffi'-i'J olHEe{lg c75.69vo, H 8.80%, o ls.sl%g
    Ee Erl 125

    ulEgi1 qq gl+. Ee"*g 206 g/mololQ.


    eEJ= sflsl +44}(Hp(aq))3 +r.lBq -H-+6J + fi+. qE EE
    ^lltql E6ll sdq: Ee.J f&
    (b) r.zl9l .J^l]el fl"J.J zf4 AE(NazSio3)g ++4 Aol Hlg" e.J+.
    ullilg c 58.5570, H 13.8170, N 27.400/o4 ee* EIES Na2Sio3(s) + 8HF(a4) +
    E qq 9lr+. Ee*g rc2.2 g/molol4. H2SiF6(a4) + 2NaF(a4) + 3 H2O(l)
    (c) gBE trllr] ^=q1^E tsg ql +Hlq+ EeEoJ qlvl (a) Na2Sio3 0.300 mol9 Hl+^lTlelB HF Q $ol $9;Jzp
    LJIEfl(olEqlgfl)g C 59.0o/o, H 7.to/o, O 26.20/o, N (b) HF 0.s00 molol 4eJ9 Na2Sio3e| HI*6}H H r+9
    7.7o/oE e* EEgtr qq 914. E^l."6rg r.llg r80 amu NaFE {C6l-=7f?
    oltri. (c) HF 0.800 cr} ++61+ NazSior9 fH+: guloJz}?

    rss (")- gHlzlt #zl *,l]t EFql(toluene)9 tst +^l Ag 3.62 ar+{l+ Effi(potass'um superoxide, KOJ4 CO2
    ^lolE
    CO2 s.86 mg!.}HzO 1.37 mgol4. ol n+E-Eol Eiel HI¤+ trI-g+ e+.
    +^"J !].+*+8, dE Fq,.Jzl? 4KO2+2CO2+2K,CO3+3Oz
    ^le ol{e +4^l7I n+ +Aql fl= aeE, oz$ E
    (b) ulalalol Eq 9lb TlaEq^l H^llE .J + 9lb Hl ^l-&61+
    E(menthol)e C, H, oEJg-e ol+qaE+. HIE ^ltr ^J^1717 cozE Sfd4.
    o. r00s g9 ¤d E46IE co2 0.282e g4 Hro 0.115e g
    g Eb+. HIEE dE4g +9."Jrl? HIEE Ee%iol
    g/molol4E, +zt^lg +9,'J7P
    156

    3.s6 (a) +oJq¤q +E-+ 6Jg +i, +i, tle o1aq4 *


    6J¤t +qe& 9lB(ethyl butyrate) qlEol4. +qe4}
    qe 2.78 mg9 ¤ialH co26.32 mg, H2o 2.58 mgol
    sf6J¤9 ,Je^lg F9,.Jzl-?
    ^JCEtrt. O andrey polivanov/Shutterstock
    (b) BHIg 4gE LlaBS c, H, Ne-tr Elq 9l+. qiH
    (a) Koz 0.400 molol HI*6|E oz P Eol "JEqzl37I?
    s.2s0 mgg ¤AafH Co214.242 mg, H2o 4.083
    ^JCqEE H rBE Ko27l-
    ^lE (b) 02 7.s0 col g-cd7l-?
    mcol ^JcE4 q?HE dE^le s9..JzI? .E.4=Jol
    (c) 02 7.50 col
    ^J^JEIEJH H
    :rH9 corz|,tf$sliz].?
    Ezl4S +t.J7I?
    160+5 g/mololH,
    ,..19q: zlltl^ll 6 H ++ql= 9l&9 +d+"J HCIII Hl+
    gzl-n+ 4.$69 zlEql
    ^FSq= SE-tr4}(vatproic
    acid)¤
    6l+ Al(oH)371Eq 9l+.
    c, H, o-tr +cg+. 0.16s ge ga:rlflrlul E o.r0o -l"ol
    -3s7 co, 0.403 gol {dqAq.^ltr.
    BSE&E dB^le +t.J
    Al(oH)3(s) + HCt(aq) NC\(aq) + H2o(l)
    sr}
    7l-? geElol 144 g/molol4H, Ezl4S?
    (a) ol **9 +Bs "*+^ls.-
    (b) Al(oH)3 0.s00 g$ Hl86l-= HCIE -r.Hi= Zl&61-^le.
    3.s8 EE$It(propenoic acid, C:HaOJg ¤+4q, ?ts, d+zll (c) el(ou):0.s00 sol HI*6J EI AlCI3eI H2oE -L
    glb +71 E4lolEl. ?+Bol s= ^Jdq=
    ^J4Iql ^F*q= HI*^Jol ?d+¤. ZI&6I^ls.
    gzloll ol 4}ol Eq glE aeE +cgtrI. r.ltr. 0.27s gg s (d) (b)el (c)9 zltlol e* Bc B4g "J+Elg trol^ie_.
    i^laqq H2o 0.102 gr+ Co2 0.374 golCt9fl4. olzl
    3.64 a"J4 ,rlEi Fe2o3E s'J6J qel Eeg E6J6Ii1 9lEl.
    el E*llE in-esl4}"J7}? ahlg F"fl r*419 +-a-g +oJ6l
    coe+ Hl+6fB ++ ag ^J^J6J4.
    ^ls. Fe2O3(s) + CO(S) .+ Fe(s) + CO2(g)
    lse ^1qr1g ^ll4+= "JEzl gall ^I+6i=.{ll-$ a (a) ol HI¤-g +Bs *+^ls.
    i]l +aql E gz}71 s6}¤ +s}¤olEl. ol49 ^Qu
    c}E^lg (b) Fe2o3 0.3s0 kg$ HI*61-b Coel rH+E al4}6}^le.
    Na2CO3'xH2Ool{, rY Na2CO3 1g'} HrOg g+ol+. ^Jl (c) Fe2o3 0.350 kgol Hlg"o-J Ell Feel COz9 r*f
    ^Jdq=
    4+ 4+ ^ltr. 2.ss8 s& tzs.cql^l 7}g6}gqq, +si¤ al4l6}^le.
    EE E ts4-b gq^ln 0.e48 sol 9fi.4. , <i9 g"Iqlzi? (d) =
    (b)e+ (c)zf d* E+ HAg "J+*g trol^ls-.
    zlal {,r}zllol gd¤(Epsom salt)g -L
    3.60 +elElql^l
    ^l-*q= +el .JFults3 Er+ HI*6Iq itlci $Fultsr+ ++ +^
    i.ll +aql E Bx}zf sqlg ++Eol4. EdgE slql4e
    MgSOa'xH2Ooln, xE MgSOa I mol%I EE E+olEl. ol -:"rs=(a)^JC.Jtrl.
    ol Hl+e.l +B
    "*+ +q HI+4g
    .4A^ls.
    fplg s.oot rol 250'cq^l 7IgqE, EE E +^l+ Sq (b) +El *F"]ts la.2 eo.trPQ q gq +41+'JF"ltsol
    zlr. MgSo4 2.472 go1tsE4. x AI9 9ol"Jz|?
    ^JdrlEzf?
    EE *= BJ8*lo.-e+q EE ¤aJ4?.lg.E(3.6E) 3.66 +^s+ e+3 Er+ ++6Iq +4is} A+n+ +^ Tli{E ^JC
    gelqlE ?41¤(siticate)ol+= s+qlEol glTl q+ql, 5+ 'J4.

    -r51
    '126 38 Elqt tjJ8rlHJB al-+aJE

    (a) tB "*+ PIE H]+4g,, ^ls. ql+ Es+ 4B= ts6 Exll r.0s9
    ^lE +6|^ls(+ql.Jql
    (b) +i a.s00 g¤ "JEzl ?l-J +4+ a+q rts++ gEt +a6I4).
    oJTl?
    -dltHJ3E(3.7tr)
    ts7 o1z1o1=EltE(NaNr)e n|s7ll +44q 4-FiI qqEg
    L?3 (") +41 Hl¤¤nl4* HI¤+E +q= aqdl^le.
    +gzl"JEtrI. (b) 6J Hl*ql^l Bdg olg ql .J4l Hl¤¤E
    .+ ^JCEE 'Jql
    2NaN3(s) 2Na(s) + 3Nz(g)
    goll^l"J AAqE^l ¤E6I^le.
    5ol ^JC!Ezl?
    (a) NaN: 1.50 mo19 E6fl6IH Nz H
    (c) ol: slqlEol .JAl HI¤¤.Jzl= dq6}= 7l+g ril
    0) eA Tlill P rtsol gs6J7l-?
    cg ^J^J6ldlH, E+19 d=Jol ohqq E+E te ol+= ¤¤61^le.
    10.0 NaNe
    (c) d^ TlxllE trJE7I t.2s e1L4P,10.0 ft3E B+ 21i115
    3.7a (a) trl=s +qE aE4^le.
    EsqH NaNr H rgol gg6J7p
    ol${ f-$, d4l+s-e}, qdea=¤
    3.68 7]¤flq +s CEoJ +Elt(caH,e)e.l $d+ gA Hl¤+ 4
    (b) ell H]¤.ll^J dzll i5*3
    olEE +E-E*B4 6Jt 4g-z}?
    s4 e+. (c) EI*9l.tJ r10% d4liFEol tll-apll
    2C8H18(/) + 25Oz@) l6CO2(g) + 18H2O(g)
    -
    S+apg
    (a) 9EloJ 1.50 mo19 oz H Eol gs6J7I?
    .14 rflq +ElU oll+g(crHsoH)r+ orel g++9 ^J4
    6,il H zI
    O) +q'J to.o gS gi6l-EH 02 p:.9o1 gs+7p -3:s(a) ql+¤r-l^l^elE +B *+ +q HI+^lg r^^ls.
    (c) 941.J¤ 20.cql^l lJE7l 0.6e2 g/mlol4. 94loJ rs.o
    G) t4 HI¤¤e F9..JzI?
    cal(B+ SE Br r7l)g g46IqE 02 q rBol gs
    6l-719
    u't l
    (c) HlSol $A¤ +ql tsoI9l= co2, H2o, c2HsoH, o2e-l

    Ez14y 4+ gEloJTlz
    ],:eg +q 0.550 mm, E4 r.oo cm2s-l o35u1;, E.olol ueu3q-
    ++ rBr+ zJol e}*olq H_e.EJsl "JF"IH ^JdtEI.
    a o
    (a) rl-*t "JFultse q g"Jrl-? (g+ults9 "Jsb z.rss
    g/cm3ol4.) o. s
    (b) oJ.f-ulEo1 $dq HI+6}E EEI,J9+.J+olts q rqg .t o
    ^JC6l=zl-?
    o o
    3.76 oI4 rHq +4t lr+qloJ(c3H8)4 orq eB+g
    ^J46l]
    tr^|.
    (a) otrqloJ44I4e+9 +B "*+ {A tsJ*^lg r
    Lr O) e4l HI¤¤e +9t7I?
    ^ls.
    (c) H]*ol $aE +ql tsoI9l= co2, H20, c3Hs, o2E +
    gu}"Jzt?
    ^l++44
    3. 70 +o I
    E -tr-=;l r,ll fl (nitro glycerin)$ ul-o- $ zio I +ts6J+. oao
    o & a
    4 C3H5N3Oe(/) +
    r2Co2@) + 6N2(g) + Ozk) + 10H2O(J:)

    o a; o
    (a) ufoleg-q^]lfl(EJE=l.sez glmL) 2.00 mlzl. g

    fa
    ^ltr.
    $:.IE zl4 P gol ts^J6l==7t?
    (b) +g aaql^l 4 zlz)l1 molol ss LE ifzl6}H, zl4l H
    L7f +5qzl=7|?
    o
    (c) *891! H r*E Nrz| uJ$olzliz|!
    3.77 ?*q ol4l+ tr^el Hl¤+ 4.q-r+ Aq.
    "3i1
    qleg(cH3cH2oH)
    -o1o1 fl4ofS klsl gol
    I 1367 ^Eq
    2NaOH(s) + CO2(3) + Na2CO3(s) + H2O(/)
    g^J6JEl. ql+S zrs.o col fl48 Ell g^J6Fb g9lHzlE
    -rn El+'$trt{, q¤ aol
    NaOH 1.85 mol4 COz 1.00 molol
    +6i^19. +Zl HI¤¤'J7P NazCo: H Eol rJd4iz}? Hl+ol SA
    3.72 oq4l +qloJ(cH3(cHr6cH3) l molol 946t8 s470 klel g E + 4=JE Hl¤¤ 6 BoI9l= "Jg H E.J7t?
    ol g^J++. 9rll9l t.ooo galol $4p trll B^Jq+ gqlq
    3.78 +t+ "JF"ltsg +4ir+ trtg-r+ aol HI*'J+.
    +71-E+ E^ll 127

    2Ar(OH)3(s) + 3H2SOa@q) Al2(SOa) z@il + 6H2O(t) 4 e+ 3 s.oo g$ -*.6Ja}b +.-qg 96J6194. H}*ol $
    Al(oH)3 0.500 molol H2So4-0.s00 mol$ $e"a348. +41 eE + ts& et e, ts& e, d& +=+ zf4 P. s4
    +¤¤g q!= 1"J71? ol adql^l H gq Atr(son)r7l {c ^8,
    =xll6l=7i?
    q*zi-? HI+ol Sag + 4=JE BJ¤¤ 6 BoI 9l: olg 3.82 +{}+ oI^llE4I B(rD +q.l rill
    +4I B(rr)q of
    Hlg"6IE
    d E-617L,
    i. erl/li +o_qol ^JCE+. %r& s.oo gg olrilEtl B 0D s.oo
    ^JlE4l
    Atku-s.lzer' ojelol Eql +'ll Lll='q^1'A4E +4i+4 c+ e'J6'JElil g trll, Hl+ol Se¤ + ¤zHalE +t, o}^-ll
    E et(H3C6HsO7)e.l HI+ql q+ a "l +. =tI B0D. +4I B0r), o|/.11-e&9 4"*g +6}^le.
    -3re^E(NaHCO:)rl- ^l
    3NaHCO3(aq) + H3C6H5O7(aq) q1411coHJ4 H +EJ(BrJg q]+^lzlE tr.+Eddl(ceHsBrz)
    -
    3 CO2(g) + 3H2O(l) + Na3C6H5O7(aq) ol
    qB deq^J +4I+C 1.00 s+ e,$ 1.00 gol qI -rs3 ^8cg+.
    ^E: ^lE C6H6+Br2.+C6H.BI+HBI
    s"t4E (a) qts aol e4 +¤¤"J7I? o) q r+E co,
    grl H-srrJ 6s.0 Bol Els"¤ q ^JCq= treE
    (a) H14130.0
    zI CC9bzf? (c) EI*ol $eg + ts* 4=J HI¤¤e q
    HltlE olE4 +E=6Eg ¤oloJz}?
    rg'J7I?
    O) H eqHld9 dxjl i=e+ol 42.3 sol+E, ul{le ig
    3 g"I"JzI?
    3.84 qqoJ(CrH6)ol gi(ch)e| HI+61tr +^JcEg c2Hsclol
    n, Clol sElg(qlE C2H4C1, {CEol ErJ Ca4.
    olE9 CzHsCIE o&3 =:q
    rJ+.r.1234.
    (a) c2H6 l2s gol ct2 zss g4 H]*alE a+. c2H6e| cl2
    7I Hi*6Iq C2H5Cle| HClEJol $d¤42 7IC6IE.

    r C2HsClE olE4 ++e&3 $oloJz}?


    (b) C2HsCl 206 sol RISqdElE, C2HsClE qdE +¤¤
    O PRILL/Shutterstock g gEtoJTI?
    3.80 dL+ +Aql^l "JEqoI-e e4IeE EI+E +41 + 6lq= +n+ fib SSzI^eBrl zll49"lo} 6l+ E+Eol4. .J
    NH3E: No-e.Hl+= aol+. tl4"J zll4 HlHe +++ ?9 claus tl*o14.
    -3^ss 8H2S(g) + 4oz@) Sa(/) + 8H,OG')
    4NH3k) + sozk) 4No(s) + 6H2o(g)
    qE deql^J NH3 2.00 sol- 02 2.s0 cr+ HI*+4. ul4 aAaiq,ql Chus **9 - H2Sql^J e8%oE +qEE Ssg
    (a) 9H aol 6J4lHI*E.JzI? E=4. "J"J H2s 30.0 gr+ 02 s0.0 cse+q ¤g:.lg, ssvo
    (b) Noe+ H2o= q rH i-= EoleE zlAE q, ss { :go1 E}Eqzl=7}?
    ^Jc5l=71-?
    (c) HI*ol Sag + Be r+?+ q}¤¤e H rgqlTl? 3.86 H2S zli-llE NaOU +qql Er16I¤ z1g.9 9szlg Na2Se]

    (d) (b)e+ G)ql^Jg 41d'"1 e%r Be B4g "J+.++g Eol^le-. Eol "JEq4l4. H2S 1.2s gol Naon 2.00 sol Eq gl= +
    r.er +^I +"q+ a^I g +qg g.J6IE jli]l +4I e+ a "l-3 E4g ull, NazSg +=¤ol e2.0o/o4:L 6IE q r*g
    & ^E +.-qol sdg+. +4I gg e'*alE *9 Na2S7| "JEq^l=7I?
    ^E ^.E.3.s0

    +7l-"Ja E4l
    3.87 r+¤-Hl¤¤el fB *= +ol Hl*4g .r^^le. 4iel "Jql ge 9l+. r-ll zlzl "JqI4"J e4 HIE= oJEq
    (a)4a9 +g rlBoJ of,rlle{l(cH3cooH)g sd s4' oL e4l "JEE., +t oJEk', _s-^(NHr2co)oltrt. EELg
    0) r4l +&+ a+9 l14l t}e+,J+(rD(^Jsl)+ ;6.tlE e4el a=* E+¤g ^l-&6}q olEE +91= A6I^le.
    9 E6l] 3.e0 (a) ,Itt "JEI4.J 61941 6 6I+oJ o}^llBg4¤,t}(o|^ul
    (c) ...12 *+4 g^ Tlal ^lolE a.J El+ fl)E +zl-^lg ceHso4oltrl. 0.s00 galal "i^ulfl gEqlE
    3.88 C2H5OH 1.5 mol, C3Hs 1.5 mol, CH3CH2COCH3 1.5 mol q 5E ceH8o4ol +4dr=71? (b) ol "JEql= ceHson $z|
    ol tlae+ gd6l g^61-8, qL Aol zl* E*3 Eig Hzo 7l q 4, ilbzl-? (c) ol gEql 9l= ts^ gz}.b H 4l"J7l?
    rrJs=7p 7l* 4+ 5+E EIE= ag qL a"J7l? E
    3.el 4q 1000-10,0007l]e1 gxle +dg oI+ 4lg llEill AA
    =
    E6I^le. g oJzidol4a 6J+. HlEill cdSe-E ¤ oJ^fdg qg a.I
    3.8e a^ EIEE Egg a^=
    ^lEql
    dg6}= bq4 dg:"t= r, "Jzfd zTlq q+^l +"J"J ^q?¤. 4zl rll+91 d^l +
    128 33 trl-+ UB4BJB +-+aJE

    Ezlr+ ql5q. q^¤qlolE ¤^l] cdse9 "JEE (bubbler)oll +71 5.r+61+ aee, r1-g- +-&q Edl
    ^l-Sg+. ^l.EE
    s.a2 g/cm3ol4. e3g 4lA'J+.
    (a) zl4ol 2.5 nmoJ cdSe oJzfd t zll9 A+g? Osk) + ZNal(aq) + H2O(l) +
    6) zlaol 2.5 nmoJ cdse olz[{g E=EH +E/+g 4+= Oz(g) + I2(s) + 2NaOH(0q)

    +. .JzlEg +Boln Hl +rJol fi4a ziaal-B, ,t zll (a) O: 5.e5 x 10-6 mol9 Ell ggt ololgflE| i
    ^11716l=
    el .Jzldql fli ca gz}9 zil+E? EE E+= gutoJzf?

    (c) zl4ol 6.5 nmoJ cdse *xld 6J 7ll9 e"*g? (b) 03 r.3 mg9 ElZal+ ql ge+ ololeHal dEq rg
    (d) 4aol 6.5 nmoJ cdse olzldS EEH sg4g LII-68 fL goI'JzI?
    E|. "J^Idg $a6J +¤ol4 zlcalE, ,tI 4 .J^IAql 3.100 e+q} aot}9l^lb dzl 9lHxlE Nacl +¤-eqg ts6i
    ^l-s6}q
    9lE ca g4q 4f 6iq ch, H2, NaoHE Hl-E+.
    =?oJz}eg o}z}fl$
    (e)
    "J.J {4 zl]9 2.5 nm
    ^l.*o1l
    0.s nm 2NaCl(aq) + 2Hzo(l) 2NaoH(aq) + H2@) + Clz(g)

    "JEEIH. H zl]g 2.5 nm


    oJ4eol gs+71? *41 q= +elql^l ulloj l.5x106- kg(ls0oE)g ctrE d4}+qn B
    CdSe qlEI
    ++lb P 4"J71? Eil, dcq= H2 oJ¤ +a6I^19.
    "l NaOHE
    3.e2 (al6J41 qlqrJfl G e^I lTl]el ezlg s.342xlo-21 go14. 3.r0r qE}el ++ql 8+E zl%Ig qLl^lel +g 4l+6I.= gA
    qq dfl ce] E4%Fg gut.Jz}? ol+. zlElg sF aB4 +Ec zloJ"J Eelol^llo|fl
    o) 4B+ql^i ,tl^ gEl EiHqa.J 6l-E=EHlg E^fr6L 47ll (tristearin, c57H11so6)o ? ol+q4 fln, ql^t n+a +
    ^llE
    qe gzF= zlzl{, {getr Fez} 0.3a07oo14. 6llEE oJ E+ol,Aqlo1flol ozc+ Hlg"6Iq CO2e+ H2OtrJ +E4lt

    trElE Ee t+ E"I"JzI? zl-A6J ql, zl%L 1.0 kg9 4,\1tr ^dCqb szo9 de}g 4l
    3.e3
    ^ll-e.EH(serotonin)9
    4qql^l {a ^l+g dg4= Ea
    &6I^le_.
    ol+. ol Eee e+HlE C 68.20/o, H 6.860/0, N 15.9%0, O 3.162 $ffi4$ A$el $zloll,<l 4*E coc+ corz| .t3,t3gq-.
    e.08%oE qq 914. .laq Ee*g 176 g/molol4. olael +5++4 0.as0 g9 *71 +ql^l elflqq co 0.467 8, coz
    +4^le F9."Jzt? 0.733 g, H2o 0.4s0 Col
    ^J^Jqflq.
    3.e4 ol=BF^ Ll-Fg"Jg H=El. 7"J49l 4+ 41.E' (a) El-6J¤9 ¤ql^lg *q"Jzt?
    =.oJ+=
    g +E Eql4= Eql olSBF^ s"Jg dlqtlEl. .l=B O) HI+q^l q }dq orTI
    ^F$qflbz}?
    F^ g"JE +s Cgg ol=BEol+a 6t=Ell, C 77.87o/o. (c) $d gi= r+9
    916ll^]= H 0271ge-+7p
    H 1r.76 "/0, 4tr1^l OE eq+6J+. 3.103 N2fu)e] Hzk)9 gd-Eol "Jql¤ +rl ?Iqld HI+61-q
    ¤.49 de4e Fq.JzI?
    (a) ol NH3k)g ^Jc+trI. Ei¤¤ Ei¤¤ + qL {ol ${al }
    (b) ol=BEel e* +^l 4EEBg E 154 amuq^l ,.1=.E ullzl d{l H=tr}. olql N2 3.0 mol, H2 3.0 mol, NH3 3.0
    ++UtrI. ol EeE +z}^lg *9..Jzt? molol 3xllql4. gq q E9 Nrcl H27l ?1fl=7p
    3.es EiH49 +s 6JoJ ulpfl(vanilin)g c, H, oE s*6J4. 3.104 KClo3, K2co3, KHCo3, KClg E*61+ g*+g 7l¤6IH
    ElBfl t.os col $A6l ¤46f8 co22.43 B, Hzo 0.s0 gol trl-S ++^lql rI4 cor, 02, H2o ,l^llE 4d++.
    2KClO3(s) .----- 2KCl(s) + 3O2(8)
    "JEq4]EI. EtBflel dfl^le +Eql7p
    2KHCO3(s) .----- KzO(s) + H2O(g) + 2CO2@)
    3.e6 qE +71 EI.JES c. H. clg ,tl zfzl g^El s*6ln 9l
    K2CO3(s) .- KzO(s) + COzG:)
    4. ol pHlE ^lE l.s0 col +zl +ql^] $d6l ¤^6IE KClg HI*ol adql^.] Hlgo6l^l ?*b+. g6JE 100.0 gol
    coz3.5z col C^J¤tr}. EEq dQlql^J ol +tlE
    H2O 1.80I, Coz 13.20 g, 02 4.00 gg dC+48, 94 g
    1.00
    ^ltr.
    g9l 9lE g^E+q Agct 1.27 col 4Cg+. ol s++EE ¤ qlEE 3cg F9..JzI? (s,*5e Sd6l E6l]gqa 714
    e!g AA6I^Ie_. 6J+.)
    3.e7 KBro,E +461-q Br 52.e2o/o7l .E*qq ilgol 99t4. x {l 3.10s o|^JIEHI(C2H2) 10.0 g4 4ia(oJ r0.0 99 EdJEol BE+6I
    Igulqlzl? H 94 Hl+ arl, CO2e+ H2O7I
    ^J^J¤+.
    3.e8 g4 X= XI3 "l XCl3g ¤d'J+. XI3= Cl24ql^l 7IS6IE (a) olHI*q +B "*+ +al HI+^]g r\^le.
    xCl3E HIfl+. (b) +41H}¤¤e q! a.J7I?
    zxb+3C12+2XC\+3lz (c) HI*ol $eg + q r+q CzHz, Oz, Co2, H2ozt
    xr3 0.s000 g9 rl*alq xcl3 0.2360 g9 ?flg 4l (a) fl^ 6lE7I? =4
    xel flz1gg 4l4l6l^le. (b) g^xE +lql7[?
    3.ee X-71 69 s+ +EE 4l&61-71 +.16ll El+q +IA!.Ea
    (rre;o1 g'Es- ololetr+ g.QI6l-= nlBBl
    ^1.*6I= ^.#
    E* E+ E^lt 129

    5EJ oJ+ Ez.il


    ol g+ EzllE ol ttel E+ .ll¤+"J olqr+ old t}gl ++ .ll+ (c) gd^ql^J g"loJz}?
    ^J^lq+.]-+41a+E loJ ^JtleJg
    I $o e ojr1. 3.113 +^(HCN)= qzl^oltrl. il^f*g +zl I kc*
    3.106 HlEill GaAst: a-L{ {z} Ele, g+ 4019E, 4"} dzl
    ^loloJe}
    300 mg HCNoI+.
    ql aoJ+. "Js= s.:z g/cm3ol4. ol ploJ$g (cHJ:CaE (a) Pulzl 12xlsx8.0 ft.J ¤edql^lE HCN il^I"*g 4l
    As Tli]le+ pol z|$af{ EJE+. EEJ ull9l.J(cHn)s. ,E4l 4I6f^19(+71 "Jrb zo'Cql^l 0.00114 g/cm3ol4).
    "J5q{q. (b) HCNoI NacN4 +4Fl ag +9 H}¤:etr+q "J=,q
    (a) (cHJ: Ga 450.0 g9 :oo.o g Asel HI$,AIAE+g, "JEq 1148, il^I"+g uJ$zl $lojl.!i H rHq NacNol I
    zlY caes9 AElg? grJTI?
    (b) {}g tsal q= Hl+Eol 9l+8. ts4 q= E+=? 2NaCN(s) + Hzso1@q) NazSOr(44) + 2HCN(g)
    (c) Ezll (a)q^l "JEqd caesE 7l^la +417140 nmoJ El (c) lld -
    rdfroJ Orton'Eb Acrilan'ol B qlq= HCNoI uJ

    Eg "J=+tr, H4g cm2 tglE g"loJz}? (r nm: Eq4l4. Acrilan"9 de4g CH2CHCNolr., trI4^l
    I x lo-e mol4.) HCNoI eH.gtr "l s+trI^1g 50.e7oE oJ+zl
    ^Izl*+.
    3.toz ulgrU*(CrrHilNo,r)$ ¤edql^'l= tlC6ITl 'flE 6JS ! tz\z1.12xls ftolr, yd,g:0959 Acritan. dS
    xllolr|. !.n¤ 6JCts 6ILlb 11t41= 4a+. 3l+ +- E s.d-61-7. 914. o}tsulzl +48, dEdql il^l*E
    3 syooll Er+6lEl. E= +zl= FoJ6J +¤¤¤ tlflQt_tl HCNoI nJSq^l4l=71? (d+E 1165 fffiol zovool

    A6IE, 4 +ZlE ¤t qde;-' guI"JzI? n, oJ+^l+ 5o1o7l:*.r+il TIA6JE|.)


    3.108 qE +4I e+ rle.E t sol 2.00s in.oJ c$Ex]loltr|. ol 3.114
    ^lExl 4¤
    zl*9 ta} +7lE+E e+. +71: g* zl
    trJE7I z.zr g/cm344, ol rltr +9 l}d 9zl* P ills, N2(-7e%), o2?20o/o)e qq 9l+. sla ¤a
    ^lEel
    7\"J71? q tql^l er:= A}^el El+6Iq 4iq} dt^l-FiI
    zlxtl(No)E trJ
    3.10e (a) E^J?,1 ?ol7} C+EAIE g ++ol ?14. "J
    1.000 cmoJ E4. NozI xl-Sz| u1zl$e-++El ts11=¤ q. taq ql3
    E= 10.s g/cm3ol4. fl263 H zl].Jzl? (b) gz}-= +B 6Iq ol4le+ ei Tlal(Nor)= "JE4.
    olgE c*Eglg E.E *rJg illg + fi.+. v\frtl7a%oE (a) F E]*ql qlt +B "*+ slEI ++4lg rA^ls.
    illgE}. +g g g^IE +qE 4l&6r^ls. (c) g g^IE + (b) Noe+ Nor= -EF +6ll Ee.a, 4IcEl=
    "JEj1 3d s
    :,le+ +q +4g
    ^l-&6}q.
    g gzl9 tlxlE¤ ¤:-'-EEo ffi z|!$r]. olEg'No; zl4l?+r ++. 200eEql El
    -e. +6l^ls. +ql^J 1,e00rt E9 Norzl rlTle HH=qfl+. ol= q
    rgql4EJ6}=7I?
    3.110 (a) tsulz} zo.s mi/galoJ
    ^E (+, 8fl48, E
    !l7l 225 mi9
    (c) ¤d 7l+ql^l Tlill= 94loJ(CrU,r;o]
    aEr+E co,E 4*dE7l? SE= eqxll +qlql ^J^JqE NO,
    (cru,Jol4, olae.l gE= 0.6e2 g/mlol4.) co2el H2o-a g^g ql
    "JEqzl=
    gzl ?*E tE*.1
    (b) ¤ul7l5 milgaloJ Eq.J a+, +lq Al4lg HI+6I^I9.. +. "J"J 8sv,E 4li7} +el.Jg ¤46171 9lql qldql^l
    No2E: trJE= Ell
    3.lll <re (2.e4)ql^.1 +4 olCe^I zlltflol solr.lfl{. qlE 5 ^FSqr. 4qzl= ^l-sg+E, +ql.J
    s00 sol ¤i6l-b Fqlq H rEE NorTI "J5q^l=7I?
    tr 1-Ee+gr+ 2_e.-a$gol+. trI.* 5C + qL lol ol
    3.115 qleEi HI*, Fezo: + A1-Alzo3 + Feql^l= ".+g gol ts
    +7lzl Eeql^l 4=zl? ol HI+g E*.1 g^Jg + fl
    (a) #Ed 6) ¤^ B4 A4 ^J6lq ^JdE"J Fezl-\5r1.
    (c) Ezl* (d) +qA gEe+ "Jqql^Jel 'JE ++ql^l &g4-9-E Ag +dg tril ^l-8.¤trt. oli r"Lq
    =
    ol + Eeei $dg +*ql^l *o|E + 91trt. wotfram d(+e +E)ql^lE .Jzl 9lb ^lH plE HI*ol+.
    (a) Ed9 tlqls E.J6ll^J Hi*el +Bg "*+^ls.
    Alpha(httpi //www.wolframalpha. com/) g.i CRC
    (b) s00.0 99 rezo:cl HI*6I: rll $9aJ AIE eelg?
    Handbook of Chemistry and Physics.
    (c) Fe2O3 lgEJ 8s2 klg g"l g^J++. 1.00x104 klq g
    3.il2 qB AelHltr r+ 2.so/oz .EE++4. "l 4+g 4+H
    ^l+g ol ts^JdIBlE, H rtsg Fe2o37l geaJz}?
    +e eg Ed"J ol&E* + 7l4lE H+4. ol.tlql +9 Ell= (d)"JoJ qHI+g .JeAr+H gqlq^l: HI+EE irH=
    + *i^1v]|71916fl 4}sl A+(4pl)ol ^l-*BE|. ol&+ +g TL otqE 4f,i7}?
    4I+ A++ Hls"d}q oI+41 a+ riIE ^Jc+4. ^J^JEg
    (a) ol H]+e.l +B *+ clq El*4g .r
    3.u6 +qlql^J H]+ + 6I+E u$ Hl*o14.
    ^le. =oloJ
    (b) 4+ql ol 4E 2000.0E9 tsdaq.<1 014q-
    RlC(:O)R2 * Rs - NHz + R4COOH + R5NC+
    ^l^.*6t= RaC(:O)N(R3)C(R1R2)C:ONHR5 + HzO
    +g 8171617l +16ll gs.ttlgl a+E e=*g g"IoJzI?
    130 33 alqf BJSalBJS nf+aJE

    o o (a) EE p+.J¤qlR: CH:CHzCH2CH2CH2CH' - (4 { zl


    il
    +
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    il
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    ;z; 4
    ^.1
    +e-)"J ?991. ugi Hi*E +B "t+ ++ HI*4g
    C C 1Al.l Q

    R1 R2 nl -orn (b) Elg 435.0 mg9 cH3cH2cH2cH2cH2cH2NHr7l IJA|


    t}¤¤"lf4H, 'al¤ ugi ^JdE'el {g$ $ufolz}r
    T.?
    or...". N-a-C.-* ,,.R5 + H2O

    ilII R,R,H
    /\ I

    t6tr{ ¤41 E4!


    ol 4E q++ql^], +g F tlzl gEI &sl¤t so2el so3E B (a) 0.10 molel $o1 +* +7lq fl+H, r;lr u3$ollr..l Soz

    t6J+b 19 utl¤ {olr}. przf 6}= + z}zl eEg +!+ & {} Bt¤+E, gse orE H g.J7I?
    471 44 HI*6}E so2, so3, E= olE gE¤ + qL aol B 0) Hl+ql^l so:"J BC¤48, ge+ ozi P g'J7I?
    Cq3zlolut. ol e$g 6aaJ4l, soaE E I Hlg.+q *84 (c) I ?qd dE E+= z;2, HI* *zl"ll 4 Hl¤¤E E'+
    es rll=t {4}q= Hzso4= BC6l7l qEol4. ol eEql ql+ E 4+6lr,ll Bflizl "JeH q¤4 6llot 6}i7t?
    Bg 4 s+6J5E ^Jql4.J .FI HI+ eEq 4+¤+. ql= EE (d) HI+
    ^J^J+g +"J6IEE
    q¤ *B.lut dE uJBol 9e
    tsi= tl4'e+ Hl+6lq tr¤l CozE B^J6lzl"J, ,tl47} +=-'e oJzl.? soz$ sor9 E44 de zlol=
    ^h&6lq
    dCEg
    a+ql= cozl. u35qu,q. tE, A*4.J Hl$ a4a1q,t15 +EB + 9t.7t? r-3+ +ql^l ^JCE9 +E6l= ¤e
    HI+61+ Hzel OzE t'-'llzl"J gr.l *alHol 6Jt H20E
    pJE+ tlilT} t+g 4ol llEzl?
    (uror 4d.ll). (e) *4 &4E EIE H+^14, ol Hl+s] so3, E
    ^JCE(soz,
    L+^! n4l"J *ol BzJ H, oz dfl44*. tlr "t ^JC+g b olE s6JE)g 4eg + 9lgzlE.JTl +16l] qts dE
    Bg FB"J tI* 8zl, HI¤¤4 ^JdEE A"tg A + fl= zl I ald=z}? ol e+q 96.lz1 gdi se+ o,E qtr ul= ^l
    g, HI*B ql ql* *zl= zoo"ct\zl zI9B i 9lE zI9 zlzl A4AE7I?
    z| 9|Ql alz|.
    a)

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    H l
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    N
    ffi
    \
    -&\
    \
    K \-
    E N:
    EE
    \-l
    !

    \ s
    \
    N I
    \ $ft
    4.1 > +AEq guJ4E ¤tr Eeol Eq +
    = ol.$e-E =^H6I=xl, e^IE
    EE olgr} +^iel gElEtr
    =416l.
    +
    =zl. 4aH 9olE4.
    ^l]6l+^lq
    4.2 Ed u3 7I+C H}¤¤tr+q E+C
    ccEg "JEE Hi+ql ql6iq 90|g
    trI.

    +EEoll# el HJ= 4.3 {J-g7let


    HI+Ee+q
    E_t8 o}.tJz}(u+)z} aJ
    =El+= H]+Ee olE6lE
    HI+ql qi5}q.JolE4.

    4.4 > tlit-+3 UB dap71 + H1*gtr+


    rl?q zft= tJr ?lE E=
    TrEr q^ur rn-d He E^r
    El trIg
    q
    HI¤¤E olf6l.= HI+ql q6I
    "JolEtrl.
    ^mq
    7l^ln SEillE E0ll^l 7lg6tr, EE SB^ll= E:= =Ja+ oltsrll, 0l
    glrl..
    =
    ,tP t[gpl8E-44 75= 4.5 > EE9 5E +qd +49 +.1 +ql
    tll EE¤ +al Eel ttl?Ee
    =d61| =tl. ^l¤.
    al+ u- E+0il^1 golu +oI glb Eld.Ee.l olg tEE s^l6}
    EE 0l+q^1 ?tn, 8E= P^l6l7l +l:d rll?
    =el %IHg Ellg+. bEE ¤4 zfzl B
    tl. al^ltrJ El.*qt tg fl8011^1ts El--J- Stl6lZLl'Exll6t7l Pl6H r.80ll_l El =
    Bsg A9g + fleq, ,f+ "JHI4
    o4ill= e-+
    4.1). t._E= +ol l?_lEl'J E+
    = ^l.E-drl(f.H dJEg^l-8:q!.
    E+(.E+E)ol+.

    qtr Eeol Eql $$ +qg f_o4(aqueous solution)ol+r +q. 4.6 Ee4elit-*UE"t itqt E4 slE*E
    r+ T]]Eol qB7]l zlaol4n 6I
    bEq
    ol +ql^J= ++._qq^l "Jq+= HI¤¤ tsl]g aol+. +zl4-eE g %IEg F.ll +E +ql Eq fl= E
    o-IE E"Eel E^lc+ 3+ql^J tsl]g p+q}%iEg ul]¤ rri6H =
    eq oJ Eb +EE AC6l: ql ^FS
    ^F8¤ q=zl5 o_IoI-H-rI
    4.o14. ol tlql^l Eelg HI¤+ HlJl4 ,J+6I^]"J sEo+, zlao+,
    6ll"J+E +tL+ EI¤¤¤ olailalzl ilxj tlzzl ¤ 4o14.

    < Eg rF8oll^l 718 5+'E! eq^lloltL Hllt=el +de Tlsl -sE 8E^llE
    0l?= i.lle{ 7dr} "Jtr6lZl g^16[q, olag H]tloll^i .gEillTl Seq= ri=
    "J,A. l-JtL (ir) Ep i c Stocki.4 ed ia i S h utte rstock

    133
    uh
    li

    '{
    t
    ffit
    i

    !
    I r.3'
    Ir:: rf
    I}
    t t=
    t E

    r1
    t
    -,I -E
    TI .t
    :1,i,
    i I.
    rr 1 .$

    I
    tr
    il l4
    i'1. ) ["r
    #.
    A:lH 4.1 El|EaJ E-4 EB Ludiwigshafenoll gil-.J BASF +ql A6te "JddeJql Eqd Ll3 4E[EE 8ll6f-a ?ltl. ospecialviewshutterstock

    4.1 I +s"'4E oJ'J1{"J ¤1


    F zl-zl .ltl-el E.eq #"J ¤'oJEol+ . n.2':1). ol Ee + Bg'&g
    *9(sloution)S
    itzl6t= C+g Eull(solvent)+r. 6IL, +Eq E El= Eeg t¤(solute)ol+ir. 6J+. +
    ee *,Hql +-+. ql= EH 49 "JE EE| *g "JE Er+ 4lg tril Eg +
    ,H, gEI ^E(Nacl)g
    8dol4.
    ^Ee
    t6ll{al Hltilll
    qfl zJA ql+ql zl-E g-e-Ealql zl4zl4.J g+= 19 ul]B,g 4.ol
    ^l¤ql 4zl 421
    trI. "J{-^Jgq^l d6trll q= ql+EE E9 dzl4"J dECol 9lslrE, .Ji1 ilqot g
    ++6J C_H_oJql r4+ +++ Ee qt+ "-I"J dsaloltrl. dE.E= E
    =8S4.
    a- tlz)lzl olq 4 Eql +oI fl= 5eq^l BlFgEI.
    =-o-EE

    Eql +oI 9l=E=Eeol +EEdECg+q.ll=4gotul4. azJ4.2+^ll ztzl +


    E, + ++* E, Eql !ql+ ¤B(+a.s^)g +.J +E, Eql ^lEl+ a#(Nacl)$ }oJ
    +Eg +4U 1o14. d+= 4 +"lq Elrlql AA F zH9 d+g ssl6l-= EllEl4 dg
    dzl sle.il saElq fl4. d*z} 4zl4E, +Eql B= + d+ ^[olql d#(dzl4 oe
    +dg E4 6-eJ7l 9l"lot e+. ++tI Eq^l= 4+71 /zlzl $tl uilEql, +++ E+
    ql= slE= "JEzlgl +goJ d6l-= E "Jzi7[ s+= a=g e4 g+. rB]E Ee ql+
    E uro Ezls +r-E^(c12H22o1)E EELJ +"lE 4Azl4zlzl ?+=+.
    =zlldlol6}+.
    r4 e +4= +"1 +E #ze^ +7171d6l-= rlzl g*= aee aEg Lllfl+. rqL}
    o

    134
    4.1 +Eo-4sl gEJ4?t 8E 135

    ++:d E3 Hld6tlEP Cdlitr3


    17l7f 56f^l ?Jg dTlTf E6trl gg Il7l7l E6l

    fr
    t t
    \t I
    .-
    -.rt Y!
    !
    i,
    1'

    -- Liil

    iI- t \.
    Elg
    ++:.J E ^ieda
    H2O(') CrrHrrOrr(aql NaCl(a4)
    4.2 E6tlEe E7l 4tr7l.S¤Elol E+ollEol ZT]ti.
    ^aC

    NaClg EoJoJ +.-4e. d7l EiltrE "JEzlq +E+ d6l-= E .Jzl-E q]r-6 e EE EgA+
    9l tsol ad+. olag Na*q cl- olgol ++Eql^l e¤g+= de4 +401r|.
    NaCli.lH ig.l"l ol¤.g E6J6I= Eeg E6llE(electrolyte)ol+11 iI4. ¤=J
    (C,rsrro,,)xlH +Eql^l olgg Sd6lz1 9+= EAg HlEallE(nonelectroyte)ol4r 6J
    Q. NaclS olg eEL sl*Eolr, crzHzzorr9 tszI ElElEolee, o1 Eg trt= ++
    ^-]tr
    9 :+elf."l4.
    EqFl ElB,fEE E6tl
    lill +44eE ul]gg Na*4 cl- olgoE +dqfl+g trzlat4(:H z.rs).
    NaclS
    a
    Naclol Eq +eE 4 olgS r.4l +aE+q EEEIq +q ailql +^lg+(f.J a.3(a)).
    ol$,tJ rxll.} +oI4 CE olg_s_tr flEgtrt. 6-
    Eg olg BEI sHlge^J q]+ ¤3 ¤-,Hol4. ul$ H2oE 4z\4" e {={ $z}olzluJ, 6+

    o gzl+ 4zlzl ++6Iq ++ gd6(6 )E zlzl{, H flz}: ++ old6K6*)E zl+14.


    5= +E d6l-= Etrlotl, +e gd6l: 6 ('delt minus'), ++ old6l+ 6*('delt plus')-tr-
    +E}U+. oJolge Hzo9 +d6t gq g4r, +olgg "Ja6I gq 3fl+.
    olg A6J s+6JEol +eE olgg rB +.:(a);lH sro Ezl-tr. E+lr+.J+. ol 4C9 ol
    9ol '8rlFt9944a 6Jq. slE H}+4q^l= +rl]slg olgg Na*(aq), ct-(aq)-e. E
    7l6}q +4U4. {zlrJ 4q: '++E(aqueous)'e.l 'J9ol4 ," (:.1i,l). EollEl(solvation)
    -E ?16ll +"_4 6 ol$ol Q]{allzlr, oJolgr} ¤-o199 4la*ol +rzl94. q +o}71-^l ol
    eg Erl& E Ezl-+ol ^.lE zI+E71 84olzl qlEql olgg +.1 dilql +"J6lAl E+
    g+.
    ^ddg r EAE s+o+E "s+El BE
    olg a,* p+*EE +"-!ql olgel ql+6J
    =461+
    + 9l+. qlE EE *t iE(NazSon)3 iE: olg(Na.)4 EJ4I olg(Soa2 )ee a14gr1.
    ++Eq olg ats. qI6JEE B4= olal]a].4B "JHI4.J olgE d6l.el plE4(E
    =4]6l+
    2.4,2.s)g 7lq6l+ aol +s6I+.

    P
    r|.3 EEelE._40il El-+=e +i?]7l.?
    =^|]51.=
    (a) KCN (b)NaClo+
    136 43 +Eo_4oil^lel HJ8

    \ NaCl(aq)4 CHsOH(aq)A olE 101 ETlE E Ee.aku fz

    E rill
    =^t7tNa+g[ cl -& a o
    o I e
    Nacl3

    #:
    olSoe Eal-drl. (
    g \
    RI

    a c
    -\

    'l
    Na*9[ Ct-
    0l=01 Eo-I
    +o.-tr EttEltrt.
    ) #c OIIEJE

    f;
    0 c
    I
    cl-
    Na+

    Na+ef cl +9=
    E E^l7l=altEt.
    c D t
    (a) 018 al--JE?l Eef +01013= 88-eltrl. (b) E^ld DilEJ-e(cH3oH)3 018 gd gtol .+Ef
    =--J ^flNacrE =E?l
    afH 4.3 Eoil^1e-l Eoll (a) Eaf E4 a3 013 alEfEol Eoll + E^tE 018= Eal6fr. Eal/rl^l EilE EtJ^la+.
    nll H2o (b) E
    EE?l DllEJg(CHsoH)g 018= 8¤61^l ?ja =Ef (a)e+ (b) -slF0ll^1 E E^lEoll 96H gGl^l LfZ tE g^lEol EoJLl.
    ^l"d ==+.

    ¤ztol4 ql+g ?9 Ez[ E]6JE(rH 4.3(b))o1 Eql +eE +E dilql tszl-=ol ul4
    9lrll g+. :a4oe. ql+eE EzI e+ElEg uld"ll4ol4. rel+ qH Ezld EAe ++
    Eq^l olgg ^Jt.J+. olE 6 zlar 6sB ag 4}ol+. qlE EE HCI(s)o1 5.jl 5oI ¤
    &(HCl(aq))g ^JC6J El] +sqq^J H*(oq)+ct (aq) ole--e-tr olgElg+.

    ,JtrlllI.f "+{rt|I
    d6l]A.9 dzl dgC9 ^[ol= ,*l. 9l+. ,JEatlEl(strong electrolyte)S *991^] Sd
    6'l E= z9 gddl ol9oE 8¤o14. tse4sE Nacl4 ag E= ++
    =4]6I=
    C ol9 A6J sl6J$r+, HClr+ Ag P 7l^l E^l EI6JE$ ,JddeolE|. elEallfl(weak
    electrolyte)g EzI +6JEol tot 49 }.Eel olgg ^JC6l-= 4o14. ql= o|.tJlE&
    (cH3cooH) +.-4e: +e9 49 4 Y Eol cH3cooH(aq) flzlE-_ =H
    cH3cooHE
    g+E(E cH3coo- olgsE
    r7o)qfo1 H+e+
    =46J+.
    =4++.-
    d6ll4ol += CE(+6}lE)e+ dol]Aol A-*zl sf*zl= eE6l.zl ?+E+ f9oilot.J4.
    q= EE cH3cooH= Eql ,l]+ * +zl"J, "Jdollaol4. HlEq ca(ou)rE 5q Ael
    +zl f+zl"J, 4YEol 49 $d6l ql?]6rEe.zj{all{olr}.
    =eEeE
    ot^llE&r} ag Ed4eol +aqoil^J 6l]elB qlel HI¤+ EI-s-r+ a+.

    CH3COOH(a{) : CH3COO-(a4) + H+(aq) [4.1]

    .o},!lE4l9 r+E43 ++ HC2H3o2+l *4. olBi,ll 4E scl;lB .JHl4t 4I=E +EI^lr]H B.J+. E+4
    cH3cooHE oI^llE4]E +zI +ae+ .Jil6J+. + slo+^lE "J+ql 9= o gr} +lql tCC +Elql= H7I 9lEI.
    4.2 EI EJ8 137

    Hlql 7l47la_ 91ts H]+ o}gs1-;= HI¤-ol oJ+ HJ:6'Je--E dqd+ ag e.l
    %16J-9
    ^JE
    "loJ+.
    q¤ +q{ +rJql cH3cooH EztE g++ u*4 cHrcoo- olg9 ^Jc6l.El
    a olgs+d4. EqI ag +rJql u*s| Cri,Coo- ol¤+ cH3cooHE ^JC6l-elr. 4lA
    f
    ,*6J+. ol zlxl Hlql r+c +¤e 6c Bz}el olgel tr-ql4.J += ?caJ4. ol
    ^lolE
    +¤e .Ja.J HI_&ql 444 olg EE EzlE ^Jq4e fz| "JC+, EtEt s
    =4]6r= =
    El(chemical equilibrium)$ olE4. plolxl¤$ Ed6HeE olSplE +4.J q15 ,tl-+ HI

    'I %I"Jg zlflzl:r.91= HI+ 4jJe(:)=, ,Jd4eel ol$ffi +4,-J trll= +"J F+,gE
    (------)E
    ^l-e"
    ++. HClg z"t{oN{olE-e. Hclel olgl}E +4q1= H}¤^lg +gq e+.
    H*(aq) + Cl*(aq)
    Hct(aq) 14.21
    -
    g+g zlqzlY E|$sz| H= ae H+c+ cl- olgol +8E +ql^J HCI tszl-=
    ^Jc6I7l
    fJ6I 4A6J6l+ A.Jol $.¤=g +ElUrI.
    EdqA, ul{oNpolzl-g ql+e'I s+*+o q
    +.S Aql^J sqlEq Ctsol ,Jd61]e,
    BTll ol+6I=7F=q aqg 4o14. +d ++c olg at} +tlEe zld4dol4E I
    ¤ zl9aI4. olg aEI s+ql+E=g +++ ul#4o-e ol+qTl s+qlE(qls Eol Nacl,
    FeSOa, Al(NO3)3)ol+. "JE.ts ol¤.(NHa+)g Ee-6r-r. 9lE ol¤. aq+ e+6JE(ql=
    NHaBr, (NuJrcor)S rJdBIAol +.
    =q

    A azJ 4.2o1lHq d:dotl^l cH3oH, NaoH, cH3cooH EE a olE Eo-qotl^i d+71-rl


    =
    | ";er12

    qFjl
    F Tolgq
    4.1
    oJolEs.l
    ttrll4?! +e+ E|.qtt!+E ry41

    qg raJe MgClz, KCl, K2SO4 6 6tLle.l+t"4 SEllE LfEtL.! a0lq. oltr ,ielE+= LIEf'-.! 4oJ7l?

    Tll'J
    o o

    I
    E^l olgd Eeol +ol9l= +E.il
    o (I o
    ol-e--$$ {o}
    =4161^=
    E +tr..s^l+ rHg ^J46il 84.
    =
    4E +qd Exilql^l 44 +Hg olgE +e+ dq¤ acdl
    !-zt. -r.elr. fgq^l Eol= olg5r+q.J6ll EzI. (t
    ¤ol
    +4
    KzSorE
    q Bq.
    r?q^l Eol: azlH, oJolgol +olgtrtrl o
    EE olg^d Eeg dzll ofa| {a}z} o"J¤ Bda}4.
    > .H.= qlr{|2
    >HEqEll1 (a) NiSOa, 0) +
    Ca(NOJr, (c) NagPOr, (d) AI2(SO4)39
    r.5 mol9 HCI ++qq= q g9 olgol +"_q t}4ql^.l 47+ 67n9.J"lgg r*=48. g"l¤¤ H zll
    =461+71?
    (a) 1.0 (b) l.s (c) 2.0 (d) 2.s (e) 3.0
    "J7n

    4.2 I flt tlt


    .f.al 4.4E + 7l7l +E.J +gE Eq}g Eq f-+ oJ +Ee Eql ++ otole_tre+
    erl+'(rr)g, =q.
    += +"-qe Eql +e e& B(pb(NoJJg s+,*+. + +e ,JE Hls"g
    138 4Ar +E"loll^lslBJB

    .JE7l-?
    \,.1 Pbr2el tsEol s=E + Eo4oll= olE 01301

    Pb2+(ag)ef I
    -(aq)9
    etEolBdEJtrl. =--Joe

    r-l,il
    7

    \ -''t

    TJ Pbt2= olE¤ EE
    G 0lo+ slfl +4=
    r- I
    -, - a,\l6lr I

    Pbz*
    C I

    ¤
    tc Noa- e
    I
    D I o
    t
    e e ii !l
    e
    r
    uo= ^fl/\-lP
    2 Kl(aq) + P-b(NO3)2(a4) 2 KNO3(a4) + PbI2(s)

    afE 4.4 Ed 8J3

    r.+^49 E+C rill= "J=+. E+C ^j^dE-g ¤¤6I= HI¤¤ flE El$(precipitation
    reaction)oli+a qI4. fltlE(precipitate)3 +'l HI*4^J 4a B+^J -Lxllo]4. aH 4.4
    ql^l aaEe opl9-Ho* B(purr)oll, Eql^l +6llE7[,ll+ *e p+6JEol+.
    Pb(NO3)2(aq)-+ Pblz(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
    + ZKr(aq) t4.31

    ^JCEe et EEI+:(KNo3)ol-r.,
    ol EI+e.l +E olag +._qql ts=+.
    ed HISg ,rl_e *4 d6l-= q* ol9E9 %tol ,ll9 rJ6|4 ¤q'JrJ rll E¤:'.d9 olg
    ^d
    r4l e+*Es ¤d6IH^J "JqkI+. ol99 atlol E+^J B^"i61+zl= ql+
    617l f.l61]^l= "JHI4"J olg a6J sl6JEE +"liEc} +¤g zleg _r.El6]10} EI+.

    ol8 EEril E|EJE9 t"}lE 71il

    Ee9 E6llE(solubility)= gC+ gEql^l "JC"J -JE +rHql += EaE oJol+. qE


    Eeol 0.01 mol/L olalel $rllEE TIzlE B*C(insoluble)olep *+. ol a+q rxJl
    Lll HI4 d6I rJ olg9 .Jqg olgg E?.l6lrl= E ts^Itr+ ¤d zoe, Eeg 4+ f
    E +zl 9*r Bot 9l+.
    EqoITllE qL olg pt'] slt']$ol $afl¤zlE ql+6lrll 6l] +E, olg d6|e} ee E
    e4 Ceql zl:at +4e S,4. :44 ¤ezJ +3e olg AEI 3I+6JEE +"llE= ql+
    4.2 I Etr HJS 139

    E 4.1 E9lrl o=r$4o1 olg ?j6J El.6JEsl tqE +^l


    7tE¤ ol8 e--J EIBE qet
    =s-d
    olg s+ !l6JE No:- s4
    cH3coo- HtrI
    CI Ag+ , Hg22+, Pb'*g El*E
    Br Ag+. Hg22+, tb2+e-l o}oJE
    I_ Lg+ , Hg22+, Pb2*9 +*E
    SO,, sr2*, Ba2*, ugz2*, rb2*9 olaJE

    Et¤ 018 eg atB= ae-d qlel


    olg se-F+6JE s2- NHn*, oJg4 -r+ ololg, ca2*, sr2*, Ba2+$ a1o3g
    CO:, NHa*, .Je ++.Jolgg p+.JE
    Por3- NHn*, "JeE-l *+ oJolgE qI.JE
    OH NHo*. ++ oJolg. ca2*, sr2*. Ba2*9 pi6JE
    'Jer-l

    .J + 9i+. ql= Eq ¤Eg Edl e& $ol$(nitrate anion, Noa-)9 .Eeo.J E= 'JHI4
    oJ olS aqls+.JEeEql g+= ag "J+ 91tr1. E4.1g.JHI4fl olg A6Je+'JE9
    +6l]E zlag,q-Eql4o14. Eollr.l 0|a3gol *olsgl trl+ sEqq flzl"J, oJolgql ql
    6l]^lE gg +s+ E= grJ?-l ++ olg(+7lgeE r+)r+ olr-5 o1s-
    ^tdg +ElU+.
    (NH+*)E "JHI4{ olg Aq} +t}Ee Eql g +=El-= dql ?L-6}4.

    + Ttrte,l ?JEallE ¤EE #gE trl, aE=ol 8¤El=rl qE"-t= r,JH


    r. Hl¤_Eql olgEol ++EI+.
    =46l+zl
    2. "Jol¤.-gol¤. a,Elol zl-u"aJzl5
    ^J4'J+.
    3. s. 4.1g ols-o a[{ ol c}a}$$ol E+c "Jrl= aa6Jq.

    ql= Eq Nag(NoJrc+ NaoH +.-49 4leH ddEol rJCHEzi? tr,tg(NoJ,p} NaoH


    Jr+ olg a6J El-6JEolF_r t_+ rJd6l]doltrI. Ms(No)z@dq NaoH(aq)E 4leH
    =
    *d tvig'*, No:-, Na*, oH olgg EEL6I+ 3.9ol CC¤trt. oJolg + qL lol "l
    H ¤-o184 Hlso6}q E+C EI*ES rgEETi? E 4.1-?+El rvrg(NoJrc+ NaoHE -E.
    + Eql += ag g + gleEE Mg2*4 oH E HI* E: Nu*q Nos-9 HlsoEI zl-b
    6rtr1. E 4.ltr+El +&q¤g "JHI4es B+c.Jg "J + gl+. Ms'*E 9l9zl. olul EE
    ug(oH)zE E+¤, adEolE}. rq+ NaNogE zf$,$oln e Na*el Nor- o1g g g
    =
    "lq ts=+.
    ed H}SE +¤ "*+ HI+4g +g-r+ AEI
    Mg(NO3)2(aq) + 2NaOH(dq) Mg(OH)2(s) + 2NaNO3(aq) 14.4)
    -
    jLEJ(+E-n,|l)
    'JE
    El*^l 4.4E +EltrE, F zlzl HI*E + oJolg=ol *ol8# ^ls r+61+ ag .J +
    9l+. + Ms'*E oH-eI aq}6t.a, Na*E NO: 9+ tls Hlso6l+ ag "J + 9lEl. ^JcE
    9 q.44g olg d6lql zlaelEl. 4 tvrs'*zl6C sl6J¤E 9qE F zl]9 oH- olgol
    g-g_6E, Na*zI +^J p+6JE-tr qeiE oJ Tl]el No3- ol-a-ol ggdlEl ""=> (2.7¤). HI+^1
    e ^JCEE +E+^lg A4+ +q"J +Bg *= + 9lEl.
    140 48 +E"-4oI^19 BJ3

    ql4l 4.2
    +otlE +zl^lg
    t|= 018 Efcl=o| Eoll Tl.EdoJ^|, EEdoJ^l= E+6|.^19.
    =-J gti .J(PbSo4)
    (a) EJt! AflNazCos) (b)

    ntlS (b) s 4.19 BE 4++E +tlge Eq 7i+colzlEJ,


    841 + TIzl olg a+ ElEiEel olEr+ El44g +a, Eql pb2*E +^lBg 49014. f40e pbso4t: Eql B+
    +=4, +zl 9+=zl= E= E4lol+. ^dol4.
    4q aEE dlB¤ s 4.19 ol++4. r14 0 e 4 ElBg + > H.6qH1
    ¤-o19"il adg E gszt gl4. el+:"Itr E 4.le 9ol99l trl-*+ Eq +*c.J el*Ee {g a.Jz}?
    El4 ill4g+qfi,7l qEol+. (a) (NrDzs (b) caco: (c) NaoH

    E0l (d) Ag2Soa (e) Pb(CH3CooL


    (a) -E +.t91 E6lE, q++9 +4lgol E*'tJolzlti, "JzJ4 > .E= qF{ 2
    *4 o}o1$(c$ .l3r+ A$el *+ge .l +zlel qlel 4¤- il6JEol Ell zl-8-c qlrl, +*c qlzl= ++6}^le_.
    E Eq +e-El. f4 o e NazCO:E Eql 7F$^dol4. (a) i^JEi agE(D G) e& uhB (c) .J^I "JEts

    oJolgr+ ¤.ol8ol r+l LlEl+= +¤-e q-s .JH]^14 a+.


    ^Jn ^Jqle
    AX + BY +
    AY + BX t4.51

    {l: AgNo3(aq) + KCt(aq) ------ AgCl(s) + KNo3(44)

    olel6J HI¤¤ a* ffierrctrange reaction) E= & ES ElB(metathesis reaction)olrlz 44.


    ea HI¤e 4.34q^l El+44 g Ete t}-Hzl 6el HI¤¤aH, ol4* +¤q +6J+trI.

    SEES H.!89] AEE *+ HJE


    l. HI+EE clq^lg q¤ ol9ol aa6J+.
    ^F+6Iq
    2.^J^dEg 3r+E}^lg ++. r
    *Be + HI¤¤E =xll6l+zl
    oJolg!+ trIE HI¤¤e_] ¤.o199 ¤oJ
    ,r.lzl-ru., olg d6l-= sl.4^lel o[4 dz]E ac6l+ BHol4.
    ^l=&6}q
    ^JCEE Eq 4t +ollE= dA.J+. 4d t}Sol "Jg4zl +16ll^l= 4qE
    3. 6I+9
    CEg $$_,<J ol ol o| aJr|.
    ^J
    4. Hl+^lel +¤g "*+tr[.
    qFll 4.3
    sE. a* tttsl qB
    (a) BaClzelK2So4 Eo4E 4E ttll SdEl= AdES ql=6t/.19. (b) r US9JB "*= e[-qt pj$4E;r.119.
    nilff E0l
    E{ + 7}xl olg +¤¤ol +qAn, E+C ^JCgg q+ (a)Hl*83 Ba2*, Cl-, K*, SO*2- olgg E+,*4. *olg
    oli $z,llolr|. g i+6lE BaSOeet Kclol EJEqd4. s. 4.ls+El ql
    llEl HI-&Eql olg¤¤. ir7, + Ttzl ololgol + ++E so42- e+t+'Eg zf$'tJolzluJ, Bu',*E g+c'Jg
    =44=
    a 9l: *o139 ^JE i*i+EL "J+ ol CdEql qEI Elo+ .J + 9ttrt. ule|,rJ BaSo+= +scolEE +Eq^l ad
    g aolq. HiEq KCle TFscol+.
    49 4a, s.4.1¤. ol+6}q 4cEol Egl,rJ $&c.JzlE
    AC*+. olxll ^JCES 9a i1o Ire HI+ql ql* HI+4g o) (a)ql^l ^JcEg s+q,L^lg Basoael Kclgg .J + gl+.
    ++ el+. +¤ *= +8^le q+r+ a+.
    4.2 I AC HJ8 141

    BaCl2@fl + K2SOa(a4) .----- BaSOa(s) + 2KCl(aq) >H=qH2


    > .5e5 qlrlll (a) Fez(Soe): ++q4 LioH ++ojg 4JeE qE +tlE
    ol dd9Ez}?
    'ql' E='olr.lg.'-tr Bi6}^le.
    sa(NoJz ++Er+KoH ++sqg 49 trl] Adol 4CEzt?
    (b) ol Hl+g +E "*+ Elq HI*^lg r^^ls.

    ol+ ,J¤4lzl *zarfl ol8


    ++"-4q^JE HI+g 4etr + ql, +d +ot ?lb EeEol olg E= +z}tr
    =46I=zlE
    EBolrll +4'll= aol rq+6l.+. pb(No3)2el2 Kr ^Iolql^l "Jq+= ed HI¤¤ trl^l g
    4-e-21.

    Pb(NO3)2(44) + ZKt(aq) .+ Pblz(s) + 2KNo3(44)


    HI¤¤r+ ^JtEe.l E-= slq4g .E-q += olqt BEIq HI+^lg ErtEJ¤*t(molecular
    equation)ole}.r.'q}tr}. ell+6tE rEol g+ol.^l"J trq +r olg 5Cg 444x1 9*zl qE
    olQ. Pb(NoJz, Kr, KNo3= .E-+ Eql \i ol9 ?6J slElEoll zlx44olsE, +Eql
    .! olgog sI++Eg Ll4'I= Hi*^lg + + 9l+.
    =46]+
    Pbz+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq) + ZK+(aq) + Zr-(aq) +
    PbI2(s) + 2K+(aq) + 2NOt(44) 14.61

    -tr= 7l-&d ,Jd6lleg ol9oe. Lt4'J olqe ¤qlel HI+4g eJTlolE u.!$l(complete
    ionequation)ol4l d4.
    K*(oq)q No3-(aq)z| 4 sJ+'J+ql ,IEItsg ++61-+. $? olg qI+4E Hl+E
    4 CCEE o}+q Eg.J ¤qE +++= olgg ;rZE oE(spectator ion)ol+r d+.
    +4t olgg H}+^lql^l ^J+6lE(rEg +q!ilH 4l4g+) effi 0|E u.lgl(net ionic
    equation)ol ts=+.
    Pbz*(aq) + zr-(aq) ------- Pblz(s) 14.71

    d6I= HI+ +"ll -H-39o-e olg d6}el !+41= +B *= oJa[ ols- H]*^lE "J+ql^l
    ,Jolo},*4. ol a+ql 2+ oJd6}e+ + zlel 1- +d6l7l.6Jsll4^J 0ol qEE d7l4 s +
    +C"J rJCEol gq. SA olg Hl-S^.lq +4+ E$ oJ$o1 +r# olgol4H, HI.*ol
    $ol*xl 9*+e 9"1t4.

    n
    rF3 U8oil^l q! ?lolTeil olSoJTt?

    AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) ------- AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)

    $al ol9 H]$!e dtflArl +Ag qel HI* ^Iolel +^lCg ¤Hdl= Ell ¤;.1 ^Feot
    q. qlE 5q +.2&pb2*(a4)E sEt6I-= rld6iler+ I-(aq)E E.J6l+ rJddle
    ^l ^lolE
    ad Hig-e-l eezl.J ECg trq pb2*e1 r olgg A6J6|q pbr2 adg ¤C+
    rI. tr+4^l gx} ol9 Hi+4g aJ tt=+. = t}*Eol E"J6Ir]l .Jal tI89 gerJ + 9¤.
    olt9
    g .H-q KreI Mgrz fS99 E-+ r-= Ee'6}zl trIEql ¤4 zizl elq}4.J
    qlE Eq
    =+.
    +^I^dg ++++. "J+ +Eql pb(No3)zE.9!+6lE pbrz(s)= ^JC.Jtrl. HlEql, 94 0I
    e Ei*^le qH HI+ql^J edq= dx] HI*E# "J + 9l+.
    grt otE HJ34 sts gg
    r. EI*ql ql* #¤ "*+ Erl HI*^lg ++
    142 43 +E._4olt^lelEJS

    2.4 7l*4 rJ.dofleol ol$eE "]];lg ,ll +"] +ql d^dEl= olgg ++.lt= Hl*^l
    g +^l +trt. ++.lq +oI gE rld44"J olg $rlle *4.
    3. +4t olgg
    ^lE6Ir ^ll4oJ{.
    qFll 4.4
    gal ol* trt{.| .!7l

    gtrle+r|' EJ{t +tEol tt|| "JclLI= EE


    HJSel gnl 0l3 HJ84= lr^le.
    ^-Eel =-dE
    EllT 9? ol3 HI84e qs=r+ a+.
    E^1 +317I B "Je ad Hi+g gat ol9 qI8^1, +"qql c*+(aq) + ZCl-(aq) + ZNa+(aq) + Col-(aq) +
    =
    EI¤¤E olEg 4b 4014. CaCO3(s) + 2Na+ (aq) + 2 Cl-(aq)
    =461+
    xlel +d HI¤¤n+ ^JCEE +4^lg ,Aa, qL ^J^dEol *?t olg.J ct-e} Na+ olgg 4l46IE, q-q-r+ rJz "JaI
    ssrd.JzlE aa+q. r,H q-g- Ez}4g &r., t¤g "* olg E}+^lol Eqd+.
    +tr}. trl.gq 7l-*C ,Jd6lleg olge--E la, $? olg qI Ca2* (aq) + CO32- (aq) -+ CaCOg(s)

    +^lg +6JtrI. ulzluJe_+., +A+ olgg xllzlalq oJal ol Atr ga.e} d6}el +¤ol "*=zl= q"J+r}. oJ z1]9 cu,
    e Hl*^lg +6J+. oJ zll9 c, 7l]g o7t "J+q flr, 'JxI d6l+ 0014.
    ^,ll
    B0l gp} vJiz rJ+ o1$(ca2")rl- gEl olg(cl-)9e o19 +sl olg Hl+^lql^l qE olgE +"les+El xll4qzl 9*
    qd fl+. r4o e Ed9 ++Eg cacl2(aq)olEl. g4l 9Ia+ qB *H-o +q B6Izl ?t9t+8, E= ole+ +at
    =
    aESNa* ols-_$co3,- ol$9-tr ol+q4 914. rEloE ol$oll H]¤+ "Jq+al ?+=+.
    ol EI6JEE ++Eg Na2CO3(aq)E E^l¤+. ad HI+el
    > je= qlr1l1
    Ezt H}¤.^lqle +olgr+ oJolgol :r.+] *4e +4t+. IIl gsl HtE ++q+ 34I a5'++'lg 4lg trI qtr ¤t'-
    4.r1 Ca2*4 Cor'-E BilE caco:7l 4a, Na+el cl-E ol golr-ftzlr
    *ilE Nacrol gtri. s 4.tE +6l]E zleql q+ CaCoai (a) HISol gol*zl ?+=+, E= EtBEol +ol ?l+.
    E+doln, NacrS 7l-&col+. +B "*+ Exl HI843 tri o) e4I Ht+"J adg+.
    *r+ a+. (c) ¤5* adg+.
    CaCl2@fl + Na2CO3(a4) CaCO3(s) + 2Nacl(4q) (o a& ^E"J
    Hl¤rI gE uffiol Ef adg+.
    $? ol8 H}*^lql^l= +e -,Jdqle(ql= 7F+^J ol (e) ddol {CE{ *=+, gel Hlfi$ +zl fl:n ed-l
    =q
    g a.J EI.JE)EI olgoE t4. @q)zl F6l-Fol cacl2, -E B=tr}.
    Na2Co3, NaCrS E+ ++.-4ql +=4. al+7r f=g E+ > H* qlr.il 2
    ,Jd6ll e ol EL cacogb g ail ::lilEol xl tI E+d ol +.
    "l A4l g ++eqr} "J& e'16, ++'lg 49 q "Jq4:
    E+C ElEJEq plEi4g C+ olg-s--P r^zl *+4. trI+^J ad HI+ql 4{}.Ja} olg H}¤-^lg ^A^le.

    rJt

    l-
    4.3 l t-"J7lsl 6EI
    I
    u- {4 z}xl 4}4 EzlE +E+ "i z}c+ Eae llolq(:al 4.s), SE
    ^llE +E
    +s
    6JCBolTlE 6Iq. qlE E"l Et}(hydrochloric acid)3 +,qfl +E+ plql E*'J
    : S"J olq+ 9l4lE +s+ CEol4. t}4 EzlE E6J .JH}4.J dqleol+.
    L*
    a
    f

    fH 4.5 4*e1 a-1|e +^= 7l8oll


    t
    AtSEl= "J"J4"J t0ltl. oJEL]ole[ xIz.a¤glrl t+6.J tt(acid)* ++Eql^J olgp+6|q f + ol$(H+)g ^Jc+tr}. +
    ^H.llola 4+(EJt]+4 7[Eo1l^] a gzl+.J 4E oJd^le} el zll9 dzttr +^dslge, H*= o}^dzlolQ. :ell]s
    ^EE ^f
    EEI= "JEJSoJ ETl0lrt tl¤ zl# "JCzl f{(proton donor)4n +=E}. tll ztzl "JH}4?1t9 tsz} E¤g
    :lH4.6q1^J E+ 91trI.
    4.3 & gTlef eal BJ8 143

    ,)o
    HO
    < rg 4.6 Lll
    9.IETIEE
    71.^l .JHJ4?.!
    ^l

    tr,o oo
    CIC
    G,/\t
    (HCr)
    I tlt
    (HNOr)
    :it^l
    (H2S04)
    ot^llEtl
    (cHscooH)
    o0
    NS

    oJ^dztE E +zlql +,|]s[¤


    "Jolgol E tszI ++lql A,6JElq 9l= aaH(:B+.:(a)),
    q. ++eq tr-elel oJCzl-= slolzloe.g H+(aq)tr_.+4utrL
    trlE & Ezl¤g 6llq6lq 4E zl]f9 s" ol89
    ^JC6IzlE sl4. Hctrl HNo3= t_
    F'J ExlE 4}gs+q + ,l]E H*E ^JC6t= "JolCzh}(monoprotic acid)9 {lol4. %}
    tlel qi BZI'J + 49 H*= ^JC6I= oloj-fzft!(diprotic acid)9 qlol+. E]
    tI4 r
    +9 += oloJCzlt}9 olSil= rls-4 zJol F +41tr "Jqt+.
    ^I(HrsOn)e
    H2soa@fi H*(aq) +HSol(a4) [4.8]
    -
    HSOa-(a4) ;- H+(aq) + SOnz-(aq) 14.9)

    H2so4= rJddleolzl"J .Jil olgs+ HI¤:EI $d6rrll .Jq\++. l4o-e. +4I ++Eg
    u*(rq), HSoq (aq), soqz-(aq)A gq++g sq+'Jtl.
    o}^llEt(cH3cooH) Exl+ +c+olE|. :.H +.oglrl H*ol, o}^llE4Ig ql 7l]
    ^l;9
    e.l +4= zlzl:r- ?lzl"J, cooHTle-l H 6I+ElE"ll^J olg3l+¤+. o[,rJ]trtoil flE +r,lxl
    rll zll9 +A= +^eI AB6E1 9lq^1, c-H A6Jg Eql^l BElqrl *E+. olelal zlol
    ql q* ol+= ullg SultrgH r6aroilrJ Ee_l6J 7o14.
    \"r ,.Esl+dEE ,rlE=ll(citric acid)9 ?4^lg q3ll eq
    HO
    H
    tilC-C-OH
    lo
    lil
    HO- C_C-OH
    to
    lil
    H-C_C-OH
    I

    H
    -elE^19 nll H Tt|el H+(aq)z[ 8dE=71?
    ^E-e!olEoll=¤

    "j7l
    Ez!(base)E n* ol89 ts=, + u* olg4 Hlso6l+ Edolt| EzlE Eql +ol-+4IE
    ol$(hydroxide, oH-)$ CCoJ+. NaoH, KoH, Ca(oH)r$ rJ$ olgrd +tlrl$ol zl*
    .J+4ql ¤zlol4. olEol Eql+c-H +._4q oH- olgg'HE^l 6llq*+.
    oH- olgg E6J6rzl *3 plllEs ¤zls g + girt. ql= EH g:EqoI(NHJE "JHI
    zl.J Ezlol4. "JEqoF= E9l Ez[a[E EE+q s* o]99 pof oH- olgg 4C++
    (=e

    I t
    a.z).

    4.6 +
    <

    ^l=
    rH 4.7 #4 013 olE E E
    Bd^l+7H(t1), NHs! "Jd
    rlETH(g7l)olrl.
    NHs Exl9 "J
    +.J Erl EJBEltl. qafll NHe
    Hzo NHe oH- NH+* : s+I6Htr0lrl.
    1M 48 +Esqoll^.le]EJB

    84.2 oJHJ4oJ
    ?tIt TolTl
    7t^l
    ou Tldi
    oE, l
    l

    g4I(HCI) l+ ++ +4IE}E(LiOH, NaOH, KOH, RbOH. CsOH)


    rr_trEJ+ +^4I(HBr) +A&2+ ++ +4}clE(ca(ou)r, Sr(oH)2, sa(ou)r)
    olole_tre+ +i&(HD
    g^.4I(HClo3)
    r+g^tI(HClo4)
    e4I(HNoJ
    s*41(H2SO4)

    H2o(/)+NH3(a4) .'oH-(aq)+NHa+(a4) [4.10]

    "Js-qo1-' NH:9 qE rzotrJ NHn*el OH- olgg ^d^d6iE-e EA6}]Aolq.


    TlAF ohAl;IL 7lo17l oFo17l
    -1 E-l
    Ol-r -IU-l OE-l,

    +Eql^J Sd6l ofldlEl= rJdoilae-l &4 EzlE }t(strongacid)4 ffiz!(strongbase)4


    J. sJr+. .J+"J 6]]4Eli- Eddlee.l t4 ¤zl$ e$At(weakacid)4 ffi7|(weakbase)4]
    il+. HI*^d ol H+ (aq) tEqlI,J g=.J+H, ,J&g eI&er1 H}*Col q r+. rq+ &
    q Hl+ce u*@q) bEql E=61+ ag EEolrlL-]q solg9lE E=++. ql= Etr E
    +sfls+ +i4I(HF)g Et}(++"-qql^l "J+El ol$ifoJQ)ol4"J rlt* H}+^.iol il, +

    4+ trllEol4.
    g6l d'J + 9= "JHI4"J ,J4I4 zl9zl:- E4.2ql +Ei'Ifltr}. zJd6lleg 4+6IZl q
    ql6E gat ol9 HI¤:^lg lrTl 916ll ,J4Fl zlgzlz HIE^I Tlqbllo} 6Jtr1. ol tte +
    +e q+89 &ol of.I4E 49 9"laJ4(H2so4= a H4l oJCzltrJol Sd6l olgp+¤
    +: aql +gld-+). "JH]4eE z*Ezl:_ "JHI4"J 7l-SC ++ +4I+Eol4. zltt .Jqlzl
    .J *EzlE NH3E^J, E4 *41 HI+6Iq oH- olgg U4(HI+4 +.ro).

    A At(oH)3= e|1 z|g7l-+ E+El^l u=7l?

    qH 4.5
    tq^ll7lHlJ?

    +=e E E^1.71"8+EJ 7l^l t!(HX, Hy. HZ)el +Esq 8E|1= EE-d raJolrl. a&ll^l Etig +^jE LIEIL[|^Ig.
    ^l
    HX HY HZ

    +J J
    @ @ hl o--o,
    + J JJ\.J
    +

    Hil
    )
    d +
    J\
    Q; G J +{'
    6ll'J
    E4 4 +Eq rBq zla6lq, 7l* rl1} tlPq zl,J sFdJ &9 +^ls +g6i= E4lol+.
    4.3 I t-E7lslaElu3 145

    r{lEl :gq1.t1 dd¤ trlzl ?*= Ez}-=E t}qlzl"J += A o[.!lE4}, gil], rjEql+ +i&
    aB+ 91trI. 'J+&g+++"1 d-qlql^] EilHE +a ole qL +Eol 4zlzl *:ao a|32[!
    (u*)¤ zlz]|t-,.ll49zl ?*e 4e oJel Exl-= zlt4. "f* (a) 94& O) u +ElE++r l
    4I.J+q oflelqzl Se Y+e +9 Bzls (c) olxile41 (d) gA&4E.tr.EJe++r I
    =xH,tl+. (e) ,tJl *9 E+ E'JtJ dEdg ?*++.
    Eol +^.1= Hy>HZ>HaolQ. HyE rJ,liol4. ell+6}E
    +d6l olgEqq 9lzl qlEol4(+.-491 Hv tszlzl ssJ. > .H.* qlxll2
    tlE, tsztc+ ol$$ gaj$E ol+q{ Hxe} HZ= E&ol 1szfl$ Na+ ol$$ rozflel oH- olgg z*i:89 rJ4
    4. qzl,tlE HZzl v) a&oJEll, ol= HZT\ HX-H-r| H+ ol 6ll Bzl. ol +"-qol ql4l 4.sE Hye+ gElE+B, 7l-eo6J HI
    gg ".tol sd-6ljr. 9|-L, gz6zt 4zl uilEol4. *ol 'Jq* +ql s'Jg +'-49 +44= rBql e+
    =4ts
    >H*q|fl1 4*9 Fi.Jz[?
    ag r-"Eq 4= s6JtJ +¤:ol#
    ^Ig =Hl6I9+.

    ,"rrJEHEq EtnllEsl EloJ


    gHI4.J zjgzl(s as)E zlq6}i1, NH,z| s+¤zl"Jg ,lqtqE, E+g ++c E
    'J&r+
    eE d4e ^ll7l= qlq4eE ql+B + 9l+. +d Eeol olgcoJzl, +zlc.JzlE eE
    d+. r Eeol olgcolB r7{+^ zJ{all{olr}. "JE r Eaol tsz}colE t}.Jzl, g7l
    qlzl= a+E^lql a Hal]s aE zlzlA4 cooHTl= 7I^lH :aae &ol
    ^J46I E+(+C
    +). "JE r EAol &olH, -s.4.2E oleoo[{ z}{o]l{Qlzl, Edqe?lzlE aat+. E
    rJ4Ig rJddleolr, E&e "JdoHdol4. s+&olr
    = "1ts.tlol E 4.2ql S+H, a7(Z
    eld6]]e"J 4o14.
    rl-e-_ e_-e, r Eeol Bzl4E, E_ 4.2= ol+6lq ,JgTloJzlE aa++. NH:i ol 6lql

    E 4.3q^l Ed6Heol4r.6l.fl+. uizluJetr, ol tlql^J


    ^l A+6I= +"J.J Szl $zlE,
    g + 9l= ofqE Eldqleg 4o14.
    "lE EzlC Eeol tlol4 NH37I
    E 4.3 otg ErJ EIEE 'l Ert E[rJE_e.t t6ilE 4tq qi6J soj
    3d6llE EI6flE HlC6lltr

    0lEd nE
    Stri fl+
    Erlt! ,J&(E q.z *z) oL,{L
    ]J!
    otodTl
    fE'I zlQ e5 o1o;-5

    qHl
    F 4.6
    ,Jrdqa, .J?d6lla, Hruill! qrqlqTl

    tl.= EtrE eEot|tr, qtEofle, Hldofltre E+6[^le.


    CaClz, HNOa, C2HsOH(ollEJg), HCOOH(Et), KOH

    Ttlff Eol +19 s+oJE - cactrcl KoHTl olg A


    + slqiE, 4
    "*=tr|. s. a.rglrl E.E olg aql3rl6J
    E4 q TIzl +q}4g 4l^16}J, ol=.g 44 rlAqle, Ed .J pl.JEE 7l=ql
    6]le, Hld6]]eE ¤+{+ Exllol+. Eg rJd6llAol4il 61971 trlEql, rag ol + Tlzl 5a
    atq olag += %lBe * +.:gl ss+b-}g+. Eaol olgc
    g ++61+ BBol4. +"lzl e+t}Ee B4 aHlE.l+.
    ^ll
    .Jzl, Ezttqlzl= r EaE adg gE ql+g f il4. zll HNO39I HCOOH= 4}ol+. a4I(HNO3)3 *.4.2q1^] E
    H[e+ rJol, ?t*?]d6l]ool+. 4++q t}¤. o+4}oloe,
    2Jaqle qlE, ol 4ql^'l A+q-='li++E olg a6J El =
    ,*Ee ++r+ ul!-{$ Eq}6l.= +Hql, 4++E E l p+E} HCooH= E4}(s+d6l]A)ol4= 4."1 zl* 4¤6J ++ol
    Ee Hl++"Js-e +cg+. 4. 4"lzl Ezt pHlES c,u,ou?lrll. $r olula $zlr
    146 43 +Eo_4oil^lo_lEr8

    otr-loe tsld6lldol+. (d) et} (e) ¤B


    ^E
    +q ql+g(cru'ou)¤ oHTlE z*zl"J, *4 f11019"1 > !16 ql& 2
    oluloe Szlzl o1qst. q+gg o$g *- (z.s¤)E.,q, Eq +-* 4 p+*+g 0.1mol+r4 t rz| qfl+ft ^J4dl
    c-H A.Jg 714 +71EI.JEol4. cooHTl= gala[-a gl trzi.
    +zl pI.JEg zt4:J&(r0*)ol+r 6J+. cooHTlE 7I ca(NoJz(dt a+), c6Hr2oo(3+7
    = ^),
    zl= EzI= E&ol+. NaCHECOO(otrll e.& iE ), CH3COOH(o$I e g;
    > H.= qlr{ 1
    + olg+9 6zt9l uI4 {zl {EEi +r}+4. +
    +"-4
    +.9 Eeg Eql +f,g ql q! aol ,Jd6ileoJ7t? 9# dzl dtr trE +71 +^Jql q4 El]g6l^ls.
    (a) oJE-r-]ol (b) (c) *^J
    =+g-flr+f^4}

    g7|= alEEl.\ {tg alEEl.\ 501= 6El'JEzl'J


    =01
    trfBXl EEI^lZtrt. E'Jll EEi,(lztrt.
    = & +.-4+ Ezl 8._43 ol+ qe 5Cg ,*:rI. {Ie d",tg ,*iz 9l= HlH, g
    7l= +*g ,*:rt.. tI$ Ezle} qE *^l"E 5A gEE 49 HsI^lA+.
    olaol 4EEl^ +ol(rEJ 4.8)tr .Jeld zl^lEE gr-loltrL tI-Ezl slqlg q
    zl^J "JEJ +a4 fl+ slq AHlql aa +s.J +^llol+.
    r tl +E4 Ezl 8.-49 ^i-9.E fEl E!$(neutralization
    reaction)ol "JqU+.
    LI
    Hl*g ^JCEe t} +E E= g7l +"19 44421 *=+. q= 5E g
    :ry 4lg +4Ip+ +q4 4leE +94 ?3=cs
    e}*ol .Jq*q.
    ^E
    HCI(aq) + NaOH(aq) .----- H2O(/) + NaCI(dq) [4.11]
    af+ 4.8 alEDl al=El (t) (E7t) (E) (^=)
    =01 gTle+
    ¤ol eEql= tolLl
    ^trJLlE 43r0l E6lts gETl g qzlrJ E4 ol HI¤-el rJCEol4. E(sdt)o1e15 +qE olg Aql s+q}+g
    al^1 ?lrt *++. r gel
    ^?(Nacl)¤
    oJolgg Hzle+q(qlE NaoH-E*q I Na*;, 901¤* 4}ee9
    El(ql= EH Hcp+rl I cr-) * aol+. =E
    .JHI4es tF+ ++ +&+E
    ^IolE 6]Il
    HI
    ¤+ Er+ gg
    ^JC+EI.
    HCl, NaoH, Nacl* E+ ++CE Ad6HAolt,.+, ^l 4.1ll} g+g 9E olg HI+41
    g qs-r} e+.
    H*(aq) + Cl-(aq) + Na+(aq) + oH-(aq) +
    H2O(l) + Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) 14.121

    trl+^J 9zl ol9 HI*^le Elgr+ Aq.


    H*(aq) + oH-(aq) -+ Hzo(/) [4.13]

    ^l
    4.139 qB ,J+F+ 9B z"rgzl +E +E+ HI+g zlt4"J sE* 4o14. u"
    (oq)q oH-(aq) ole+ a.J6Iq Hzo(t)5 B^d++. =Cg
    4.ei g4}r+ Eq E+c.J Hzl.J rvre(ou)29 HI+g Bq
    =aJ =q.
    E4 +*4: Mg(oH)2(s) + 2HCt(aq) .+ MgCl2(ail + 2H2O(l) 14.14)

    "Jel
    ols Hl*41: Mg(oH)2(s) + ZH+(aq) u**(aq) + 2H2O(r) t4.1sl
    -
    oH- olg(olql= n4l HI¤¤)r+ H* ol¤+ a6J4q H2o7l g+. olEg olg iF+ tI4
    ol o e, &4 ++ +tI+E r++ HI+ol+.
    ^Iol9 +s+ HI¤+ ^Js

    -elqlE +Eg *E+b ae EE +g elE= olq+. rql+ +?]= oP.nH-4I(H[ol4EJ c), o1.r1ggr1g4](o]^sla)
    ,<l=_et(r.lE+)ae ac q o q, rE.E +_.J {*q "l+El fl+. r "ie g7l¤"J El+ *!+= +-e+.
    4.3 C-E7lel6trl BJB 147

    0l HJ8oll^i gt!tHAlE{i= Gltr 8¤E0l 84Dfl


    ^tE"=tE
    H*(aq)= Mg(oH)2(s)e.l +tal
    0l8at U8dtq H2o(/)= 8d:.Jtrt.

    I
    tqb_ \.,,,
    ;aq L-
    '8rc
    "a--
    l rH.""
    E'r
    7 ;l
    T
    I [,i!r ]', ri _
    F
    CI CI

    H+ --s o oo 0
    o I
    i.)
    J O o
    e o ¤, o o
    J ¤ o
    Mg(OH)2
    oc Mg'* 6
    H I9
    J-= oo=

    Mg(OH)2(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aql + 2}I2O(l\

    a:18 4.9 Mg(oH)r(s)et E{tel=El'UB llrLll^l0f?(milk of masnesiap +8E EE¤"J +taf 0EL1l6{lt/g(oH)z(s))ol
    +. +tJ+ ![rL1l+P E&HCt(aq)E E7f6lE EJSsl = s:*61ts +E.-4ol EJrl.
    N4g2*(aq)e[Ct-(aqE ^l^trJlNol
    =Eol =rle

    qHt
    F 4.7
    *r+ rJtoll Etltt stBJ uJ8^l A7l
    0[^llEt(CHgCOOH)r.l+tJql HIE(Ba(OH)z)fs-o-49 HJ8oll tHEl tl-B EBotl =J61.^19.
    (a) EE "*= E^l EJ3^IE i.^119.

    (b) eJ= olf fl${p u11e.


    (c) gnt o lp uJ$^lg .tr.119.

    iflu
    8414l+ ¤zl9 cl44$ zll;.lalr, ++ Hi¤¤ 9l+ +¤ Xle 4.114 *¤:
    ^l
    ¤¤!B, +E} H}g"g F Ttzl ^J
    gg =r{el ggl atg 44al7l +l"l] g
    *= +rl HI+^l, $¤ ol3 qI*^], "J,t olg Hl+4g &= CE, + H2oeI ^JC.J+.
    Exllol+. 719 ololgr+ +I9 9ol*9 4^l*+.

    E0l
    o}olg(Ba2*)+4I9 +olg(cH3coo-)
    ^Jd E3 Ezlg
    (a)
    I +aJ-tjq-. feloe. gE slo+4g Ba(CH3Coo)2ol
    +. s' 4.1q qsE, ol p+qlEg Eq^] 7l-SColE+, + cH3cooH (a4) + Ba(oH) 2@q)
    EI HI*E +¤ "*rl ?tg EzI HI+^lg -q=4-r+ ?+. _- HzO(/) + Ba(CH3COO)2(a4)
    149 43 +Eo_4oil^lstrlS

    tBS "*#zl +16ll + zll9 cHrcoo- ol


    ol qls.^lel
    gg *+61,., F zl]9 $zl{ oH- ol¤4 a6.J6t
    ql gs* + 4E H* ol39 #6Pl gdl F zll9
    =
    cH3cooH Bzl-= *+6lio} oJ+. +B "*= Ezr ++ 2 CH3COOH(aq) + Ba(OH)2@q)

    49 _e-944 94. 2HzO(t) + Ba(CH3COO)2(44)


    -
    0) Sa olp. HI+{g ¤ trll ,Jddleg q"J6Ii1, a/.=qi=
    olg9-e.84.J4. ol a+, na(oHlc+ Ba(CH3Coo)2=
    E+ +*C olg e{} F}i}Eol4, r}=},t] z}{oll{ol 2 cH3cooH (a
    il *'tu)r;::; yi'r.
    4. :elt=e 9E olg H}-i^le e---r+ 44. (aq) + 2 c'3coo- (aq)
    (c) *4t olg(Ba2+)g xllz.lo|-1., 4l+E +*61 ol{ "Jal
    olg H}+^lol B+. CH3COOH(a4) + OH-(aq) .+ HzO(/) + CH3COO-(a4)

    aE EzI Hl*4e +gs oJ+q 9l= 4+ $zl-f$ /1.$a| 4e qL A{zl?


    q Htq4 +Bol "*+qA=zlE qtg + 9l+eJ+e 44 (a) NHa+(a4) + H+(aq) -+ NHs2*(aq)
    r0zll$ 11, ozH9 o, +zl]9 C, rzll! Yazl fl4). f.;14 oilotl (b) NH3(a4) + NO3- @q) NH2 (44) + HNo3(a4)
    (c) NH2- @q) + H+(aq) -+- NH3(a4)
    tr 48zlE HI*^lg trl d4l AE.J + 9l+. HI+^l
    ^JlE.
    'J+ql= z]4 zzll4 cH3coo7l, rzH9 Ba, r Hlql +zl]9 u,
    (d) NH3(a4) + H+(aq) NHa*(a()
    -
    (e) NHa+(aq) + NO3-(a4) NHaNO3(44)
    zzl4 ozl914. HI*^le.J+E 4+ g^el +e+.Jat da} -
    zIt.gtz}.ll +el6lq, gal ol8 t}¤+l¤- aEoJ+. > .E= ql8l2
    oloJ&(H3poJr+ +4IEl sEI+.(KoH)el HI+ql q6}q,
    > H= qlr{ 1

    e4}r| sEqo} +8 "-4E q}+q q+ *9.Jrt olg Hl*


    (a) t¤ "*+ Ezt HI+{g &^ls. 0) gz+ olg Hlg"^l
    g rA^ls(oloJ&g ololCztgg 7qal+).

    ?li1l^J¤ 6'El rJt


    H*e+ HI86I{ Ex} 3r+,8¤g ^JC6l^b 4,3 on- ole-lqlE r*ol ?14. ¤edq^J g + 9l
    AE G F zlzlY 3'}s[ ol94 +4] olgoltrt. ol + z]zl olgg 4]4 H]*6]q Eq E
    =
    Ae ++ qkfl¤r+ HI+g *I ^JCgtrl.
    BxI *84: zHCt(aq) + Na2s(cq) HzS(8) + 2NaCt(aq) 14.16)
    .Jzl ol3 Hls" 4l : TH*(aq) + 32 -(aq) * HzS(8) 14.17)

    +&gr+ B4I+AeE &r+ +*6Iq Cozk)E g^J.JtrI. &rI cos2- EE HCor- ol&
    ol HI*6Itr ts+I(urcoJg
    "J=+. qE 5q g4}g *4I+^ 7}61tr 4¤. q}Sol
    ^Eql
    "Jqt+.
    HCI(aq) + NaHCO,(aq) NaCl(a4) + H2COz(aq) [4.18]
    -
    +4Ig E.JA6Iq +eq ts4lE LoETI +E6IE E6fl6}q Hzoel coz=.(8da}a, zlzll
    =!
    +EeE+q tsoizJ4.
    =
    H2CO3@fi HzO(l) + CO2(j:) [4.19]
    -
    dal HI¤+ q_q_rl zJol 3-.J¤4.

    ExIHI.*41: HCI(a{) + NaHcor(aq) NaCI(c4) + Hzo(/) + Co2(s) 14.2o)

    9z[ olS H]¤- l: -


    H+@fl + HCo3 (aq) H2o(/) + Co2(g) 14.ztl
    -
    4.4 lti+-sE HJ8 149

    4ltx{
    +r-lE +l1te g4EE i!|E Ezl 96ll &g $ulaJr]. ol %r-Hg (1) r++ ?l4l 4lA, Q) +l4I EHI a^ Eol+. r+4
    &3 +.-q 14ElB H* 0.1 molg .traJa13 gtlol4. 9^J4 +lt}¤ xllzlalE Eeg 4l&41(antiacid)+-r, ap, {!.$ul
    7l+e dEql 96il +1419 +^l Er+tr+El _EgB+. ai^l7l= Eeg 41 94141(acid inhibitor)4.a ,*4. r
    ^cl
    rfl+ dEql +Bol ^J4 4zlol +49 BeE n$g LA =
    H +.r09 gHl4.J Bq
    zll4}zllE zll+Ixllb +l4lg +
    trI. +ll.Jol4a E4* ol 783 lE+zj9 d"_tol E6LA+ s+^l7l= +4IcI olg, *4I olg, =+.
    +&+a olg # -5L6J6I
    9419 +trI BHltr ^JrJ+. rEq +l"JE +g fl.Jol ¤4 gTlol+. E 4.4q1 xll4Fllel gt ctsol +gqq fl+.
    ulEol4 =
    Thgamet'r] Zantc" 7JZ rlleg a;go3'41= +l4I 94llloltrI.
    ^ll+ Ag
    u}Qs{(Helicobacter pylori)=.li
    =ulfl
    g+71 914. ro-zozo9 ulaoJol ¤c +"J TlloJel rF olEg +l dEE fltl
    ^33
    .r1l=91 ¤6Jg ae +j
    = Er glErll, =r+. "le+
    g "*e A+ zJs.-e 941o1 Solszl qlEql i & 9z{z]i 4%}d HolE +Eg + 91tr}.
    ffi jolr-1+AHg aE++. fl& r+r|= fledF= F zltl +d g+E4l: 4.es

    84.4 oJHJ4oJ rilt{t


    /\tEo{ *
    ==txll
    I Alka-Seltzer@ NaHCO3

    r
    1.@ Amphojel@

    Di-Gel@
    A1(OH):
    Mg(oH)2, CaCo3

    ffir
    Alka- trfrql^lof+ Mg(OH)2
    'Seltter
    Maalox@ ug(on)r, Al(oH)3

    W Mylanta@

    Rolaids@
    Mg(oH)r, Al(oH)3
    Mg(oH)2, caco3

    arH 4.10 rlltrll 0l 9d 6af^ll0lti


    Tirms@ CaCO3
    ^llEE3

    4Ig +9tg ull +slxlls ^l-$-$trI. +4}+^golLt +41gg


    NaHCoa(s)e| NazCor(s)t:
    cozk) 4+ol H¤ v\llz) f;zlx]+. EjltrllE et}+i iEg tsllBg AA^l7l= zll,ilxll_+
    old a+ HCo3-: +lt}4 EI+6lq co2k)= g^Jqlq.
    ^Fso6J4.

    ol Boil^1 ot,t Eq tr qlEE ++:tsteEr{ Na2so3(s)71HCt(aq)et uB6lE qE 7li1l7t


    A
    SdErl= ql*6l.^le-
    I

    4.4 I tl'El - trJeJ ,Jt


    ed *+ql^lL oJolgr+ *olgol 6J34^J E+C olg A,* cIaJEg ^JC6J+. 6e+ HI
    *q^J= u* ol94 oH- olgol 6JE7i^l HzoE ^JC.J+. HI+E ^ll Hall fr¤9 I
    El6tE, 6[+E H]+Eql^l 4E ei*ge 4zlzl ol5g+. olBl+ H]¤¤ tEt-E]fl HJB
    (oxidation-reduction reaction, E|' redox reaction)ol=|J. +r+. ol tlql^J= HI¤¤ + 6I
    4zI Sa ^JEilg ++"J +lp}-:fl¤ HI+g +s 4E+. tls+-+lg Hls"g d61] g+ E=
    + +9lql^J "Jq+E ¤tr-g sE}6lq "te ^JEEizl, zleq}4 Hel4ag ol61]q+ ql g
    fzlol4. /r}+-F+g ++e EdJ AAzlLt ¤E Azl Ag qlqzl Sd zl¤9 zlzzlY]4
    (zo^J).
    150 43 +Eo_4oil^lelrtS

    !' r

    @S.Borisov/Shutterst0ck (b) @lhor Hvozdetskyi/Shutterstock (c) @Perry Conetl/Shutterstock


    (a)
    afB 4.11 E galT.!+ lel 8d= (a) +al7[dafE +^4 +al=, (b)EE ts^]oe 8dE tr *. (c)P9 ?^lo+ SdElnJ'l= gA eE
    ,\Hol q -t

    tEl.el EJfl
    ,|+ ++9 P4(corrosion)olQ@al 4.11). +r] xl*ol4 F^J
    gH]4"J 4}e+-+tg EI¤+
    I sEql ^JCq: +4+ile, ++ sE9lr} Prlol ++El= A+E 9lEl. += a+=,
    ¤ol p4qE 14 rJol Palol #4 4+zlzl dqslq ++e_l ztuzl E6Ia+.
    P4ol* qE +a.il^J -o4r} += EA ,JE HI+ql 96ll ++ol ++ e+6JE.g E+6I
    aol+. ++ol +4g tril 4 ++ flzlE dzl-= ga oJolgg ^Jc6tr, +olg4 aq+
    =
    ot¤ ol8 a6J El6J+g 4C++. zl+E q{t}E +4 c.l,*e} +&s} olg "l tst}
    =e
    ol$ol {afS 4oll. egl + F"'*e}+}:4 ol3 "t +4}E} olgol A.Jg aolE, gel +
    g Ag*eI *pI ol9ol A.Jg 4.o14.
    flz[, ol8, +471trl "Jd6l-= trlEG dzl¤ gs$, :17{+ t]e+q*.+a 6J+. +
    =
    Eeql 96I dzl¤ 9;= aol tE[(oxidatio")o14. 4]44= +q= ol +Bq a H4l H]+
    ol &^eI Hlg"ql aol tr+qflrl qlEql Eg aolq. Bg -.+g +71 +ql^J oz4 zld
    Hlgod-[q ++,t]++g "J=+. ol E]+ql^l ++e.i]iql d4-= sqBl47, ++ olg4
    &E[ ol99 olg a6J s['J+S ^Jd'J+. Ao] +4* 4Ce Eol *q^l e +
    ol r+aq^J =4]6[=
    olgg
    44 &eE El*ol+. ae 4i4qq(dzl¤ $-ir.) Fe3* ^Jc+tr}.
    e4 4iAE HI¤+ Hljl4 -fl {l$olzluJ, "JrJ4 ++ol+ "Jar-l E;-+g +71 +ql
    oll+ uulell Hlso++. r.A 4.12: *9ol 9= 4a4E ,J+ ++ EHol Hl*q^l
    ^lE ^J

    ola|1e.l HJ30l TltsElE EE 44e_lt! Bx|.= E Tlleld^1"= e=7?


    Ca(s)ts tElE oz(s)ts Et?E ca2+9+ 02- olEol
    (E^1"= ggJ (d^l-= E3) 3"JalG Cao(s)= 8d:Et

    ffi o
    c
    '.t-f
    ,-')
    ii:EI
    -u- r.

    Btqg
    loe
    ,\H .{s

    2 Ca(s) + Ozk) 2 CaO(s)

    arH 4.'t2 {}A E^toil 9-J 41+


    =6 =+9
    4.4 aJsl-EJB BJB 151

    C¤ cuo-+ B^49 ag trq


    =+.
    2Ca(s) + o2j3) 2Cao(s1 l+.221

    caE Ca2*E&p+qr, +ce_l


    -
    orE02- ole-_9_tr Hl-flr+.
    4+.zze4?Jol,4^l7l caoll,r.1
    o2E ol=r6t=&slz} "Jq+ Caozl ^J¤fltrI. SxL ol9, tszl-5ol trJ Bg*d6l¤ IqH
    G dzl-= geE), aag +gqfl+r.J+. Eeol d4-= g= aol Elfl(reduction)
    ol+. Hl¤¤ol dzl-E goE(4IElqH), +E HI+ES= dzFE eqot ++. '* Eeg
    &cl+ .*{l +E EeE +gg +HI6JtrI. r4^J 4 s.zze+ Aol, =
    E4* 02- olgs te
    s ++994.
    tEl+
    &e+-+]fl HI+g oJolBTl dql, Eeol dzl-= EeE +tgqr dzl¤ seH &e+g4E
    Tl]Hg ABqloi d.+. &q+(4IEl ,*)= olEl6J ,ll';g EqlE
    ^J4(o*idation state)r-|.r.E
    ll.Jqflq. +^"i E.e E= ol-a- LIe_l 4 gz}= 5e.J gsl+(oxidation number)= ,*=
    4. EflzI ol$$ $alf-| d6te+ e+. +d +zIeI4flzt olgql^l {tr flzl9 &q+
    Y 7l*4 {a}(hypothetical charge)o]4. ol d6}= tszl.4 ol39 flz}E ^l.olql dz}9 .J
    +14.J tsBe a4gq. &e++E +q6I= *He +g +4g
    ^Fa"e+.
    l. g4 Bqe.l flx}.ll q6J &El++ *rJ ool4. trIq-^l H, EzI9 4 H g4+ 09 t}e+
    +* r*a, pn EzI9 p flztE Oel tlg}+s ?*+Ll.
    z. tflzt olge_l &fl4- olg d6rer a+. u++^.i K*E +lg &el+E 7*-r., s2-=
    -2el &sl+= r*=El. olg a6J sl-'JEql^l ga?l ;.+ olg(l+)e.J/J. 1+el d6I
    5 zlzlsg 'JAr,l ++g 6J^J s+E+Eq1,t1 +t9 &El+e ,*+Ll. u[{z}zle, ol$
    A6J slElEq^J "JAq E++(2+)g a;g +29, o3+ul!{r:aJg 6J^J +3el 4}sl
    +E ,*=rl.(&sl+E ¤ q]= dxll d6le+ +ts6}71 +16ll +xI sql +E= ++).
    3. ul!-gg 7l# oJd6l¤ ulzls 6Izl"J, .JEI4 o.e.= +9 &sl+E r*E+.
    (a) &49 &1445 9HI4oe olg A* +BEr+ +zI +BEq^J -2ol+. +s+
    qlgl= 44IE+Eol+ll ali Fl6J$ol+. 4^Isl¤g oz2- olgg TIzl=Ell, oltrll
    4 &+q 4Is|+= -lolEl.
    o) +rel {}al+g tsl++r+ aElg 4t +rolz, ++r+ a.JB q(qlE EH +a
    + 4E NaH4 Ae ++ faflg)5 - lol+.
    (c) g+eflel 4iq+L g= +ElEq^] -rol+. += gEdg.ll++ ol^Jts s|6J
    Eql^l - lel &3rl+= ,*=+. r4+ tA& ¤-olg(oxTanion)4 zJol &ip* ?tJ
    "Jq 4Is]. ^JEllE r*=+.
    .J trl]=
    4. *)d Exlql^l E= gxlE 4}q+q rJ* ool4. 4szt olgg Be olgel
    d6}e+ 44. ql= rEq ^Iq+el+roll, &i
    610lEEt olg(u:o")91^l 4 +Ael alE|+'
    E 4}ql+= -2ol+. Irl+^] &El+q *g:(+r)+(-z):a1oll, r olgE "Jzt d
    6IeI e+. ol +4g q1z1 a.agl,tl ¤B* a4e, plqlE + += gzrel .i1ffi5 or
    n ?lg ul qI9zI9 &p++ 44Iq ,H+ f-s"61+.

    H
    t[Esl 4 el--Er=oll^i E4 fl^le]ta1a5 grloJTl?
    (a) tr^+ gr+rlts(AlN)(b) Eu(HNo3)
    152 43 +8o-4oll^lsl tjJS

    qH 4.8
    7f /i!El+,Jt6t7l

    tlB 4 a[-JEoll^] gq tat+E +6t^le.


    (a)HzS (b) Sa (c)SCl2 (d) NazSOs (e) SO+2-

    6fl.J ,*=+. &t= es -2e_l tlcl+= ,*=+. s9 +s++


    ,84 + 7l]9 tszt E+qiE, oJ zl]9 gi ¤Ell, + 7l]E olgg 5x4alB, z(+r)+x+:(-2):oo1r1. fqo+ ol s+q+
    s.J* Eaql^l +9 alapg aa6l= E7llol4. E(NazSo:)+ 4}gl+= +4o1tr|.
    Se-l

    4ta,: EAq^] E= gzlE 4IEl+9 Be Eeq d6te} (e)09 &0143 -2oltrt. &El+el oJg -2(So4z- olgg
    ga} d6Dol+. trI4^] x+a(-z):-2ol+. ol +41tr+
    eolot'*4. s.ql ¤E¤ 4Ie++ ,ic +zlg tr7t.
    ^1.¤-6H rl ol ol9 * s9 te6= +60l+I AEg Lllfl+.
    E0l
    (a) ul#44 aq+¤ ql, fdE +lE 4i++= ,*E4. Hzs +sl ol qlEe g^9 tq4rl sI*gE ++q q+ +-Bg
    trq ol qlEq^l E aaH, +E tlEl+: -zoll,rl +0
    +4+ +Colstr &r14E QIg oololot {}4. sel &s+ =4.
    iE x4.l. alH, z(+t)+x:0o14. 61-4,{ SE -2E + I H?lE,*=+.
    el+= 7*L+. > s[= qlfl 1

    (b) ssg Sa ¤4o1,-e sel $iff= 6o111.


    *9 &iE lq+z| -loJ El.JEg qL a?_l7|?
    (c) SCIzEolC+ e+BEolE'e gi= -lE 4Iq-+E r*-L (a) Oz 0) HzO (c) H2SO4 (d) HzOz (e) KCH3COO

    ag-e q^J94. &El+E aJ.$ sololo! +4. sE &pl+ > lr= qlr{I2
    E x4 rlg, x+2(_1)=sol+. ar+4es sg 4Iq+: q-gE #e gag ,t}EI tlEll: F*qlzt?
    +z{o} 64. =zI
    (a) PzOs G) NaH (c) CrzOz2- (d) SnBra (e) BaOz
    (d) rE+ "JrJr.l ++eE, i+6JEql^] 6Jt +1e.1 &EI+¤

    thrll E6J ++el ttslcl oJ


    -,,4rl {} E= ++ g ^lolel HI+e ag "JHI4ql +Bg tr|=+.
    q-q- rI
    A+BX+AX+B 14.231

    {J: Zn(s) + ZHW(aq) + ZnBrz(aq) + HzG)


    Mn(s) + Pb(NO3)2(44) --------+ Mn(NO)z@d + Pb(s)

    olE HIgg +eq ul olgol gAE tI+= E6lq il+EEE itE El8(displacement
    reaction)olrP {Q.
    94 zlzl ++e t4
    zl+l HI+g "Js4^J gn+ +^ 7l4lE
    ^JC*+.
    qE
    =q
    E}:
    ql+ ++e g4I+ HI¤-6iq ge+ zl4lE.ucoJ4(=a a.13).
    "tf_ql+4 i^
    Mg(s) + zHCl(aq) --------> MsClz@fi + H2(g)
    tt11+1 -1
    4Is++ 0 +2 -1 0 14.24)

    n|:zujlf,g 4!014u soll,q +2e. H+tr}. &E++ +7ly ?lzltl dzl-= gr +Ie+q= ag
    +ElUtrI. &E H* olgg +lql^J oee +Iqlzlzla:FJ4. ol ol99 dzl¤ Eq +lgg
    4= ag +4u+. cr- olee EI* d+ql^J -rg &E++= +zl6}Eq, aaz 4}slE
    qzl ?+r, *|flE' 9zl 9*E ag +4u+. dxlle cr- olgg +4,t ol$eg, "Jx[ ol8
    HI*^lq^l= 4qgq.
    Mg(s) + ZH+(aq) u**(aq) + Hz(c) l4.2sl
    zlzl gE ++"4q1^J -
    {Icl+l + riq. ql= 5q ?4 ts(r")9 Ni(No),(aq)
    ++e 94
    4.4 llttrl-Efl EJS 153

    t rf:lHla 1 morE HCrEe4ollts7l"6l-E H Esl+a 7li1l7l-uJ86l"E7t?

    ?
    .ti'
    {
    H+(aq)=
    r/IlTLE
    aflE
    oi-g\

    Ms(s)E ttEtE
    (d^t= "Jg)
    q
    l-n h.I L20 lF-20

    ) F
    9^g
    ,e o
    !ut
    o
    o ,O,
    e ,oo H2 oo o
    .rO o ., OU
    o oo
    o
    C1

    ,^fl l9

    2ECl(aq) + Mg(s) H2(g) + MgCl2(d,ql


    t}s++ +1 -1 0 0 +2 -1
    arH 4.13 0lrljl+ gttel UB E6|l rulell |ltrlEln, Hlg)el rusct2(aq)7l8dErl
    =4-rt =+e ^toll

    e+ ag Nir. i I eqql s.lafl re2+-tr &s+¤+.


    +xI HI+^l: Fe(s) + Ni(No:)z@il ------ Fe(NO3)2(4{) + Ni(s) 14.26)

    9zl ol9 Hl+^l: Fe(s) + Ni2+(aq) Fez*(aq) + Ni(s) t4.z7l


    -
    ol H}+ql^l Fet:Fe2*E^Iclqq, Ni2*=Nitr-{}$gq-. +Eeol 4}El+l q, +=Ee
    ol ffir.lolot +q+ 49 zl9r[4.

    qH 4.e
    F {]rEFffl EJtel HJ¤4{ t 7l I

    g+Eltsol ueoJel+4 lrl.HJ8g n|], EE "l= Erl.HJS^.14 gnl olE u3^.|= 4 le.

    GHB EI=a, 'r+"J4+AtlE +.olggBr-o14. tr]-4^-l ol5^I


    E4 ++r+ 4IE 4I+-+g Hl*ql^l +zt Hl-&^lr+ 9;t ol olq^l gg AlBr3ol+. +¤¤rI r^a, f+
    ^8Cg ^JCES
    e Hi+4g 4= EalolEl. * Ezl Hl+^19 +¤g "*+4.
    Ilel ++g 4Ir+ EI86Iq ¤rl Hz ,l4lE ^JC++. +¤ "* 2Al(s) + 6Hh(aq) + 2 AlBrz(aq) + 3H2$)
    + EI*49 AqE F HI*EE Elo+^lg iri1, gg +44 HBrrl AlBr3= E+ Eql e +: rJd6ilAol+. ul4^J Sa
    g AC6J+. ge ++q *olgr+ &9 golge_-e ol+q4 olg Hi84g ++4 a+.
    91tr}. 2Al(s) + 6H+(aq) + 6k-(aq) +
    Eol +qd HI¤¤g A1$ Hnro1rl. 9FultsS Al3* olgg ZAl3+(aq) + 6h (aq) + 3H2(j:)
    154 43 +3o_4oll^lo_l Er8

    Br-E *ct ols-olps, gxi ol9 HI+4g rl+r+ ,J4. o) olge +l-gqa, +4 olge &p+g+.
    2Al(s) + 6H+(aq) 2 Al3n(aq) + 3H2(g) (c) EE HI¤¤4,'JtEol Eql g +E ,Jd6llaol+.
    - oql^l +3o e (d) *41+4ql^J +4 oleE {ifl-fg so1ci.
    +9 g+ul-E' ++g &El+z| +7I6FrE +
    (e) *9 ¤Hol 6[+ olt]o14.
    s]9b EEol4. u*E +lql^] eog {s}o}zl trIEql +g
    gEI. >H=qF{2
    > HE fflr{ 1
    (a) trtrql+r+ *ti
    age(tDE HI+q 46J +B "*+ +
    olg4 +& +4E HI*q 4'J trl¤- ¤H + *e ae?
    zt Hl*^lrl $z]. ols- HI+4g;r.rle. (b) ol Hl+ql^l +
    (a) oI¤3 +r+qn. +4 ol8e ¤¤94. Eol 4}plqn. +Eol +|gqE7I?

    E=|'EE
    ^1"J
    qH ++ol +Iql Eql 4}sl¤ a"Jzl, otrlH +E ++E gql e-l6ll +IE|¤ aqlzlE q=
    6J i glgzl? olfl e+g elqr-4"tr +dg g"J olq+ ¤?zloe+ +s6i+.
    'iltr-"J
    q=Eq 4 q.ze4l E6IE, e4I qA +Ee e-a-+olFtr, A& qe +Eg E *zl9l
    *aJ 9o14. ++ol trllts q7l zlzl e+6JEol BCg+. 4
    ^lt}6l+ ag,BB6Izl q4+ ?* +aEol +^lg + 9i+.
    E+ &I+rl gq+E, ++41 zlzll ffio1 r'1}^lslg
    zJzl rJe ++e 4ls+6r= as_zl E+ rts+. ql= EH zne c*+ ++qq e-ldll &sl
    !zl"J, AgE:zBzl ?*4.:flge zneAsE+q drll dzl¤gq{flq. !zn*As
    H+ drtl tlslgtrl.

    x.4.5 +¤-o{q^1 ;+el gtE" ^1oJ

    -,l.
    E- ugl UB
    4E(lithium) Li(s)+Li*(aq)+e-
    gE-fA(potassium) K(s)-K*(aq)+e
    HIE(barium) Ba(s)-Baz*1aq)+2e-
    *f(calcium) Cals) Caz'laq) t 2e
    iE(sodium) -
    Na(s) +Na+(44) +e
    u[:uJlf,(magnesium) Mg(s) }|ilg2 laq) + 2e
    ojfuli.(aluminum) Al(s)-- Al3+(aq)+3e
    ulzft-] z(manganese) Mn(s)
    olS(zinc) -Mnz'(aq)+2e-
    Zn(s)-Zn2n(aq)+2e-
    ?E-$(chromium) Cr(s) $
    ¤(rron,
    -Cr3*(aq)+3e
    Fe(s)-Fez'(aq)+2e-
    El
    e.l
    -Q.
    ?9E(cobalt) Co(s) Co2t (aq) + 2e ol
    Ni(s) -
    AI
    ul?(nickel) Ni2'(aq) + 2s
    f4(tin) -
    Sn(s)-Sn2*(aq)+2e
    5
    7l

    B(lead) Pb(s)-Pb2"(aq)+2e'
    ']..1:, Itr.tlrrig. n IIr.ir '2llL,t,7 lt'
    74(copper) Cu(s) C!2t(aq) + Ze

    9(silver)
    -
    Ag(s)-Ag*(aq)+e
    fg(mercury) Hg(/) Hgz" (aq) + 2e-
    E4*(platinum) -
    Pt(s)-Ptz*(aq)+2e
    fGold) Au(s)+Au3*(a4)+3e-
    4.4 I Lftrl-eJg HJB 155

    ts} $-olCol A^61= +^lql q+ L+g6J ++el Es(E 4.5)E EEE rlE(activity
    series)olep EI+. ql= Es9 9lql 9lb ++('J+4 ++4 "J+4 tr++)e ,]]+
    d4l &elqq. q19
    =q
    uuleztlEI¤-6Iol r# 9C ?4(active metat)ol
    ^Jd.Jr+.
    zljl 6Jrl. ++EE ol4+ql +l^lEI *4(e-rr+ dol fli)$,]]+ .JA5Ij1, d4l
    ^lgE
    s+*+g "J5zl *=+. Fd+ tr49 "JE trll
    ^I-SEIE
    ++E=g *e Hi*C ql+ql fl+
    41 6JrI.
    4(noble metal) ol

    gFE ++E 94 4I ^lolq +¤.ol "JqB 4"JzlE ql=6J 4l rl-e" 6J


    ^lgg ++ol+
    + 9lr}. ++q 9E qB ++oF= r ++ o}4"il +14+ g^E olgq E6I &El+l + 9l
    q. qlE^l +E= ol e+lql 9l+. ,++^l +++p]=3 olg9l E6ll 4}slgrl
    ^Jgql^J
    Cu(s) + 2Ag+(aq) Clz*(aq) + 2Ag(s) l4.2Sl

    +4q +4 olge_-+gl 4IsI +¤+ 3 olgol -


    #4 gg-e +lgE]= HI¤¤ feI.J4. uH
    4.14q1 q= a7lH. ++ gol +r]= sBql +H6Izl !-oJ+. f.EJ 4.14e1 s# rBql^J
    tsE6l g + 9l*ol, ¤& +r.l(ID7l8"-4ql^l +=49 gtrl.

    P
    (a) 3+ 01fl 4401 flts Nict2 +¤io4g E7l.6lE HJ30l gqgzl?
    =q ^l:drJql
    (b) zn(Nos)z(aa)0ll Nicl2(aq)= E7l6lE Hj30l "Jol'Jzt?

    0lEEg efl ffilqoe S6fb7l?

    .:sj

    .*
    ,*s
    ,*.*
    Cu(s)E tla|gJ
    As*(ag)=
    (Erl.= g3)
    EJE=J
    ry---*
    (d^l-= ?J9

    {
    ?l NOe- Cu2*

    Ag* Nos-

    Htgg
    !oe lH,\is
    oo=

    2 AgNO3(a4) + Cu(s) Cu(NO3)2(aql + 2 Ag(sl

    afg 4.14 +alel-= 0l8e] HJ8 +al


    =+E
    Et 3 +to-40il -JrE taFEtfl HJ30l oJollf^l
    =+
    3rl+E^qe.l Et +al(r) 8"-401
    ,\l],\l
    oot"t. Elr I =+
    156 46f +E"-40il^1el rl3

    gEE +^trr+ +lq flE ++E"J 4lr+ HI+4q HzE ^Jt5J4. qE EH r.li
    ^Jgql^l
    E HCI(aq;el Hlso 6tq ur5 ^JCd4.
    Ni(s) + ZHCl(aq) -+ NiClz(ad + HzG) 14.291
    ol4 9l= g^59 H*q el6ll tlslslzl 9*zl 4lE9l CuE
    BEoE
    ^Jgq^J +iBEl
    HCI(aq)p] HI+6Izl ?*=El. SolEzlls:1H 1.llzlH +;.1= e&4 HlgodJ4. rBlq ol
    HI¤+ s* olggl 9t &Elzt otq+. 4{ql, ++ol ¤& olsoll 9611 cu2*-E &+qr,
    a4E ol&+ e4(Nor(s))= ^JC'J+.
    Cu(s) + 4HNO3(a4) .+ Cu(NoE)z@il + zHzo(t) + 2No2(5) [4.30]
    ol H}¤:ql^1ts +471&+B trll No3-(e49 &q4r* +s)zlNoz(dael {ffi2} ++)
    E ¤lggE+. *se 2Otlql^l olElal EEile-l Hl¤¤ ¤qE 4.o14.

    qFil 4.10
    {]cf-Sfl tt8ot oJqLl'.:.xl rJ{6Pl

    EEI-tr(il)+8.-401 rlrLlli¤ tJal^lz zloltlJ oJqr r=:rfE, r u8elilE "t= u8^.l= l


    =+ =xl.HJ8^.lzl.grl018 ^19.

    cli.J qle ¤ + 9lEI. cl-= ol HI+q^l +A+ olgol4. ga} ol

    E+{ + 7l7l E:4, + gql pech i&94 #4 tvtgE ia, e HI+4e El^.q=4 A+.
    f=ol ^lE eI*B x.Jzi= E= E4lol+. Mg(s) + Fez+ (aq) M82*(aq) + re(s)
    4tq s 4.sql^l #49 fln BEIfl H}¤¤(rurg)ol &Elg ¤ olg H}+^lql^l -
    oJaI -H.= Ete+ aol, ol HI+q^l MgE &
    qE'=.+oJ HI+E(Fe2*) +lql flsH HI¤+ "Jqt+. HI* s+qr., F"'*E +I+!¤+.
    ol "Jq+E FeCIzg Fe2* ol39 FeE *]fl¤ 4o1L, rvrgE
    etr .Jxt olg *+^lg d6}e+ e"*9 +dq^l +Bg "*+
    Mg2+ ol$9-E 4IplStrI.
    al gq= eql ++6I+.
    Eol sql^1 MsTlFe-E-+9191 91",+ ei*ol 99t4. ol
    > .H.= qF{ 1
    gE AelB "JqI4t olgE d6I
    HI-3.q^l ^JcB E+E|4g
    4* + q- ++ol 7l* dAl4l+q=7t?
    7lq6ilot +4. E}fLII++ E+{}E +ql^l o}^} Mf*s (a) ? (b) EE (c) ts (d) iE (e) "JF"IE
    =
    xlla|-I., gpl olgg cl-o14. ol q}¤.q^l =
    ^Jcg El-rLll+g > E6qH2
    3 ugctroll, +B *= HI*!g q-q=r+ 44.
    +Sql e4+ ++ + Pb(No3)2ql 96I &+q= ae?
    Mg(s) + FeCl2@q) MgCl2(a4) + Fe(s)
    Zn, Cu, Fe
    -
    FeClzel MgClrE E.+ Eql e += zj{allpola, olg9l B

    r4aj tft -E{nl7l

    ol +q= E*e ++ HI+ol ElqI Hl+olgqB ql . q}*Eol F{.Jzf?


    9E "Jol 994EzIq1 ql6J^7l]¤+.
    sUg E= aol dzl t*4. ol . q}*Eol A4a.J7I. Eld6lle"JTt?
    4E +zj + + zlzl= qel$ol HI+g Ar+= ql+61-= Ell . q}*Eol +I.JzL q71"J7l?
    E+3 += 4o14. 'p+q}4 4+',& e7l +16fl^J= +El HI+ . uJ*Eol d4e.J EL *n E+| HI+ol
    "Jq+^l adE,
    u g 55al-b aol g+4ol+. E E= TlillTt ^JCq=71?
    449 Hl¤¤ zHE4 "E 7lE6]+ 43 q¤ oJol4. ta .
    ^JE
    i+ HISol gqg + fl+E q}¤¤ol &+-+++l HI
    r++ HI+ E= .tlg}-¤+g EI*4 zJol, HI+g .JH]4e H f
    *ql +qE 9lEzI? olag &3rl+l +E iln, ¤lgg
    +E AA6Iq qlHg ql^l6l.= aol Etrl 4 s44ol4. rl. +E 9l= HI-3-ES E-+ g a + 6J+.
    +^l piq Hl+g e+= ql=6}71 +lou ^^E +sE a+g ola e+g g- ql+g +
    6il tr4.
    6ll Hts HI* +q "Jq+=
    ll9 4o14. a46}rll ^J4611 trE .*tI -gg ae olqtrlE
    4.5 g"-4el5E 157

    E "*ol 54zlE ?+g a.lq. ?Eol xl-+ *olE 4zl 69 e ElqLH}+ql^l .Jg4zl EI+ql, rfl
    HISEE 5Ag oI
    AIi+ +'-q +E Er+ 94, +B6lzl t*i tI*Er ^J4g ae'J4lol ¤+6J EI4xlzI gzl ?l.J a +lql 9l+= a
    + 9l+. *Cz[ olf(4l-Hzl)4 dzl olf(4]p]-++$e B =
    I9oltJ4.

    4.5 I e" o4sl Eo


    E
    g4=J9 +rl] E= +Eql +g +eE '&g +48 4l EoE(concentration)4E
    r+qlzl-E=g
    +qE ^Fa-.oJtrl. qB .J{"Jg +,liql +g +eE oJol u*g+a +"-49 EoE* rl 416I
    rl. p+olq^l: +EE +EE A%IzlsE zI+ ++++.
    EtLE
    =o4
    +eqq EtsE(molarity, M)= *9(soln) 1 Lql +r= +eE g+E CE.Jtl.

    =o
    !_ +33 Ef
    +-Ftr:
    +"_IE +ul(L)
    L+.:rl

    1.009 +E(1.00 M)g +q l4El.ll 1.00 mol9 +eg g.EI*+. ral 4.1s= 1.00 M
    cuso+ 89 o.zso LE trJE= %lHg trq +EE +bE= (o.zso mol cuSo+)/
    =+.
    (0. zso r +E) : 1. 00 Mol 4. 89 (solution)9 *"1E.'soln'9 6J4.
    ^l-s"

    CuSOa 39.9 g CuSor(EE)S zso ml


    (0.250 mol)E {!c[, +El Ez E.-49 +tr171 Eaf^=
    43 =al^=011 E9 EEdzlxl q++
    "Jel f;$ 7t6H oo LILFI
    gE6l+gtrt. =a =ELt.

    t
    5# I
    I
    ,tT
    t.i
    t t

    A.Lg 4.15 1.oo Al CUSOa ts4 o.zso L= trJ-E= 7l.8

    t/7 qHl 4.11


    E8E 4ltr.6Pl
    EJtAHNazSO )23.4 sESE-dEq +q Eo-{ rZS mLE trJEflcl-.0lEqE E-r-E= Zllbi,\l.g..

    EtlT
    EAI +eE z$iQz.+ e)e} s+4^l(Na2Soa), +EE +q fllsl
    ^l
    t.tr* ol+6iq E.tsE= +.J+. +aE r"d+E
    (tzs mr)E +4, +.-qq EEoEE foli -$xllolr|. E+E EI+r., +.-qE PulE mrq1.<] Ls El-E+.
    158 48 +Eqqt^1g BJS

    E0l
    NaSor9 E+= 5a+g ol+6}q +++ Na2Soael ¤+ : (23.4gxa2sofl(#ffi) : o.rur morNa2soa

    +.49 +!l= ?lqe H+6J+. +Ee 4q+: r'x*o(ffi) : o,xt


    u+4^l E+E= trls=4 a+ 0.165 mol Na,SO, mol Na,SO,
    :1.32M
    5s"E: 1.32 L
    +o_4-
    'tr5l-Etq-:
    ,Jtr $zlz| EeUrl oI+ EA r7l qlEql Bg I Mg 4+ 5S4. +"qE E.bE= g"tqlzi?
    H=trI. Efl(moVr)ts gbEE ++lola, xl94 i9+l zI @) B.a M (b) 7.43xr}-2 M (c) 3.9i xt}-2 M
    Eel +a *zlzl,r.ll zflolpg, ol B9 +]t iz} zl= 4 (d) 7.43 x t0-s M (e) 3.91 x 10-s M
    ^ll
    B6I+. > H.= ql4 2
    > H.6 qllll 1 +q*(ceHrzoJ 5.00 sg +E6J Eql +q 8e4 roo mr
    ¤B!(cr2H22on) 3.68 g¤. Sdol +q +"-q 27s.0 mLE EJ ol +"_qE g*.EE ahl6t^l9-.
    = "JEfl+.
    ,Jn|1Esl ttr E- l

    + olgE ¤: LoEb ql^I "i ^lls r+aql^l ,l]+ +s6t+. olg a6J sltl
    ^JEqlql^.t +._4
    Eg +gg Ell +E u. olgg ,lJ-4 L"EE p+*Eq s+qr-^lql 96I aag+. ql= 1.0 M
    Na* ol9 1.0 MrI Cl- olg 1.0 Mol+. u|t}z}zltr =q
    Na2SOa 1.0 M +Eql=
    NaCl 8o-!3
    Na* olg 2.0 M+ SOr2- olc- 1.0 Mol gl+. ddle +e4E EoEE +.lg "J=. trll
    ^l-*+
    clqlE(r.o M NazSoa) .E'= +"-4ql e,+E ol$(Na+ 2.0 M7+ SOn2- l.0M)s-+ +4tr}.

    q1414.12
    F olgE +tsE 4||hat7l

    0.025M Ett,J# +ts{011=rH6l.= 4 olEelEr=-E= gElETl?

    Ntlff molNO3-:\ /0.025norca$.Iqlr\/ 2molNO3 \


    E^{ +aqg "JE trl olg a6J E}i}EE r-oE7t +q
    L L /\lrcterfNorr/
    ^l*s+ = 0.050M
    zl-Ir, +o-q + olgg toEE 76lt E8loltrl.
    zJE ca(NoJ, +q^lql^l No:- Ylql ol4 ezl 271 c[o E
    fiEt olgE tr-4 tE= +6J trI Eiq}Eg Eq^lql^l e4¤ -tr No3- olgq +.E= Ca2* ol¤ EoEg F El]4= ag'J
    ols" r.J + iltrL
    + el+.
    > H* ql{|1
    +q4 fl.r., ++^lg ca(Nor)ro1r1-. ElqlE * 4 c^'* o1
    0.01s M t& ee1-6'+.lql^J +^I olgE r-oEeI EF++r
    g"I+ + zfle.l No3- ol$ol !19-E__tr 53 r u ca(Nor)ru1 ol$elt.Eul= gEtoJTI?
    4 r u9 c***zuq No3- olgol 6il49+. q-e}^l0.02sM (a) 1:0.015 (b) 0.01s:l (c) 1:1 (d) ti2 (e) 2:r
    ca(NoJ, +'-qql= ca2* o.o2s ut] zxo.ozs M--o.oso M
    > E6 qEt2
    9 Nor- ol$ol \o[ ilr[.
    0.01sM E& +116, 9-" o-qq^l r* ols9 EEoEE g"IoJzI?

    +FE, E, +Elel^JE EEl


    4 a.:rg BtsE dE= E+5r, +eE g+, +.-q9 +E(L)sl ^Jl Tlzl llol s6Jqq 9l
    eq, ol H+ + + 7l^lz "JH ^ll Hzll E+E 4hI6J + ?l+. qlE Eq +"-4E E+EE
    "JH, +qd +4 + +49 5+E drll +6J + 9l+. 0.200 M(+ol 1r-lEl'J HNo3 0.200
    motol Hol 9l=) HNo3 2.0 L + HNo3 E+= +ule+ E-tsEE +4 A+. q+^'l E-8" E
    4.5 I gaqg 5E 159

    +EE +vlel +eq g ^Iolel *I& elzt.l4.


    =
    HNo39 s+: rz.oraqy(9?Tffiq) : o.+omorHNo:
    +g +:4tr +4}6lz1 9lollrJ z.o molel HNo:.ll dlB6lt o.3o M HNo3 +"-qel +irlE +
    dEi.

    +.-4E +irt = (2.0mo}+rNo5'(*##*) : o.zL8e4

    ol A++ +Itg trll 5r-" Eel q+= *+.


    ^|*6fiot
    4el : mol x t I M:g x 4rl/mol
    gdol E4+tr "lAle; "JE= ol+6lq +q= eeJsE E+g + glEI. ql= E+
    HE E(+= CE E*)ql +i4Ele 5.0%o4 qlBg(cH3cH2oH)g EoJoJ+.=q
    qlEgg
    =
    "JE= 0.78e glmr"oltrl. E+9 ql+g(BF "J?gE E?-l=) E+E= 4141617l f 6ll E+
    E l.oo L-E 7lC6[z[.
    1.00 Lg E+= E o.sso Le+
    "il+g 0.0s0 L-tr" qq 9l+.
    5o/o : 5lto0: 0.050

    r4r ql+gel gEe+ g4r*(46.0 g/mol)S g+6}q zl'J6J ++l H+eE E+E 4l&
    6J + 9l+.
    ql+set E+ : (0 0s02) (rf*) (Y)(ffi) : 0.858 mor

    E+q ql+gol 0.858 mol


    1.00 LE 9le E.e, E+q^l qlEgel bE= 0.86Mol
    +(+E ixl-= -r.el l,ll^l ).
    =q

    ru qEl 4.13
    .,M +8s¤
    ^l86lc{ taq
    fB+ 4ltl-6t"71

    0.500 M NazSOa 0.350 L= U=aiE Na2SOa P Sol E9-dzt?

    6llU NazSOa I mol* 142.1 golIr +, +6teJ= NazSOa9 fH+E


    841 +a49 Bul(o.rso L), +.lE +E_(0.s00 M), +e :
    (Nazsor)ol +qdg ql, +q + +eq r++= +6lb +
    Na2SOa$ :18+ (0.1 75 mdNa-2Soar(ffi)
    Tllol+. :24.9gNa2SOa

    fllq E.]=.E9 aq(^l a.rr)= ol+6lq +eE E+= +6I aE ol BE 371, *+1, +E +zlE E+ 4B6I+.
    a, ¤:eq Ee"*g "l+6iq E+= rg+-E +4I*+. > E=q|fl1
    Na'z:9tg+ E rzo.oLql "JEqoI3.7s s* +olB, +sqq^-l oJEqot
    MNa2soa:
    LO-a 9 L"Ei guttzl?
    Eol +qd E-r-"Ee++.19 +slE ole"o|{ NazSoa9 Ef (a) 1.84x r0-3 M 0) 3.78 xr}-2 M (c) 0.0313M

    alt}6J+. (d) 1.84 M (e) 7.05 M


    = gf
    MNa,so.
    Na2So4$ > s.6 qlq 2
    --Edi-- (a) 0.s0 M Na2SOa rs mlqE q fgE Na2Soaz[ $ol
    Na2SOa9l E+: L+E x MNu,so.
    9lEzt? G) ol g 0.038 mot9 EIE3IE, 0.s0 M Na2So4

    : (o'3so L-8-q, (g{iffidg) +q q mlz| $et'Jz[!


    :0.175molNa2SOa
    160 4:l +8.-40fl^1e.lU3

    s6lE!
    =I
    dqjdq^l .Jtr-4ee ^l-s6l= +"+g qqle 4l'J t}4eq(stock soln)olap +)e +"J
    6|4+ azll6J+. # trJ #g Eo E9 +Eg 5fl(dilution).ol+= r+4, + E¤ Ezlal{ I
    g + glE|.
    d+ +e4se *g +Eg trJE= %IHg .=}"[Ez]. 1.00 M CuSoa q.lg q^J6]q 0.100 M
    cuSo+ 250.0 mL(+ 0.2s00 L)= "JE+a TlAq H^| Tl9dlo} E ede +"-qql +rllE
    zlg ql, +eel E++ tr+Sol #zlS4E 1,o14.
    #6171 A +eg E+ : #-J + +eel g+ fq,sz)

    #g +.lE Pvl(zso.o mL)eI r-oE(0.100 mol/L)E trF oJTl trllEq CuSo+9 g+= 4l
    4Ig + 91tr1.
    Be +"lqt^J cuSoael g+ : (0.2s00 r+e,(qgiHq)
    : 0.0250 mol CuSOa
    olxll 0.02s0 mol Cuso+E gzl ?lall gs6J tlal +"lE +tlE 4l&.J + 9l+.

    4t.J+sqE pul(r) : (0.0zs0moleuseu,(*ffi) : o.orto,


    :aJ a.169 ¤Edql^J +"lg #61= r+Ag trq ++. #e +Ee {q} +"-qsq St
    +4UtrI= a"il ++"1+.
    ^Ig

    A 0.50 M KBr

    +eE E=i7l1ld *"+"+


    Eo-4011 E= ts71-6|q +q7t+ B}|TI'ElflE nll

    *g +.lql^J eq= 49 .Jtr, ¤Edql^J .ld %LHE 4l4I


    =E--E=
    g0l.oJ7l-?

    g a+6J %r-4^lg ol+6}q u+ez)l 4l4}g + 9l+. E+:$r-"Ex BlQolEg,


    {t +qql^l +eE 5f : Bg +.lql^l +49 E+
    M1"jX Va+ : MEe x VE- l+.211

    1.ooM sE 0lzi3 250 mL Eddzf^lE¤


    25.0 mLE +El E 4lol^1
    trltrJlo+ +letq. LILTL =at^.='oll =cl 0.100M
    F6lE
    =ELI.
    -e.oHnt Etrl

    lJ

    )
    i

    A.lH 4.tG 1.00 M CuSOa= Ed 0.100 M CuSOe 250.0 mL= trJE= 48


    .aoJ tol+ g7l= *¤ qql= +E^l 4}ol+ ¤71= Eoll flz1t11o; ++. r{ +q +c q a7}6iq q4^lrJ+. 4l5J ti
    ol+ gTlql 4d 5C A7I6IE 4Ed E¤e oJ6Iq +"4o1 Hq+S+.
    4.6 I 8o_4el trlqfaJErl6l-E E4 161

    zl +.t:ollrl +irlE +EI.3 trll ?* E?lzI ^l-SEl= +, qtr +rl ++l+E


    gg + 9l+. qlE Ei cuson +Eq ^.]9 "J+ql
    ql6ll^J trl-s-r+ 44.
    ';^E
    (r oo ,uXyad : (0. roo uXzso. o mr)
    .

    Vxaoll qdl^J ¤E V4"j:25.0 mlol4.


    qFil 4.14
    F *sJoll old.J
    to4 4la

    0.10M HzSOa 450 mLE UEalE.3.0^/l HzSO+ E mlzlrJ9-etu l?

    6tlff
    E4 4l6J +.lg *61= 4o1 $ealr|. {6J +._q(3.0 M)el fiE 5e +Eq^l H2so4 +eE E+E Zl&E i glr, ol
    SbEe+ B3 +"lE +sle+ E+E(0.10 M +E 450 mL)zl .Jq +49 .+16171 fltll g-e-6J Tl+ +"_q9 +q= AltI¤L
    +qA+. #e +"lg "J= uI gs"J {.J +"_qE +qE Zl trI. += %rH "e= 4.339 ole"6|{ Hte +t}+, AzVl
    ^l
    ,ilolf fizllolu|. B-Hg HlrElBzI.

    Eol #g +Eql^l H2so4g E+E 4l4l'J4. #e +.-qql^l H2so4q E+ : ro.+so r_+q(qlffilq)


    : 0.045 mol H2SOa

    0.045 mol H2So4= E*61+ {+ +"-qE +tl


    =
    zltlql+.
    1l6J +"-4E Pul (r) : (0.04s mot H2Soa)
    / lr+"q \ : 0.015 L +o-l
    LE mLE Hl^l'E ts mlol4. \ Hdo, /
    3^o -.1
    4.339 olgallE ee Aq¤ e=4 (3.0 M)( Yir"r) : (0.10 llf)(as0 mL)
    ^l
    ( 0.10 M)(450 mL)
    '
    t,il+/\ ._
    ttl
    - 3.OM
    __:15mL

    q¤ ,JHol= 3.0 M H2so4 ls mL= aal +qE E.EB ++.-q H mLzI gs+7t?
    ^l-&6}q
    450mLzlqE+#6lH 96l=0.10M+Eg eg+ 9l+. mL
    (a) 1.75 (b) 8.7s mL (c) 48.6 mL
    ,CE Bg EJ57l 9l6fl^l= zig (d) s7.1 mL (e) 28.570 mL
    "Jel #g +"]g "Jg 41d
    +qol gsd}E_tr +"J +r'l= 4"J6}4. > E* qlrJl2
    +sl 4e EoE9 F 89ol 49 ql 4+ bE= 44}g A+ (a) 0.0500 mol pb2+E E*q+ 2.s0 M e& B(rr) +.+
    71 9la, +++ +,l]= Ezlalq #e +s4g +E trl]= g +ul= g"toJzt? (b) 0.10 M +E 250 mL= "JEeJH
    ^l M KzCrzo, *93 H mlz| gg+7l? (c) 10.0 M
    4.339 g+61-q kEE A4I6J + 91tr1. 5.0
    NaOH -tr9 10.0 mLE 250 mLTl qE+5618 tE= g
    > !a= ql{I1
    El"J7I?
    t.75x1o-2 M +trg *9 soo.o mrE ElE4tr l.0o M

    4.6 Ito4qEffJEzlEt J-E,\t


    HI+q 4.J plql HIA!$ H}+ql^l aulg + HI*EE olg .JH, +E HI$
    zll3z"lql^J=
    E+ ^JCEE olg 4l&6J + 9l+= Ag Ellfl,+. ol eq^J= +']ql^l "Jq+= HI*E
    p+E+%lEg ojolBz|.

    +B *+ EI*^IE al++ HI¤¤J+ ^JdEE ^Jql4ql E+E ++Urf= Xg uHfl.4


    :=.: (3.6(,1). olfl olso6l-48, Hi+ql +Eg EeE olg g4}6llot oJtrt. ol
    ^tdg =iE
    +l+ +.$e 3*ql^JaH Eeg e+g E+s El-+71 +16ll ga+g 0l¤-6110} *+. +.-q
    '162 48 +Ea{ql^lelBJS

    A Etrg]
    xtzt
    =d

    II
    A Ol E^lal
    /rl
    ==d

    ^f3
    A EEg]

    B EEg s-EtEt B
    ll
    E:9
    f:ol oli
    zt+
    Htq,\lol

    ^tE

    B EES s-BtEl
    QOHOI qtE
    o-t ao!
    B= E-Ef-d
    =+ + BE E-'JEi QOHOI HEI
    o-i T&l

    QOHOI HE LQ QOHOI E.UE T LQ


    o--l "1o
    =o+

    ArH 4.'17 +EE Ael'eEE7t galT.!ts4 +9 B Etr9 HJ8oll - E:gE +:qEJE4 E^llEol alE A Edel
    eaJg ll+ee - el¤E= ill.alB= s-cf-sf E.-4sl B= +tr|= Z86f7lLL
    s-EtEf Eo-4sl
    B Eqg +q= grofll10l Eeqg EEE= --E_?+El
    EEE E-Ef-d =3^! B= E-Ef-d Ea4el +trlt-l=soE=
    E +^{ aErr= q+ A Etrol EaJE E8-srrl =6-Lrtl. ^l+e

    E a+q=+rlte+¤-4o1 t'^lq olqoJs+Iol f-s"6lzl *6I+. -z$zlujg


    Eel +EE .Jr 9lElH, E-bEe+ +rl= g+6}q E+E AA6J + 9l+(+e9
    =zl]6lrE-tr
    E+:
    Mxv). reJ 4.17q1 ++6J Eer+ +"l9l HI-&ql ql6t EIE*ES 0l+61+ d=Eg sE6}
    9trI.

    qFJl 4.1s
    6.sl- EJtqFl e%t +41 ol+Ef7 |

    0.100 M HNO3 ts{ 25.0 mLE Sddl eiq^lTlalE ca(oH)z H r.Jol "J9-d71.?

    6ilH I 5+E 4l&6J + 9l+. rq+ql HNo39 EfeI ca(oH),


    E4 HI¤¤g +(HNo3)+ Bzl(ca(oH)z;olr|. HNoa9 ¤. (A Ee)E E+ +41= 9l"ll +¤ "*= HI+^lg ol+++.
    LoEe| *ulzt +qzlu, ol HNorE +E+6I71 916ll get ufzluJ9-tr Ca(ou)r9 g+= r+e-tr +l4}6t7l +16ll Ea
    ca(os)29 e+g +51+ E^llol4. "d:¤- ^l-8:6Jtri.
    zjl4 rH 4.uq14 h4 pl*Je_e s^lg E4ql uI+ HNo3 VHNo, X M6pe. + mol HNO3 + mol Ca(OH)2 = g Ca(OH)2

    *9(:H 4.17q1^l B EAE 5]=oEs+ +q= ol+6lq HNo3


    Eol +.-qel 5r-" Ee+ +ulE +e9 E+E +6J + 9t+ HNO39] 5+: VnNo, X MnNo, : (0.02502) (qqTryIq)
    : 2.50 x 10-3molHNO3
    ol HI¤+ +E+ HI*olotr, HNO3e+ Ca(oH)rE Hlg"6|q
    E4 Cu'* "f NOr-E -troJ6}= gg ^JCBJE+. 2 HNO3(a4) + Ca(OH)z(s) 2HzO(l) + Ca(NO3)2(44)
    -
    "14^l
    2 mol HNO3 =I mol Ca(Off)ro1 ca(oH)2g r++: (2.50 x 10-3mol+rNer:, ,. (ffiXffir)
    +. felos :0.0e26gCa(oH)2

    AE 49 +sl6}7l 9lsll^l= zlg "JE g


    +'lE Eg,ilg > H.6 qlrlll
    zlz[ $9r[t:E Bg +.]6t+. 0.0100 M a^I TIEE; mlq +d6l HI*6lq +-8:ot1 25.00
    cdsG) aa+g "JEqts +4 H -gol B3-dzlr
    ^'Ee
    4.6 I 8o_qel trlqfaJErlel-+ E! 163

    (a) 13.8m9 O) l9.5mg (c) 23.smg NaoHts H rg.J7l? (b) pb(No3)2(aq)0.100 mol4 9d
    (d) 32.1mg (e) 39.0 mg al EI86l-q pbclz(s) ad+g EIEEJE, 0.s00 M HCt(aq)
    > E*qEfl2 3 H 4rlz} gs6J7|?
    (a) 0.1s0M H2so4 *9 zo.o mLE +ElalE Ell g.s6.J

    a{a{
    -rO
    slelzl+ +Eql^J 5A +eE f]6ll^l olEl "Jzlll bEq ,tloJ -$ol(*=
    bE= 44i;l7l
    tsq(standardsolution))9 ol+4q 4E(titration)g ql+. ulzl :-"Eel +E +ql *= +
    er+ sddl Hlso g + glE+ ++.J oJE s+ a._qg !z1o11o; qlq. s+Et}EzleE +g
    aJ o3g- xldg 44s.1 =.lEfE(equivalentpoint)olep aJ4.
    ^l-sof,
    zlag +e} HI¤., ed HI*, &e}-+|+l q]*ql ol+grl. ral 4.189.sf NaoH go_4
    4,lzl EoE9 HCI +o_4 ,JE dB4e +p+ 4dg ¤E+ 1o14. HCI +o-qE tE= A
    c6}elE, a4l, .Ja+ Pul(qzldE HCl 8sq 20.0 mL)E B=+. +getr,
    P %IgE &-gzl rt^tel(indicator)S ?ztd4. ,t}-¤zl =4^rql
    zl^lEg 44g rl] 'J=*dql E
    BalsEzlE 7l-Hg + glb gEoltrI.- ql= EllEsg;ll.Jol+a "J3l1l gE:4I^d
    =E
    +Eql^J= f{olzluJ Ezld ¤:991^lE ts+4o1+. gEt ¤.._4ol ¤+4 o-+ EE ullztzl
    NaoH tr= +.lol dz}9fl4H, HClr+ NaoH ,Je-l 6sI Hl+ol ¤*¤¤ ul4u4. ?zI
    9E Nuon +.+E +{= Cq6}rll <4i;l7l +l6lq tfl(burette)g ^F*alq .*= +"-49

    NaOH(aq) rt|U Ba(OH)z(aqE E= EEel +tr|= gDlE H5lE7l?


    ^fE6l-E
    "EE NaOH Eo4 E6lE
    E +al!g S"-tl ^l/.lojol
    trteFIlg ^4301
    Tlr lD{ -QoHq
    o6E= '.t*tu o-L
    LIL-L
    5-Lt. g7l¤ol EJtl.

    4lE ts= +fl


    olrl
    a, I

    tt Eo-{ 20.0 mLS $-g7lxl^lqE


    -J=trI. g HJ3'J=trt.
    =at^3oll

    a5 +El
    otq
    -o

    Arg 4.18 NaoH EE to-4oe ttd tE= 4861.= rtd trll=q=elloJ3 8'-4011^l= +^40|n, ETld Eo-4oll^.]=
    E¤^qolq. ^l-g7l ^l^lqtoJ ^Jd

    .zl^lEel 4eol Hd.= zldg aq6l +"Jdol4r1+rl. +"Jd.l **d +ilolE +%r-6J 7l^lslg cq6J aol4. +I-
    ¤71 4Cg tz.:39lrJ !'+ ^J^il6l +EEl.
    164 43 +3o_401t^19 U3

    Bzlt4. ol4l dz}¤ g= ggg +Ele+ tEe+q f=J 4.1eE Esq^lxlH "lzl g._49
    bE= acg + 91trI.

    "JgE ESOIIEgEJ
    E= tEel +Et EITI E'+E 5E(EiE.E)

    E4 -QOHOI
    nlTl -QoHOl
    s-uE rLg
    '\lo
    =O!
    +tr|^lE

    EE tE +et olrlEE +el


    tE E+ fa oli Ht-q^tot EE E+
    zt+
    ^fE
    arg 4.19 E= E"4= gE6U 4E= E6t| Dl^l Es{el ts-E= rlE
    =861.=

    qH 4.16
    tJTl 4t¤ olSEJ t.4q 5E erc I
    Arf UtrE H7l7l +l-d 894 'Jgetr, A^E =J= tl-3, EE $!eE 4aJ-oE ,J^l E4-Z gZl 1e
    NaoH Eo-4oll #e +
    ^PJ
    ?ltf. 0lttll NaOH E;EE -EE 3-6 M0ln, tr714o+ Eo-49 EiE= A,\l6tl0l -dtl. E4oll^l 0.500 M H2SO4 Eo-4 45.7 mL=
    El6lts rll NaoH Eo-q 20.0 mL7[^+Elflrt. 0l NaoH Eelel-EE= EEloJTl-?
    =

    6ll'J
    E4 NaoH *9 zo.o mls| ${al
    H}+6J srsor9 Bv.l de :aH 4.leq +Aloil tr14 H2so4E g+E 4l^16}zl +lEl
    (as.z mr)4 E+E(0.s00 M)71 +ol\a-, NaoH +E9 E .r.l HzSon9 +iile+ E-bE=
    "l+++. +geE, HI+ql^J
    bEE A1416|= E4lol+. rF*9 NaosE E+E Ahlolzl 91611 ol -J4 +B "*+ HI
    +4g ^l-&6Jc|. ulzlrJeE, NaoH9 +Eel E-+¤. 0l+61
    4 ttaoH9 g-5EE Al&.J+.
    : 6s.7ml+en( L*1,,,)(0's0omolHzsoa\
    1
    Eot HzSO+9 E+= ol +.+q+qelE*'Ee]#ol+ HzSO4E E+ 3 -'\tooomr-$fl/\ L¤-q )
    : 2.28 x 10-2 mol H2SOa

    &e ++ +rlg+¤r+ Hi+6tq E4 eg "J=+. trI+


    ^J
    ++ El8ql 4+ +¤ "*+ HI+4e ++q e+. H2SOa@q) + 2NaOH(aq) 2HzO(l) + Na2SOa(a4)
    -
    +¤ "*+ q}+4q IIlsE, NaOH$ E+: Q.28x rO-'zmor+2SOo;(\ 1-.lHtrO./
    2 mol NaOH\

    I mol HzSOa:2 mol NaOHol4. 44^l : 4.56 x 10-2molNaOH

    20.0 mL +"lql 9lE NaosE s=iE +618, ol NaoHelEE.E:


    ry#
    =q
    +olE r-o E= 4l4}g + gltrt.
    : / 4.56 x 10-2molNaoH\/1000ml8o-4\
    \- ,oo''LEe-/\ rlBil/
    : 2.28n'glI19H : z.z8M

    >s*qH1 >E=qF{2
    0.016s M Ba(oH)2 89 rr+.s mLE 6461-b ull HCI *o-{ 0.144 M H2SO4 +eq 35.0 mLE +F+61-= rJl NaOH *q4
    27.3mL*
    ^l-*6}s.+8,
    HCI +EE :-"Ei $ulolzp 48.0mLE
    ^l-S6t9+tr,
    NaoH9 EtE= goloJz}?
    @) 0.0aaa M O) 0.0813 M (c) 0.163 M
    (d) 0.32s M (e) 3.3s M
    4.6 | Ea4e.l ot-staJ=+ trl-+ E4 165

    qHl 4.17
    4tg olt6J *aE.J Et
    +EE 6 cl- 0l8e] SP Rs* olEe.E 4d6tq + 9ttt. 4¤g ttH
    "JolLl= eE U- qe-7f e+.
    =d-g
    Ae*Gq) + Cl-(aq) AgCl(s)
    0l 4dsl z+, E0lEl HEIB g + ?lrt.
    -'
    ="JEP ^l^lqtel ^48
    (a) 6 +0t flts cl- 0l8E 4d-g nl|, 0.100 htt As* 20.2 m?f g.e.6lrfE, 6 +0f ?l= cr-E raJt= gotoJTt?
    ^l-8 goPJ7l? ^l.E.
    (b) EaJol 10.0 solalE, Cl-g HqEEe
    ^|eel
    6tlt +. zJeql^l rl-s¤ Ae*9 5+= al&6}71 fl6l] eg*9 *
    E4 eg* 899 P4(20.2 ml)cl E-l-oE(0.100 M), r4r. ,le+ E.r-.E= ol+6J+.cl-g rg+_r+q ^lE 4g cr
    cl-e| Ag+9 EJ+g Elol H}+^lol +qa+. a4s e.l E+¤ 44i;l7l96ll +¤
    ^lE + "*+ H!¤-^lg ol+,QItrI.
    9 ct-q c+E +6Ij1, rq+ cl-E e* EB+g +6J+. (b)
    ^lE +
    cl olgE Ee¤-g 41416|71 f-ldl
    ^lEql^.]
    cl-
    z{leJ (a) a-4 4.tzql,r.l q'4 a}^JsE E^lg r+Cg 4 :a++o.17 x ro-2 g)e} ^lEE ag
    ?* ro.o gg ul:zaJ4.
    ^l-s"6J

    E0l nse Ef : eo
    ^'+er(roffiXqH#{)
    (a) 4aoll^l ^l-&g Ac*g E+E ul4I6J+ : Z.OZ x 10 3 mol Ag*

    +B "*+ HI*^]gtr+El I mol Ag+ : 1 mot Cl-"Jg .J cr-E rH+ : e.o2x ro3morAg',(##X##)
    + 9l+. ol 44 clE ¤ieelg ol+6IE -- 7.17 x l0-2 g Cl

    (b) cl-E Ee¤-g 4l&6J+ 7'17 x lo 2g


    ^lEql ^Fs"¤ cr-E HIE8- - x looo/o : o.777o/ocr-

    > H* qlr1ll >EEqF{2 -ro-os


    H3l ¤tlql^] gag EEE ¤4 ztFS plEI E4'J A e+ ^lE= &ql holB ag Fe2*E H'J+. rEl-g, ^lE
    4, .]e.qo1i-1H E6J $zlol e=g(CuHreNo3)r+ ¤EJ E o.ozz+o M Mnoa- +E 47.20 mr-e 4Ct4. 446l
    I goJEs q'Jqfl+. utal $fl:91^.1 gEE ¤rl zlF Eq] "Jq+= tIEI-+g HI+e q^q=rl e+.
    mg$ mL9 Eql +*.+. ol +Eg **$ttl
    =
    10.00 100.00 MnOa-@q) + SFez+(aq) + 8H+(a4) +
    rll o.oroo M HCI +sI z.sa mlz| .rl.$eloq-
    ^l 4d6l+ u**(aq) + 5Fe3+(a4) + 4HzO(t)
    H, ¤4 7t+ql E+g E.sgg q vooJTl? (a) *.-4.11 q gq Mno+-= frzla[fl]zp
    (a) 8.10% (b) t7.3Vo (c) 32.60/o (d) 49.7Vo (e) 81.07o
    o) ^lBql Eq fl= Fe2*b H Eelzt?
    (c) ,rlEql=q fl= ae P:*"JzI?
    (d) o.ssso *olS, .tlEt 6 ag
    ^lEE delol 4vooJTl?

    ETJ qEI
    -4.8[ 7[L{
    o tl'llE

    pg:E:d delgst Erll 90il Efl-d Lll8ol EJe6ltrl.


    qF.ilts 0l

    ?Jti ee16 70.5 ms= 0.050 M 4N 3 Ee{ 15.0 mloll ts7ldl*t]Ll EdEol 8dElfltl..
    (b) HJSoll^l -dZl HJ-P 01t- 7,l.A7l? (c) ddEl= dEE9 0l=4 +=aJg reJo+ Zld6l^le.
    ^l-E.
    ,JBslE^l-U8^l=
    (a) 0l
    ^ ^le.
    6fltr
    (a) "JtI EE|#4 44I3(egNoJS s-; olg A.J EI.JE 49 rrrorolq. e4I33 Ag*4 No:-E Eql6lE-s E+

    ol+. .JtI s4+e- K*e[ pO43- o]$$ Ea]o[EE p+q] uI49 esNo:ol4. F Hl¤¤g E+ ,Jd4aolE e HI
    166 4al +Ea4olt^19 EJ8

    * dE *9+ r*, Po.' , Ag*, NOr- olgg sdJ6J


    4. 4. 19 *dls +zlql IIlsH, Ag*eI po43 7I HI+
    g.
    6Iq E+C pld.+g EI=+. tri+^l +Eql;.1 Aspoa
    7f ed¤q. qlHql, K+elNo3-: +sqq H=+. eI+
    6IE KNo3= Ell tzl ullEol4. +"J "*+ EaI H]+
    49 trts=r+ e+. \POa@Q + 3AgNO3(aq) + Ag3POa(s) + 3KNO3(a4)

    0)'J4 q}¤¤g +g 4 HI¤¤el $ffi ${o} aJ


    EI=
    r| ea= G.74). K3PS4E g+: ++ oJxlB ga%Ig
    ol+4q @-,o (t.+41.
    ^lEE e"d.oE+q Zl+6J+
    K3PO4E Eeelg 3(3e.1)+31.0 + +$a.o):212.3 t1
    (70.5mgrtuPoa,(ffiX;#ffi)
    molol4. "JEfgg fEoE H++ tri.g, E+E +
    4l6tB trl-s4 aq. : 3.32 x 10-a mol K3POa

    +"+e] +i'le+ E.bEe+El AgNo3el E.iE *el4(+.s


    r,'o*'r(ffiXryry=4Eq)
    A. "J?-l?-lElE qqs H+6J trI-g, g+tr +}4I6IH +
    : 7.5 x 10-amolAgNO3
    +4 e+.
    + HI+E9 oJ¤ Hlr6IE, AgNo3$ Sfb r:pon E
    f9 rE+ +¤
    (z.sxto )l?.tzx1e-a):2.3ulol+.
    "*= Hl+4q qgE, I mol K3POab 3 mol AgNO3z[
    BS-a1r1. q4^l K3po4= 4Hl6I7lql AgNOTE #E
    6|r|. relse AgNo3zlaJ4l tI*8"14.

    (c) 4dEP Ag3Ponola, SAelg 3(107.e)+31.0+


    +(to.o):4t8.7 c/molol4. ol EI*ql^l ^J^"rq=
    As:Poa9 rts+(ol$4 +=*)= 4l^1617l +loll^J=
    mol AgNO3 + mol Ag:POa + g Ag3POaE E+l6}='J
    4l +*Eel E+7I gs6}4. AgNo3el EiE Asron
    el 5+e H+g Ell= +¤ "*= Ei+^lel 4li= ol8
    olr, ol E¤9 Ei+= rH oE ++4lg ql= A&rorel
    EA+g ^l^.&6iH Els=r+ A+.
    AgNo3el oJg F 4E +E' +zlq} ztzlr. 9o IrE, B 17.s x 1o-4 mo*s-ol(HffiXffil
    E + Zlel +s izI"J z*=trI. :0.10gAgPOa

    s.oj g 6s Eq
    +t"4sl "JHJ4?] dE(^lEat4.1tr) Ee
    ,ileg +'J +Eg ¤ g a.J ol6J¤g +eE ,Jd4aol+. olg
    olg_s_E 6ll7l6}Ere
    o4(aqueous solution)olz|-L oJ+. tJ E*6}=
    Bg "Jg +'-l CE ^J EaE *otls= +C +,ll "lgg tLs ++, +
    Ezl-= 7I4l
    ol goll(solvent)oln, += dts3 tE(sotute)o14. $4t[(solvation)-e z6'rj 4"14. Ex] s[.JEg Ed6]eE 9l
    ++"lql olgoE E+g qE E.eg E6ilg(electrotyte)olE-f.r1 a zj{all{E 9l^lEJ, ql++ol Hld6ileol4. Ed"laol +"lql
    t4. ol8"l ol{ ag -s.6J6l-= Eeg ulf6illB(nonelectrolyte) ,rJ ol$alalB
    ^ls Hlq HI6JS
    714717 9l= HI+ EI+EE
    ^I
    ol+a 6J+. +.-4ql E+ ol90-e d6l]eg ,JEdlfl +"Iq +._qq^l aHI*r+ qrJ¤¤ +Elr]lj1, Et¤t Ba(chemical
    =xll6}=
    (strong electrolyte)ol{i fl+. g+++
    "lgo-e., 'J+¤+ + equilibrium)ol?+= PIE +Bg +ElU+.
    zls Eeg EdAE(weak electrolyte)ol+r. oJ+. ol
    AI U3{4.2tr) flE uJts(precipitation reactionP flffiprecipitate)
    =z]]6L=
    ol+= E+^J tdEg nJE= H}+oltrl. +6llE zlag {lffiz} +gg ++6E-+.
    "lg a E, ++lElE ar6Jr+. 4}q+.}^}
    6J El6.JEol Eql +:^lE AA6]-E ql E+3 EaE Eel tltH!fl H.!3(oxidation-reduction(redox) reaction)o l $r|.
    =rI(6J
    E(solubility)E 'JC=JE +,lql + "JolEl). "Jolgr+ golgol {4 z}zl a+e EilB ozoll E6l
    4}r+ ++?+ g, ++
    r+ ^JqE +4+= ad El+ni eg HI+g E* H.t3(exchange ^}c}E+.
    r+ &q 4le1-+g HI¤¤ ilg ElB(displacement reaction)olall ;J
    reaction) E: tlE EEI f!8(metathesis reaction)olzp aJr|. +. olBl6J z.l+I HI*E 6J^* gA(H+ EE ++)e+ g
    ^JdEg
    +g Eeol +a! 6ql^l 4++ olg E=.Ezle +z16l=zl olq. rEl"J Hl¤¤ Hli6,lq ;-+g &o]9zl +lg +^lE ul]g
    E L+48 'I sI+ HI+!g ¤ + 9ltf. EE HI+g$..Jt$el $ el + 9l+. *4¤ &p]qzl +ie +^lE ull$el $$$ il5srtE
    d slql^lg ^l^so 5J trllE HI+!g Eri u.!8+l(molecular equation) (activityseries)olzE q+ +E e+g f olellE ++
    "Jr+. ^lg
    ol4j1 6J+. E?! olg u.lfiAl(complete ionic equation)$ Cts ol ole(EE H*)ql 9611^Ipl¤ + 91tr1.
    goe E+ +g ,Jd6lleg +Elutrl. Ert 0|e u.!i+l(net ionic Eo+sl EiE(4.str) +"-qq 5E(concentration)E +"-4 6q +.I
    equation)oll.rl= Hl*g ¤:6fq H4zl ?*: olg(+At olt, 9l= +eq .JeE +Elu+. +"-! +eE tEE +4.11= "JHI
    spectator ion)g
    ^Jefql4. 4'J %IH 6 6l+= gtsEol+. 899 " r*s.(molarity)E +'-l 4
    +l-E7let HJ3(4.3tr) 4Ir+ gzl: +s6J dalldol4. tt qB +AE g+olEl. ol bE t9lE +.19 +qe+ +4E g+
    =Et
    (acid)$ o"t{x} fzflol+. ++"-qq &9 z}a].H H*(aq)$ }E ^Iolq ^JE
    +^I'J + glAl "JE+. +aol olxllolE +eE "JEE
    7l +7F;Jr.+. Ezl(base)E oj{z} pzf olrf. #.-4ql g7l= 7}6} ol+6}q A=*, +q, E rJel H+3 F6l] Eg"EE al&I4. "Jel
    E oH (a41$ $Ez| f;zfaJE|. ,Jd6He"J &4 EzlE 44,5A 4l +r-" E +Ee +eg da*g Eot "JBlll +Ee E6lrl+ q Tl
    (strong acid)4'z#7 l(strong base) 4l ++. Ed6ll e "J tFl g 7l r-"EE +ol(s9)3 *fl(dilution)o145 !+Cg Eql g
    "J.JeJ41
    $ $r{!(weakacid)4 Hzl(weakbase)4-z 6JE+. &r+ Bzl SeqS +"-qql dzlal* +,ll(EE 4A)b +"1 6 +eel 5+ H+
    =+.
    4 0E +pI Hl+ol 'Jqtq. &4 ++ +41+E ^IolE =El,.l3 Sol 889 tEE A^^lrJ4(M11ujx yd+:Mssx Vse).
    (neutralization reaction)3 Er+ elGalt)g
    "J=tI. 6el El+g A Eeqg E[*UEat Et+ E^1(4.6E) qE(titration)3 bs.E E.e4
    CCg +E 9l+. +sl¤+ t}"l + +rHE oJg aC6IrxI6J trll gr 9l= +._q(E=te{(standard
    r+e. 7l,ll7l- H}*alE H,s(s)= I,J

    ts4F+ 4I9 Hl¤+ co,(g)E "J=+. solution))¤ ulzl t.Eel +.-qr+ HI*^lzlE 4Col4. 4Aql
    =trf.
    tiEF-EJfl HJ3(4.49 tlEl(oxidation)=
    EAol dzl-E SE 4ol HI¤.Eol +qL*E4etr E"J6J olg ae.q} zl{$ trJgg
    ^J
    r, Eeol dzl-= g= aol+. 4sl$(oxidation
    ElEl(reduction)3 (equivalence point)ol ap't14. zl,tl"J¤'J*d4 Z I "Jil6l+
    number)t ++ HI+ E"Jql dzl= +461q 5E.J +zlg 4Aq 6"Jdg oJral. oJ trll
    ^F* ^l=8-oJtrl.
    ;I9 9zl9l g$g aolq. gaTi tpl!{ to1;r|?71-61= El

    6J* {al ol BE a+El +ol qaige q.=s a + ?lotor Eltrr

    . goJEol & E= ezlq_lzl, r4a Ad6llA, Eddle, Eld6l . +sqq +ule+ +eq E+E g+6tq E*.E= Alt6JE|(4.s
    a + qL lelxlqql*4(+.r¤. a.:¤). A. +H g+g4l: 4.6r-4.22
    +¤ g++:41:4.31-4.38 . fl6}= +Eel +Eg
    "JEzl
    glal EaJ9 z||"JS olalloJr|(a.s
    . &-Bzl +*, ad HI*, 4IEI-¤fl Hl*E ¤). +d ¤#E4: 4.73-4.78
    ^JCgE+El ++
    E ++= ql+6J+(4. 2_4.4¤). . 4aq Arle+ +lrlE olrNof,c|(a.6¤).
    +H {+ +^{l: 4.3e-4.44,4.s3-4.s8 +H g6 +.^ll: 4.s3- 4.e0

    z O Hl'e-/.1-i
    orr- d o
    o=-=t E4
    -8-zlol
    d o* [a.rr] E.bE= p]Eq^l ,l-tr- .JH]zl.J +9lE ^l-sg4
    +e!el +q(L)
    . Md+x V11t1:Mggx Vg' 14.331 1l+ +Eql +"lE a7I6Iq Ee +"-qg EIE trI, d{} +E4
    Eg +"-qE +r="Eel +q + ^ll
    ,}]E <iol +qdqB +Rl^l
    4+= AI4IB + 9lE+.
    168 43 +Eo-4oil^lo-l HJ=

    "J+ +41
    !o=
    L++L EIL 7llL1
    'ltE (a) Cl- (b) No3- (c)NHa+ (d) s2- (e) Soa2-

    4.1 q¤ + E+E Li2so4 .s"19 zlar g +Elu:aBg? (++ 4J 4ts"1 Eolal ,tll zll9 Bql ++ +EJ ^lE7t Eq fl+. 4
    F+^l 7l eJ-r. g Ezl-E=e 444x1 g9t+.) t4. I ¤l 4E Hqb oLS, B, Eq+ol Eq ql4. ollg iltsldpl f.l
    o o aI 7I^l +"1, + r u dt}^E, r,vr ¤t
    I M e,$ qaol

    b oo
    o o oo
    ^ll
    9l+. 4 ++ E"Jg 9oll^'l= qB4 ol +"qg
    ^l

    DI
    ^lB6t7l
    o +6llot 6l+71? [4.4e]

    o do
    .s
    {$ uftz}zl5l,
    od
    4.8 +3rl HISol oJCzl¤ s6J6l+ &+-+}?l
    +$ql^l dzlzl I Bz,ll +q+=zl$ d$dl^le.
    (a) (b) (c) lqs4. +.+41
    .E
    4.e +6ll' HI¤+ qtr a"Fg H]goJz17 [a.+¤l
    4.2 TIzlE += EA Ax, Ay, Azg ++.19 El-8.r+ gg
    ^ll ^ll H2O(I)+Hz@) +YzO2@)
    zll$ 19 o e +44fltr1. 4 Eeg rld4g, Ed4e, El
    (a) t-Bzl HI*
    d.il?e f E6l^le-. [4.]¤]
    (b) ++6llHl*

    to o o AX AY
    c
    AZ

    o
    &sl-*fl HI*
    (c)
    (o ad HI*

    e c o cp o 4.r0 +oleol r.2mM&++e++.-4ol 914. te.s¤l

    cs (a)
    a c
    (b) (c)
    (a)
    "J.-I
    ol +eqol Nacl(aq)4E, g+ olgE bEb 9"t
    oJTl?

    (b) Fecb(aq)4E gs+ olgel +E= 9"ItzI?


    4.n trl-¤. rBel + r4s + aH +.rs9l 44t 4AE arlq
    4.3 r+g
    ^ll
    EBg 'Jd6lle, Ed6Ie, Hld4gs +
    Tlzl +^L ql+q: 2127 7+.e,1)
    B6I^ls(grE 4lgg aH 4.6 +a). [4.re,4.3a] .xlSl
    ^qil] ^H

    (a) (b) ^l
    (c)
    ^l
    oh

    plpl BBE ,ll$g ,ll+ +s6lEL AH


    4.4 trl-g + ¤Bq 4+ ¤B sl
    e_tr gg 2tr27 7+.t4) )l

    ¤Bq EE6}H4E, ol+.JE.Jq+^l ?+=r+.


    -E
    (a) Alzl
    (b) 4l7l ¤¤ql EB6Ifl+8, 4Hl+9 4eei qE]*E +
    r;-/L 7h)
    EBq EBd.94H ^JCEq r-oE7l Zl+ H6J+.
    (c) Alzl
    E
    4pol $^JEq ¤q61 "J + S= 94 n,llzl ?lE|. ol
    H
    T-
    4.5
    024681012
    Eeg gsl u|$(Bacl), ¤eI B(puctr) E-= gp+ oI¤ sE Eo4(mL)
    (zncD"J 4etr ql{lg4. ol lxll$ ElTlql Bi1 Eq +
    4.12 9zl *9 oe & +"lg 4Ag rl, Aq qr %Ieldql Eg
    flqq "Jg +.-qol qH+. r+g Na2Soa(a4) +"-qg Hfl qfl=^lE .Jq += zl^lq,Eg .Jzl t*l 41q49+. "JB.
    trJq ¤4 adgol ol
    ^Ja+. s+6JEg agoltll la,.zg) dql^l +Aql^l TE^l oE B6l+ xl^lei.g 4a El4q ?
    "1 f
    zlTl Hflqq d4l +"lol {a gf;ale_E H6}fl+. qB
    I Na2SOa(a4)
    I i]lL i{ 7l
    Zl oilot 6l+7I? [4.6¤]
    I
    .---------------
    gEt4?l dE(4.1 tr)
    +.e-s4e.l
    ,I
    4.13 4* ¤Hol *.Jzl zlat.Jzl= AC6Ii. r olrq¤ ¤H6I
    4.6 +g olgE 6 ad HISql^l .JtI +aE olgol q= a
    ^ls.
    27 yt.z9) (a) ddld *93 dzlzl +.+g F6il olf,alzl qEql dE
    169
    =* =rlt
    illolEI. 4.24 El-g +.-qg 4leB adEol CCqETl? r++H +B *
    (b) ddlaq ++"lql Eld6ieg a7I6IH dEE= HEPI slq HI+49 *.rle.
    =
    Sg aolr+. (a) NaCH3COOe+ HCI

    4.r4 trI*- ¤Eol +.Jzl Zll"Jzl$ {{;}]l, : ol]?E ¤Bo} (b) KoHe+ cu(NoJz
    (c) Na2Se+ CdSO4
    ^19.
    (a) ullts9(cu:ou)o1 Eql +sE dzlzl 5lq}4. q.g+alol g6JqE +.-!ql qH olgol Slz|!
    (b) ol^]lEt}(cH3cooH)ol Eq +eH Edqleoljl &^d (a) E4I e4;.rt +& trIrql+
    OIET.
    -a25O) et B4 +p+ EE
    olgd n4E Eq +oI ol-ge-E 6llEElq ,Jd6llaol (c) .J4I *E.tsr} g+ ++
    F*3
    Eg ol ttql^l EllS.+. ol 44ql ql+ 7f+*g dBe? 4.26 L+* 4 A+ql^J "Jq+E ++ql 4t +B "*+ oJal ols
    -+.rs(a) E3 zffi {}.!etr. ol$rJ liil$ ¤ +.J+. Hi+4g .r,.,'.le. Hl+ql^l .JxI ol34 +a# .lgg +E
    (b) E +^lE +^e+ t^ fl^l+ +84 ee 6}dqq flq 6I^19.
    ol+ql + +,ll+g+. (a) Cr2(SOa)3(a4) + (NHa)2COz@q)
    (c) E tszfoll.H +ie+ 4IiE A'Jg olgC nillql 9611 fl (b) Ba(No3)2(aq) + K2So4@q) -
    (c) Fe(NO3)2(aq) + KOH(aq) +-
    #qd+.
    al
    4.16 ++qq^l +olgg E +xl-el 4I^+ +^ ?zl6 qL a 4.27 "l^lel g +"-q usr, HzSoa, NaoH *99E
    ^lE= E3
    4\ tlTlo1=4alb7}?
    ^lel6lq E46IHE}. ^'ll a+
    Efql^l ddEol ^JtElfl
    +J, g+ql q* Eeg 44 E.J trll, +E +ql +451= olgE 4. r*, pb2+, Ba2+9 "Jolg + qL aol ulxl $o-!oll +af,
    g ¤^l6}^le. 49 9lB.4EzI?
    ol$ a.J pl.JE
    ^lE +._qg #3
    (a) FeClz O) HNO3 (c) (NH4)2SO4 (d) Ca(OH)2 4.28 ulxlel eg(Nor),
    4.r8 E+ql q+ E49=44 +g ql, +"1+q +rld+ olgE Pb(NO3)r, BaClz 89 o-tr
    ^Jel6[q
    EE]4qq. ^'ll a+ s
    g ¤^16}^le. Fglrl ?dEol ^JcqHrI. Br-, co:2-, No:- 6 ql a
    ol ulzl Sg *ol*"Jz|?
    (a)MgI2 0) K2CO3 (c) HCIOa (d)NaCHTCOO

    g4!(HCooH)g Ed"]l¤ol+. ol E+6JE ++alq= qH egNor, cacl2, Al2(so4)3+6|+9 f 8"-4ol EB S=B


    +e oJzl-=ol +7l]61+71? HCOoHel olgpl ql Eq glq. a+7I ol +aq .JpE sa(r{oJ, S94 Nacl
    -a.1e
    Hlso
    ^]¤.
    'ra
    -+:l *9-q.-e dE61] !-7lE fl6IH+. a+el brlql e-lo'lH, q
    ^1.c-'
    B plE t]+ol "JqLI B 49 ulxl +"-qg +.Jg + ilYzl?
    4.2o oI^IIE(CH3COCHJg Hld6Ha, 6|olEg4t(Hclo)3 E
    (a) %l4I Hf$ol adgEl.
    d6He, gs+ oJ-E E (NH4cl)g rld6He olEl,
    (b) go+gol ad¤4.
    (a) 4 clqlE9 ++"-4q e4l6l+ +4 Ezlb *q,'Jzl?
    (c)*&*.1 ?d¤4.
    (b)4 EI*E 0.1 molol +.lql +oi 9l+H, qL sltlEol
    (d) d+= olrln (a)-(c)+ 6l+ oltr-g HI+ol "Jqklq.
    0.2 mol +e EzIe+ E"J+ 4{f 6l-=71? q' P++E
    (e) (a)-(c)9
    ol 0.1 mol Sd
    'Jzlc+ SgaJ
    qf,$ aFbzt? q- EloJ ^ll++olEF "Jq'Jr+.
    gol 0.1 mo14 0.2 mol 6zJ9 +A 'Jzte+ +g6J BE 4.30 0.2 mol Pb(CH3COO)2, 0.1 mol Na2S, 0.1 mol CaCl2gl ,tJl

    g 6l+7I? Tixl +"-qg 4lq + +"leE'J$flr+. a8le Adq= a


    g +E"J7I?
    Ed HJ3(4.2tr)
    tt-g7lel HJ3(4.3tr)
    4.zt +qlE zlag ol+6}q EI.g 4 sIlIEol Eql +=zl. +xl
    4.ir r+g=Et + &dol zl* rJ+
    ?t=zlE q+4^le. +._qg?
    (a) MgBr2 O) PbI, (c) (NH4LCo3 (d) sr(oH), (e) ZnSoa (a)0.2M LioH (b) o.2MHr (c) 1.0Mql+g(CH3oH)

    4.22 El-g 4 slqlEol +Ezl, Hzl ?*izlE ql+61^le. 4.32 q+ + ¤zldol 7l+ ?tal +Eg?
    (a) Agt
    =iql
    (b)Na2CO3 (c) (d)AI(OHL (e)Zn(CH3CooL (a) 0.6MNH3 O) 0.1s0MKOH (c) 0.100Msa(OH)z
    BaClz

    r.yg +aqg 4JeE adgol rJdqEzl? r++E +B "*


    qg- ¤Hol +.Jzl ,-14,.J^lE a4+i1, r olrq¤ ¤B6l
    slq H]+4g a^ls.
    -as =(a) NazCos4AgNo3 -a;: ^ls.
    (a):B'&3 goJdzf&ol4.
    (b) NaNo3e+ NiSo4 (b) HClg E&olEl.

    (c) FeSOael Pb(NO3)2 (c),ll$99 Ezlol4.


    170 4;l +8.-Ioil^lel t13

    4.34 ffi {$ol *.Jxl 41.Jzl$ {z$ap, r olrq¤, ¤B6l- *+B "++ E^t HI+^lr+
    ga} ol9 Hls"49'rA^le.
    (u) (a)9 ++q +ge+q 7I^l u|:t-Jlf, E.e + apl¤
    ^ls. ^ll
    (a) NH:ollE OH- olgol $.zl"J: ++"lg Ezlol4. El= + 7|^le+ q$ril +E6J + 9lbz}?
    (b) HFg'JtlolLl. 4.44 Kro= 5q +.'ll tlp] ol9ol E tsz}e+ Hls"6}q +4IsI
    (c) Adoll¤oJ H2So4E f*991= son' olgB+ HSo4- olgg
    ^Jct+.
    olgol q *+. (a) ol +*ql 4* EzI ++4r+ 9rI ol3 Hl¤rlg ,A^le.

    'p* 4 EAol 41oJzl, Ezltzl, ¤.Jzl, olllg ot+aE o)tlr} grl9 aE= +4618, ol H}+ql^l ol- o1go1
    olBzlE ++q]^ls. ++.lq^.1 .E-+E^l-84tr e7l"J7l?
    -+:s Eer+ d+ olge-tr =xll6f=
    Ea, e^IeI olgg sEt ¤ (c) ol HI+q^l q! A{tl?
    t}g
    =xll6l=
    qlE Ed-e. +4Lll^le-. (d) ol HI'&q^J f?# olg* 9g aqlz}?
    =^l]6l+
    (a) HF (b) ot^llE+olEg(curctt)(c) NaCloa (d) sa(oHL
    tlEl_Efl HJ3{4.4E)
    4.36 olzl +gel ++qg 4E"l^ +olE dE6Iq &d.Jg "J 4.4s +g ¤¤e +q,l7l, 4a"J7l?
    ?l+. ol +"13 eg bE9 Nacl +"lBE| sf-J dECg (a) ol¤ Ee"l &+qH dzl-E ?i4.
    +E+4flE}. ol Eeg r+* + ol:= {ojz12 0) qB olgol&F+qH &++rl67I+EI.
    KOH, NH3, HNO3, KCIO2, H3PO3, CH3COCH3(ot^'il9
    4.46 trL.S ¤Hg ar.Jzt, AA"J7I?
    4* 4 +g.+g Eq^l Hld6le, Ed"lle, ,Jd6llaE + (a) tr}= tl^ S.ol 'Jqg + 9l+.
    (b) 4I+= +g flol "Jqg + 9l+.
    -+tz+61^le-.
    (a)H2So3 O)CrHsOH(ql+s=) (c) NH:
    r4.g r+4 eg +7lgsq go e E^l¤ BE 6 @) tl*
    KClo3
    drl &+q= g^= s+61= gE3 q!
    (d) (e) Cu(NoJz
    a.J7I? o) q
    4.38 'l+ 4 E].+Eg Eql^l Hld6le, Ed"1l3, zj{a}l{E $ -aa7L aol 7l* +el7lg} q= ¤9.JzI?
    +61^19_.
    (a) LiClOa G) HC1O (c) CH:CHzCHTOH(sE+sJ
    (d) HCIO3 (e) CuSO+ (0 CI2H22O1r(¤¤l-) A
    D
    qg- E^I HI+4g Sa6}jr, +Eg *+n, 449 gal ol
    g H]+^lg xi.le. B C
    -a3e(a) HBr(aq) + Ca(OH)2@Q +
    (b) Cu(oH)z(s) + Hclo4(aq)
    (c) Al(OH)3(s) + HNO3(4{) +-
    4.48 49 45eq s*¤ +E 4IE1-+= Aadt^le.
    4.40 q* rf ++ Hl+el +B "*+ Bzt HI+^14 oJzl ol9 tl* (a) ¤tt} ut+(saSo, (b) oI+4}(HrsoJ (c) *pI
    rdllg. (Srs) (d) +El +A(HrS)
    ^EEE
    ^ls
    (a) ot^]lE4} ++Ee +&+ EIE ++Eql el"ll +p+9E1. (e) *3 g+ E4l 4.47q fl= +TlgEql^l qL +Eql +l
    (b) r.i]l +tslreE(Ir)g ole4F+ Hls"el+. il6l+zl?
    (c)?tI ++'-ln} "JEqoI f I9ol +9" +q. (0 +el - &fl49 E+ 714 + 9lb g^= 9l +7lgE
    '*. EI+E +B "*+ E^l Hl+4r+ gx1 olg Hlso4g 4 I
    qL +qq 9]il6ldE7f?
    j1, 44ql^l dCB zl8lE +4ql^ls. geq^J zl4+ g^E &al+= e46l^le.
    -+.ar(a) -nall ++ TIEE* +& ++sqrl Hlg" +q. '++ 4
    (a) Soz 6 S (b) Coclr f c (c) KMnoa 6 Mn
    (b) i14l +& ElrLJl+g +g^4I ++a44 Hls"*+. -++g(d) HBrO 6 Br (e) PF3 + P (0 KzOz 6 O
    4.42 tsl ol9"l Szl{olzl q+ql, E+.$ffi-e- 4F} + Hi+ 4.s0 Ll+ ?+ pl.Jgql^l zllal flael 4lq+¤ aa6l^le_.
    ttrl. (a) LiCoOz ? Co (b) NaAlHa 6 Al
    (a) rl-* eI*9 "Jal olg HI+^lg;^^le. (c) cH:oH(q1tsgJ+ c (d) caN 6 N
    + 2HClOa@q) ------ pe(CtO+)z@d + H2O(/)
    FeO(s) (e) HCIOz 6 Cl (0 BaCrOa 6 Cr
    (u) (a)9 Hl*4g +3+q Nio(s)e* 44i ++.-lE Hl+ql qn- Elg"ql^l gE fl+-z}4IF+El:z, gH flnz; ¤lflgiz|?
    46J.J4I olg HI+4g *.r.le. (a) Nz(s) + 3Hz(s) + 2NH3(s)
    et Elrql+, +Ip}"trql+, ++l+ "lrql+g EF g^l -asr(b) 3Fe(No3)z@d + zAl(s)
    Lz]loll, 4Ic +"-4r+ HI*++. - 3Fe(s) + 2AI(NO3)3(aq)
    -++:(a) ol :ull$ 44 g4InI +9"^lag'll .Jq+= HI+q q] (c) Cl2@fl + ZNal(aq) Iz@q) + 2Nacl(aq)
    -
    171
    =* =r1l
    (d) PbS(s) + 4H2O2@q) PbSoa(s) + 4H2O(l) vl+71?
    - 7IE+9 q C++ 9lilE 4617l
    4.s2 Elg + qL aol &Et-+g e}*.Jzf? ol a+ q- g^7I
    (c) $EoE +1611
    ^lgoll^l
    qtr dllg +fl6uot 6l+71?
    +gq=^lE s^l6}^le-. olqH ad HI+"Jzl,
    ^I+Eln,
    +p+ H]+"J^l ¤ s^l 6l-^l e-.
    4.s8 q+ H}+(cl¤sb 6J *6}slg E^l)g Eled g^EE g
    (a) Pe(s) + 10HClO(a4) + 6H2O(/) .+ E"E
    ^l¤9 ACB
    ql
    ^F*EtrI.
    4H3Poa@Q + 10HCl(a4) h2@Q + 2Nal(aq) .+ 2NaBr(aq) + l2@q)
    (b) Br2(D + 2K(s) 2KBr(s) Cl2@fi + 2 NaBr(a4) + 2NaCl(aq) + Bt2@q)
    - 3Oz(8)
    (c) CH3CH2oH(/) + 3H2o(l) + 2CO2G) (a) 4E ggd golg4 4lg ql ,I+ ?Ia+ gtrd g^=
    (d) ZnCl2@fi + 2NaOH(a4) - Zn(OH)z(s) + ol:1o3217
    - 2NaCl(aq) (b)94 gie+ ofoleQpl EEI+$ 4g u]| H}+"1 'Jqg
    4.s3 trl-g EI-S{ ql6J +B *+ +xI HI+!+ $af ol8 ql$al q+6}^ls.
    ^lE
    _q- rl o
    .rA (c) EeuJ g4el gs+ ?]Eg 4lg Ell EJ+ol 9"lBzl9 {l
    = -..t+.
    (a) EJTIq=e+ Bg +& qalrl9.
    o) =.-sE-r+ 'r-E"J+ +44I EEel-EE(4.5tr)
    (c) i44 B&
    4.se (a) *99 r-oEE C¤"JzL a7l'\AAoJ7l?
    ^ll7l
    (d) "J+El t.!+ +,tl(HCooH) (b) 0,s0 mol HCl4 0.s0 M Hclel ilolS +l'J7l?
    4.s4 E]^g HI+ql ql+ tB *+ +zI +*44 "JaI
    ol3 $+4
    4.60 es.o 99 ¤E}(crzllzzorr)g EE]6I= 1.000 LE f 8 "l'l llcl
    gA I a
    (a) ol +eqel EtsEb guI.JzL?
    (a) ul4r-l ¤&
    (b)(a)9 r=oEE Hls-tr 916ll^l} H EElsl +9 a
    o) er+ Ee +& zf6llot 6l-=zp
    =ol7l
    (c) u|:u116'4,r E"Js+ +A&
    a^or t"l 150 mL *9oll o.rzs mol ZnclzE s*61= +qq g
    (d) ot4l E4I(cH3cooH)
    "I¤rl r-oEE altl6t^ls.
    gEs. 4.s)g ol+6}q +-g Hl*e.l ilB "*+ ++
    ^lg(E (b)4.s0 M 4& *o-{ :s.o mloll fzllalg o}C^}sl g+=
    Hi¤-^lg r^^le. "JE HI*ol g"l4zl gl:sE A+61 NRol
    -ess+n }^ls. 9ul"JzI?
    (c) 0,350 mol #61-= Ell gg+
    NaoHE 6.00 M NaoH
    (a) ?4I +?](D +s{ql a ++g '+=+. +"lE +ulb gr.lrlEle g"ltzl?
    (b) +slEtrql+ +eqql oI¤ ++g'+=Et.
    4.62 (a) Na2Croa t2.sg¤ Eql+q C$al zso mLE +qg "J
    (c)i4 ++q trE"J5I +^&ol dz}94. EgtrlH +slel ¤!o Eb g"I"Jzl zlt6}^le_.
    ol
    (d) g+ qAGD ++o-qq^l f4 zl4lzt#qe=q.
    (b) 0.112 M KBr *9 150 mL 5 rrr9 g+= gEtqlTp
    (e) *tI igE0D 8991 'JFults *+g H*4. (c) 0.1s0 mol HClg Bts rll Bs.J 6.1M HCI +"lE +El
    4.s6 gFE 4.s)g ol+6iq q-g Hi+e-] +B *+ Elirt
    b gE;]Ele 9"1?lzl?
    ^]g(s
    HI¤-^lg r Hl+ol 9"l4zl ?*sE A+61 NRol
    r+n
    ^le. "JE 4.63 C"J Bz}el + Et"J +slE ¤+Ag s.0 Lol+. iE olg9
    ^A^lg.
    (a) ¤41+EODql qa ++g BE+.
    ¤t +E7f 0.13s Mol+B, ¤"qq sqlg iE olgE eeJ

    (b) SL3r+ulrullf, +.-qql olg At +.lg dzl.*4. 9 guloJz}?

    4.64 4E ol-e- r-oEE 0.ll8MolI, +


    (c) =o4 +ql g4}g'+EtrL ^I4EE6.J ^i*el E+
    (d) r-EE ++g ggl3tr#(II) ++Eql B=+. B"_q +{E 4.6 Lol{. Et"I9 Sulz} gC6i4a zl{g ql,

    (e) d,t} g +Eql^l ii zlAlzl #ole=4. c/J.il o. rre M9 4E ol$ fu.Ez[ 9zl 9]all,rlE qL aE
    E gE].^$$ d+lqlot{+7I?
    ++ TIEES Cd2* olgg g El-g ++ol ol+q
    ^JC6J+.
    a+. ars g+ oJng(CH3CHzOH) *E(blood alcohol concentration,
    -+sz(0 ol¤ ++ 4?+g cdcl, ++Eql BrB TIEE| ;f+ol BAC)= ¤o{ 100 mLE} oJa99 r++ol+. El+ q;l +
    a4 EEq 4=¤EI. ql^.] 6+el B4
    "Jag 7l+ilE BACTI 0.08 ol^Jol+.
    .Jige.l tE: q
    (ii)7lEE ++ 449= Ni(NoJz(aq)91 grB qa ++ol BACTI0.08o1+H, ¤eqq
    =46l-b
    M
    .Jzt?
    44 sBql 4egEi.
    (a) *89 ¤B6I= oJal ol¤ Hls"^]9.. 4.66 C.J Bzlel + B"q +qq ¤+e s.0 Lol+. E+¤ trt{
    ^ls.
    (b) TIEEE gEE aa4Tlql q- gaTt zl* zl
    ^lgg + ¤+ oJ=.g *E(BAC)7I 0.100148, E"-qql +4161'=
    172 46r +Eqoll^]el EJ8

    .Jigq 4eJ.$ $ulolzfr g oI+ ,J+ EJ.'SxllolEI. ol t'j^]zjl '* ts^lb ITI]E +
    ^]l+
    qaz ol n cz|(o.ao M ql+g ++"q) 1.00 LE "JE?JH qleg oJ4. t.ox 1082fl$ 4l+3 qolTl glalrl s.ox loi ME 6J

    (cH3cH,oH) H g9 E"ll 4qoi o15z|f O) qltsgq "J +qg TVla- 2s.00 mlg 6}^Jzjl +"lg ,JE= %IH
    ^Jrll
    ia(o.7se g/mL)E ol+6l.q H E7f 1.00 LE EJE= q g.s- g
    ^J¤.I^le-.
    * ql+gE +qE 4l&6}^le. n77 4z+ol4r..Jqd +++ ol^llE&e zs"Cql^l rgEzl
    4.68 9{217,\ 6J Aqlb 1p4mg4 o}r.7u4}(E}ol4"J c, 1.0a9 g/mloltrl. 2s'Cq^l B.i& zo.oo mLE 250.0 mL

    c6H8o6)ol .J+qq fl+. sfllal+^ oJ aE +-1471n6.6 +._qoI qE+5-6.J oi^llE4}+.-qE E.r-"E= I"l.JzI?
    mlaln ts 41. {zl9l {}..,?9 u}ol4"J cel gbETt Alt}6} 4.78 4tE. ^l+, +8"-q, g+^q *Eql
    =q^'llE(c3Hsor)¤
    '*H+16I4 ^l=SE+. ls"cql^J EJETI r.26s6
    ^ls. =ul^ll+
    +og <^l +g + eEl-# ole-E LoEzl tlz] 4+? g/mloJ ++d eq^il.l+. ls'cql^l 50.000 mL9
    = g Eql +q =q^llE
    0.20 M KCI, 0. 15 M K2CrOa,0.080 M K3PO4 2s0.00 mL +Eg slEflg trll, +'i
    g E]-"EE Al4l6}^ls. =q^ilE
    (b) q4- 6 +r14. olgE E+7I ag?EJ
    =
    0.15 M K2CrOa 30.0 mL, 0.080 M K3POa 25.0 mL el El:qeJEa[ at+
    E"_4 E^1 (4.6tr)

    4.70 +g4tL6r- ol$e.l:-"Ez|= ag? 4.7e e4l g +Eg B46l-qa +q.


    (a) 0.1 M BaIz M KI +"1 (a) 0.200 M AgNo3 ++:q ls.o mrgl ¤4lalE 3 ol39
    *o+t O.2s
    (b) 0.10 M Kr +E 100 mL, o.o4o M Znrz *9 200 mL E+ 44^lvl7l +joll gs6J 0. lso M HCI(aq)9 Pult:
    (c) 3.2 M Hr +"+, raS 99 NarE Eoll 9¤ rso mle.l +.1 9oloJzI?
    o ELE -Q-oil
    e uL O I
    (b) 0.200 M AgNo3 i*9 ¤4]6l* I ol¤¤
    ts.o mlgl
    E-+ ad^l7l7l 914 ge6J KOE e"+g gultzl?
    '49-4 +.lql ¤z1ol-b ol+ E= ts^Iel +EE g"I?lzy?
    (c) 0.1s0 M HCI(aq) 500 mL9 Zlg 39.9sBqolr, KCI
    (+El= qg + 94r z}daJ4.)
    -a71(a) 0.25 M NaNO3 rEE {tg rogElol+. (a) 4 6) + q! lol cl A}t
    (b) l.3x to-2 M MgSoa E4 44.Jzl?
    (c) 0.0150 M C6HpO6 4.80 et TIEE +Eg +46}qr +4. 0.s00 M cd(No3)2
    (d)0.272 M NaCl *9 +S.O mLq 0.0247 M (NHJ2CO3 + *9 ss.o mLEPel cd2* olgg 44^17171916ll gs+
    9 os.o mL9 ¤6J *9 NaOHg 4a$g gulolzlr

    4.72 El-* 4 gil +"-qq ¤461^b olg9 E"Ei go}.Jzl-? (P asr t"r o.o87s M NaoH *9 50.00 mLE +c+61+ rjl $goJ
    q= q'J+ 9l+a rlC+trt.) o.Lt5 M HClo4 +ole.l +ul} gEltTl?
    (a)0.170 M NaoH *.-4 +z.o mlc+ 0.400 M NaoH (b) 2.s7 g9 tutg(ou)rE +EI6l-= q ge+ o. 128 M HClg
    *o-4
    37.6 mL PiilE 9rI.JzL?
    (b)0.100 M Nazsor 89 +e.o mlel 0.1s0 M KCI +E (c) 785 mg KCI(Agcl Brd) E-E cr- olgg a
    ^lEql^l
    25.0 mL 4^lvl7l ?loll zs.s mlel egNo, +Eol gs6fElE,
    (c) KCl 3.60 g9 0.2s0 M CaCb *9 75.0 mlgl Hg +.-q AgNo3 +'le-l SbEE guloJz}?

    +zt M NH3el A6J +Eol 9l+. 0.2s0 M NH3 1000.0


    <"1 14.8
    (d)KoH +"-qg ++^l7l7l 91611 0.108M HCI +q 4s.3

    mLE "JE4E, +l.J +"1 P "Jr]?-lEl= fl4q Sqot 6l


    mlz| p8-ofrlE, +eqql +^ll6l-b KoH= P :*qlz}?
    EzI. (b) dql +._qql^-l f6l.q #4^J
    10.0 mLE 0.s00 L= 4.82 (a) 0.101 ira sa(oH)z *9 so.o mLE 64al* Ell gst
    3l++.19 s6Ei $ulz| 94bzl? 0.120 M HCI+Eg H "J44Eqlzf?
    "JEr+{,
    4.74 (a)6.0 M HNo3el tl+ +'lol 914. o.soo M HNo3 llo
    (b) 0.200 99 NaouE +s}6l= Ell gg6J o.l2s M H2so4
    +eqg q "JqelEl.Jrl?
    fl6}q #qo} 6l=7I?
    mLE ".l.EqH, H "J;]zlElE
    ol89 ad^l7l7l +1611
    ^lE +E *+I
    (c) 752 ms NazSor
    (b)
    "JE 4l6J +.lql^] 10.0 mLE +l6}q #E^l 0.2s0 L=:
    55.8 mL9 BaCl, $o-{o1 Bg6}E}8, ol +'-qE EEoEE
    EIE+E, g6J +"lel s6Ei gulz| qAyzl?
    guloJzl?
    aelgq^l S^llsql 4lEg "J ileEg ¤B6Ir il4. xtl (d)ca(os)z +"-qg +s}^l7171 9-1611 0.208 M HCI +o-q
    a+ +a4 +Eb l.sx 10-e Molr, s.00 mL9 Egl
    -+ls2.0x E9
    l0s4l9 "J^ls7I gl= ¤E d^lql ol *9 r.oo mr=i-
    42.7 mLzl gsd}trIB, +Eql +416l.= ca(oH)zE P
    --,zllol7L,
    8fl4. ol qlq "J^llE +e+ ilEE E^l-+E ul|. $ulolzp ggg qzlql +& +Eol S4qA+. ol +oqg E4I+4
    4,7 6 zJ4zloF}"l4l zJu}-t(Camfreamicin gamma-I, CssHdN3O2rSJ
    +s|+ + HolH4. E&+^ +4lg H]*
    -as3^E_e_e ^E+
    +71Ea E^.11 173

    e q-gr+ eq. E"l B=*Eql EB6l-fl9 q ++.I= 4 o-E H6l-fl+.


    2NaHCO3(s) + H2SO4@fl ------ Na2SOa(aq) + (a) *4+++EE Ee=+e got"Jzl?
    2H2O(l) + 2CO2@) (b) ++ ololgg ca2*, sr2*, Ba'* 6 q9 aoJTI?
    co,(s)9 tsrJol H= ullzlz] s.llf+ AE¤ 47r6}fl4. +tz o.zooM KoH 89 roo.o mLE 0.150 M Niso4 *9 zoo.o
    6.0 M H2So4 27 mLtl S{flA+H, olag +5|^l7l5 ql mrP] 4fl4.
    996J NaHCo:9 4i de"te 9ul-q_lzl? (a) .Jol4b Hl+e.l +¤
    "*a +q q}¤-^lg , ^ls.
    4.84 4aE B^llb olrlle{}(CHrcooH) ullgo14. ol o},tllEt} O) q¤ AdEol ^E71}.7l?
    rI +tlal HI¤+ trl--94 e4. (c) Fqol 6J4l
    ^Eq ^lEoJTI?
    CH3COOH(a4) + NaOH(d{) .+ (d) oledE H:Eol ^l7l}.7l?
    H2O(/) + NaCH3COO(aq) (e) 89 + tsol9l.b 4 olge] bE= 9"Iqlz|?

    0.lls M NaoH 89 42.5 mLE ¤:p+61-= ql 3.4s mlel 4.88 O.2OO M HNO3 +o-l s5.0 mloll ls.o gel Sr(OU)zE Hfl4.
    ^l .Jol+E EJs"g +B *A +q Hlgo4g;u19.
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    ^ls. I, r olf¤ ¤H6I^le.
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    E=El. E+= +A¤ Hl¤¤q flgq Hsl¤
    =ol zl¤61 ol+6}q 4&"J + 9l+g ++
    tlql^J= 9l'lzlc+ qqzlel Hslql ql6J B+tr ^lzI6J+. .J^J .Jr+. r 4l^lg 916ll Hess H49 4*
    ql+61 "*g i Eol olluJzl9 g6}.9 *=trt= 4,S"J olrl4
    ^Jgg 6Jr+.
    c}trlg olflalzl +l6ll^J= e+o+ HI*ql +Hiq= qlLJzl HsI
    ^llElltr
    -= 016l]6l]0} rlzl rll$olri. 5.7 > 8¤ tlgtrl slql +*9 elBq tre+ql
    46J E=Ag qBfl C6IEzl, ri]r
    trIE HI+EE $lBEl Esl¤ 4l&6f=
    Ell r aE¤. qB4l ol+6}Ezl= EE
    oJ+.

    5.8 > t!=JEl B+ A6J dBi4E


    ^l-S6I
    =g
    4 zl^ll{l HI*el Q]EEI= +$++.

    5.9 > ^1=rl Ee qlLlzlgotr^Jg g4+


    strql qlsH aE6l-r., gl zlul re] $
    < EllEl!UB g+trIts til Eol HJ36|.E {:lsl "JFnltsal"E ¤¤ arJ "t ^Isl4 E4q ql4 Eq
    SdErL s.Ei 0l HJEe =+rt
    HJ30ll^1 8¤EJ E *017l0ll gE =+01
    g8^l ql+.
    zrt H|e9.! HJ- +-{'JEroil ggE =^-g
    trjEJt¤ qlq^17} =EEj
    olg7.il gE EEJEETI
    +E=4"J qpltL IM
    =Eq

    179
    qlLJzle} qlqzlel H++q ql6J ¤+= EelEl(thermodynamics, r4^q th6rme-('¤'),
    dy'namis('fl')ol4r *r+. ol Eot9 ¤+=4Ig eE 7VJ+ +zl zl+ql^l g, .J, tsE
    a9 +Zl= gd^l7171 9l6}q ^l4IEl*.r-t. ol tlql^l= g4 +dg s+E Hls.4 9lHxl H
    s+ +41= ¤q-e-Lzl-.J+. gEq+9 ol4al ++g ElilEt(thermochemistry)olap
    ^lolel
    gEq}el +7|zl.J +Ee letlql^l EEEJ 4o14.
    'JtI.

    5.r I EpJ qlLl7'le.l ^Jt


    xllrtr(r.+¤)91^J H}lg Hle+ aol, ql"lzl= .Jg 6}rl+ gg olE^la + fl= bqsE c
    elg+. \1tr gql *ot tl44 strqloJ rgg +++ gg EJ=61+ 3rlE
    ^l-S6l+ ^I*g
    HI¤¤ +4614l g+(f,.J s.t(a)). qB 3rlo+ Hi¤+ e4E 6J tril "Jq+= 14 ,J.1, ¤9
    ++6I7lE 6J+. EtiJ e+tr} HI¤+ 94 zlzl EJHetr .Jg 6J + 914. xllrat_e_s*El 4
    +r+ ag "Je] dEE tr-7l6}zt.
    w:Fxd [5.1]
    qlE 5q 7]+il4 &a .rp1e1 g^ El¤:e s+61-= Tlill= ol 4aql^l zls" i[
    ^Jc6Iq,
    ql Fqg ++61+ ql + 9l= "Jg 6lzl t4. ¤Bol ql+grl ol1}s+ +a_+ gs
    ^h&g
    qE 3r+q HISql ol/-E7t
    ^]-sg tql.Jol "JEqa+.
    oll a=3 ulzllE E.J Bq^l g
    eef ulxlq +A7l SEqE gdg co,s+El "Jqol +zlElq eezzl 'B'6Ir Flq+
    s-: gg at= rJl ^l-s¤ + glEl(rB s.r(b)). E EIE qE^J HI¤+ "Jg 6l-=
    ql
    ^l-*g + 9l= dzl "ilHzl= ^Jc6l= ag E + 9l+. ^lq*+g
    EE qlq49 ¤Eil= +F qlq4+ irlHl¤ qLlzl + a}+e E+¤ + 91E1.,,.., (r.4¤).
    sl4 Hlqoge+q Hl*q= 9lHzlb +e ElHl¤ qlqzlel E+e+ +dqq 9lq. ll¤l¤
    qLlzl* ilz}. ffioll,(l 44214 ^}s z++-q-q+q ^Ja'L q4^l EIE HI*ql +dg ql
    LJ7IE olollaffi] .J+E +d d6l-= E "Jzl¤ .!-E z]so e-E+q .Jq+=
    ^[olql^1g
    Cdzl $Hl¤ {H!E ol6ll6}qot 6J+.
    d6|= B F "Jzre+ +Hg Cdzl ul{l¤ olluJzl(electrostatic potential energy, EJ= +
    9zI9 daKal4 arq ulfllalz, E ^lol9 4El(d)"il RlElql++.
    f",:@d 1s.21

    gzlrl xllrtr_s^e+H qlLJzlE +4q+ ql


    ^J+"J 8.eextoel-m/c2olr4..
    rcE HIEJI
    ^FS
    > rH 5.1 trl-q HJBI+ olll-l^l gg HJ=61ts itqf UB "J= 6f= +-E Ua
    alqr BJ8oil^1 oilL1rl Etrt= g
    e oEElTlLl g= dl"= tll
    El Olrl" ^l.t
    =TdH.

    t*
    (a)
    r/Y
    *d4
    J
    "' r r,,
    ,'f

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    .
    a*g S+l I-m/C'?: EE(coulomb) 4l*B ¤(ioule) x ulrl(meter)E 9ol;J4. A6J¤ I-m/c'zg ++lE +?]6l+ Sg d
    4t9l I.m/C'el Aol d os s^l6lZ+, d.l ^J+g l m/C2g-tr E^lq7lE 6Jr+.
    180
    5.1 I ql-+ OllLl^lql '5E 181

    SE6l'= E! g^lel9fl61"= E g^l'53 *7l0tl Eil 'SGl^l 9ttl. r- 7vllol E*61.


    ^jtr
    -E¤ EJEE ¤I7l trjH]¤ oilLj^l* olgllBrt?
    q Esg Eal )111, c1 cl a E4 zal, rl At8
    AtHl
    !=, rJ
    _l aL Lel
    E = EJ"J, rl E"r
    ^13

    'Je +E d6t
    (EJ'J)

    E"l>0 a
    Qt Qz

    Eet=0 L Eal Tlal -------> oo

    E"t<0
    Qr
    I a Qz
    o
    iltl] +E I6t
    (ee)
    rl Is= E4 71e,1. L1 rl z Eal 7.lal, rl 4rg
    olai
    Ji,
    r-.1
    "t
    xlq E
    Lel
    = olai
    u-! r-l L\-L -q401\
    -r =^l-q
    tr
    E r -rl Lel
    -L

    A:18 5.2 EETl trlEl¤ ollLl^l tdlE E F "J^l7l g8-zr Tlal= +^16lr ?lE ttll, E6l7l a= +-a0l
    E E"rB "Je-l 'J= 7f^lq, BJIH PEoIE A9'JE ?+Etl oJ^EOl E4q tl gal 'SGIE0ll q+ 5d7l
    trlEl¤ ollLl^l= EE ool 7wllTlLL

    q= +gl= ¤0).14, 1l:1ks-m2/s2oJg tzla}4. $z]. ffioll,rJ d6l Q,4 Qz9 {t


    g BF dzlg 4la].(r.aox10-re C)ql 4+6I= eEq aTloJ HlEql, ,Jr,l= 4r.olel
    (t nm:1x 10-em)el dEE lql^J 10ull9 Hrl= ,*YLI.
    dzl flxlr)zf9E 4dzl jrlHl¤ qlqzlTi 001 Eg trq +a +^l g6lE, 9lq-.
    ^15.2=
    4dzl uiHl¤ "llHzlzl-0olE dd¤ B "Jzl¤ol +.JEI]E E?.lg+-il AEg+. aH s.2
    ol F {a} ,,.io19 A4zl Etr ull Eaol 9Bzll 4F6l+zl= Hq Qr4 Qzz} ?9
    = oJel ,*)g ,ll, d6l-= ts + "Jzl=
    =+.ol
    Elg6}q, Hlgqg
    +s(el5 Eq E + ^Js=
    gq,llq E{zl4l oJtl. "Jes 6}dg F E!l= 4e ^ltr. zl4Al zlzlezl +16ll^l= F Erll
    +gqg ++6171 +l6lq gg 6l]oI"J g aol+. olE¤ ++ql^J Hq.+
    ^Flql =46l+ qluJzlzl-
    ,ll 6lqE vlHl¤ 8F qlHxle A+IEql q4 ^JE.ql^l gel "lFB i ?l9 X"l
    r|. ol 4* Eae "J9 <loll, oJzlEol gqe++ ElHl¤ qHzl= +4++. Q,4 Qzzl
    Hlql +s= 714 4+ oJzl:=g ol oJqol .rJ-tr5 7l1dAl6lE+ SolB
    ^JE= ="lBzlq,
    zJ4. ol 4* ar9 *9 <lolr, "Jzl¤ol EqA++ i4HI¤ 9lul4E +71+rI(+ E ¤.e_l
    <iol E4).
    44t) rlHl¤ oll'Jzlq slq} adJql zltig qlq^l ^Iolel +4lE olallalzl 96ll^l:
    NaCl4 ?9 ol9 aEI sl-6JE-3 ^J4"ll E= aol +sl6lr}. Na+ o3o1g4- cr- +olgg qI
    ql d6l-= ?*y + olg qlqq e_l6l]^l ?,*slol 9lrt. olqlql^J ol E
    ^Iol9 442]|4 ^J-+
    g olg a6Je-E +4u+. olg aBE zl^Jl+ ¤Ee 8tlql^.] trl-= aolq. 4"J, 9zl9l
    J:E olg4 ¤p] olgol aB6I= olg a6Je oJdd}e+ +d6l ^tolE cdzl4 .JH
    ^l=
    ql +i1 9l+= 4"J9 ololalS +8614. olgS9l ,-l4E BqE47l +l6ll^J= r
    =4=
    182 5S Eof+

    rB eEi+ql 0 |8E¤ tso l- +ol Erlo lll EltlE :1 0 |eEg 7 VW)^l*7 l, 0 lLl E g0l
    ^1tr
    rlfl=7t?

    Eet=0

    ob oc
    Co Co
    olSEol^lE
    7t77tgE,.Jg
    oc oc
    Eet<0
    trlEJl¤ 0llLl^l
    c o Co
    ol3=ol^le
    ddlt -k-q
    tr1EJl¤ 0llLl^l

    ArB 5.3 8d7l trlE!tr 01111^lel 013 018= )1121e)FJql 4af 8871 trlEl¤ 0llLl^l=
    ,Jee) =-cr. ^l0lE
    )l/,l El!
    67l'-dt(-J 8el 018=9 ZalTf +urtt|B 8!71 trlEl¤ ollLl^l= 00ll -E=6111 EJtl'.
    A^lltrl-ct=0ll^1 018=01 gELl )WI9JA + ?=71= -"-l l^lE ilgol 4l^l -dzlTlEtl.
    ^|e ^folel

    aJ
    +Eiu Ele+ aol, irlHl¤ qlLl^l= +71^1714^l Na*el cr- ^lol9 "lg aE}g +
    s.3ql
    +614+ #94ot"J il4. .lBzll 6f7l f.ldJ ql,Jzl= +E +g ++r-ql frq. H
    olg =flql^l
    44e E?-lg ol¤.=ol zl7lol f;talq a6Jg Bd6IE+ 6r= E4ag qHl¤ ql
    qzl= *+q, q+^J 9lulzlE %l=++. ole},Jg ¤^Jol gglEg ,lE 94= ¤Ealzl
    6J+.

    El* ¤Bol ¤dg 4E {lHxlz} *=qr, E}4 at}ol gqA ql: qlLJzlT}
    ^IL¤+.
    .JA6leI gd6}7t sElqzl ?*3 E(Hzo)4 qlel"J(cHJ4 ,J3 tsztC Eaql qBrll
    ole+ E.J.J fl4z} 4$.gizlE 7!.6llg + glg 4o14. zJs*4 s*9lrl tsll+4l q= Er
    el,Jol, +zt+E fl4-==9++ aElsE asJqq ?14. Adzl EIEI¤ qlLJzlE fl
    ^lE 6J
    +ce 'J Eq4zl"J, ++ a6JE zlzlzl El= E* EA^J 4dzl4ol4. olg AEIE
    a+e+ qeol, ++ e.Jg #71 94^l= qlHzlzi *?9q"tql 4q ++ a6Jol ecE
    oll .tlrlzlzl r}=g+.

    5.2 I oJo-{6jzjll'Jzl
    glulzl= zllrzJo'jlr.l d6J ¤elg ElHl¤ glulzlE EB6tol y+g q=
    ¤E glrlzlp] trI"J"J
    =oFE ++++. qlulzlzl6J Bqq^.] +E ¤EIeq d*tol ft}q= r+ag B *ql^J *
    g gs= S.+. Etsol= ,Je +Eql BqE4E +q ElHl¤ olluJzlz| 35 q1u1z1-+ d*l
    94. dflzt^= t4e+ qI+^14 d.Jg zlg6}H slel9lHzlL gE d+gt}. olel eg
    F a+ eF(*4zl ^Jt|6J + 9l= += E= aE)ql^l qlq4= 6J Bqq^l += Bqs
    ag¤ += 9le+, .llHxl= +aq4+ 4gg + s+= ol ++g E= 4qlql^] TltL
    +.CoJ aq 4+tr'^l Eq+ {[ElEl(first lawof thermodynamics) o + "JrJ4 9l+. ol Bzl
    5.2 gq+ 183
    ^lllE^l
    g d%+4qE 4+6171 flal-ol ffi5 *4zl +dg r*= 6J4g 4lE Lt+j1 4lel qlqzl
    cq6}zl 4qg gez} 9l+. +gql^l ol+loJ zll'Jg B+6Jrl.
    = deJq ?lsl H2el 02 ErfT[
    4lsl ++l Egalq H2o= SdEltlE.
    daJq ?lsl Ex14; Ets A
    9l'Jzl H+= E46J rllE 9lulzl Halzt.Jq+= 4+ +46171 +16ll ++E zllaJ=lr
    ?l7l? detq +el EaJe H
    Eq6l ae-lg qB ++ql :aag "*= 9s-21 ql4. ololl E+= 9ldl dqg ++g xt
    ts a?l7t?
    (system)r-p. 6}], -L el9 EE += ++g F9I(surroundings)e[-L +t]. de¤q^l s]
    q HI*ql +Hlq= q1u1zl flffi g+g ,I Hlp--84 ^JcEe 4l= ol+i1, e]8 *zle+ gtr^l E= trl^Eoll
    gB^j
    86tlTl
    z|e Eol
    r ElAq E= ae ++lE rJ+g+. )l71Ll
    ollLi^17f
    /l= ulg + ?lrt.
    Al= g-l 9l4LI Eq 9lZ+ E= jlBqq flg + 91trI. gfl4l(open system)| Eeq
    qlLlzlTI ++le+,L+tg + 9l= al"l+. +E flg #= E"l *zJ *4 s= r.Fg gflrjl oltr EillE llB
    ol+. gol +Eq^l 4le Eqe__n., E+ +7)71qq ++ls ,.1=g+. Eolezlq-1l=
    rrl-J + flrl.
    =
    gs+o,Iql^l 7l* eAl g+g + il= 4l= Efl4l(closed system)o]q, ol 4= ++le+ ql
    LJzl= i{}6J f 9lzl"J, EAe i+}g + fltt. ql= 5q tl4$ol t}+g dflrl{l 5{
    9l= +^ 7l4l(Hre+ &r zlill(o,)el EJEg ^J46ll sz[(zal 5.4). +ie+ &i= 4lol
    r, dflqe+ rl^E-g EEI6Iq r elg (+4= EElo E= ag +9lol+. ol zl;ll$ol ..i'r

    +q"6lq Eg ^J^J6}E, flHzlzl EJ=gtf.


    zHz@) + oz(c) tHzo(c) + 9lHzl
    -
    4lql fl= +^ gz].e} &l gzlq slE4 BEI= ol Hl+ql 9al] HlRxlqI, zl= aE6lg E
    +fl : delrl, tr14E,
    44 Szl $9t+. olag A\zl ??14 {ulal EeE jr'+6tzl *9t+g 9"1.J4. r7l+ r Hlol EE 7.1

    ol 4l= ++le+ "J4 ge_l BqlE 9lHzlE jr'SdJ + 9l+. : Hzk)et oz(g)
    + H= 4lol+. E4& 4
    nB4l(isolated system)i ++le+ 9lLJzlpi E^llE .E-F j1¤+6J a.r.H 5.4
    q= Br 9l= +g trgHol j1B4lql ?l*q. rrl+ rlrl= A+ 49 4olB, qzl^] ol =-d4l

    4l7I $q6l4l jlHg 43 olLl4.

    w oJ rJp r=J z I ?.1 ) l. LJ-d)1loJ) L EE]^lo! l?

    Ll|+ qlLlT,l

    AIE +C C+Eq E.= eE ,lHl¤ 9lHul9 .Jg Alel t-llF qlHrl(internal


    qlHzle+
    enersy, E)+r cg*r}. ql= Eq :zH s.+9 4lql^l .ll+ qlqzl= HzeI oz E4¤q +
    E "t tls zl-e-o rrJol otq+, : EzI59 +c cBql 44 dzt59 gF q trc. 48s. g
    E}+trt. "JHI49E 4lg Lll+ ql,izlg aqztg E=+. gq+ql^J= 419 Eslql q+ +
    Hlq= EE Hq(++ql B4lzl"J, trt= 'Jel Es+ql ql6ll^lE)ql +-+ +dg ,*+Ll.
    azl 4P qlHxlzl Ez,tL 4l= ^J46ll Bxt. 4l= Bq¤ 441 g ol Hslql= +
    6Jg g l:= olE"+ Eol S4lE + 9t+. 419 HsI+ rJlE /+,]]+ ^"lt_,
    {lHzlEEa5olrl.
    4+ qlqrl9 HsL m(g4E'4r 9l*).=Ea+4 Eztg iioltr deloJt}.
    L,E:Ea+-Ezz [s.:]
    'J+zlse ¤xll tt*9ld qH ZIE Ea+4 Ezz9 dzll <i9 +d6J + H'1. rHqlE tr
    +6Il. gEq zllrHzlg ol+6iB ¤E4ee AE ,*g +Ag + 9i+.
    AEe+ rJg gEql4 "Jg +Ee-E Elq 9l+. ^ll
    .zlE AE tr+= ++q]i rll oJElzl-o-q ql= +ol hE BEI= ah-E +49 + ?l+
    ^l-&g+. =q
    184 5g gel-+

    E66$ E5717[ 'JtlE, AEsl ilP gri?]71?

    ztel
    zlel ollLl^l+t3 il6 .\tEU
    aTldfEl]ql^] n|= Ez*
    ArElle Olall+3 -d6J
    E3^4 6l+lE-" E^l:'J
    L11

    -
    0tl Eu,
    zlsl
    Eatl
    L1
    a7lsE|]

    ^l
    e zle] oilLl^l El=e
    :E7l8El]oll^l As
    SElle 9+g -BFEI
    E*le
    4lsl +E^4 A|AEE E^lEf
    A= sEll

    f?|e olll-l^l= g=. +9lo1l^l ollLl^l= E=,


    llel 4+ qlq^l ,J4 llE Lfl+ oilLlrl=71.
    AE=3E'J A rE OFOI 7l

    arH 5.5 Ll]+ ollLlrlsl EEt

    l. +zl
    2. t+l
    3. +s
    (r)4 (z)= -J4l Hq}el a7l= +4qq, (:)3 Ep]9 %16&9 L+4U+. Ea+>Ea,t9 4l
    AE= olE Zloll, 4lzl ?ge+q qlqzlE E+g 7l4vJLl. EA+<Ez,t4 trll AE= *q

    AIE +Aql^J Ei1 9l+= 19 "Jolot .J+. rzl+ 419 9lHzl ZzlY qH A+ql+ +
    Ms(s)cl clr(g) eBEe.l L}|F.
    ollHrlTl- MgClz(s)ol Lt|+ 0ll 919 9lHzl +^= ++6[q, r
    H]qlEE 9lHzl Hp]z].Jqtsg 7lqts gsTt gl4. ol
    L1^lEq g
    rll, Ej8 4EI 9lHzl HslE fEJ s.sql .qE6l*.+.
    =qr
    * =eg
    +El H]+ql^J A14 z=zl ^Jql= HI¤+3 *6tr1, 4+ tlEll= ^JC+g F++. qlE 5
    MgCle(s) Mg(s) +Cl2Gr)
    q
    E LiElLl1.b ollLlxl -Es.¤-1 'l-* E}*ql^l
    el,'.ls. ZHz@) +oz(S) + ),Hzo(/)
    a7l ^Jql= 2Hz@) +o2k)o11, 4l+ tlEI= 2 H2o(l)ol+. qB gEql^J +ie+ *Lzl
    Hz(s), oz(s)
    *)l El*6I"1Eg 4Cg trll, Zl= qlqxlE ++lE gJqElil+. zllzl-ollu]zl$ SBzl *llE9l
    gluJzl* **E(azl tl-Ell)el .I+ qlqzlE+ +sq, ol r+aE
    ^JCE(31+ tr-El])E 4P
    8Etl

    LH

    AE<0
    AE= +sl <iol4. olel Aol f.H s.6E qll'lzl Es.(energy diagram)E Hz$ Oz $EJEE
    qt
    Ll
    4+ qlLJzlz} Elf,-ql^l Sdg Hzo9 4+ qlq^lH+ rElL 49 u-q +r 9l+.
    ^l
    e El= AF=- oJ g oJa|.
    ttzlllrl
    8EH HzO(/) x{s.r¤9lrl E El'e+ aol" zl= qlqzl= + 7l4,JH"J g E= gE ¤qlE ++le} r.+}g

    ollLlll
    + gl+. ¤ol 4l"ll Tt6llzl4Lt 4lql^.1 zllaEg.ErAi, E= oJol zlql 6J6llzlz+ 4ql 96ll
    Ez,7l EaEHLI
    BJS =.+qe
    Zloil^l iflE-qeal, 4lE ']]+ qlllzl a7l= H{+. EIE .ll+ "llHzlE 419 "llHzl zl4$ -$
    =
    BI=EJ. =
    Efal^l AE <0 q 4lz+qr1 ^J4++8, oJ+r+ #',9 g E.= .JE ¤EItr "JE + il+. q+e 4lE qlq
    AE), .J=e 419 9lulzlE a^^la+(*9 al').
    A rH 5.6 2 Hz@) + ozb) ^)= +7!^)vlqeJE
    2 HzOO HJSoll rH-d oll olqoJ oFlqq= ol+6IE gqql xllrBzlg,ll+ f3.+ 4se'IEIB + gl+. + al
    -Llxl trs ,l slqlzl E= Eq4.J E+= +q.J Ell +Elq= 4P 9lHzl EEI{AE)= 4lql 716t4+
    5.2 I gqqf lllE4l 185

    1171.+fle+El 50 Jsl gE '0l*'oe gr, ++l0ll 85 Jel Eg 'glE' atflqr. Sr-l6t| H^[
    ol al8oll rll-d aEg ?Eet37lb gnt?l7l?

    $&o
    d
    zl= Lll+olEl
    =rel

    +
    w>0
    q>0
    Ll]+ o 4q w<0
    0llLl^l
    q<0
    d
    llol ql=El= ollLl^l 4loil^l ?l=ElE ollLjrl
    AE>0 AE<O

    a.lg 5.7 E"l "Joil r|]El ?E +ef Al0il olE.E E (q)rl'zl0ll =dal|t] "J(wE _EF "Jel ,Jolq. zl0ll Ltl+
    0llll^l='ql=6l= aoil 6H-J-sltl. EJqe, zloll^l +?lE 0lE-sr cal lPl +9l0ll g-sf g3 F 7l^l -"+ zl
    ++El Ll]+ ollLl^lE'oJ='o lrl.

    4lE+El 49 ¤(q)4, Zlql 46]lz14+ 4ql 94 +qg "J(,)9'*'J 4ol+.


    6B:q+w [5.4]

    9"1 4l{l 46t{7]4 gol 4lq 46fl9 q= 4E q+ qlLjzl4 67t+4. tr}{^l ¤ol ?
    flql^l 4ls olErJ oll qi "Jq {tg ,*YL+.41q gg 7}6l.= ae qqzl 414}q ql+6}=
    4+ ?Jeq, 419 "lluJzlE e7}*+(re s.7). trI&7lzltr, ++]"il e.l6l] 4q 9ol 4al]4
    ull wE
    "J9 atg ,*+L+. Hlq.e, AlTl ++le gg gXl Elrll+ 4lql 9611 +9lql "J"l +B
    9E qo+ wE 99 4k& r*4lElq, +^l "5ll^l 4lel 'll+ "llHxlzl. *ottl4. ol! olluJzl
    oJ=olq qlulzl +elol ¤qE= 4o14.
    "llulzl 4la}.ll 9lE
    q, w, LE1l qoJ +E +Eol E 5.1q An-lqq fl4. ¤olE "Jol= 4ls +"J¤ "llHzlE
    oJE +nE r*=+.

    X.5.1 {, rv, AE9 -$9 7o-;


    q9l 4;l +Y 4lzl9¤ 9*9 9"1 -Y A17l ¤¤ S*9 9"1
    w9l 46l] +i 4l.ll .I"I +49 .Jg 9"1 -= 4ql s]ql+qg'J9 9"1
    AEql ql6l] +5 4l9l E+ qlLl^lE f,$$$ $ul -= alq E'J qlq4E **d¤ 9ol
    186 53 Eol-+

    qHl s.1
    .J!+ qlLJll
    "JB Lfl+ tslet +{1rl
    reJ ¤alqetq.\Eol ar+E g^l oJoil
    5.40il^l^-laJ, ?l= TlillAb)et B(s)7l.HJ8dlq n^11 gdE c(s)E gdelrl.. A(e)+
    =q
    B(r)- c(s). ol U8oll^l Zl= 1150JE g= +9l0tl utlgtzrt. Tlill=ol HJ36ll^1riil= E¤-g q, trAEe ol.ali+ee t^.I?]rl-.
    g¤pl rt|7l"J6l,01l^1 Tlillel +tr171-#4d[E^1 +9]= zloil rt|6.t| 480 Jel gE +:"J-drl.. zlel Lt|+ 0ilL1^l Eel"= gEtoJTl?

    6tlg ¤4. ol4l


    dflqel ++e E-d flsq, 4E.J4¤ zl4l
    E4 ol dE* qe} r9l 46J $trzl ftolzlr., aE= +61+ z|.r.llzl s4 "Jqlg q^E4 gaqq zliil! palzJlz| $
    Ezllol4. rl. dflrlE 2s"cq $iol Ba 4q* Hl?lql B= dfl
    4q Hzl q* w4 +E(s s.l)= AC6}J , 4 s.+(Az:q
    q +q^J E*9.tr gs+^14 Hl*g +B^lzJ4. t}*ol $
    +w)E oleo6f{ AE=+6J+. Aqflg uI EI E+ opll$etr +4Heq, +=& BHIE
    Eol ge 4lql^l +gtr olf,ap, .Jg ++lql E6il 4q 4
    gE= 28.c.e {r-+6}fl+. 4l= dflq +E zl;ll-e 49
    6ll7lE-tr qE ¤=9 {lola, wE oJ9 {lolE}. q: -lls0 Iol 6tH, trl-8- + ol HI+q^14 q, *, AEg +a= 7l* * tr
    4, w:480 J. ul4^l AE= trl-.q-r} a+. Bq-= ag 9r a.JzI?
    AE : q+ w : (-1150J) + (480J) : -67oJ
    (a) q<0, r,y<0, AE<0
    (b) q<0, ry>0, AE<0
    Arz| g9 zI"J asE+q + ozo l9 glHzlz} 4lql^l ++l
    (c) q<0, w>0, AE9 +g= +q4l CH-E= aCB +
    tr oifotflgg .J + 91trI. 6lo
    lrl.E-
    +el ol4,* H+= 4lE 9lHzl 3B 4lr]9 "Jxt *"1 an I (d) S>0, rv>0, AE>0
    ,J^* 4"e ^J46J + gl+(trI-4^l ¤=e_l +E). llsolol g (e) q>0, rv<o, AE9 +s.= +q{ Ctrets aA'J +
    9 B4e.J=qI, "JE e4E {l*994. zlll9
    480 Jol o.l o
    EAE
    Fslz} zJaaJql 4+ ++lql 96l] 4lq "J"l qElar, f a > .E= ql4 2
    4 9lHzlz} ql+q*+ql Tqolr{. AlTlr4019 gg++lql^l Bf;}r 8s IE gg+gql 4
    > .H.* qtfl 1 6Jq{ql 4ql ql+ oilLJzl gffi Al4}6t^le.
    zlEl AzeI Bz9 ¤* z\i\lzl zltQ+ ++ dflqql +.J

    +oJ 4%{4 Er"J zt%1

    4lE E= Zlql^JE ¤9 olFol ol tlq +d ErllolEE, ol+el %16}.9 zt{zly g zl


    al 5E+ +q= Sqtrz|. olE 4Col gqg 4 4lz\ gg ¤+6J+8, : 4Ag Ee
    (endothermic, endo-b'oJqe'E 9,l'fl-)ol4r. aJ4. 9*ol += ar+ eg gg 4aql
    gg +9lql^l alE .J-s.s E=+(raJ s.8(a)). *4zl ++l9l + ++.J g*ol Er 9l
    ^J
    +71= "JzlE, *zlzl 7l+Al )=44EL r ol+= 9ol *4 +q^J *zle ml\t_lzlzl
    =
    ullEol4.
    gg gqq?-l= r+dg,JE(exothermic, exo-t 'Ht_e_s'= gulgl)olQ-r..J+. fl
    A\TI
    B+el g^e+ ee tsg r+c"il^J ge 4l= trl+z+ E= 4lE +LsE +e+ ++lE ¤:*lrJ
    q(rB s.8(b)).

    Hzb)el oz@)tl u36tq Hzo(/)E 8¤-g E0l ++lE ,J=EJrl-. H20(/)o1l^l Hzb)el.
    rrflts
    oz@)tl SdEl= qHJ- 8?-laH erf. 2 H2C/0 ------- 2 Hz@)+ Ozb). ol HJ- gg?17t, Eg
    ?l7l? (-dE:ral 5.6 er'5)

    tTEH
    TJ+
    gHizles alE ,]l+ 9lHzl 19 aq.J a}g g %}Be s.zl"J E= +qd .JdE aa6}ql
    5.2 I Eq+ 197
    ^llrg^l
    .Jqol e.J¤
    ^l C6Hd
    6}+el {}g ,*E-rl. 4S 9lHzl.ll ¤6&9
    "lil= adglE gEel
    r|. EoJ qlHzlE rzl CeolE e 4lE q+ qlLlzlE 4lql fl= EAq +'Jql ul4ld4 ,,
    (1 3+J).

    2s"c9 E s0 g9 6I+9 41tr 4E+ a+E ^J46ll ts-zl(f.EJ s.e). o1 4lE roo'cel E
    Zl = NHaSCN + E0l+9lE+El Aie 6aq, Hllef
    Ba(OH)2.BH20 +9]87lel3E= LtIalZq.

    fi .)
    )
    +
    ,4=l
    LI

    (a) Ba(OH)2'8H2O + 2 NH4SCN -------+ Ba(SCN)2 + 2 NH3 + 10 H2O


    sg HI*
    g0l 4l0ll^1 +91e (4=6tXD
    z1l =K+HzO +?l BT|E 3E= gatiltrt.
    =a1^1
    =at

    r4 a

    \
    4
    g
    f, rH
    < 5.8 HJ34 "JE U
    =E
    3 F 7l^lqlE=ql^ zl= BJ8
    E4 g¤Ee 8etqq, uEoil
    (b) 2K + 2H2O ------+ ZKOH + H2 +91= 87lel ?Te.l LlGl^l E
    HLOq ELg-
    UO E
    L
    Znl Elrl-
    t-t.
    =E ^vt

    5og 5og 5og


    H20(s) HzO(/) H2O(r)
    00c 25'C 100'c
    g8E 7tE6tE 25'CE Eol azlel a1g E0125'cE
    1
    Etrl. g'J ol SEoll E=6fE g4Etrt. "JE ol EEoll Eg6fE
    /l= Ll1+ ollLj^l E= '+=rf. 1l= L|1+ oilLl^lE= 4=trt. <:lts 5.9 .8E|1 Er'+?] Lt|+ oll
    Llrl(E) o]nl-Lr dEl] a+E zlsl

    8E|loll E=-zr eeel= +S6ltl.


    188 5Il g+q

    s0 g9 2s'cL ts4elger(], E.} so sg g+g +e + S+6ll^l E


    I r
    zs'c-tr zl.$a]-s.E.(l ^Jqlql EgB + 9lg 4o14.
    qL a+
    adxlE xlatr 8E,tir]-E, (b)+eql& uz9 sEts
    E zs"cq1 9l= EE ql+ qlqrl= E"J6lrl. L}]+ qlqrl= aEil EJ
    +*oJ7l.?
    #(statetunction)9 + ql.lq, ^JEll EI++ 419 eaol+ 1r4(g-s,
    0llLl^l7f grt gEr{'J +tE .Jq Fq +dql^l)= E^le:seal adq= Zl9 /*Ell EI
    ^d?.14.
    0llL1^l7t Eeu1,1 349
    r
    +E Ae 4le_l B4 tlqql"J 9=4q , Azl r}EXql =.galzl fl
    6fl ,i+ aE"il= E=6l4 g+=+. E= tlql E}+oloe, AE= 4lg
    a7l ^J4e+ 4+ tI4q"J 9=6[:il, Eq]z[ qe4 g"]*=zl= ^]
    *ol $,4.
    ++E ul#z} ^Jq 1++e] .J4 tlql oJfz} ol{ oJg zlol= 016]]

    dl= ql E+ol E 1o14. 6l]g se6rlE(ft)ql 9l7l+ chicagooll{ all


    (a) (b) B szsoq=q1 9liloJ Denver4-zl gdg 6H^l ,JtiJ. ^84611 trz[. q
    H atrE A6l= +ZlH.ol +ol Hsl= a6sauleolrl. r*l4 qq 4
    =TEJ
    ZT^I
    4= AEql el=+t}. lE Eolg AaJ aEel ++6IEtr, ;l tr= ^J
    EI E|+e+ +^ld}+. qq azl= .JfzI ofr-l+.
    G
    =
    ^JEll
    Ee+ eg 4. tlzl gEqI4 "Jg 6J+olr+. r=l+ qi w\ rJ
    c4
    e AE adrlel ^Jql
    ot
    =
    ollLlrl
    alt
    e += oJ==$ t4 Erizl olr-l+. olaol 9olali /.$, LE:q
    -= + wE HEIzI q¤zl .J9*Ezlql E=6Izl ?*zl"J, cCE gr+ .J
    E oJs=$ tsslzl .Jq+= +4q 9=6]q, q{^J 4l7l z,7l *
    HJEEJ Zd^l
    =A r
    ^J4E 7I= aE=
    Ellql^J a+ Hl-EoEAl qE
    ArB 5.10 Lt|+ ollLlrl=,sE|] -sr'+01^1trJ. "Jr|. gg 'okol +71-6-Jr+8,
    gE;1 Ef+71-0[!r[. (a) 8.!oll el6H E|NEI aE^E oll aE E+= w9llE Cqq ++e "JEl+ +^^)vJ X"14. 14+
    Ll^l= ge] eEfleoJ +9e gqE-lalq, g3 +gEl^l Y rczY F Asql qlql F"J6l-+= 4o14.
    g=rl. (b)EEl= E6|1 "JSEJ za^l= (cE7l= +dF zJdzl$ 6I+9 llE ^J46lq ol gflE ¤¤¤ + 9i+. a
    g-zr)"Je.q qlLl^l= ?Jqq. Ezsl oilLl^l= Eeul =al7l
    g
    Hl= (a)oll,r.lg qel w"l,J0l (b)oll,\l9 ,J=rl= + 4zlzl rJdq$ zJdzl9l zltlg qlLJzlTI +9lE',J=qEE r ql+
    =tl. .JA'J gEql^-l ,14^l7l HJdq= F
    e^loj aEg ,JP + 1,5oll^.1 5"Jap1 "llr,lzlE 4raJ4. =H s.1G9
    TIzl *Hg Eq rH s.ro(a)p* zlol, zlflzl= ddeE Eld
    qtr .JE+qqzl =q.
    ?+=ql, :a7{+ 6Jql HIsIol gzl"J 4ol d-d Hzl rllEol4. d
    ^l7lE
    4^l7lglqBlfl qlqzl= E+ gg B4ol4(dde q Ez.?lzlr gg ++le E"|=*+).
    rH s.loG)ql^l ,J4^l7l Eq= Eq= ql ^Fsg+E, ,Jdg .Jg.J+. tsol B^J6l
    tlu] zl$zlz}.Jdg qlql+ Bzl= ?*4. qel w! zz)y ol f zlxl a+ql E¤+ =: ilolT].

    9l¤¤ "J + 91tr1. rdlL} adzlg a7l tr-qlel al== tr4z} ol f zlzl a+q E"J6I.+H,
    E7l ^J4 +iolo + LE:q +r.yE F zlzl fi.izl zJolo} *4. ar= 419 3l+ tlEI
    =zle+
    ql"J q=6}q, azl tqoil^l 4+ tqe. a q q+ +4 AEql= E=614 ?+=+= a
    I zl9aI4.

    .J+.!or 30g Eo. srlg5sr E+ pr=flt'. *=


    A crE aor + Trtsiral 4r.E6rE7'?
    I 'Juot 4Hl6lE'Jea1e1 g, E+zl, g Edt| EH?= etr4ol +
    I
    =

    5.3 I t!=Jrl
    +4 ++lql^.] .Jq+= ElqI4 .844 EslE, ql= 4E gql^Jg ,JEld, s+ql
    dEdg =E
    ?+g Hl4ql^JE EI+ Eog Ee4eE zl+E ql
    ^l Eg +ts, "Jqlqzl "Je+
    5.3 lEl=tr| 189

    zloJ6}ql^J .Jqt+.. olElf, EEIeI ar+e gE %I= E= .$:+7I "JqB + ilsq, E


    .J 4lql el6ll E= 4lq q6I +qg 9.1 ftl¤ + 9l+. ol$ {ffi E}+.Jq 9lq^J,
    ^}
    EI EI+.J gq+zl 6J+= +tr gE sE4 +H^l7lH f+61trt. "J4.J "Jq6rql^J {g

    {(enthalpy, rel^q enthalpein, 'Irl-Er.6t7ll i});}r dl+ gqq} o}9 ol4e} $+tr ¤ +
    el+.
    7)e_ Htr s^lq= E!=Jtrl= 4lE .ll+ "ilHzl"ll "Jq(p)4 +rl(D9 +g q+ aeE c
    9s+.
    H:E+PV [5.5]
    Lil+ qlqzl Aol Pe+ y= E trI ^Jq qliol+. ,r|4^J olEg 419 ¤zll tr.4ql"J E=
    Ee+

    41 4lql Eg+ A-sql= el=6l.zl g=+. "]lHzl, "Jq, +q= E+ ^}q 6J+ol7l trllE
    ql $Evl q^l ^Jq Bfol4.
    oJ
    "Jaj-+tr|
    aBnlE +ecg q e ol6l]6IElE s.4-tr+El 'lgg rJzla|4. AE= 4lql 4zl4A4
    ^l
    Alql^J xllZg E qS"J olq4, Alql Edl +4q4+ 4ql qqld "J wE Ef,iaf,Q. z|1t
    "J+4otr., 4zl"Jql r.=g 3tlq}4 E= Ezl4 E3tlql E6]t gq+=
    oJE ao+= + 6J
    ztzl.Jql, rae +q HEIE $zlE ?)4\^1L oJol4. ql= 5q om A+4 g,t} +EE
    qI¤¤ Ezt.
    ^J46]]
    2H+(aq)-Zn2*(aq) + Hzk)
    Zn(s) + [s.6]

    f.EI s.liql^l Bq += q^Eg *zl4


    zl+ qql^l ol HI+ol gA "Jq6Iql^J .JqB ql,
    .Jqg gc6tzl +z16171 9loll ot4+le ¤.zl?lEl. ++!+^l7l7l 916I
    '14E+ e*ol s
    Ql z14a1g, zl+ L}]E *qe 4zl.J4 eg aolq. El*ol tl6l$ql 44 Hz zl^llzl ^J

    HJS.Eal"gdE.= z{|tr gel-dfctE. 0l al"Eoil^i ge gE +EE,*ts71.8et+EE,}E)t?


    +trlE 1l7t oJal-+tr|

    I
    o19 =7|.=
    :Lo{rtE olnlst
    ilr
    ute"tL 7.1-9.
    e=
    = -t"to

    I
    r
    tr|^E

    Hz zlxllet
    rl|Tl=el87l

    Zn(s)

    HCt(aq) Zn(s)

    Zn(s) + 2H+(aq) '-------- Zn2+(aq) +H2tg)

    a.r.B 5.11 ++loll "J= "J61.= Zl

    .o[n[E d4l q"J +E] 4aql^] 4zl.J9 zllH9l B.ll tsllflg aol4. alro,].114 olE z[^]16l EE4al g+. qrl^l= +
    tllTlTl al+ sEql aq .JCEI g-qg 7l6}n 9lEl= aC gtr ¤El.
    ^l
    190 53 Etrl-+

    c4r, q^E+ g+a 4o14. + {$ zlillz} 4zl.J9l H}4q q^Eg "Jq


    gHse,,^l +9lql gg +q.J+. =+^r
    7lill9 S+ E= "J+r+ +alg oJ-a- Eq-+1 E(pressure-volumework, Ei p- y "J)
    ol+r qI+. "J9 qlq^Je+ rJol, '* rldql^l s4ol "JdB ql sq-+q "JE +Ee+
    =.
    ,l= El* e-1.11 +qdEl.
    ^lql
    w : -P AV [5.7j
    ol p= oJqolr, Av:va+-vz,tY zlE +rl Hs+ol+. *q p= 6JAr oJ9 aol
    ^lq^l
    44 ool4. "JE 4lE .+ylz| S+'J+B, ay= oJg atol4. al s.zg gE +E=,gl 4

    E9l, wts *9 <tol4(*9 PExoJ9 pxoJ9 av= g+E wE "JELI). HlBql zlz)lzl
    .J+E]E, ay= gE A(+rl Ai)ol ¤4. olrll wE oJ9 {tgg rl s.z-e+q .J + 9l:
    ,"llHzl,
    EJl, ol= ++lql Esll 4lql
    "Jol 4"llag g"laJ4. elgq, p_y g,"llrl "Jq_+
    q gq +6Iq z|,!lal E9a[dzl"J, dxfl _,?Htr aetr gC Eq+q^J "Jq+= 4dql
    4+q* ae ^l s.z+ol4.
    4 s.z* ^l-*6}q Ee gE +9Ee.JqE +9("J+4etr atm)il +rlel ++l("JEl4
    s_tr L)= *,* 4o14. "Jg # El a=oJ ++l.J ¤(oule)e. s¤6t71 +16ll^'l= ++4I Zl+
    I L-atm: 101.3 Ig gE|.
    ^l-s.6lE

    EJ rl80l TlgEl= 5oJ r Zl9 +nl7f Edl^l rri8 "Jaj-+tr| g= dl= ,i!71?
    -er=tlE,

    qHl s.2
    P-v"J 4ltBPl

    trl^Eol 84r'EldeJqql^1 qE E.E.= Etl?7 9ltl. 0l daltlelETl+tr|= 0.250 L0ln, .16 +tr|= 0.980 L0ltt. DJg trl^Eol
    1.35 atmol "J8-d "J+ 8Efle "Jd6l. ttE, golel g(Jtr)= -il 4&n (1 L-atm : 101.3 J)

    6tlH
    E4 +qd a7l +Ele+ 3l+ +ulE+el avg 4^IC + 9l
    4. 'J4(p)s +q4 ilq 9(w)9 44}g + 9l+. olEI. ¤-el +E= 7lAl7I S+6lE^l +flql .Jg'J a+ "J
    t1t4 w: -pAyE ol+6lH +qd cBe+E1 4l7l +q+ il6Jtrl.

    "Je 4&g + 9l+. > H=q&l


    Eol +i,l BE+= trl-e-Erl A+. 1.02 atm9 el+ "Jqql^'l qtr *dol 0.0ss Lql^'l 1.403

    LV : Va+-Vzzt :0.980t - 0.250L : 0.73OL L-E S+619.+8, H r-atm9 "Jg 6J A"J7l?


    (a) -0.056 L-atm (b) -1.37L-atm (c) 1.43 L-atm
    tri4^l .JE .Jg +q=r+ a+. (d) 1.49 L-atm (e) 139 L-atm
    w: -PA,V :
    -(1.35 atm)(0.730L) : -0.9855 L-atm > E6 qlr{|2
    L-atm9Is EI+E q^s-rl rJ4. gCaJ o.ssszl"Jql^l qtr 4E +ul7t l.ss Lql^l 0.s5 L
    ++qflg 'Iel gg Js Zl4}6l^le.
    ]9'-3) : -rr.rl
    E
    -(o.e8ss r**l('\1Latrf,/

    flgq qlsl
    olxil dBvlgl +*EgE EoITIzt. Hslz} .Jd .Jq6}ql^l "JqB ql 9lBq Hs*(aa)=
    5.3 I ?lgtrl 191

    ++r+ rJol +"ltl4. g¤El galol zloil^]


    * 3^lEtrt.

    :i::: ;:l(.Ja "re) ts sl

    4rl "j:.}H, ql$ul HEI= 4P .Jqr+ +q trEI$ +g q


    "llulzl HEl.il "JA
    t 4o14. AH> O

    LE (4 s. a)ol a, zl 41 9 Sar E= .J+4 +4¤ "JP w : -PA v(oJd


    : q+w
    .Jqql^J)ol+. al s.sg pav 4d -ilE qE6Ir, AE q4l q+w* qlE6lE
    od sl .6ts

    +gg +=+.
    AH: LE+pLV: (qp+w)-w: q, t5.91

    q9l tlE oI4 Azl p= r+aol .Ja "Jq6}q^l .JqBg 7lqvJL+. III4^I ol (a) EE HJB
    ^l
    e El+g +ElU+.
    {Bq trq+ "JC 'Jq6}q^l E4+ g= g qr*r}q.
    AH<O
    qE 14 7l+6[4+ ¤A] Alt]g + 9l= Lolr, +ule+ y*e E44 E6J .
    d ,f.^t
    3rlqzl {ffiol "Jc "Jq6}ql,rJ .Jol4zl qlEq, qlBq= ql+EE Hi+ql^J Iso =E=

    ,I+ qlqzlB4 rj -?$* Elfol4. q+q ql++E HI*q^l pLv zolol $zl
    qlEql aHe+ AEg zlol= 4tr1.
    d
    AHz| o3'9 il"J ql(= qpTl o*9 <ig4l= +9lql^l gg E=ql(E s.r),
    tril)
    ol: r 4Col gg'Jg 9olEI4. LHzl gE *olB 4l= gg ++lE HJ=6i= (b) "Jg Ela
    Ell, ol= r 4aol tse"Jg 9"1*4. t4 s.zg eq Hl+= 4l+61tr, "Ja $
    AH= "Jg oJal6gl.rj XE
    q6lE ¤:g r+ce qulzlE 4lql gE B4e ql+61+ 4o14, gg r+4e g s.= 4loil^l E-e: gE s
    01tr}.
    el ¤qE qlqzlE .J=61+ aol+ezJ 5.12).
    a rB gE 48

    A
    5.'t2 "J
    =E> 0)e xlql g
    (a)=E rlE(aH
    HJ30l
    "JolH
    q il7lgl^l.r. 9l+. 0lnll AHel +E= +1?]71? ql=-.Jrl. (b) rlE
    =al-^=oll^l =al4=.7f = < 0)P Alql^] Eg"JB
    (H ullLJtl.

    HZI g-4o]s-ts As(q"e] eqJ= a7l


    t[4 31+ t]e]ql"J el=6]q. Hs]zt ol¤
    ^]qle+
    4l "Jq*=zle+: +alrt s+. g9 ETlq ol ,Jg qE s4 t'Jizl olq+r "J+ s.ztr
    E Eqe+ tlHlq: az,lH BgzlE EE+. rq+ AHeI qp9 +41= +4 p-v.J"Jol $
    q4r1, "J4ol "J461+:58+ 4lqlg Ezl rllE.ll I]Jg E+ol olq+. r
    qHl
    F s.3
    AHs]+g arlnlTl
    rt|Tlgt6loll^l +=dE qB rl8Ee-l fllEJtrl Eil.(AH)e]+E= "$l'r, 4 rl80l gEoJ^l gbl^19.
    =EoJrl,
    gg tl^ +0ll^] Sd 845l.q Coze] HzoE 8d-dtl'.
    (a) EB 4401 (b) +ElloJ(C4Hro) 1 sol
    =Et[. =E-d
    rflB r*=+.
    =
    .Eq +E= 4 44ql^l AHTI oJ+oJ^], *f'J4E aCat Eol (a)ql^-l= g+ 449 "JE= Eol 4lol+. gg a4g
    aol+. 4 44e .JA6J "Jq6}q,rl 9"l4zl qlEq Sl +flql^l gg E+6lq +e_!_-E aH= oJE Alol4, r 4d
    =
    gul HEI=g+qzl+%I=¤ ge.l "J+A+. LH:qp e ¤.g"ltrI. 6)q^l Zl= +Eil.J I cr+, ¤iq gs+ 4Ir
    44 4 rlcql^] 4q E4 gol g+q9=zl, ,.I=q9=4 ol+. &^ +q^l +ql"JE gr= gg %'-=6I=-E AH= +
    ql+61ot oJ+. gol g+g 4Ag ggol7, AH= "JE + el <iolr, r 4Cg ggol+.
    E= ,*=+. gol gi¤E 4d9 ts¤olr, aH= gE +E
    192 sB gtrlqf

    > E5 dlfil1 > H=qFtl2


    qtr +q HI*"l ++lE gg %'-=6tH olag ol +&g Ag +¤ql +eE qzlga}9lrl s" aE4. +g Zl
    4a 6Iq, arl:_g {tg r*=tri. 4a 6IE, +r= s¤ r+C"JzL Bg 4C"Jzl?
    (a) ¤¤, "J G) gg, * (c) B¤, "J (d) ts9, +

    qll'lal, {lEJtrl, P-VoJ

    p+olql^-l= F zlzl +Be-l "J, + 4714 "Jr+ Tlill *+q E 'JqE Aq P:FIAY F:PxAE 4^l + + 914. j4^E
    t zl4l4 +.E +Cg r*:+. {zlrl* "Jq-+q .J
    .Jql eBq Edl rJzlE tq HE](av)= EI^EE +E4rl El^
    E= p-y "Jolr-Ia ol-L Sz}.ll adg "+++. zl+i} fl1] Eol *zl"J 4r-lE*-.J<iol+. LV:AxAft. s.10ql ol
    ^l
    E dfltrJql^l "J+61+ zlxlli ul:.Eql p_y "Jg e6}q, q"J6lH +gr} e+.
    ol oJol a+ tstfl= EflrL gfl qI+ *zlollr.] s+6lb 7l - sErTr
    illi 4zlll p-v 99 B'J+. ol "Je d*4 9"191^l ol+ _i::i=PxAxa,h
    aE +q6J 4ol s.zlr}, zl9 "llHzl Hi+= +e6J ull= z 4(erJ 7l4D7l +flql "Jg ol-Szl ull$il .r .Jg +E il
    aol rq+6}= olr-lf tl=z.l E= "Jg +46Ho] 6J+. ol+.
    +E4ol a"lq *-zlol5 ul^E¤. zl-rl ¤flrl 4ql 5q : -PLV
    w [5.11]
    fl= qH TlxllE pz(:lEJ 5.13). olellaoE 6J6J 6J
    "J4E rl s.rr¤
    ^84611 qlE +4 7l+6.J oJol p-yoJ Sol4a
    q^Eql zI+++. zlxlloll ulzli "J4 p= B+l Hzl'J
    F7l
    rl s.+91 4.Jtr + gla, : ar+= q-sr+ a+.
    Elol4. p:FlA. q^Ee e"*ol $,sq, iil^Eq ++61-=
    LE:qayt:q-PLV
    +.J6J "Jqg zl+ qlTlql 96J Qlzlololzp zlz$a].{, rllzl [5.12]

    "JE gd44r zt4++.


    El4^l *+ol .JA +q *zl9lr.l i{E 4l(av=o), olft
    7li]l7} 'J+6Iq q^E"l 44 LLJA *4fl4-L alzt. geqt+qlLJzl H+e+e+.
    4 s.r-+gq Alql el6ll+qE .JE q*-qr a+.
    =.71=
    6s: q- PAV: s- P(o): s, (9C *sl) [s.13]

    'J9 azl:f,xzlal:FxLh [s.to] oI4 Azf y= +ul7l-gCElg 714?JL+.


    gdfo-u xl= +9loll
    7li1l7|
    .li+EE Hi¤¤ "JC "Jq6lq^l ffl9qe al s.tzE 4
    I w: _pLVE agal@ rl4Eg *4 eol g+.
    zel AhoJ= "Jq 6B:qr_pA,V
    =alq.
    P: F/A P:F/A 4p
    : LE + PAy (ga oJq) [s.14]

    4 s.ta$ +Hol 'JA Sq 3a6Iql^JE Sgvl H3'I"J


    u
    I _T
    I al s.se+El .J + 91trI. Et4^l 4 s.eq1,r'1 B9l'J Ef
    I 4 ,J"l L,H: qro1c1.
    Lh
    9E6IE, L]]+ qlLlzlel EEl+ "JA +rlq^l gz]+
    AY
    ge gr} ejz, qlBEl Hq+ ga .Jqq^l EZILI ge
    _t gr+ rJ+. AEel aHE zlol= gc r+4q^l 4l
    .Jqe1
    +tr1
    daJrloll E+ q E"1] f49 p-v.Je.l ile -pavol+. Fle HI*ql
    '_lP 7lll H+= oql 7t4+rrs pAy= +e Zi
    ^l +Hlq= +E
    Elo{x{: y'
    {r- ol qq, q+^l AEe+ AH$ ilol:- zl+. slE 4AE ql
    E7l Hzl HE|9 4trE^l AHE ^l-&d+ ag ql+Eq tr-ql
    8Etl 8Ell ql^] qli]lE EI+6J
    "J6t+.
    :19 5.I3 gaJ-+trlg Zl0llel6H +Ploll+:"JEJ "Jel"JP w: -PLVjlr,l. +d ¤+ E4l: s.rs-s.ar

    s.4 I 'Jt tl=Jtrl


    L,H:H+16-HzTPlrrE-- ElqI HI+E tlBrl Hal+ ++r+ aq
    5.4 EJ8 ?l=Jtrl 193

    AH:H^Jtc-HoJ¤¤ [S.tS]
    + Hl*ql +El9= qlgr4 Hp-lE Ert ElEls!(enthalpy of reaction) E= H}Sg(heat of
    reaction) o1 4tr 6liJ-, 7ru AH.*ol 4l fr|('rxn'3'JHI4 g.tr.'reaction'$ Ezttr
    ^l-S+
    +).
    AH,*g +^l= 49 qql= +fl HI¤¤ H^l6llot qI+. q= Eq 'JA6J ${ollr.l 2 mol
    4 Hr(Otl ¤^6lq 2 mol9 H2o(s)= tCg oll, ol 4l= 4s3.6 klg Eg uJ='J4. oll
    e q-gr+ aol sol¤ + 9l'I.
    ZHzG) + oz(g) + ), Hzo(S) AH : -483.6 kJ [s.16]

    AHg *q +E= t}Sol gg Hi*.Jg 9"1t4. aH: sd Ei.JE9 ."Eg tsBdIAl H


    g]n +B "*+ H]+^lE ¤91 an {tg E^l6l+ aql i+61-4. ol a+ +¤ "*=
    ^16[zl
    HI8^]9 A\izl +fl qlprl HEI¤ olgqLil= HI¤¤q ^}CEq g+= ul-4{4. .14
    Aol +alq= $EE HplE LI{'}]= +¤ e+o+ HI+^lg gElq H}*al(thermochemical
    equation)ole|-L flr|.
    ol Hl¤.ol r+oq HI¤:ol+= rg s.14ql gl= {Bq q*(enthalpy diagram)-E-E u}
    ^ldg
    4g + 9l+. El*89 tlBulzl ^JCEE 9lg4tr+ rl r+=(q olE at) ^Idql i=
    6t4. tr+{^l AH:H^lrc-H,.r+s3 gq Ag r*=+. =

    A Eg E.t dd'ts u== H2(er)+ +or,,)----- Hzo(s)E E^t-dtt*, ot u=g aH ilot


    j ^l5.169'J4 e+r qlSEl=7|.? r=rqE faJ^t, otLlatE efl ol.urlE ¤B5t^le.
    efl

    'I+E zlflol rgol E 4ol4


    gs+qr-Ei¤'^lr+ qlgul s.EE rll
    ^l-s6J

    += ag g"l*4. q= 5q ga'J .Jqq^J cHa 1 motol Elg ull sso klE gol
    g^Jt+.
    zHzo(t) AH: -890kJ [s.17]
    CHa(s) + 2o2@) ------ Coz(s) +
    CH+ I moln* 02 2 molol HI*6Iq ¤aa1g seg klE ¤¤ 4zl ql+ql, CH+ 2 mol4
    02 4 molol q}+6lq ¤A6tE + tsl]oJ 17s0 kllrJ=ig ¤.1 tsrJEi4. slo| E}*alol

    <.r.H 5.14 a4e1 "l'G


    HJB Hzb)el ^t^e[
    ozb)9
    +grt E:*P 1l7l =-cfE=
    gel^17 lE H2o(sD I SdElE^l
    ( ++le g= B=-dtrl=
    7ig LIEtL.!trt. +grl. -er^l EtrJolal7l 8A+.
    oln|l 4loll^l +?lE g= g=61
    7l ntlEoll. ol BJ- ?lEJtrl trs
    0ll E^l-il Htel,Jol gg EJ30l

    ;a o a zr{z(g) + oz(g) +.

    o
    c
    J
    J
    o
    O2
    + Hzo
    o 3
    &6
    c
    1
    t! AH<O
    ("JE)
    H2 trl

    ZE6t Hlgoe
    H2@) + O2@) Hzo(s)E 8d 2H2O(g)

    ZHzG) + O2(g) z HzO(g)


    194 58 gal-st

    BE C+E 4+E ,(f$aJr|-r. gzl+E gclql HI*^lql^J= *E H}+^lql^le+ aol


    CH+(g) + 2O2(g)
    7l+ E+E ,r.fe" alzlE flQ.
    2. E-]s-E g!=J[l ElEl Arr ilE slH-[=-el AHq erPJ +=7t t$EllolEl. q= 5q 4 s.tz
    =71=
    ol rl-e-$ aol H]4tr Tlqg oil .l 449 aH= +8e0 klolrl.
    LHl = LHz:
    -8e0 kI 890 kI Coz(S) + zHzo(t) -* CHa(g) + zo2@) AH: +890U [s.18]
    fl
    H]¤¤ A+e 6IE ^JCE4 EI¤¤E q6Jol HlqlT]. g+. rl s.rsollr..l ^JCE4 HI+
    ET
    a
    trl

    COzk) + 2H2O(t)
    Eg fldg-H AHel =zli ,Jzl"J Psz| *4zl g+(f=J 5.15).
    3. H.!tE ?!!E!tr1
    E!il= c.!=Er+ t$8=E gEloil el=t]El. s.l7e-l ^J^dEo1 urOll;21 o1
    ^l
    r-14 Hzo(g)qH, AH..,= -8e0 klol olqB} -s02 kloJ 4o14. H2o(s)E elBvlzt
    a rH 5.15 qHJ$oil rH-d AH
    qEJ- E6l^lu, ?lEJtrl
    7 lE7 [ H2o(l)E qlBqtr+ r7l EIE{ +fle 4e gol dB¤ 1o14. olag g + 9=
    Hslg =71: E6f^lgr=rf.
    LH2:
    t zlxl %IBg ^JdEol ilgql= olill Eolfl+r 7[d6[= 1o14. "l ._4i]l Ee._4al
    - LHl
    +7)s H+199.t 6}l, H2o(,) 2 molol Hzo(r) 2 mol.E E+lqE HIS3 s8 klg S
    +61-= gB HI8.l4.
    zHzo(t) + 2H2o(g) AHkJ : +88 [s.19]
    uI4^] eElE H}*^lq^l= HI¤¤r+ : +r
    ^JdEq ^JEI= E^l6i= ag +s6i+.
    qE +E* $,e8, gHlzletr HI¤¤4 ^JdEg E trI +.J'J gsoJ 2s'c
    ^)^171
    ql 9l+r TtdtEl.

    qH s.4
    ,J*E3l {¤Ee-l "Jg AHel t+1!rl

    DllElloJ 7lill4.50 gE "Jd galel Zl0ll^1 EA^le q, gDlel g0l g=El=71'? (^l 5.17e1^tE= 0lEdl'al.)

    6HB
    E4 +s= gplEl- +*49 ol¤.o}9 +CEJ.J9 4lrll.J zl rE ^l s.rz* E}4*E4.J ¤l+.Jzl¤.J4 ;3ull, r mot
    4= EIgg uI ^Jzli gg 4l&61+ 4o14. 4 s.rz{l r}e. qI
    9 cHni -aso ktol+. olag 0l¤-619 csn9 E+E
    B, .JA+ "Jqql^J qlEl.J zl4l 1 molg 4*E aso ktol 4l qlq49 kJ-tr Hl¤ + 9l+. rfl+ Hzl r-B +919 cH4=
    q^1 ,&=B+. g+E tsh+qo} 4q q-99 4ag 444.

    il6ii=;5 *
    E0l rE+ A.I7:
    cH4E Ekl)
    H+l +41= trl-gri e+ (+qd) CH4el
    =+ -890 + (Elrlel)
    kIlmol

    CeI4 Hq SzI'&9 tr16[H t mot


    CHa:16.6 I CHr4E ag "J + / l me[¤I{"\/ -890kI \ :
    E : (4.s0 s¤ffi)( 160
    9l+. 4B+ +4I .Jzl-=
    ^l-S6[q
    -2so kJ
    s¤rr./(ffi/
    CH49 r++= cH49 E+-tr, trI g9 +E= 4lql^l ++]tr 2s0 k;ol HJ¤s+= ag +4utrI
    kle. +^I.J+.
    ^l
    > .H.E qH 1 > .H.+ qlH 2
    qlBg(crHsoH, EdrJ:ae.o g/mol)9 9d trag q^g- r+4IEl +i= Elg Hls"+ gol Er+ 4}i_e E4¤tr1.
    r+ e+. zHzoz?) 2Hzo(l) + oz(s) AH : -196 kJ

    : - "JCt Sq6rq^l E6llg


    H2oz(t) s.00 gol trll %I¤q= g
    C2HsOH(l) + 3 O2(S:) ZCOz(9 + 3 HzO(4 AIr -555 kJ

    9lE9 rs.o
    - qE qlgq
    ¤^rl? {r}i $u}olzi!
    B¤ Zl4l6l^1e..
    e9
    (a) -r2.1kl O) -181kI k) -a22 kl (d) -sss kl (e) -1700 kl
    5.5 I gzlaJE 195

    {Ee^"tqugtrl
    +?]: q#+6ql Eq gfl + +g +
    9.H qBZl gzl .Ja 9lq. + +qol zl+
    +e-E zl+d}{ HEol Bq^l4l g+. qE
    ol Boe, Bq4= aal ,J"1, gqq}4e
    s zl¤E gq+q:il 6l+ n+49. zlg4 rl
    +
    {(spontaneous process)ola}tr e}4. zl*4
    rlce +E 9la !g +E fl=ql, ol

    eotc
    nq-=
    r+Col gq+= +E= gEqI9 zluflE B
    to{ Bdo
    t-q
    zl ?+=+. H

    a
    e=
    AH<O
    gEqzlsE #4a144 z[
    c ry
    i
    3rlql n+Cg

    "Jf
    g4'J +E 9lq. rq+ 4g4ol+= aol
    o}+fl ,Jd flol HI*ol "Jq+ ^JC+g EI
    ag gul6l.zl= ?*=+. rH a+E
    =+= trlltr= qL cE9 qulzlE ztall
    9lzl"J,
    o '*o
    +qot Hl+"I ^lzlg+. Ht9lz} "Jd tq a.r.E 5.'16 "Jg uJ8rt otl? gg4?](aH7f 0-E+ eU Afe)trlE BJB8 EE
    ^l"Jd
    gq'J+. H[+l= tr]El¤ 0llLl^17f .*E Eal LHal7l'E= Elgl= "J^l
    z)$ ]Ezl zl-$!e-e #l qle ^FJ!oe
    rirl,J0l, olzl-Lf EJ-P EJ30l 7H^lElll 6f7l^lEo+
    ^lz16lB : Pl6[q gEPJsl ollL]^l= 7l--J =Je
    7l:- 4+ aol, ++ Hle.r 7ga q1u1x1 719lrl. ralq 0lal-d u-== -stH u30l '*3 trlEl¤ qlll^l= += 8a=
    7l Ti6l]zlH z[g{ee. +]¤¤ fz} ?l 0l -ddElE= x["J4o+ HJ30l T]ilErL ^lAtElE
    "JH
    r+(rH 5.16). H}*ql^l Agq Hsl+ HI+
    ol z[$!olzl, oluzl= "J5[= + 7]zl s^loJ sol+. ql= HI'I 44.J Eol q= d9 o "c ol6lE gEql^.i ztg4olEf.
    Eol Hzk)$ o,(d9 g^=,|]+ gg HI+oltrI. + tlgql^J= ggol +j1 E¤ _zo.cg BE"agl .JeE
    =
    Hz(s) + Lor@) Hzo(g) LH: -242kJ fl+= ag "J+. F nl-aol ^]E Hlqlola 4zl"J, Ll= zrJ
    +i Tlxlle+ &a z1i1u- t}*ol 994E aol A^lEol gl ql^l 5z}tsC"ll + alg4.J HI80l+. 4llettq^l * q qd6}4 HI
    ol +*Ael +r'ls 6J4l + 9l+. ral+ 6JB Hl+ol 89 44q *++ 1,o14. Eol g*-sE E6I=
    =z]]B
    qlLlzlTt gg BqlE 4l(H}¤¤)ql^l 791e mle4l
    44 zJol, eI qE n+Ce qE +Eql^l xl.${ola, E}= e
    ^l+qH Eql^l= r+zl grgzl=.Jrll g aol+.
    dBB4. trt4^l 4l= ++ls gg dgEleeal elg4= g
    Al gq(ale+ ++lE dijl qlLlTl 6elg H6Izl g:j1 qlLlzl
    Hl+q= "l+4 +tq} e4501 9lzl"J, tlB'l He+ql +
    tr¤g+= gqql 4lrB!9 zl9aI4. 95 zl$¤o}"J ++. "JHl4ss fl$vl Eslz} qlql=
    = tI¤.9 zlgtql^l QlBq H+"Jol ,trJ .I^Jg olulq, zl olaol q}¤.el =
    Ell +¤ eoJoe. zI+6J+.
    ^Igcg ea6l=
    lazl 100 kl ol^J) +-el (tg ,*n 9l= HI;.
    t qdel AE otq+. qE EH ggol += 4Ce sg HI g44C =(ql+
    zlgc.J 4a3=ol gl:r., L,Hzl 7 "Jel <lg +n gl= HI$
    *olxl"J. E9 olbd(o.c) "lt9 gEql^1g ol r+cg zI
    g40l+. e qHl+q^l"J zlg.cg r*= a6]"1 91trt.
    +¤ g+ +41: s.47,s.4s
    H2O(s) HzO(/) AH : +6.01kJ
    -
    E+eA+ql^l +qd nlql rlCr+ +EE flBtl EpIg +Eel 17lZ oI= aol 4+ +
    3-6t+= ag .Jril ¤ 4o14. ++ eq^l g + 9l* HIe+ Aol, AH= ¤Eqs 4d +d
    614+ 4E q}*==e+q gElrl qlgi'l He+{teE+q 4l&6}q 90tE +E 9lrl.

    5.5 I "J4le#J
    AH <tg .Ja6J glqql^l EI+q 5HlE]= gq+¤ +461= dEg F6Iol e4e + 9l
    4. de4eE.. g6=.0l trJE= gE Ep+el aTlz +d6IE gEEE a71= gotB f
    qlr-}. ol"ll gs+g +C6l+ ,JBg Ez{l$H(calorimetry)olap 6}i1, g6.Eg +46}=
    196 53 gat-+

    7l7li EUz{l(calorimeter) EL ttrt.


    ol rBoil^1 + ?l= ltd oJtaFt uloJ
    ggglTt, =
    3 E3aTl? Eiil7} ¤9 rJ ¤+6tE Ei{= q+ E49la+. E= Eeol gg EeH 8rz} ga1z1
    "J, "JCe&g
    gql 96I
    ^Jcq=
    gE Ee+g aEE Ee"il q4 +e+. .Ja*g 9lHzl
    Hzo() g-E
    1.000 g
    Tq+: 15.5'C E+g trll ESlql g+g HEI+ c-E E^lq= EillE EEEJ(heatcapacity)oll $all
    =
    eAgq. qE Eillel g+ele EillE gEE r r(EE 1.c) gol-=. rJl peal g9 oJetr
    CE.Jq. Eeq 9**ol r geE gE= +qrl "J+ +ol= ql q Elg Eol I
    + 4.184 J (1 cal)
    ol G
    l= 3-6I+.
    =++
    +Eeel g+i*e 9e}4ee 'J4+ EeE -Jql rfl+q LI4U+. Ed 1 mol9 g+*
    Hzo()
    1.000 g I EEtEf(molarheatcapacity, C-)olrp.J+. Ee t S9 ¤8*g ul$ $=j(specific
    Tz,t:14.5"C
    heat capacity) E: rJt6l ulS(specificheat, C.)olep +q. Eeq Elg(C.)g Eeol +

    arB 5.17 EelHlg


    c6J ¤*(q)9 e4+ gg'il, r EaE .JelA d*(,/,)9 gE He+(ar)E +¤6[q ¤E
    49e aA.J+.
    (gdg*)
    prcd _
    -rd-¤rc
    ,,: -1- ts.2ol

    qlE Eq E so.o e9 SszI 1.00 K


    ^J+g trll 20e tol gs6}+. ul4^l Eel Elge
    fL':_ 209J
    a'18llg-K
    (so-ogxroor) --
    t?lzl 4l&ql qBrll allqixl ++aI4. aE] gEE Ee+ =71= dr{ 95.9 Ep} ?71
    ela+. 4 tr h K:ATln"col4.: 1r.s¤). trI4^l E9 Elg¤:+.rs J/g-"ce+ u14
    g + el+.
    +q4l Eeq Hlg <tg s_Eql IrI+ ErJ E4e f 9zl 4Eql gE= Aq6I4 E^l6J
    +. qlE 59 94zi {zl.! .rf$ap "^l= E9 HIgoJ a.ts l/g-rE zzl s--l; 14.s'cql^J
    9 <lolrX:EJ s.17). ol gEql^lel EE ElEg s.leql +EtU rJeelE AE6l-= Ell ^l-S
    B+. 4+61 I cal:4.184lol4.
    rlez| gg eg qle}+g q) rleel s-E= g?+rJ+eJ+9 ar). rl s.zo$
    ^ll{46lH
    +s-4 aq.
    Q:C,xmxAT [5.21]
    Irle}^l +c+ a+4 gE Hs+e+ 6J4l Elgg
    ^l-s6|E
    r Eeol E4+ 9J: geJg zl4}
    g+ el+.
    94 zlzl Eeel Hlg Alg Es.2ql +ElH4. EAI?I Eq Elgg ++g += qE E¤

    E 5.2 81tr 298 roflri El 7i^l


    EEol Hlg
    flA E}BJE

    eIl ulE0/g-x) txl ulE0/e-x)


    =E
    Nzk) 1.04 H2O(/) 4.18

    Al(s) 0.90 cHlk) 2.20

    Fe(s) 0.45 Cozk) 0.84

    Hg(l) 0.14 CaCO3(s) 0.82


    5.5 | EZIBFH 197

    BLIE ]+b ag ++6I+. E9 Hlgg zl79 zl+9lE ¤.&g ulrl-lull, : olfrL


    ol{ol alloJel gE =
    Ee+ql ul:14 zZl zla}aizl rllEol4.

    6 ep traJer EEor ee ssr Eg E+6'HE q, 8 5.20, 9l= Etr 6 7Er E gE Ea'


    LtEtLfl= ae?
    | =
    qH 5.s
    g, gE tisl,'38%tel +41

    (a) crl*-el E 2so s(rt|al --J ,A)= 22'C(!e)ql^l lel B=E(98'C)77[rl 7lE:g trt| "Je-d ge grP.!71? (b) E9 got
    oJTl? =EEaJ8

    6tlH g+=J, c_)$ 7o1op q1r1.


    'J(E J
    E4 (a)oil^lE +qd EE 4*@), gE HE]{ar), Eq Hl z{lEl (a) +q{ c,, m, LTs]. rl s.ztg ol+dl^l E* qE 4l
    g(cJe E ql++ ql ge'J 9*(q)g *.t + 9l+. (b) EE EA+r+ ,tg E4g ^l-S4q E9
    ^l-&4q ^lEE
    ot"J ++. o)ql^]= Eg Hlg(rtsB g+"J)e+q g g+ ^I.J
    --7el.lr+ d_Q-EI-a- -EEL oJ_Q-*o E tddLrlTlrL
    JEo=oo=Eo=oc,Ju-C'..|'u*|.

    =01
    (a) E9 gE Hpl+ +q=4 eEi. Ar: - 22"C :
    98.C 76"C : 76K
    al s.zrg ol+6}q qE *eI4. cl:CrxmxL,T
    : (4.181 I g-K)(zso g)(7 6K) : 7.e x ro4 J

    (b) -=.g+"*g E4 r mol9 9+16}0l+. +ie}4IiE


    flzle}$ trls=r+ e+. l molH2O : 18.0gHzO
    ^F$.6lE
    (a)9lrl rl-s"d Hlgtr+q q*¤ e=+ .*: (n,rftX#) : TszrtmotK

    >ltEqH1 >H=qF{2
    ++= "JE= #+(ll+).J +E], e, *3 44 o.rss, (a) 3SHI6ol qloJg +qql^l gE zltlq ol+g+.
    lle-Kq Hlgg '*:+. ol +ql^J gzlelol
    0.233, o.rze s0.0 kg oJ^lol 3E7l- 12.0"c tl-
    "9
    trll ¤.+6J gEJS

    6zl.J.ll tr++ Hlgg _6E $g+%ig _"Jrl. al&61^le_(oJ4E Hlge 0.82 )/g-K4r 714614).
    HlrJql *= a6Je q-e= + qL aoJTl? (b) ol g-4ql^] 4s0 ktg gol %I=g trL ol .J49 9s
    (a) 3zl, +71(b) $zl, zlL (c) z.}4, *zl @) $L, *L {!}i $u}alz}!

    olz{ ol-z{ o{rlatrH


    E'o H-i E-rt otl
    g4l*Bq^J ,JBr+ tITl= ¤+6}lx} 6l+ $Cq Ceq Bq 9l+. +"-q +ql
    ^|&61=
    .JqLlE Elg Hls".g oJq a¤ol +l+Etr AH= zld +e*+. q]+ d+* ¤+ql
    ^l ^I
    +6t= g=*41= d"J+ 7l7l* ^i¤-6lzlEJ, ,ll+ ++{ '4yld(coffee-c,rp)' g"+41(f=J
    5.r8)E g4l"*H g?-lE ¤H6l+ "JHlslqL ¤Edql^J ++ g*41¤ "J+6[zl
    ^l-s.oJEl.
    gie-!-a, tsezle-e *+ol .JAEI4zl*"llrl "Jq+El.
    |qAql F ,]]E q]¤¤ol +oI 9l: ++Eg 7|,*r+r 7146ll Brl. ql¤¤Eg 4zI"I
    zl HI+6[q ^Jc5g "JE ao]4. ol a+ 4le+ +9
    ^]olql= E7]4.J 4Al7l H+. H].8
    I HI*94 ^JCES Alql ?1j1. ol$ol \o[ fl= Ee ++]el "JPo14(¤"]4lE ++19
    "Jt Eol4). "J.J E=J4lzl Sd6lal +gqq fl+r zld6J+H, +¤¤ F6Iq %leq|
    + g+q= ge +"-!ql ilE E9 s-EE +ol4+ *= + flg aol+. trI+^l HI+q^J
    198 53 gtrl+

    E-r d6il4: g(gg Rlgel ag E=Eql^l HlgoeE d4lzl= g(gg


    HI+g a
    +)ql q= gE HE+= +49 + 9l+. r+^l "J6I8, +e4e-l gE H+= +C6JoE
    "JE EE E] TllELI= + r^l 4l(+Eq 9l* HI*84 ql+Eg il7l6}J 9l= E)
    ^E[olE+
    itlE : 0195 ¤B6l^ts- ^JCE)e+ ++l(+._49 ^I"lql
    ^l8-i=!il, dgsil= gEEg "J + glrll q= aol+.
    ^J
    -QE,I gg HI+gl a+, HI¤-q 94 gg'94' qr, *"_IE Eol gg'Er,il' qEe +.1
    3zl rTll I gE= +7|oJtrt. ¤-g HI¤+ r Hlql?lql, HI+ol gg en Eol gg szl oI+
    q +"-qe-l gE= 442J4. r40e. *901 EA+ S* ts(q*rJg q]*ol g+614
    7e=
    EITl| + *¤+ 9(q,.,)4 a71Y gr. +s= t}4ol4. 4 Q,otn:-{,*,o14. 8e4ol 99
    ¤(q*rJg +aqe-l a'}, Hlg, gE EF+tr+q drll 4hlg + 9lrt.
    + )1,= ?dl
    {,orn:(*o_49 ul¤)x(+Ee_l r*+)xLT:-4,*n ls.zz)
    ^Elole= z
    Bleol
    Jo=-l
    #g ++._!E Elgg Eil+ E4 'JL+a_ 7|e6}q, a.18 |/g_KolQ.
    4 s.zz= ol+6IH t}*ol .Jg4E +.lE gE HqlE+q {.,n9 4l&g + 9l+.
    arg 5.18 7]qa EaJ4l 0l ?JE-d ¤:E +7I(AT>0)= HI*ol ts¤(q,*,<0)oJg 9"1d4.
    7l+= g!-il "J+dloll^l uJ$oll^lsl
    gE Etrl-= +561= rll
    ^f8Erf.
    qHl 5.6
    4qt E*4lE ^lt6J +4J
    ^H
    +801 1.0 A/ HCI 50 mlel 1.0 M NaOH 50 mLE ltr|,J EaJzloll 4]= rrt|, Esqsl 8E71. 21.0'C0ll,\1 27.s"CE 8e6H+.
    olEE
    gaJzg gBr +¤= +Al-g dEolr. Eqel Eill+tr17f 100 mL, "J-E7f 1.0 g/mL, ulEol 4.18 J/g-Kaln zl8alz. HJ39 E!=J
    q EaF= kUmol HCI E9le Zltt61^l-?.

    8[lff 4IaJ gsz| oJ4.

    E{ HCIr}NaoH ¤6J*99 4}-Bzl H}8e +-94 a+. 4tr g^Jg gg 4 s.22= ol+6rq 44lE + 9l+. HI
    -5r=
    HCL(aq) +NaOH(4q) .+ HzO(I) +NaCl(aq) HClg E+= ol EeE E.r-"EeI PEIE ol*
    8q^1
    8.4E +zI6J s-E, HCIiI NaoH9 E+, +._491 "JEe+ Hl ^.E-g
    EI^] 4l4I6J + 9l+. rela o1 oJe-s+El Hcle-l E & Sd
    gg ol qI+ r+4q^l g^J.J Hclel 5B gg 4l q= gg aag + 9l+.
    ^l^+6}q,

    =vl
    +aqq dill +rl7l100 mlolEE ¤*3 (100 mL)(1.0 g/mr; : 166*
    gE H+= LT : - 21.O'C :
    27.5"C 6.s'C : 6.5 K

    4 s.22= ^l-s"6lE 1r*n: -Crxmx LT


    -- -(4.18J18-K)(1009)(6.s K) : -2.2 x 10r1 : -2.7k|
    ol HI¤+ "JA6J "Jqql,rl ololulpe LH : qo : -2.7 kl
    elBq HplE oJzl fl6ll^l HCtq E+E
    1 mot9l ql6J
    HCI +olE Pul(so mL:0.050 L)e+ bE(1.0 M:r.O
    mol/L)E a+ aol+= ag (0.0s02)( 1.0 mot llt) -- 0.050 mol
    ^F+6J+.
    tr++^l HCIE gB 8lBj'1 Hsl+ LH: -2.7kl10.050mol : -54kJ/mol
    eE gETI ?2}9ts ao e E ql, AH= g+(gg Hls")ol "Jqtq.
    +. 4I=¤ EflBq E!+el aTlE rJ4zlol4. Mg(s) + 2Hcr(aq) MgClz(d,q) + Hz(S)
    -
    g_sz|23.0.Cq|^l 34.r"Cvl^l *+
    >5.*qH1 HI-&g a4E *99
    "JC "Jq g*4q^l u|:uJlf, :1,+ 0.243 gg ?Esl
    ".r9 6t9+8, kllmol rvrg9 B+le AHg <ig 4l4}6}^le(+,
    HClr+ g6J6Iq +.-q 100 mLE E}=flg rll 4*9 e}*ol *.-qe-l Elgg 4.18 f/g-'601r "JE= r.0o g/ml4a zlc
    5.5 I gzlaJE 199

    6I+). e .Jq gr*4ql^l 4lg g.JE gE= 22.30.cql^l


    Eil.
    (a) -ts.l kllmol (b) -111kl/mol (c) -lel kl/mol 23.fi"Ca tl-^"i'J+. gE ^J+g +3 +¤.ll E6l "Jq\++.
    (d) -464 kllmol (e) -e6l kllmol AgNO3(a4) + HCI(aq) .+ AgCl(s) + HNo3(aq)

    E d%}ol o solr, gol 4.r8 | I s-.ct]:L tl


    tsl
    > E6 qlrJl2 e6J6J +a4 roo.

    0.100 M AgNO3 50.0 mlel 0.100 HCI 50.0 mLE I sap, ol Hlg" el AHE k|/mor AgNo3g +fle 4lc6l-^le.

    Eoja l%F"J (.Jt +tr I "JAEFE)


    gal*Hg ol+6lq ¤+g +soJ ¤e]E HI¤+ sFJEol +B+ "J9 4lae} sdq HI
    so 6l*
    ¤Aol+ .-'=-- (t.zd). gi HI¤¤ EEUz{l(bomb calorimeter, re s.¤)= ^l-s" 6}9 HJ8
    7l-+ Cq-6|rll ¤+B + 9l+. ¤+¤ Eeg E6omb)ola13 "Jqlg E¤ 8zl "JE 4e E7l= Eajritn 9l= E
    P 419 g+?!71. +9lE g+
    aql B=tr}. r.Jg ag + 9lril ¤4lg Eqts &^= ++6171 +le +E gtre} HI+g y7l?
    2fl.<l6|zl 9lt dzl Ayzl9l+. q-9, Fg "JEo 6tI 4li= i]]+l ge
    ^lE= F g"+4ql
    "Jql Be
    "Jqg fzlaJ4. :a+s ¤E *zle yI= ol ES B.,l, d+6}7il oJg +C.* E 17fl

    s +7lE iHeq. ^lEe+ d+61+ 7l= Edq d+E E6Ial 6}tr ¤^ Hl*ol ^lzlgrt. +- ^|e
    xl6[.4 /\l

    Edol +E6l TIgqE gEld+. SEZl


    ^lE=
    gAB trll ,J=El= gg grJ4lg Er+
    'll¤¤(ol EE aol ++l= E^d6l+ aE"J)ql
    g+Elq Eq gEE tr-+^lrJ+. HI+ql el6ll g^J6I= Eel gE HE+¤,]]+ Aq6]-X1 +
    x{G Q7l
    =u o/ I

    d.JtrI.
    g"6tal9 sE+71+azteE+el ¤lgg al&6l.71 +l"ll^J= gr6}4lE + ¤*%i(a"r)
    I .Jotot t4. ol {Ie g*g ga gIE E^^l7la ol4l9 9s H+= +C6Iq
    ={HJA¤)
    ^lE= E
    9otB + 9l+. qlE Str Fg*alql^J Aq6[rll H]a4](c6HscooH) t gS ¤allzlE E
    26.38 klg ¤ol B$*4. Hla& 1.000 gol g"+alql^J gig q +.sst'cq gE tfol
    a.LH 5.lg EE.JZI
    ++gqa 6|zI. oltrll g=*ZlE g+=+g C,1-26.38kll4.8s7"C:5.43r kll.colr1. gg
    g*AlE e+"+g"JH, +=HI*q^l ^8C¤gE EEI¤+C6Jp, ol4"e*q HI*ql
    g^J+ E(q.J9 4l&6J + 9l+.
    ^l
    AT
    4,*. : -C.u1 X [5.23]

    Eg=J4lg HIge "J4 +rl eaql^l 6J6llzlE_8, gel HsI= flgqg Hsl(aa)_u_+
    4P 9lHzl9 Hs-l(aa)p+ q "Jil*+(al s.r:). rqq 4++9 ++ql^l aEeI aHq iI
    olE ol]* 4+. q= q4l s.7E 4+ AE9I AHE ilol= * t kl/molE, 0.1o/o ol6rel
    zlol+r-ql =q
    4zl *E4. AE-E+q AHE 4h}ts f ?lzl"J, ol+rll 43 u-4q1 *dg zlg
    "J
    gs= s.r}.

    qHl s.7
    t"JBt4lE olt+J q*.9 +{
    o-4illEfl EEoJ ell=61'0lcaffl(methylhydrazine, CH6N2)= g41l7lE N2G), CO2k), H2O(l)71g8sJtl".
    2CH6N2(D + 502(g) + tNz(g) + 2COzG) + 6H20(0
    gE EEHXloll^1 84^179 rtt| EaJZl"l 8E7|.25.00'Coll^] 39.50'C_=
    4l=Jap1=110.' 4.00 846[ rl. r|.= ¤-d0ll^1 EaJAlsl
    EEaJol 7.794 kJfCE 1 mor CH6N29 E40ll EH--J U3E3 gEl-oJ7l-?
    =EElflqE,
    Etl3 El tr+= 4l&61+ ExlloltrI.
    E{ gE H3I}e} gr+4le_] + g++g oJr gll. EoJ gi rlq flzl ^ltr. 4.00 g9 ¤dqlrl +=g gg Zl+IaE, ol
    6J +¤¤E
    "Jg
    oJn fl4. ol4 ¤ig H]+gel g'J flB gg 5'Jq olse. E++^l4oF ".J4.
    200 53 EEt-*

    E0l
    ullBotolE{Tl 4.00 col g4¤ q, 9*419 gE H
    ^lE
    44.
    E+= trl-e--4 47: (39.50'C - 25.00'C) : 14.50'C
    A79 c.a *9 olSai{ HI+gg 4l&B + il4(rl s.z:). 4rn-- -Ccat x AT = -(7.794k11'e)(14.50'U) : -113.0kJ
    ol 7Ig CH6N2E E* HI+ge HI+E ¤+. / -113.0 kI \ . / 46.l sc+*l$\
    (4r0se-,.i,r/ (fmffi )-- -1'3o x l0rkJ/molcH6N2

    Atr +91= xllqlE a46lir,, ol +¤+ gg *+o1,tr (-) (a) 0.660kl/"C (b) 6.42klfc (c) 1a.5 kll'C
    +Eol+. $$ =zl= ;J44olr}. (d) 2L.2kIl"C (e) 32.7 kIfC
    > H¤ ql41 > !r= qrll 2
    cq6l 1.000 g9 {at}ol +g=t4ql^l gdg ql 26.38 q-E4I(HC3H5O3)
    ^l.e
    0.s86s s9 ¤+Elol 4.812 kll'C
    ktg gol g^J9H4. "J"J {la& 0.550 gol g*4lE g .J g*4lql^l 4}ie+ HI+^]44. gETt 23.t0.coll^]
    E= 22.0t "goll tl 2a.27 "Cvl7l *+ A+8, ol g%ial E 24.es"ca t4"61*,+. +EAIE (a) reE}, (b) EB SA
    ^l
    g+*e 9"toJzl? gg zl.t}6}^le-.

    fltg a¤

    +ElE rI+Eg "go1 u[.!le]"+= eEg tsg ull, .lxg


    E-E 41tE a +Zl z|$!l a$e 44qFI.
    ^Id +4 +e-l
    E"J Hq+E +ol 4^Jol otq+= 49 9"1f,
    ^ll8ol H
    E+. 4E
    "J¤t illgg frzlalts 4e .JAl$ +s+ ^J4zl
    ,lb +9 6lqol4. L
    ri-q
    r\l
    .*g clal-r. qBr]l 4E6r=zl= olEl t -a
    ^16l=,il4q="1
    gq+4 g gszl
    617l +l6l]^J= +4 +g Ale ?14. B9
    ++le+El g^lg d+{.JeE&J Lll+ qlq4 +"+g +7t^l
    zlr|. l$a;-(c6Hr2o6)e+ eg +^lg 4rt9ErJI, ol n+c
    ql^l= ol=¤ &sI^14 Co2e+ H2o.tr
    H+^lrJtrI.
    c6H12o6(s) + 6o2(5) + $coz@) + 6H2o(/)
    fg
    I1I
    AH: -2803kJ 5.20 aJ @yuris/Shutterstock

    4Cq= qqzlel oJ 40%ots:?4 o-E ++r+ 4la H2O(/) -+ HzO(g) : +44.0 kJ


    AH
    =+
    ^lls 9E.4ee BEIE gq+ qlql 4oJ4. +"lxl= gE 4zl9 #c.z} +7I6J+E fB B4ol gq+= +E= A
    *eqicll. ol + "J?= ill$$ trzldf Ell ^l-&94. C,* r6}=ql, ol{ol Sr. ++ B Bol rl "*ol 4l ¤ill6l.rll !
    +¤¤ B ulc+ rJol +q^l Ll+ "*g gol g^8qB r+rd.E zl= ol+ol+.
    gg +gtr nBlloia+. ilgol q+ +"1 g47LH. i rlzl "JHss g+¤ol +
    gg +tr. $,r(radiation), 4t(conveaion), =" B(euaporation) zI6J+. a4=, {+ eE fl= e+%hg fizlt'lz)e
    g E61l Eql^J ++l.e dBg+. +^I= +ql^l q + =xJql
    Er^l +^te} q+ B4g ftzltlz1q. trl+lC 'Brll tzl¤'rI
    ^l7l&
    +]-t gg zld Sq{rlE 4"JrJl, ETlg ,\EH fl,Eol ? ** eyl "Je-l ¤+"+ol Gllol$.7l ullEol4. + Hall=, B
    f.ls gg EJ=d+ 7.1+ rJLl. qlFE +4 d+61+ +7lE ol +tr, 69 B4g +7I^lrJtrI. +Ee *CBJ gf,f 6IE
    7lg6l-='Jqes ¤9 u'ax*zlE l,ol4. 7lgfl+07171flE_ H-etr +tslq= "_4illE "Jg 2-44qvl^l +old+.
    *471a * *7171Ellzllqq, olEl,* r+3ol 4l+¤+. q*
    ^laB
    trt4^J ol zlzf, 5ol gql +9 !-iall folof aJ4.
    "J.J Eol
    6J g+3 ztzlg $r!qE q+ql e.l{ g+dg z}4ll{ i geE q+ *3 gq{4$ : zldg EJ ol^J-
    "Jel aqill=
    4. gcql E6ll q+ sBql^l Elol +E ?ts B4ol g"it B4^lA f Sl, AdoJ+. ol A+ gBd(heat
    C._4E oJE
    4(:=J 5.20). Elol +flE ="BEql q+ gol E etr+E 4l exhaustion)S 99zlzl4, d4+ g^lB(heat stroke)oll 4H
    4E+. tse +tr EoJE{, ol r+Ag qzll Eol ++71tr H+t + 9l+. rqLI Bg ¤rl= E.J d4? asE E+ flol E
    q= sg 44o14. El E+6I= aE d46J ErllE gsa + fl+. 4r}4e e
    5.6 I Hess Eal 201

    + iE *E7I q+ *olzlzll 9E qzlH?ol+ s+ ^JEIql qq gE +dg ¤olal gE+. *g gE: +el44


    ^1714
    mlzlzil qq. ,|]+ d46J 6{!ol rlzlE ++. qel zlzl 4. .J
    "+* ¤(E-9 Bg)E +g.6l+ql, olfl zl¤¤ 6I
    6]140l s6Jg xgz $EE trI^l= ag olTtEI
    =+E
    ql E= 9lHzlE gg rJ^J^l
    ^J+g E= = ^JtI6l+ ^Je+q Hls"E B9
    ql E+ol H4. ,JtrI.
    "J.J Eol 4d-491
    gEE +xlg + flg qlq= zl4
    i{gol q+ E{xlz,ll qE, iil+ EEg EE= e+= Ai 9?6lpothermia)ola|-=- r1l+ fl¤t}^Jqlql mlA +E 9l+.

    5.6 I Hess Hzl olL altrlUSol -ea x.J fllBrl Eitoil 6llB6l=7t?
    qtr HI+g elBrl Esl(aH) <ig El= HI¤¤E AH 6|o1 9lE *-+4q CHIC) + zoz@)
    4l4i'J + 91trI. q+^l E= HI*9 aI{ Ag g=J4lE +Ag ge= $,EI.
    qlgq= tlq EL+olsE, qtr plE r+a4 +¤g AH= E6[= Ee
    e.l .J4 HI¤¤el a7l tr-qe+
    ^JCE$ al+ ^JE{$ CAql"J E=EI+. -802 kI
    olag {B e}*ol 6J +altr q}gol gol4E, g+ +41tr "Jol+Ezlql -8e0 kI
    rJ$S.ol. qEl +alel 4 HI+el elBrl Es}el ,*g.J +al r+ael e1g t]
    EI
    El
    Coz(g) + 2 H2o(g)
    vl He+el rJolot +tI= 19 9"1s4. ql$ Eilqlfl cH+(s) 711))71
    =q 88 kI
    ¤A6Iq cor(g)e} Hzo(r)g tC6l+ 19:a 5.21E g+ql s^16t EI
    Coz(g) + 2HzO(t)
    el rJol oJ +41tr "Jq+= asE gl7, t4 s.zrq e-E+
    ^J46J +E
    ql s^l'{} utc+ ?ol q-q-q ae + +4lE 99t4r
    ^J4g +E 9lr}. a.LH 5.21 DllEll?.l 1 mol9 fl4011 tH-d tl=tr|
    trE -Lf 3Zl UB! ?l=Jtrl Esl= + Lf/le gGILI
    ^J¤6l.r, uro(g)zl 34
    (r) cH+(g)E ¤Aop cozk)4 Hro(g)E (z)
    ts EJSsl?Jflfl gapol -d4 a+.
    4q H,o(/)= ed6l+ 1,o14. d 4aq slBul trq+ olElq} F +41 -890kJ : -B02kJ + (-88 kJ)
    I flBYl Hs+E 6JolEl.

    CHak) +2oz@) Coz@)+2H2o(g) aH: -802kJ


    (+) 2H2o(g) - ZHzo(l) AH: -88U
    CH+(S) + zOzG) + 2H2O(g) --* Coz(g) + zHzo(l) + 2H2o(g) AH: -890kJ

    ut4rl "Ja[ H]+e +gr] g+


    CH+(s) + 2Oz@) ------ COz(g) + zHzo(t) AH: -890kJ
    ness HEI(Hess'slaw)$trIg$ ?ol ¤E6J + 9lE+. q¤ *_$"1 944oe 'Jq+
    E, z HI+el 4 +419 {Bnl H+el Bn+ A+.=r 4Aq dill tlgi4 Eq+ H}
    * +alE + E= ^H=t}*ol
    'Jq+: aee+ ++6}rl. ol E4e flEulzi tlElt *+4= a
    g "J"H tr|4^J qH qCE 4 tzlg AH tlg "Jzlrl atH :z rldel AH {tg 4l&
    =rI.
    6ll g + il4. ol13 Hlr4 49 +9 ¤E +41k9= q= Bg EI*ql 4'* la
    ^]-S6Iq
    ,Jg 4l&g + 9l+= 4,¤ 9"laJ4. Hess H!$ 44 +4.;l7l qel+ qlqzl HF+= 4l
    4I6k ql f+6ltrL qE +4E sa,(14 "J4IEI +^= ^JC6l+ qlBE= zld +a
    =q
    6J + S.+. 1 mot9 +4= 0.5 mol9 o2.+. E}.^l7lE CoStrJ olq+ Co2E
    ^J{Elr,
    ErJq q}+6tzl ?+g EIE hI=+. relLl rill +J:e+ "J4IgI +i= ozel9d6l saal
    { cozE ol
    ^JC.Jtrt. H}89 flgq= q4l s.Si'lH ++ cE+q coq Eig 4l&ql ol

    +6J + ?l+.

    A +qTr HJBor^r trr'gE EaF= aH', ol*lpl g:dE 4izt?


    I ta q,t=, (b) u8oil rH-d st-+ u8^tel zt+oil 2= EElrl.
    I
    202 58 gat-+

    qH
    F Hess
    5.8
    E{B oltntq AH 4ltl'6Pl
    C7l COzE g4-g rl|q HJB gl=Jtrl= -393.5 kJ/mololl, COT! CO2e EA--J tttlel t!=JtrlE -283.0 kJ/mololrl
    (1) C(s) + Oz@) COz@) AH: -393.5 kJ

    (2) Co(s:) + LorG) - Coz(e) AH : -283.0 kJ


    0l^lE= 0lE6[G, -C7[ Co-e E-g rflsl E4 t!=Jtrl= 4lt!at^19-
    (3) c(s) + ior(g -------- Co(c) : ?
    ^H
    6ll'J + ^lg 6JilH cozk)z| rl$E o}+ql ?less iA¤+.
    E4 gEl+ HI*^l + tllzl folzlr, olE¤ aq}d}q H olel xllag+.
    eol *o,G)s "J+ql^l
    ^ll
    xl Hl+4g .$C6ra, raE qlgq= +61+ +4lol4. > -H.= qlfl 1

    dtEl HessH4g ^FS6JtrI. Ezl +s.6J HI¤¤n+ (3) 2No(s) + oz(c) Nzon(s) HI+ql qlfl {girl Hq¤
    E+E zl:4. ^lql^-l
    (r) !4 (z) rl9 E+E q+l^l + ++ 4B= ols-" - +6t^le.
    o|{
    ^JCEE
    q6l] ?9 (:) qE+ "J=q=q. E^lq SlBqE Nzoa(g) + 2No2(g) Arr = +57.9kJ
    ^lg ql6fl^lE ^lol
    .-+ 2Noz(8)
    Hclql 44i= uJaN.! fll.ll$ + 9l+. 2No(s) + oz@) AH = -113.1kJ
    601 (1) 49 ol+6teJE cGl= HI*E 4"11, cotgl
    ^lr}
    (2) (d 2.7 kl (b) -5s.2 k| (c) -8s.s kJ (d) -171.0 kl (e) +ss.2 kf
    E o1-.<3*e-1 ^JCE qq +olE+ 6iq, +s elgg (s) > !il.= ql4 2
    ^lxl
    H El]g6Jtri. (r) 43 HI¤¤ol c(s)olug r r4lE ol +^= +s4 +ololE=E + Bqtr +¤r+
    so oJ
    f 914. +e HI+e ^JCEol co(d4=^lgaql +961- +ololEEE ¤l: elgrlE 471 -tgt.s
    =rle4.
    k|/mol, -3es.4
    4. trt+^l (z) al$ co(s)E iJCSe Fld$ 9gzl9l+. + k|/mololQ.
    ¤¤ +ldg 41 aaE +E= Hlql+= 49 zl9o}4. + ^l C(+g) + oz@) ------ Cozk) AH : -3e3.5 kJ
    g +E H}+^lol E + 9lE+ 4¤.4'Jol Hllg*+.
    C(rlolo|-e-r; + ozk) ------ Cozk) AH : -395.4kJ
    C(s) + or(s) Cozk) AH : -393.s kJ
    - Egol +olotEEq H+E trI AHE 4l4}6}^le.
    coz(g) .----- co(s) + lor(s) -lH: 283.okJ
    c(s) +lork) -+ co(s) AH : -110.s kJ c(+¤) c(clololg=) LH: ?
    -
    qH 5.e
    7t|E !g ,Jts Hess H*lB olttlq AH 4ltraPl
    ^ll
    2 C(s) + Hz@) CzHzG) 8J30il rH-d aH= rl.= g.E= 0lE6lq +6t^le.
    - CzHzG) + ZOr@) lCOz(g) + H2o(/) L^H: -1299.6kJ
    C(s) + Oz@) - COzG) AH : -393.5 kJ

    Hz(g) + LorG) - Hzo(/) L,H: -285.8kJ


    -
    N,[l'J HI¤¤q 2c(s)zl ?lo Ir + + Hall aHql 2= *
    ^lql= ^lr+
    E^l EIE Hl+^l ^ll +H¤ elBiil H+= ^l*al¤ 6J+. +E H}*^lql= HI*Eql H27[ llo Eg Hall H]+
    'l]e} ^J]
    {ig al4}6l-= +^llol4. ^rr 4g rqlE *zl6.J4. r49 Hess B4q II|4
    ^ll
    ,]lE HI+
    filgl Hess H4g rll zl]9 49.JilAL}, Fld4+, ^lr+
    flEq Hi+= E+ 6JoJ4.
    ^l-*6l.{
    4zl .JCtJ |l+E +6}] +E HI+{g Frl9l aa z@,Xfl + Hzo(t\ CzHz@) +) oTgI -4H :12ss.6g
    "J=+.
    alg *zlatE^J H}+^lol Hdqa+H +sE El-+l +a. HH zc(s) + 2a^81 - 2@2t81 A,H: -787.0k1
    += +6ll=4. Hz(s) + LoXsI - Hza(tl Arr: -285.8kJ
    -
    2C(s)+Hz(g) .+ CzHz@) LH :226.8kJ
    Eot +s Hl*^]qlE scEe c2Hrzl ?los-tr a H4 HI
    *rl9 uFf4. ul4^l olull AHq Ba.z1 u194. +s HI¤. 4g rJatB +gs o}+ql2co2, *or.w2otl gl4. olSg
    5.7 I 8d El=Jtrl 203

    E+ 446}tr qE HI¤4lg ¤ + 91trI. C(s) + H2o(g) -+ Co(g)+Hz(g)


    ,JE -H_C¤ +E HI+4g ?$."eE, r rlCE !_z$flo;;j @)-Laail kl O) -e18.3 k| (c) 131.3 kJ @) 262.61d (e) 6s6.1 kI
    4. aag {}e A4Ig Eo 6ll PE E9 dfzt S.flEzl S"J > ie= qlfl 2
    ollot tJ4. .I?]]E golq HI*!g ol+6lq
    > H= qlrlll No(s) + os(g) NOz(S) + Oz(g) AH= -198.9kJ
    .l4E ge++ HI*!g ol*6}q os(r) ---+ ioz(s) LH = -t42.3kl
    C(s) + COz(g)
    or(s) AIrl : -393.s kJ o2@) 2o(g) AII: 495.0kJ
    zco(g) +Oz(S) -
    + 2Co2@) AH2: -s66.0kJ -
    trI.* HI+el AHE Zl+6t^ls.
    2Hz@)+oz@) + 2H2o(s) AHr : -483.6kJ
    No(g) +o(g) -+Noz(s)
    +g HI*el aFIE AhI6I^le-.

    ol;l+ qlE +.Jde $lBul(oz| (


    ^JEll +++= 1o14.
    rzt tql Bfolzl q+ql qtr 54 HI¤¤r+ ^8C8"il 'il61q Iill tt8¤ Esl^l7l 2 H2o(/) r|l{.!oil 2 H2o(g)718dE
    H!*"1 + +4le 9ol4Ezl, {el t4le g"l4Ezl.ll ^}*$,ol tll.7t¤6[rL q+011,t.1 olL AH,J0l EgdiXl -J=71?
    AII= A+.
    CH+(g) + 2O2(g)
    QlB"l Ese+ uess B49 t zlzl q]= q oldg Ea6I
    rzr 6JtrI. =q H2oE {t"l.
    :B s.zr9 ,llrlloJol ¤tap Cozel LHr: -607kl
    qlE +^l olgql: olag coz] r3r3q
    = ^J4"ll -E-z[. ^-]+ql LHr=
    n, olaol 9aa1q co2-tr H+qE + +41 HI¤¤ tltloll trzl -8eo kI Co(s)+ 2H2o(t)*|olls)
    ?l
    (==Js.n). ol + +41 +*ol rB s.2rq a4= +eq+E, d
    trl
    4l HI*s.l AHr: -seO kl-E e+. H: tI4 ei+ollr+ + r+A AH, = -283 kJ
    EF rJg al9 as= ^Jd"I]ot d4. ol43 rH s.22ql^lc+ ?ol COz(g) + 2H2o(l)
    AHI : AH, +AH34b 49 9"1*4. olEl6J %lBq-+ HI+g E
    6]]6Je-tr;AJ, dedql^J +46171 qej+ HI+q qlgtl EEI *g
    LaA5.22 dB6l= fll=Jnl ss. gfil'HJ-
    Hess E=.lE
    rg 5.21r[ a^lu, q7l^]= F .Jzl u30il rH6ll rl= HJ8
    +E6ll B + 9l¤¤ g "J + 99 4olr4. g "JaJe]
    HJ8^lg tlo=ll^l fl6tE HJ8^l= EJ=
    ?l_r., olE _"E 6z HJSel AH 2"IA gr ?leE 6 AH
    # ^11^16[firt
    il=zlt!6llg+?1r1.
    5.7 l^8tr fl=JTl
    AH rJg +ElU s= ge HI+e-l qlgq Hq¤ 41416Iz1 91611 +lql^l fl+.J EJ
    ^l-S6lq
    Hg ^l-S6J + 9l+. qlE Eq +g {Bq(enthalpy of vaporization, $illfi zlzll-tr. HFt
    .J rIE AH), +8 {B4(enthalpy of fusion, l1^llE +'J trllg AH), ¤a {$ul(enthalpy
    of combustion. &4E E.eg gag. oil9 aa) E9 %IqlEI s=ol 9lE+. gslo+ ztEE s.
    -tr trJE trll +61 +s_6J r+ae a7.E cts gitr+q e+,*Eg +E= aolq.
    ^l-sElE
    ol 4C4 +d 9l= flg{ EslE S¤ t!!=Jol(enthalpyof formation) E.=
    ^}Cg(heat of
    formation)ol4r. 6}-11, AHytr EzlaJ4. ¤zl9l4 oI4 e4F Eeol +d gitr+q 4
    C9fl4(formed)= ag ++U+.
    qtr flB'l Esl9
    =zli Hl¤¤4 ^JCEE gE, Sq, {l4(zl;ll, oli-ll, rill Ad B
    ql)E eaql q?+ E+e+.
    ^1tr
    += HI+g qlBi4= HlrB trl], 'l]++9 s zlcql ^F&+
    si ^J4(standard state)4t: 6}+el =flo=_
    Agq-= 4ol ¤4t{4. + Eeg s
    =EoJ gE(.J+4-qtr 2es r(zs "c))91 ?l
    = ^J4= ++6J Eeol 4zlS(r atm)q1.<.1 +d 9t=
    : tl4ol+.. qtr HISE E=SlEJtr!ElEl(standardenthalpychange)= EE H]+Er+ ^Jd
    -7lill4 q+ -*.= tlqlel C9E t bar(t atm:1.013 bar)olrll, ol= I atm(7loJ)E+= EJ *g'Jqolq. 4++el A+
    ol ilol= E= elgsl Ee+q^l ilol¤- +EtLllTl 9+e-+.
    =
    204 s3 B6t+

    x.5.3 2e8 Kqt^1st s+ ^drd


    qlEJtrt(Anf)

    tIl
    ae ElEt^l anl(kllmol) erl ElEt^l AH/(ktlmor)
    o[,r-llp fl(acetylene) CzHz@) 226.7 g+ +^(hydrogen chloride) HCl(s) -92.30
    ojeulof(ammonia) NH3k) -46.t9 e+ f-i(hydrogen fl uoride) HF(c) *268.60
    =+9-fl
    Hldl(benzene) crHe(l) 49.0 of ol 984 fi.(hydrogen iodide) HI(c) 25.9

    *tl *#(calcium carbonate) CaCO:(s) -1207.1 ullrlloJ(methane) CHak) -74.80


    &cl rJ#(calcium oxide) CaO(s) -635.5 4lE-9(methanol) cH3oH(0 -238.6
    ol {o} $A(carobon dioxide) Cozk) -393.s uEullol(propane) CrHsk) - 103.85

    cotg) *127.0
    'J&el BiGarobon monoxide) -110.5 Hs] SGilver chloride) AgclG)
    4ololEE (diamond) c(s) I .88 +tl+^ iE(sodium bicarbonate) NaHCO:(s) -947.7
    ollHloJ(ethane) CzHok) -84.68 EI4l AEGodium carbonate) Na2CO3(s) -1130.9
    ollB9(ethanol) c2HsoH(/) Ec+ chloride) NaCl(s) -410.9
    ollHHl(ethylene) ^EGodium
    czHrk) sz..to ¤*(sucrose) C12H22O11(s) -2221
    lf?^(glucose) C6H12O6(s) -1273 E(water) HzO(/) -285.8
    Egqlp} f4.(hydogen bromide) HBr(g) -36.23 ffizl(water vapor) Hzo(8) -241.8

    gol EG qlBtl Hsle^J CE6J4. -E= $lBtl Hs+= arr4-n E^l'tI+.


    ^Jqtql flg
    trl]
    gl dz}.= s= ^JEH t|+g +4u+.
    qB plqlE9 E= 8¤ ?llEJl!(standard enthalpy of formation, AHi)= E= ^J4-q
    {+ l.= Eeg ?*E flaE+el t mol +6J+g ^JC{+ Hl*E Slpul Eplol4. =4
    +li + EloJ¤ AI{,* : AfIr" 15.241
    (s=
    tlEI) (s6 {F49 r mor)
    ts-E 2es Kq^J aHiE EIE s= tl4ql^l fllz16t+ oltle--e g
    ^Fo"oJ+. =^H'J+E,
    del 7It[.JC+ B4zf ^JC Hi+ql^J .JH]49E Aql+. ql= EE gl+g(czHsoH)ql
    4* e= ^Jt qlgq= 49 E]8ql E}l+ flE4 H+ol+.
    2 C(+$ + 3 H2(5) +L or3) --- CzHsoH(/) LHf" : -277.7 kI ts.2sl

    4}^ ?l^q 7l=g o2olzl, ou| orz[ o]q+. ell+d]E oz= zgs K, E= qlzl.Jql^j &i
    9 .JC6J ¤4olzl qlEol4. :zc{ u}{z}zltr e^ 949 7l=9. +¤olzl, r}olo}-e-c71
    otq+. ell+ 6IE +¤ol 2e8 K, 4zl*"llrl q ?Ic*(q *g qlLl^l) E4olzl ull+ol4.
    "Ja.J +AE ¤4= Hr(g)o14. qaI^J ol49 ^l s.2sql^l
    ole+ aol -E= aaql^l 7I+

    +^E 7l=o tr ^l-.8.6Jtr]..


    plql=J$$ 6Jd-^l s.2si.lfl 96I= E4 r mol9
    ^JC HI*E ^JCg +4U+. a4zls

    s.3ql 9l+. B+ sd6J gE ffi cql 9l+.


    celql "14 qE g^E 7l+ .J4+ BqE s= /gc tgul= 0ol+. eI+.IE g^=
    olul .E6 rlElql gig ull ,.Jc t}*ol gs s,7l ollE"l4. trt+^J c(+¤), Hr(g), or(g), 4
    giE tHi 4k+ dEql ul4 ool4.
    =
    qH s.10
    F {¤ tlEJrte} ${fl $8^{
    ?E25 'C011^l oEll uSel E!=Jtrl EEI-= E= 8d ElEtrl HAlala -g + 91=71? r=rrl ?JrlE AH7l. .8,s glBtrl= LtEfLH= u3
    + trJ=7 I +16}l^1 qE EEI-= +olot 6E7l?
    ^]o
    5.7 8A ?l=tr| 205

    (a) 2Na(s) +LO.G) + Na2O(s)


    (b) 2K(0 + Cl2(g) zrCl(s)
    (c) C6H120u(s) - 6C(ttolo|-EE)+ 0Hr1g; + 3Oz(g)
    -
    EtlU q Eeol gaE E6l]¤+. ui+^l ol HI*g q o.E 4l4q
    Eq 4 HI*Eol s= tlElg fliola, ^JdEol e+qlE olo}.J4. ++es, Ei gi-E rlolole_Ez| iq4 flzl
    l moloJ H}+ql^.lg E= ^Jc qlgi4= ++u4. "J, +¤ol tg r "t*q1,r1g Elg E'= ^Jqlol+.
    gis+
    qlE=
    ^JC Slgnl$ Aq6lrll +4U ^lg'f
    El
    filEl (l) ol Hl+ql^l 1mor9 E4ol r gi=E+El ¤rdg =+?^=
    ** gdEol E= *ql"Jrl +r+ 44.
    EAE Hl+?Izl o[{z]s}, (z)
    E q.J"llo} t4. 6c(+¤) +6H2@) +3o2(g) + C6H12o6(s)

    Eol I molol rE 449 4ql+ ^J4'J Li1


    (a)ql^'l Na2o >H.=qm1
    Hzo(/)9 ^JC¤ol -286kIlmotol+E, r}-g + qq HI*
    Nae] oz zlilltrPrl "J=qd+. f4o.e Hi* G)E qlgirl ol gHt= ¤Eiq HlSaltz}?
    Hplb s= ^JC SIEule+.J^l6J+. (a) 2H(s) + o(g) + 1116171 AH: -286kJ
    6)ql^l= Effiol slnltr +qau|. tr14.-o- dg IL= tr- b) zHz@) + oz(g) 2Hzo(l) AH: -286kJ
    qlql^J aallol+. q+ol KCIG)g] s= - Hzo(/)
    i or(9 .---- :
    ^Jc Qlgulz} F
    ull (c) Hz(s) + AH -286kJ
    (d) Hz(c) + o(s) + Hzo(g) AH:
    zt qfr,"e-+. CCEoI 2 motol ¤tri. KCI(, 1mot9 Sd -286kJ
    (e) Hzo(/) -+ Hz(g) + L or(il AH : -286 kJ
    Hlg"49 q-s-r+ A+.
    > .H.= qH 2
    K(s) +|Cl2(5) -+ x611t;
    Eill ^lgp+ +i(cclr9 E= ^8C qlB4= trq += 4
    HI* (c)E raE ga-++El Eeol B{9zl S=+. ql41
    B+ HI*4g.ri.:r, P9 cql^l ol EaE Ar+'= *e^le-.

    eE o3(er)ts dzl 'Jdo+ trJE + ?t= 7lE4?t EEHoltl. oe(e)9 AHrE HJE^I
    A ^tae]
    ootalas+?t=7t?
    I
    ^J¤
    ql=JtrlE ol+EJ $t ?!=Jtr19 4lt
    Hess Bzlrl, s s.34 ++ cql 9b aa; l}g E= HI¤¤r+ ^JCEE AHi 4X
    g ot= qtr Hl*E -*.+ elg{ EEI¤ Z1&g +^l-S6lq
    9l+. ql= s= eaql^l EeEtl.J
    E ¤4= ^84"I B^|.
    =q
    caHe(g) + 5O2(g) + JCOz(s) + 4H2O(/)

    +q= ^Jl
    TIzl Cd HI¤¤ EI6Iq ol HI*!g + + 9l+.
    JC(s) + aHz@)
    csHs(s) Lry: -LHf[CsHe(s)] ls.26l
    -
    3 C(s) + 3 oz(s) + J Coz(S) LHz -- 3LHf" [Cozk)] ls.27l
    aHzG) + 2oz@) + QHzo(,) Lru: 4LHi [Hro(/)] [s.28]
    csHs(g) + 5 oz(it) + I coz(s) + 4Hzo(l) AH?*: aEl+ LHz+ aH3 15.29)
    (olle= qzl"lld .J a4 rJol, Hls"4 r=9 LH 4k qlg
    ^IolE +zl= +46171+l6}q
    i'l HElql o|4 dzl-E s^l6l+ 4ol ]9-sB ollz| ?14.)
    Hess Hzlg
    ^l-S6Iq
    4 s.zoq q* E= UBq H+= 4 s.ze-s.289 flBEl Ep+E
    *etr ¤ + 9l¤¤ 7lq6l.+. E s.3E alg ^l-s" 6Iq arc* {tg 4EC + 9l+.
    AH,L:LHt+LHz+LH3
    : -AI{r'[CrHs(s)] + 3AI{p'[Coz(8)] + 4AHf [Hro(l)]
    : -(-103.8skJ) + 3(-3e3.skJ) + 4(-28s.8kJ): -222okJ [s.30]
    206 53 Eat-+

    >ral 5.23 E+tr1loJ E^.oll rtl


    -.J ?lEJnl trs sc(+¤)+4H2(g)+so2k)
    g4
    g+-e eat
    O
    AIIr = +103.85 kI o 3CO2 Ad
    CaHak) + SO2(8) AH, = -1161L,
    Bt-99
    do=

    s!
    EI
    E
    trl 3CO2Q)+aH2(8)+ZOzG)
    AH;.= -z2zokl
    o 4H2OAd
    AHs = -1143 kI
    J ) + 4 H2O(/)
    AH .Ig
    oo=

    E,J^4 il5tE= 8dE Coz(s)el LaJ^4 Hl-EJqe q-EF.! +^t+E


    H2O(/)ol EdEl= zE= LfElL.lrf, E4l:'J3 8d- Ed^t7t=
    EIEZI ee= LIEIL.!L|.

    f.H 5.23E qlBq E.E= ol 4l&el +c e4E +Ell-llil glEl. o+41= e= tr-Ellql^l
    t]*Eol +C g^E ts6l]q= 4dol4. A+4eI O+41: ,+44 g^E+El rJdEol
    ^JCq= r+Aolq. "l !+aql^l flgEl E+= tr}ft a zlz) %LEql Ell"ll^J= s.+¤9l,rl
    u}|* zld$ EIE+.

    O Epll .1s.ze? c,Hak)9 ^Jd HI+E Hlqlol+. An+4sE ol Eoli EI¤-E elBq H
    il+ EtrqoJ ^Jc El*el tnl <k4 +4 +E"J -Aa1"[c:Hak)]oltrt.
    @ Coz gtl s.zz* CozG) 3 mol9 rJ^"r tI*.14. qlgq= r7l ^ojeolE-e ol E4l
    ^l
    E flgul E+= 3 AH/[cor(s)]ol+.
    o Hzo g¤ H2o 4 molg d^J6l+ rl s.zs9 qlBq Hq+ 4 LHiLH2o(/)lolQ. o1 q1
    ¤* u,o14ol ^JC¤+= 19 $,tlop. fl=ql, H2o(s)71olE Hro(Dql ql.J AHi
    {tol ^FSg+= dql +el6l+.
    olEl'* E^iq^l +¤ *+ Hi$^lel e+El"*E {+: 4 g^9 g+= 44d4r ztd
    +trI. trl+^J 4 s.zg\ AH?*:-2220 kl #gC3Hs I motr4oz 5 molol ql*a}¤ coz
    3
    ^jCg= {l$tl Hsl¤ +e}Ut}.
    molrl H2o 4 molol
    flql^l ¤E.J ailH, "lule} HlgoE d^d HI*Ee +6l]g+ 9l+. ol HI+g E= $g
    'l Hq+ ^JC59 E= ^JC tlBrlg qlq^J q]¤¤9 s= SC SIB'IE 6Jg U 4.o14.
    Alli,n:>llAHf(^J^JE) ->rzAai(HI8E) [s.:t]
    zlc r(sigma)=tJg $ula|_/, n4 m? H]*9 slq=JE 4l+ol+. ll s.:r9 aal .Jg
    3rlq} q}+^lql^J CEo}d}(forward direction)oE +4U+. + gi
    ^8CEE 4C H}+ola,
    7l-Hlg"olq ol 6.19 4 s.zz zl s.zs4 El+6I+. zl s.er9 E
    ^JcEg EIE= 4o14. "l
    ,ll 6}0l +4.1t= ag s.26^)4 Hi¤¤q q+ qH}8oltrI. nl+^l 2nL,Hi
    ^l ^Jc HI*g
    AE 'Jql 94 $aE +=r+.
    5.7 I 8d ?l=q 207

    s.tt
    F 4lz1l
    8t tlgtrls+E1 ,Jt qlBq ahfBPl I
    (a) fl!t!(C6H60)1 motol E46lG Cozb)el H2o(/)='J== U39 E= Elgtrl EEI'= Zllt6l'^le.
    (b) E+tr11?] 1.00 sa[Eltlt.oo sol EA-'J tttlSdElts HlE6l'^19.
    =zJE
    6fl.J
    E4 (a) C6H6(/)7I taap cozk)q Hzo(r)E dc6l+ HI zllfl (a) Ezl coHo9 Eaql g.i +B "*= Hlq"4g +4.
    8ol +qA+. ol HISE s= SIB'I Epi(arr)= 4l4l6lloF ++ c+ -tr s.3ql^J LHi 1l:= *j1, ^l s.3lg ^l=s"6lq HI
    t4. o) c6H6 1.00 s9 Sn r+Cr+ c:Hs 1.00 s9 Se 4 8E {Bq EEI¤ Zl&'*tr}. (b) c6H6E E¤"*g ol+d-q
    aql^l B^J6J gE oJ13 Hlr6llot 6l=ql, ol ¤r= *g E g'J $gtl Epl¤ rts'J elBj4 E+E HI+q olel
    Hl*6}r]l csHe9 Ee*rI9lql^l ah}¤ EJ flgq =q.Hq¤
    Eql^l oltrl +l+61fl+(^l s.2ee+ s.30 +a).
    ^F$.6Iq
    r EAg rts'J flBr{ Hsl¤ 4l&+4.
    Evl
    (a) 9^ HI¤+ HI¤¤eq oz@)71+AE+= ag.J
    a 9l+. tr|+^J C6H6(l) I mol9 ¤i HI+E +¤
    Hlg"49 +El. C6H6(r) +tor($ 6COz@) + 3H2o(/)
    -
    al s.:r+ -E s.3el zlEE
    ^I+619
    tI*9
    g + 9l+. 4 HI¤¤g
    4l^}6J
    ^r4-
    rtn+ EAE All"nn : [6AHf(COz) + 3Ar{1"(Hzo)J - [A,EI1'(CoH6) +fa,rypr11
    ^Hi
    EI4*E 4l+= *6J+= ag zlE6t+. += tl : [6(-3e3.skJ) + 3(-2Bs.8kJ)] - t(4e.0U) + f(oU)l
    46}ql^l zlev .JA;J ¤qq gi= LHi:o, + : (-236t - 8s7.4 - 49.0) kJ
    AH/[or(s)] :ool 4= {r z1 qa14. : -3267kJ

    0) E+q 9l= qe+q sEql?l I mo19 gi=


    LH": _2220 kloltrl. ol ql4lE (a)ollr-l r mol Hldl
    E g^= LH": -3267 t<Iolzp.4l&61fl+. 4E
    a9 rEB ¤^gg .J.t4rJE ge*g ^l-&6}q
    C3H6(g): (-222okllmal)(lmatl44.1. g) : -s0.3 kJ/g
    Eg rH otr $4lo11o1 ajr1. C6H6(l): (-3267 kl/mol)(1maU78.L g) : -a1.8kJ/g

    +el H]de E+ +q+Aol+. .JH}zlse +s}


    iEEElloJr+ (a) -88.0 kl O) -1e6.0 kl
    fi r 99 $AE+q gg + 9l= qlLlTl= 40r+ s0 kl
    ^t
    (c) +88.0 kf (d) +1e6.0 kl
    olol+. (e) 4-H-zI H ¤eqt
    > E= qlrlll > s= qtrlt2
    2H2ozQ) HI+E Slprl Hq¤ Elg
    2Hzo(I) + ozk) s s.3g ol*6lq t mol gl*g9 ¤4 ^l qlg4 Eq¤
    9 ^JC qlpsl$ -
    ol+o.rq 4&6}^le. 4l416l^le.
    LHilHzozQ)) : - 187.8 kJ/mol C2HsOH(l) + 3O2(g) 2CO2@) + 3HzO(l)
    AIrr'[H2o(,)] : -285.8 U/mol -

    qHl 5.12
    Ut q!=JillE ol86H {^"d tlHul4ll-EPl
    HJ3 CaCOa(s) ------ Cao(s) + COr(g)9 E= E!=J4 Etrl'= 178.1 kJolrf. E 5.38 CaCOg(s)9 E= 8d tlgtrl= 1l
    ^|.e-6lq
    tt6l^19.

    6tlS
    E+l AH/[cacoa(s)] r}g +81+ ETllol+ llq ol HI*E s= flgiil E+= r{l E+.
    AIf- : AHp'[CaoJ + LHilCo2) - AII1'[CaCosJ
    208 s3 Eat-*

    Eot s s.3rl ++ ctr+q grJ{ <i+ Arr?." itg 4.J 178.1kJ: -635.5kJ - 393.skJ - AHflCaCo3l
    6Iq

    AHl"[cacoJq] 46||^l EH AHr"[CaCO3] : - 72O7.1 kJ/mol

    Atr olEl Eg B+ ¤ol, E+i rJ+4 ag.JCt a,11E ,,3 (d) 2AI{1"[SOr] : Affim - zAHf"[SOz]

    C Ql9ulzl *+"Jg ql+6J + 9l+. (e) 2Allp'[SOs] -- 2LHl"lSOzl - AI/L"

    > laE slr{ 1 > E5 qEI2


    HI* 2sor(s) + oz(g) 2So3(s)?l +q^g ql +-S + trl+ E= $B{ Eslz} +qAg q, s. s.39 E= dC
    qL HI+^lol gulEz|? - el$rl= ol86}q cuo(s)9 s= $Bq= 4416I ^JC
    (a) : AiIi*" - a4'[Sozl
    AI11"[SO3]
    ^19.
    (b) AI{1"[SO3] : AfI&" + AI{r"[SOz] CuO(s) + Hz(B) .+ Cu(s) + H2O(r) AH" : -129.7k1
    (c) 2AHr'[SOs] : AIr:.. + ZAIII'[SOzJ

    s.8 I eEJ fl=Jtrl


    slE HI¤¤ +EI6I= qqzl HEIE elol a.Jg ¤c444 #= ql(a*g #E 4l qluJ
    zlz| pealL A*g BC^l7l= Ag qlLJzl= %I=6J+) +¤g Esle| "Jd'* +ZlrI 9i
    "JE HI* $lB'l= ^J^dslrj+ ^Eg ad.g +4e + 9l+H. 919y1 {tg
    EI.
    $A,J A.Jql .J'Jg =46l.I
    + 91tr1. ?lilElEtrl(bondenthalpy)= Tlzll ^JEltq Ed t mol9lr] 5
    c a6Jg #E rll gs+ elgq Ee+(AI{)01q-. g4(ctr(8))9 6llqile, e4 6}+el a6J
    "J #qzl: E+6J
    qls"ee+q e6J tlgrlE 446}: A"l zl* ¤4. cr, E4+ +"J
    *9 4aJe-E 6Jz4l +q 9r, olag cl-clzlH -*7l6-Jr+. cl,(s)E gi gzlEg 6114=
    cl-cl a6Jol #qe ql .Jq++.
    Ct2(5) + 2911t1

    H o
    o
    ---------)

    cl-ct a6J qlBqzl ol EI¤:el $*4 zsz ktlmol4 a+. aq+ qlBq= "llrJzlz}
    a6Je_l
    ++]tr+q cl-ct a.Jg #= ql ++qqo}6t7l trllEq oJiol4. a6J qlBq= Ez[ D
    9l .Jrzt 6I= e6Jg ,{^J ++U+. ql= Eq D(cl-cD: cl, a6Jql qt.J aq+ qlBul
    olr, D(H-Br)e. usr aEtE aql {Eulol4.

    cr flr1= orp aor g3'il^r oJg-d7r? cr2 E^1e1F 7H9 cr fl^1^r


    A olel oilLlrl
    cr2 E^1.e1F T,1sr
    gEloJTl.?
    I ^lol=

    olflz} tsrlel A.Jg #=gsoJ HI+ql 4+ A{} ql${= 6JB6l= ag +e.6}zl


    Ell

    *+. aq+ $Bq= HI¤: slBule+ aEl. 6l-zl"J c_H a6J4 pol Qola[-r. +soJ a6Jg
    4flz} Ezlql^l"J olq6.J A6Jql rll6ll^J= ¤+ A'J $lgyl= ql=
    =46J+. ^l*8-e+.
    q ,lEll.J Ezlzi 4C ztzl +^d g4E E"llEl= +s=4 eg r+Ael flE4 Ho1;.-, =
    Aq+q ql.J ¤+ a6J "llH zlE 4 96]-= ql 6J + 9l+.
    ^l-s."
    s.8 gl=rl 209
    =-J

    cH+(s) _-- c(s) + 4 H(s) aH : 1660 kJ

    -------->
    u*#
    o
    qlqlqlql^'l c-H= Fo* ABJo.E ol+q4 ?lo ',-tr, ol HI*E $lBqE c-n
    Hl zl]9
    a*g #= ql gs6J flgrlg ql EHol+. q+^J l}lqlqlql^J ¤# c-H a6J qlBrl=
    ,o(c-s) : Geao I s) kl/mol : 41s kJ/mololr|.
    +qa flzl s9 aq+ a.J elgrl= flzItl.g EoJoJ 4"lzl tsz}9l E='J+. rq+
    tszlzJ9 HsI= gHI4sE 4rt. "J.J Be 4.JEql^J c-H a.J flEqE aEl*+E ¤
    + eq+ qlgrl= 413 kflmolol 91, olag El+ d cH4 6ll4ql^-l 4lt}llH als kllmolgl
    =d'JEl.
    a.B {gq= ++ aEtg #= ql gg-+ ollr{zlo1u+ 6}* o}E <tg r*=+. H}qls,
    + ,llE ,l4l ,tElls-l gztr+ *^l ^Iolq
    aBg "JE q= qHxlzt BI=¤LI. at} s
    Eqz} =E
    ^4
    A6Jol q z}614.
    =++
    ge g^ tlql 4e ¤+ a.J qlgq= ++urt. rJ+ol, ,J6J alqr-a6Jg r*=
    E 5.4=
    E4+ +qL A6Jg '*= E IB+ slEzl H+= "Jea 7lb^dol 44. olH ¤ +Hlql^J
    HIg az-lfl. gi tig ulltrlle tr|6 eqiql E6ll^l ¤alq 9l+. q= Eq &a gx1q1,t1
    &i gi= o-o +.J A6Jol olq+ o:o 016 e*ql 96ll^J gAqq 9l+.
    o:o(s) zo(s) AH: 49s kJ
    -

    C4) o
    o
    -------->

    s s.+E 4^Jl6l BHD(o:o):+ss k|/mololr, olag t}a-4la t}.J A6Jq qlgrl


    r(o-o) :t46kllmol-Hr| zzluJ a+q + HI= olqq. o16 E'*ol4 aI+ aqlql^JE
    eql flgtlE Hsl-= ,ll8tlql^l -H-trI zl^Jl6l ffi {olQ.

    n 5.4 S+ ,JtJ flH4(kllmol)


    C-H 41.3 N-H 39t o-H 463 F-F 155

    C-C 348 N-N r63 o-o 146


    C:C 6t4 N-O 201 o:o 495 CI-F 253
    C-N 293 N-F 272 o-F 190 CI-CI 242
    c-o 358 N-Cl 200 o-cl 203
    C:O 799 N-Br 243 o-I 234 BrF 237
    C-F 485 Br-Cl 218
    C-Cl 328 HH 436 Br Br 193
    C-Br 276 H-F 567
    C-I 240 H-Ci 431 I-C] 208
    H-Br 366 I-Br 175
    H-I 299 I-I 151
    210 53 gel+

    ,JEJ
    ?lEJtrlsl rJt ?!=JtrI
    qlgq= d-ql 6I+olEE, B+ a6J qlBi4= ol+6}q #qzl4+
    ^llEzl ¤cg a6Jol
    9l: EI* qlgq= +Ag + 914. olBloJ 4Ae HI+ql +qq= EE =oF9 aHiq ql
    6ll^J EEtrJEE, +qd HISol EE(endothermic, AH>0) +3 B¤(exothermic, AH<O)
    oJzlql +6]]^J urfe.zl q=g + 9lE+'Jr+.

    HI* elg'18 ql+d|= EJI gs* aqe Hess Ezlg 4d4eE 4+61= 4.14. #q
    zl= AElg .J^J +g Hl+olr, ^JCq= AoJg'Jtlgg **ol4E ol+qlq.
    El+^l H]¤+ + +Ale ol+q{+= ag tr-t}e + glrt.
    ^tdg

    l.^}CEql=
    =^]]6l-zl
    *= HI*EE AEJ$ #E rll g.qe 6+e qlqxl= a"*6J4.
    4lE flBq: #qd a6JE A.J SlB'lE 5J"J+ 67Id+.
    2. Ei¤¤q 9+= ^JCEq AoJol ¤^d¤+. ol +41= ¤^Jg A6Jq 9lHzlE
    =xll6}zl
    %L=6Ir 419 flg{= *+E|.
    HI+ flE l(aH.J= #qa A'Jel A6J SlBi4E 5Je_tr+q ¤Cg A* SIB'lel Bg
    u a-s-tr ql+g+.
    AH.-:>(sqA a$e-l aEI qlptl)->(¤Cg A6Jel A6J Slg"l) ls.tz)

    "JE #qd A6Je-l 6 SlEulzI fH El¤+ ¤Cg AaJE qlg


    gg(AH.,,>o)oll,
    ^}]E
    ulzl gg(AH.*<o)o14.
    =E ++g
    ,ilql.J(cHJr+ ¤a(cl,)z[ 7li]l q]¤¤ 6]q gE] ullE(cs,cD4 gs] +i(HCl)=
    ^JC
    6I.= HI+g Ezr.
    ^JrJ6l]
    H-CH3(5) +Cl-Cl(g) +H-Cl(8) AH,*,: ? [5.33]
    -Cl-CH3(g)
    + +4 4Ae fEJ E lg+. r+q_r} gg a.Jol #qzlr ¤cq= ag +E_6I+.
    s.zzlH
    #qA ¤EI: t mol C-H, 1 mol Cl-Cl
    BC¤ ¤El: t mol C-Cl, 1 mol H-Cl
    ++6J qlqrlE -8-:!"6|¤ c_He+ cl_cl a.Jg #eE 4lg flgEl= ?zlg4cLa s.zq
    ql^J anl>00E E^lg axlH). 49 c-cr4 H-cl a.Jg ¤d4E qlqzl= *=qr
    alg qlBq= *oI+14(:H s.24ql^J aH2<0oe s^lg axle). 4 s.32* ole"o|{ Q}
    + flBq= ql++tr}
    AH,- : [D(C-H) + D(Cl-Cl)] - [D(C-CI) + D(H-Cl)]
    AII* : (413 kJ + 242kJ) - (328 kJ + 431 kJ) : -10a kJ
    ol HI¤+ rJ6J gg t}+ol4.
    ^JCE9 A6Jol EI+Eq A6JH+
    "JEl4eE ArJ flg4= LHi 4I9= +++E + Hg ull"J la._g ql+d}= 91 4q14. ol
    a q}*q^1, cH3clk)ql qoJ AH/ alol Y E cql^l +qzlzl 9*9lzl trIEq AHl4 Hess
    Hzl-g-E AH.-g Zl4Ig + flt}. "JE += cH3cl(s:)E AHi Ag Eg + 9l
    =ilE+El
    s.::s-1 H]+ql ql6ll^J AH*: -ee.8 ktol g+. +lE + <iol *zJ
    ^l-sd+H 4
    -r. s.319
    ^l
    q=ql, olag ¤EI elBulzl g:e sl*Eql qldl^J Eg ¤#{,Lolzl olEol4. 6Izl"J ¤+
    AE+ ql$tl= d4l HI+ qlgrl Hs+ql 46Iq q}4zl_e_E Aq6J ql+ol zp'o6|al
    ^l-s"6IE
    g+.
    a.J $gyl= zli,ll $zlEfq gqa+= 4* zlq6l: 1o1 5ealQ. _r.'ll, "_4^ll, +
    Eql^J 4E EzI rJql 4so6tb Eg HIE^I ir.Elolloh 6-J4. olqal a;9 .,.llzloll 46ll^J xll
    5.8 fl=tr| 211
    =-cf

    rlg ?J8e gEoJ7l",


    =g?l7l?

    + -"-G*.*O*O

    C-HCI CI-CI C-CIZI H-CI


    Ed
    =-BtoleqE =-B'=

    AH 1
    0 LHz 0
    o
    C
    1
    ?1 'b
    EI

    tU tr
    T
    ,}
    o
    CI
    +
    v
    -i f

    AH.- .,."--0
    I l_
    afg 5.24 fll=tr|= 0l86u aH*" Gl+6|.7] EE ?]Btrl= DllElloJ:ziE^el uJffo+ c+sp

    Dll=rl gel+4=
    =:d -dd6l= Lll "J-g-Lf AHonE ql=dl= Lll 4 g
    =-Ef
    + ?ltl.

    ti^l E"J a.J $gE= J.zll, olzll, gg +-lg E6J6l=


    1ltl-ql^.] oJol-g 4.o14. alzlEl
    Hl+ fl]gq= ql+6}= ql eE6l4l ^l-SE + StrI= 4& tlq6}= {ee- +E6l+.

    qFjl s.13
    BaJ
    oJgrlr+EJ HJ-3 oJlgq qE6Pl

    E 5.4= 0l86|-q tl= 84. EJ8oll tH-.J AH= q|*d[^le.

    HH
    2
    tl
    H-q-q-Hk) + z O:o(g) ---------> {O:C:O(8) + 6 H-O-H(S)
    tt
    HH

    6lI'J Eol s.32e+ *. s.4E ztE= ole"619,


    ^l
    E4 ¤+ A6J elpll= plql q}*ql ql.J flgq LH: IILD(C-H) + ZD(C-C) + 7D(o:o)l
    ^l-$6}q
    E!+= q+6J+. - [8D(c:o) + 12D(o-H)]
    4eJ qlql"J(CrHo) F Ezlql s*g 127l]el C-H A.Jr+ -- lt2(4t3 kJ) + 2(348 ki) + 7(4es kJ)l
    244 c-c E lql q= 77Hel o:o A6J
    A6Jr+, 7419 02 - l8(7ee kJ) + 12(463kJ)l
    g #= Ell qqzlzl 9,*a1c1. Co, $z[r] 27HoJ + 87J]el : 9rt7 kJ - 11948 kJ

    c:o aq}r+ Hro E:zlB 27H"J + 124lel o-H e!+g ¤ : -2831 kJ

    ^d6l-=
    Ell 9lH zlE,J=++. #tr olEl+ ql+3 E+ AqEl gEl+4oJ zlEs+q Zl&
    ¤ aloJ -28s6 klr+ Hljil6J + ilsq, ¤ oJrl6tr 9l+.
    212 53 geltrt

    > .H.= qlfl 1 > H=qH2


    s s.4ql ++qq fl= ¤+ e'B elB lE ^l-&6}q 'E E s s.4ql ++F]q fl: ¤t ai} slBq= ^Fs"6l{ 9lB
    oll HI*: Hzo(g) Hz(8) + % or(g)'91 qi+ aH= 4lt} g9 ¤a EI+q q6J AHE Al&6t^lg.
    6i^19-. - HH
    (a) 2a2 kl G) 417 kl (c) s kl (d) -s kl (e) -a68 kl tt
    H-C-C-O-H
    HH
    tt

    s.e l^l+4tE
    gg g^J^l7lzl 9ldlrJ q++E Hls" g ¤^ HI80l+. qts Ee lrtsg g^E
    ^l-sq=
    EI ,J¤q= {uJxlE EeE P!-eil(tuelvalue)olep.J+. qtr ¤-zlol4 sEE EE {t
    e g*4lE +ag + 9ltrL
    Al-S_
    -1 trl

    +fl +ql gs'* q++9 9lulzl} +++94 4%Iql^J +e+. HBe qtsEl= ++EI
    Ee tlql^J
    =+7^(c6HrzoJE
    E6lgtrl.
    =+74=
    i 8 colq, e"lql +oI 9l=
    =+
    ?4= d¤-olzlrcJ+. e.lql Ed ^llE_+ +Hlqq, q+l +alE ozel HI86t
    =+n^=
    q Ar+zls.? cozk), Hzo(l), qHzlE
    ^JC++.
    C6H12O6(s) + 602@) + $COz(S) + 6HzO(l) AII': -2803kJ

    *+3rl+g B6u= uulEz{ {$qsE g^Jq= qLl^lE +^lt qlq 4lqlE ++g + 9l
    4. :44 oJxll= ,lt+ i'*el ++cl¤"J zl1t6}q, ++3rl¤9 ¤+ gE ak9- rz u11s
    (4 kcat/g)o14. Se alg ¤A EISql e.l6l1^.1
    ^JCq=
    gg 4444"J, ++4 os S-e
    ae "J+E Ed*+.

    A zl%r-g
    +l HJSel ?lBtrl= Tlue-tr E q, raJ.J
    =+?^sl
    EE ,J= gDl,oJTl?

    ++q¤4 Eg6}rll, Eeql^F= E"ll^l coz$ H2oE ^JC.Jtrl. qlezl ,loJ.J


    EEol^qlolil(tristearin, Cs7HuooJg ¤i Hi+g q-94 e+.
    2C57H11sO6(s) + 163O2(g) ll4CO26; + 110H2O(/) A'H": -7L,6o9k1
    - illg +zl, +q ffi, a4 Sdr+ zll^Jql
    oJal:
    ^l#.ll^l
    eq4: +q qlq4= ^F&
    6J+(s.s¤q "Alg a¤" +a). 4=J9 qlLlzl= zlo}g ¤qe 4tlg+. 4qE +94 a
    I F zlxl ol+E qlal{ zl** .J4lq qlqzl= ^lA-6}zlql zlB6}+. (r) E"ll +4 ?+71
    qlEql ijllllq^lE z.l,Jol golal4. (z) rlu4¤ s,= ++F+5Bq rE'J q F+e qlLJzl=
    ullEql +91 e=*'J 9lHzlfloe rJ a¤4o14. zl%r-el B+ SE <13:s kl/g(s
    ^Jd6I7l
    kcal/g)o1c1.
    ts++Er+ 4oJg g"+4q^'l s4r.1z1g 4l'ilq^JE Edql^h= E"ll^l g"lzlE ^J^dE
    r+ E"J,* Edg 4t+tr1. +EAE "J4l Lll E||^[ 4]¤¤ g=]!lql^Jq E4 H]¤¤ Eull^J
    ¤qzl= 9lH4e4 z}gull, r ol+= 4CEol rle.z1 u11gol+. +E4ee a4= gEI6I
    q, g*4lql^JE Nrg eqE ull¤gEl. illLilql^-ls.l ai= +tr, _s_i((NHr2co)= trIzl"+
    e_s 4^I4*ol ¤+r]l g+. *EIee ^I.Iql^l +.E rl+, Eg, ,l+g q Eg +
    =q,
    a Eee ol+++. +E4e 'il^I zl+e ¤+4s-E ts+sl¤r+ +.J614 17 ktls(1- kcal/g)
    g ^8^d*+.
    5.e
    ^lErf
    ER 213

    E 5.5 El 7t^t
    {Eel +t ^JE4
    oJE rJ

    ril+et ¤E(Eg %) Eeil


    El++= IIHJ [{=
    EIBHAI kllc kcat/slca(s)
    +++E 100 t7 4
    ZIH} 100 38 9
    Eluil
    u-a ,Zl 100 t7 4

    l3 0.5 0.4 2.5 o59


    ^f4
    EH=a 1.2 0.3 1.8 0.42
    -l
    tsul-
    6 52 3 9 t2 2.8
    z.17 4 5/ 28 20 4.7
    c+aE 0.7 l0 13 6.0 t.4
    rlzl 8l 11 2 18 4.4
    0l E.XlTf E^l++011^l
    o 7.0 1.9 1.5 0.38 ^lHJ
    E= rll7l-?i Erl+P(skim
    eq4 30 22 15 3.6
    mirk)EolaiE, EJ+EI
    oo/20\
    -rrr\tTri 5.0 4.0 15 3.0 0.74 ^lgf,
    El-=- 55
    E. EH_4tr 6 olE'Jel EAt
    aio 22 39 26 23
    )l )18 a 4aJ7l?
    "E+: dBzJe-e ql+gg s.sgr Er*alq {E <}9,*=+.
    rn Facts

    E5.sq .JHlzl.J
    ^l+q 4+ ¤e <lol zl¤99 9l+. Etlg ^l*9 szlql= ¤+4 l4i9-_83
    ss Eg ql #:q= 4Hzl9 olsEl "Iq+ +++8, zl%I, tEeel .Jg +El-uEt(f=J @,
    s.25).
    gstr ,ll+, 11o1, 7$ gt' ag s_rq E=4q tI'J6l +
    6h= qlqzlel "Jg
    F
    tzllT} il

    s+. E rvJErg ill6q ql4q 6l+B r00 klol q^lle-l 7lbg +71^l7l= Ell 4lA+ g
    M

    s6tr+. gltllzl4a 7sz)aa+t ,tq+ .Jg B rll eoo kllhE aHl6l.q, aE -


    ^I*g
    te g# qlE.= 2000 kt/hr+ r ol^Jg gs.E 6Jrt. AEIq= al*9 Se Zt 49 zJe
    4oJol +E7[ au1a13 qlHzlE ar+6J tr]1, +4q E+ qEg zl[rqa +46]al g+.

    & tt|^|.= g r|| eJiel-E, EEtr,


    ^lHJ
    6 GIE a0l raJ.J 71.8 _PJg 0llLl^l= HJ="lE7l?
    a:Its
    alg
    5.25 E^l++el Bg

    qH
    F 4^d o a
    5.14

    ^{#e.l
    "Jg
    ,J qB6Pl

    (a) 1AE 28 g(1 oz)z|. gxl?? 12o mL(1/2A)= s-g-dtl'. 0lag EEtr 8 s, EJ#il= 26 g, \lHJ 2
    ^lzlg ^.l,,\l'= ^lalE(cereal)
    ,JE gzlTl
    sg r1l8--Jrt. 0lajpl EEel EE E.E. lA|Eq I.-ErEl= ollLlxl s= +¤61'^le. (b) EE i1l6el
    q ^l.E6|q ^lE01l ^[aJe
    6[ZLt43g -g qt 100 Cat/miE ,\l8-dtl. 3 miE =J=J ttH "J9-d E-B 2J0ll 6}|'J6|E ,\l4gP H alE?]7|.?
    =
    T[l'J E^ll= g%Ir+ EtoJ ++4I ?l4¤ zll+*+. (a)ql q+
    ^Iolel
    E4 (a) 949 9e ntg +q4, +++8, zlH}g SE <i Bg ^l^Iel g"* & +& t4-= 4l=" 6J4.
    el E"Bol+. o) qTlqld= ¤E #9 xll""alE *4 Eol
    olg =a6J
    E zlt}6l+, 99 Exll9l "ll'J++. (a)

    +Ee, +++8, zl*E e*ol ,ll^lqq fl4. ol


    z{14 (a) tt *++ar(ffi) * 1'u rs'4qs,(#)
    Eq e*g s s.49 zlEE ol¤_6tq r=q gE tletr +
    t}e + flr.. 6J&+q d,ll ¤E ZIg Eg + 9l+. G) ol * 1rsoq1(ffi) : 6sokr (+E izf i zltlzl
    214 55| EEt-+

    o14,3 too kcalll dlB6J4. ql s*E ++El¤r+ rlH}q r++= ql+61^le-.


    (6soH)(ffi) : root.ur (a) tiEfE z gr+ 4* 0.r g (b) *+48 z g4 xl* r g
    (c) tsfEfE I sr+ ^l* z s@) +++E:z gr+ zl* to g
    4* calorieE r kcalgl 6fl8++= 49 zl9a}4. tr14^.1
    lqBE 160 CalE 4l="6J4. >r=q|fl2
    ^l?-lgg (a) da¤ *2 *++=, 22v, +F44. 1.57o ^l*9
    (b) gs+ IEIEE ++g AA6I4H, ol El& "Jzl-= zld ozoto

    ++l +^lql + Be d+.E *gB6J+. E +c¤+. ¤tr ilg ql+6}^le.


    Cqle 5^l+ rv ^la ae,|]+ Ttqg gfe
    91tr1.
    ^F&B (b) .JHI
    1Er+E +eJ: (3*i(1H)(;H-) :2q+ -tr 7 kllming r: 99 EluI¤, ls g9 +++
    ^El6J+.
    xl*ol .u6Jg *771 +sq 9ql^l #q=
    E, s 99
    > HE qlr{ rfl g.#
    1
    qlqzls H +rJ frzlB i 9):=-71?
    ¤44 ¤'zlE e.0 kcar9 AEi]"J(¤E <i)9 ,*E4. r.o
    kcalz| zlqE4,l+ 4e *9 Eulde +tgr+$, eq4

    ollLl^l olF
    ^Hd d-r-
    (e.e%) ,\lo
    -T
    (36.3%) ¤e.z19d ts1a13 t'J +i= co2-tr B6lr +A= H2o.tr tr6lr1l qq, + rI
    (8.6%) C EF +el ^JC flBE ilg ,*=E+. trI+^'l ¤E +E E4e+ +^el E+g
    =
    1l El ol ¤e <tg 44L+. qE 5q s s.6q^l qa+r+ +459 cE "t ¤e
    (1,6%) =++
    {lg HliuI Hzr. 4eg +A .Jelol rl 5zl qlEq ¤-E fiol 24.
    20t3Eq "l+q^l= 1.02 x l0r7 kf$ ollulzlzl ol {lg l.J'J ,ll.J
    e.3 x 10s kl9 glHzlE 4El6J ase, 4 4.Jq
    ^Hlq*.+.
    qlq4 gs?+E o* tooullzl
    gE+. f=J s.zog
    ^l+
    "lel6J "ilHzl9 =gg +E}u 4,o14.
    d1)lL(29.7'/")
    ^ll4le-l
    fs.ilHzlfl.J ^l+, 4f, d¤z}^= il4 ElE(fossiltueD4-z "Jq4
    A rg 5.26 El=oll^l 4Hl6lE 9l+. EI4 fl5|= 5¤E E6l]ql 96il +E"J Eql ¤a ¤Cqg.a, dzIE rSol
    oilL1rlfl. 2o1sLloll El+3 ^1Erl
    =
    1 .02 x 1017 kJg ollLlIl= 4El ¤c6J aE+ gd q m[-=.zll Ttgol 91tr].
    ^HlE]r.
    6lfirl. al$lzl"r(naturalsas)t: +AeI +Aq E+6JE.J zlill flffi4tr +^.rqq il4. d¤ztl
    +CEol 4lql oJ(cur)olr, deJq qlql "J(crHJ, EtrqloJ(c:sJ, fHl"J(cnH,o)S .s
    =
    EI+LI. qlrll s.tt.ll s.eqloJ9 ¤e {lol +eq*.4. dgzl^E 4++ 4tsol gA¤ trll
    -E_+ co2E. Hlt+ += +4IE-g 4Al H]]=tItrL 4fi(petroleo-)= ful zlzl dBe=. 7
    Cg ._441.14. ol 46J89 ql++e +F++iolr, 4"lzlE +s +, Ai, 4l4E EB6i
    : +71 slaJEol4. 4EJ(coal)g Ezlelol +s++iE galap ?li li11e,t1 *, tl,
    =
    x. 5.6 ol 7t^t oJHJ
    EE_el tE ,Jnl {E
    qajg flA CE(EaJ %)

    C H o EE 'dkl/s)
    +^l](i++) 50 6 44 18

    #SB(Pennsylvania) 82 1 2 31

    fr SB(Pennsylvania) 77 5 7 32
    -E-EL 100 0 0 34

    flf(Texas) 85 t2 0 45
    6l }jIF o 85 15 0 48
    r-l a TT

    A97I^ 70 23 0 49
    -l-I 0 100 0 142

    -zorsE gzJ qlqzl -Hr^1. El+ qlr-l7,l+, ggt qulzl {s-A


    5.9 215
    ^lEr[E+
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    Ezll= ge-2J4.
    4+e gElEola, 4zl sgg "JezlE CEg s6J++. 4+ol aHlg trI 4ts
    +d-6J
    ql s6Jqq fl= qle ol4IEI E*(so2)otr Ht+lq, 4zl eE9 "Jgzl4l gr|. 4+g j1x.ll
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    z| olluJzl 7l*^l ?*zl ullE9l ++' El+ol f*ol E4.
    ^t+7le}
    sl4 se= si EI¤¤ F6lol qlqxl= ^Jcg ull olt}4 oe= co2e+ H2o+g ^Jc+
    4. coz9 ^JCg 4zl 69 co2]-oE +71# rz"* 7l+ Eslelsdol flsq, 4qL "t d
    il4-e--+. +,q* ExllTl Ela 9l+. cllzl corzl +IAql
    "lzl: ¤6Jq ql6l]^lE xllts6l9ld
    E96}|l I 4o14.
    TlEl qlLjz,ls.J
    qqlqxl(nuclear energy)E flx149 Egol+ +q]9.tr %l=q= 9lHzlol4. fl2143 tr
    z]l Aqg *
    trl+ dzll "l=t ^J& qlq4E E 8.6yo= zlzl++(rH s.za). flzl4 o
    soro,
    E qqlqzl= EI4 ¤eq iB Ezllql sgE B¤ol $.q. rq+ qgd^= EJ^lc qlTl
    Eg sd.Jtrl. "l+^J 4gd^q ol+g Bg ?14. fl2t44 +flg ql¤+ 4)2r*
    ql^J t|= =+ol
    {lCol4.
    el4 ¤ee} qqqzl= 4^89+ H= ollujxlflolr|. EI4 Se= xll^JEl= aE+ gd
    q mlE +EE iHlqo.+ +dg zlgol+. aHl AEql 7l7J+ zzll pelzlflzl
    p+4 EE= 4+ jLrJqjL
    "].4:-
    "J, "J 4o14. xll^J Ezl+.d 9l'Jzlflg :/aE 4ol=e r|lg
    flHrE(renewable energy source), + :L7Jq^l 9+= qlqzlg9 97zl- q}g6l
    =ts49e
    tl"JEl-rL ?14. zll^d 9lHzlflS Ell*s.E+q s= EXoJ qlqxl(sotar energy), *^I.++EI
    99zli *H 9lHzl(wind energy), zl+ql z]tlg gE+El EL xlg ollr{xl(geothermat
    ene.gy), 6-.E= rJEE+El g= +q ofllzl(hydroelectric ++e+ +E ag +!
    or-L- Hlol9Ell^ ollr{zl(biomass energy)
    "n"rgy),
    4 ^JE ElzlE9lrj Fol sE}94. ¤zl] ^H^J qlLJ
    zlgg trl+ql^l ¤rJ qlqxl sI s.s%.91 g+rl. ql.J* gd FE qlE= 9lzl"J d
    ^HlE
    7l= .J+zleE ¤.zl"lE Tlrll+ "lill= ¤ag qHlg 54= HJ49E
    ^l-+6lq Edzl9l
    trl+ql^] iHlg 4.0 x 10" kI 471+ql^] 670/o7l pl4 Ee= ql+etr
    ^J^Ig+. zorsEgl
    ,Al +g+. += Aqgg qqlqzl(20%;, ;q(a"2.), *A@.t,t"), uloleullr.(r.o"z"), 4oJ*

    (o.a.z")g sq+6J+.
    qlqzl +s-el ++e _ns.g_tr 4"J il'Jzl= olsoB + 9l= 7l+3 gd^l7l= a
    "14
    ql E=g aol+. 4"J
    "llHzlE 7l* = 9lHzlgol4. "Je g "* r t 19 q1o3= qlulzlz| ull
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    ^l-ooa}E
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    HI+E 6J q= q*4 A+.
    cH+(c) +H2O(g) +$ -----+ CO(8) +3H2(s)

    ol HI¤+ -r.gglrl aHls"eE {6JElq, 4oJEql^l gg + gl+. q}*ql^.]


    ^JcE cop+
    HzE + 9leq, ,-l+ql E}*^le-q_tral EJ=q= gtr ++ql .Jg B + 9t+.
    ^ltE
    216 53 gEIq

    ufolp ol-Eoll trtltJ al6j4.til{ al4l

    +4=ol zlE6tn 9lE zI* rlzll= ^l%}I} ¤E=


    2l^ll7l *=+. e++E xllufiafzl +16l]^1 1.00 lg qlLJTl=
    sEl+, *B.J 9lHzlfl9 9Hol4.=zorsH 'rJql olEBl 6r =
    q Hlole qEgg 5El^J eg + gl= 9luJzlts 1.37^Hl lql
    ^l
    al ql+= za$ $ol qflsq, rouJB z9 sooo* Bel +E ql+g+
    Er+6h+. + H4lE,
    ^F*q= +
    Htole_ ?zl gl"l1
    tr ?7161;1 914. ol4{} "J+ ?7}= "J+9 * zsyo4l
    ^ll4l
    ++: ^1"+9 +-s.+ flee .(p8-qn glq(q+^l
    ^l"}J+
    s
    6I'Jq= o}^lofe} olEETIql, +61 4+ *;ol+= +s+ Eg a,Jol++=4).
    E^llE gc^lrl7il q9+. +6J ++0+E rg$Exs ol+q4l ,tjgE^(cellulose)
    ^l
    E6J ?l+ 6rlq q+ ++, +g s+1, dq, u%F4 BIL'- EE+q uple ql*¤g 4t}6}zl +ltJ ¤i,zt ¤zll rl49
    g 9l6J SE fezf +Tliila_ ?14. rl9 d44|l: ++, "J i1 9itr1. g=E^= drll ql^tqrl ssq,
    ^l=6ig ^J4I6l-=
    Ee+ eg qlTz} r*3 +7}ql^l roJB gluJxl
    ^]-s%iol
    t+ ar+ 446l.zl ?*=4. oIzlEJ EEE^E ql+Se EI++ a
    611 9l+. 6+9 l.JB qlq4 El+B+: 2ovo 4 e +++= ol+51+ aE+ trJ qeJg 4aol+. ^JEe^s
    ^F&"Jg
    E *g +ilolzlEJ, rssoEr+ 20l0LJ
    ^lolql +
    nl Tlvlol + Pq ¤"lzl= Hlole- ql+gg HIE flolE BEIE4 zI+E^l
    716tg+. 6*3 zoro$ olF ol{9 r"JB.llHzl E aleJ"e. ag tq+ 4$olErl ee 4E
    ^F**E ^F$qzl ?*:.
    4 zovo *g +ilolA 6}zlq}, ^il4q^l 7f* "*g qqzl= tr+El Eg + 9lg 4.o14.
    ^FS6l+
    {z}e u14g kztll4. treleq tslole- q*g ++ql^J= ^tBl++= ge.e .,.l.
    zorz.E zl+ dalq fle. q1u1z1 s x l0r7 kl¤. +6f.n 9l+(:14 5.n). ^t%I++ts ulEr-| ${ol Es-o}zl
    ^l-+"t3 =
    +6t= 5+e +il= +4U+. e{ {uJzl fe$ 80% ol Ssq, e++trq gt Er-l ,t*trI-. olel6J zlol EIEq +
    ttol zI$ Ezl*6.J El4 se, 561 4+eI4+ql^l eqzl ++Hq g{ E+e "J9 9lHzl ol*9 ?9 f li4. xl]Ul]E
    a 9l+. 4le.* oI4 E-e zlgE B^l+ +44 otr +s+ 96ll
    ^l=&g t$ olluJzlq ql4q 8.0 I9 qlLJzl= Hl-ols
    1.0
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    g+ql q+ qeE= 3+ ea4"J q6Jg +46I d(biodiesel)S .*qlel += =o+q Blole ¤ez1 441 4x'11
    7|+fl+ rJ3 geE ^Igq
    +E.ol 7t* El+g zlzl*trI. of ql^J +s+ ++g ulole- 4d3 7l+++
    =4ztlz) = ^Izl6}jl 91tr+.
    "*2 E+ol qa flzlq}, g+E 4zll+ f ?lE zI^J te +EE+q g=+. ^l+.4 ^l'J
    .E.zlol
    ag zl%I
    +"J* "_4ill ¤E.J ufole_ sEE d^{ E.ee+q g=q. =Lr+
    ql^l
    ^Fsq=
    ql+s+ H^J 4%rs-ePqE Eg + 9l+.
    utole ¤5l(biofuel)E {4}6}71 9l6.J 7}t gH}4.J %}Be +H g+ E4l : s.e7, s.98, s.l17
    45g'Jol+ *+++3 Ttgc "l^ilE H+]^l7l= Lol4.
    zlt+ .JHlzlse gol
    ^J4Iq=
    uplll SEE 4Ed "Jr+
    ++sl¤g Ba,^.14 or= ulol9 {lt9(bioethanol)olrp. q1
    +g(c2HsoH)9 ee #3 zl¤{9 2/3 {solq,
    ^l+r}
    ulfalQ(-*. s.o). ul+al- tr4eg uple oil*39 +e
    ^J4l
    +sE, d 44 ^J4Ii+E 8s"/"= dtld+.
    ql+gol .<[tr$ +++e+q
    "l+q]*]= E]]++g Etole-
    +++E ql*gr+ Co2-tr H
    ^J4Ig+. =+ir-(C6Hrzoo)ts
    ++g+.
    c6H12o6(s) 2czHsoH(l) + 2co2(g) AII: 15.8kJ
    -
    ol HlSg flzl{(anaerobic)o1s+ A}rzf s-*9zl ?}9q,
    qlgqg H+7t o}q tleE, 4+EE ¤e HI+q^J Eqzl
    ztB+ ,ll+ zt+= aq +E_g 9s_21 91q-. += ++E
    =
    Eisl-Es Hl+oJEI¤¤]a"o1{ olls$tr E}E+ gl+.
    +++E ufole_ oll$¤¤ ^J&6}i aql ql6ll^J f zlzl ol
    +E b*ol ql4. Ezl, +++E 4lul]e+ +++ qlqzlTt -s-
    +q= 4dol4, xl]ul] qaql HlETl-^l-&g+. q++¤ 5 LaeJs.zt rl+ 7|.5-d gdEoJ Htole oilEJge E+
    6ll^l gqTi= utole_ 91ts99 ollHzl olSg 34yoql zl+zl ^l'B++ts
    E + 9ltt. O9gArt/Shutterstock
    5.s 217
    ^lEzlEE
    ql"J qlLlzl= ol+d *BC(photosynthesis)$ F6iq Cozq H2o= B++Erl
    ^lE¤.
    orE H++^la+.
    6Co2@) + 6HzO(t) + qH ------ C6H12O6(s) + 602(g) [s.34]

    'J*^de
    qlTl IIAE ]lqlqzl Ezl-= ^Jt6}q, qlTl co2
    zll$a[-r., ¤e-+ 7l+'q}
    ^l-.&ol
    ¤q +71 qlEql zl+ +laql glqd ,l]+ +s6l+.
    = ql.J qlqzl= zld4eE ce[)a]-r.6]E *d }'zl¤ ol
    ^|&6t= *Eol 4"J dzlGolar
    ++ zldzl.J d+ ^J&.J 4o14.
    r+4 q H tq} oleloJ izlE nge ++Es +71611
    *4. zl¤4 Tltr= 4oJ d4 rl'-Jel .ll+Cr+ -d,gCg =z'll zl]Ca|fleq, Ezl¤ d1l4
    sE *+q 7ti1 9l+. dxllE 4"J qlqzl9 tr14= ql"Jr]H q]+ Er-rL
    SEr qEl
    F -4.A1 TllL{
    o tl _ ll o

    EatolL[0lEE=al ]laJ(trinitroglycerin, C3H5N3Oe, .E.= LlolEtr=allllaJ(nitroglycerin)olatl :-Ae +qt-e..E. Al'EEct. RttreO

    Nobelol 186680i1 tfolLlr|.0lE= +16|.q tt^ Ee|.S ae, LpIEE=al^ilalol ECaCSollll +-E4ee E
    qta^]e= E+ r5)g Eg q8E ^114617l ^ft6l'flt[.
    "_401 +l-d qE ilee Eolrl.8E 25"c,17lg0ll^J Ee[0lL[01Etr=al^]laJ0l E4
    ^lBErl=
    7lr1l, 0ltq Ela 7l^11, E, {J4' 7lr]ltr E6t|E ntl t!=r.l EalE -1541.4 kJlmololrf.
    (a) EalolLlolE-tr=el^lle!0lE6llE|= EE 6l-+ HJS4= 19. lr
    (b) Ealolt-lolE-e=al^llaJg E= gdE= zltJ6t^le.
    (c) EdEE ilE6[7] +l-.J EalolLlolE-"=al^]laJelx.= EaJg 0.60 mgolrf. 0l ,tlEE'Jz[4oe Eill L]|oll,\l tttrtElol(+'J6txl
    Lrrlu)E4 7li1l, 0lttrlE]4 7li1l. E0l gdg 10ltl. 0ltttl ggEl= gaJe grl'?l7l'?
    =
    (O EatolLlolEe=4{lalP HE 3"C0ll^1 0lal-d EHet Etrel E^t^.lo.E+El, SdE|E E^l!E= 0|E e-Et ElgE= ql
    =Ett.
    dB6l^le.
    =6|.q
    (e) EalolLplEe=al^1laJol r.+E-e z+ 8 1.0il^l gt4= trtr.l6t7l 9l6H +gEe ^hEEfl= nli, ollLlrl EEt|eI qal 71.^l EEtoll
    rt|6tl ¤E6l^le.

    NtlU +(olag +B *+ ++ +9" 4 mol C3HsN3oe(l)ol7l


    ^lq,<]
    (a) .JHl HI*4e 494 ,Jl, +¤S "*+qot 6J+. qEql 4= ++4).
    ol qlgi{ Hsl+ 4
    C3HsN3Oe(/) ------ Nzk) + COz(jl) + H2O(/) + Oz(g) ^JCE$ $Cgql^l HI¤¤g SCg
    *BS "l*alq +Bg *=+. g+E ed grt
    .JHI4"J I B_e-_Er! + flsq, olql 449 +¤ HI+4E 4l+
    Eg
    += "*+71 +l4q C3H5N:os(s)oll 2= *qlq. olE Eql E +6llo} 6J+.
    3 mol9 Nr(8), 6 mol9 COzk), 5 mol9 Hzo(/)E g=+. - 6 1 6s.6 kJ = 6AIrr'[Nz(s) ] + 1 zAHr'[Co 2@)) + to A'HilHro( l) ]
    zlle.l* E= giTl +Bol tlit4. s=+q 9l= & + AHf [026) ] -4AIIr'[C:HsNror( l) J

    ^Ii=
    A gzl-E zfliE 9iol4. s=.+ o,ql q6J Al+ tl2 Nr(g)q or(g)9 LHi 4k+ 4Eql el4q 6olr|. Hro(/)e}
    ^lE
    E ol+6}q &i9 +¤g "*=+. co2k)el LHi <12 s s.3 qe ++ cql +4.119+.
    zC3HsN3Oe(/) 3Nz(8) +OCOzkr) +5H2O(/) +LOr(s) -616s.6 kJ: r2(-393.s kJ) + 10(-28s.8 kJ) - 4AIrr'[C3HsN3oe(/)]
    -
    A+7I qE+ E= Al+ql 2= #6J+. AIIl'[C3HsN:Oe(l) ] : -353.6 kJ/mot
    4C3HsN3Oe(I) .+ 6NzG) + l2coz6) + 10H2O(l) + Ozk) (c) I mol C3H5N3oe(l)7t +4qfl9 ql, ql$:tl= ls4l.4 kl
    (+g6l+ gEql^l ge Tlzll t4ol4. ol!$ zl;ll .$rJ$ g tsfl+. f4oe. C3H5N3Oe(l) 0.60 mgg g+-E H++6l]
    E !ut= s+eE +Bqol ^J44.) oF +trI.
    (b) rloleg-E^Jlflel E.= E4ol+olE+
    ^Jc SlBq= (0.60 x ro-3 g c3H5N3o,,(ffiX-ffiffi-,)
    trI.g 86il HI$^lql^J trI= EAE s=
    ^JC SB
    =el^J1flg
    E Hl*gg eg + 9l+. : 4.1 x 10-3 k1 : 4.1y
    ^l-+6|q
    4C3HsN3Oe(/) -+ 6Nzk) + tzcoz16) + 10HzO(/) + Oz@) (d) ezlolrlolE-E=El^1lfl3 EzI sHlEolzl ql+ql ^J*
    ol Eql qI+E flBtl H43 11-rt41.4 kl): -616s.6 klol olaloll,r"l +=EI. qE= glzl"J, olgc 843 481-e aiil
    218 51} Eil-sf

    olq, +g +ag ?14 44,E Eeolq(2.6¤, 2J4), E .llHzl} lill ${E $zlol
    ^l .Je EaE Hi+E 4o14.
    a^il
    tI EzFl9l trisE, ol EAg +^d gi=.ol r.f ulfrfol E H+qH^J gE qlq4E d+]g+. qlE 5H E
    =
    E-tr $z[ e+6JEg 4_e_e ++94. B94zl totse4l r1E, :49 ge+q qlqzl AolTI +
    (e) e=|olrJolee;-4,r1gql 9lHzlE slEl slHl¤ 5. qlqzltr d+g aolq. ulgz} 9e gE+rJq 44, ¤+
    ^ltlg qlqzl= flql¤ Hlfl=
    ol
    "ilHxl"l4. Eeol +g4eE ++-J
    ql. *g ii,iHl¤ ql "ilulxltr d¤|9tr1. A44ss, ^l+
    HzlE zltl ol&p+ +4, E, a^ Tlill= ^J^d+4. ol slql E BqzlH^J St 9lHzl= 714 aolq. ulflz| zlfoll $
    d++ r+4ql^l= qlqzlTl gel BqlE %I¤qj1, ol zlil HI
    qag ql, ¤+ qlq^l= gqLJzl_e. dgqn, ++l-E gg
    ¤. ^JCES,l]+ r1g.J 4o14. olel ae,l]+ gqlqzl +e6l.r]l ¤+.
    =
    7l++,8 olf,ap, ol zlilli++lq 46Iq S+g6t-l1, +

    soj "i es tq
    Etqt O{lL1rl(,(lE, 5.1E) E9Et(thermodynamics)$ qlulzle} : (r-v worDg +eql+. olqe ol+E, qlq^lql qlt ^lle+ tr-
    E+ql +'J S+o]tr|. ol +q^.1 plq} t].* E.J ollulzl, 5 EI glElrl(enthalpy, n)= A9g + 914. a:r+pv. oJ
    =ee "J+.J
    61gg H+91 gffi(thermochemistry)olrf. q-+ul oJEJ EH-6|= 4ql^l elBEl HsxAH)= "Jc+.Jq6lql
    EillE F z|-zl sr|l-a qqzl= ,*:+. (1) e= ollLlrl(kinetic 4lql q6ll ?4+ Se 94 ?J4. tu:sp(ol4 Axl p= oJA
    ^-l
    energy)b gill¤ +4"J o-e. "J+ qlq^lol-,r.. (z) 4elfl ottqrt "J "Jqg 9olaJ4.) Eg
    r+cql^Jb aH>oolr, gg rlcq^J
    (potentialenersy)! qE ExllTI +E E,.llel
    ^Jrl4 +lil $Eql E AH<001trl.
    ,*+ qlq^loltrl. oldzl t4q il: gE 6oJ d^l+ .szl.Jq E +q 4dq^] tlB ?llEttt(enthalpy of reaction)E ddE9 elB
    oJ ¤+.llrJzlp]
    "JdzlE 4,42lfi "Jqql^l ,.jzlE 9HI¤ 9lH Elql^l',J¤¤q SIBqE W <l"J AH.- : H(SCE)-H(HI¤¤)
    zlE r*=El. oltrt. ++ {BEl= E+s_r+ ee rJ+6J +ag qE+. (1) E}+ qI
    plsl
    "llHzlE
    g4
    +=q^J= 4*B Cdzl4 tE zl+_e_E+ BEIE HI*6l.= HI¤¤q "Jql Hlq++. (z) t}*ol EI4tr 11636I
    rlzl"JeI4. Elql e*g #E ql= qlHzlz} Hls^l *=!gqot 6l H aag Pazl ulgq-. (:) tI* tB'l= HI*E]+ dCEg E4
    I, ol= qfl¤ qlq^lel ?zle o1q14. Hlqltr p+ol a*"1 B 4 tr-qlq q+6Jr+.
    dg EI= Elfl¤ qlq^l7I A^6}tr__E 9lHzlzl-ILI=¤LL g4aJH(s.str) 4le+ +9 ,Jq] dBg g=*e gzl*H
    Eq-4 8l1EEi(5.2tr) gqCt ceg ++g trll xr(system) (calorimetry)9 Fql ¤e49tr +A6JE}. EBr{l(calorimeter)i
    E^J EAE +C=*g Ag+q. ol 4l +el sE Eee ++{ ql r+aq +ElEl= gE HEI= +a+4. g=*41E gE E!l=
    (surroundings)ol+. Btl4l= +9le+ qlq^l= L$$ f glzluJ, I K gE ^J+ql g.sql gr*'J EEEoeat capacity)9l 9¤++.
    Eeg f,+I6J + fl+. 419 rtt+ 4u1rl(internal energy)|- +C d #Ed t mol9 E*EIS EEltEl(molar heat capacity)ole] alJ.,
    Bel E= &F "llulxlcl ElHl¤ qlqzlE oJ"l+. 41E 4+ qqzl Ed t g9 g+=*g Hl$(specific heat)olrla +q. Eg ,l+
    4le+ +91 ol.f,a;| ollrlzl Eil+q Hg + 9l+. ulp$ zlzl{, f4¤ +.ra I/g-xo1tr}. ${ol gf{ E(q)P Bl¤ =
    = ^plql
    Eel¤l rll1E*I(first law of thermodynamic)9l tr}sE, 4lel t}l+ (CJ, e*, gE H!+= E6J ,,lolE+. a q: C"xmx LTo]|t+.
    qlq4el HEI(AE)= 4lE "Je-e E= 419 +se dg6f= g(q) g4l=*Hg .Ja $qq^l !E6J ull. dgq= ge Hi+ qtBq
    +, 4ql E4 r.:4lql^l fl6il21: 9(rry)9 6J. 4 ar: q+wa14. E+= 4d4e_s 4 + 9l+. "JA +q gzjl=*Ee SEsz{t(bomb
    q4 wE qlq^l olEg *6J¤ s.^l6IE zlEE 'z*=t1. gol +9 calorimeter)4l 6l+ "JC +ElE +7lql^J +a'J+. "Jc +ul
    a{afoll,<-l oltL6J gg aEe+ eq. aHE 4}¤6t71 g16ll^l aE t}
    EE(endothermic) 4t9 A\71+flEflq gg ¤+4= aolq-. o tl 716I z\ olrl
    a!oa I a-l .

    El'fl(exothermic) :tlC$ 9ol 419lrl +91tr %l¤¤El. qlBq= tlql Er+olse, AH= 49 azl tr
    Hess E=l(5.6tr)
    4+ qjq^l(E)=- gtll tl+(state function)olr|. qtr tlEll E++9 EIeI3l+ trI4^J 6J 449 $Bq Hs+=.J
    ^JEilql"J 9¤+4.
    {te 49 ^}Ell E: eaq"J 9=4q, r ^JEllql EB6l+ d-^-ll6J 84tr gq+E, g+ +41tr .Jq+E qA+. Hess EEI(Hess's
    q¤ 4CrI ++afq. E(q)4.J(rry)9 <I+ AlTl rEE tI4E E
    law)oll.rl5 oJ Hl+ol S+ EAls .Jqg ql. r HI+g AH= r
    slrlzlE %IEql Ee6IE_8. tr4 .JfzI olqE}.
    =A6J +419 tBq HslE E}4 er+. qel^.i "Jn 9lE aH {lql 4d'Iol
    fll=JEl(s.3tr, 5.4tr) .Jc6J Sqql^-l 7l^ll7l ^8.\dI,47)+ iHlq: ts+ +41tr r r+Ag 7l+dfE, "lrl.J rl-Col= "l r+Aq 4qI
    s+q! Hl+ol dq¤ ql. ,llE +99 .Jqql 4dll^l g+ ?El g aHE 4ll}g+ 1l+.
    6e BJ8^l 219

    g¤ S!=Jtrl(s.7E) 6J Ee9 g¤ tlEJll(enthalpy of formation, ++ d!19 .llzlb 5A a.Jg #E ql 93.6J


    fl!EEl(5.8¤)
    =At
    AH/: r Eeol dE g^tr+El ^Jd¤ HI*E elBq Hglol EB $Brl H+oJ A6J qlprle +Cg+. ¤+ A6J SgqE ,l
    +. "JHI49E flgEl= s+ tlEllql^lel +¤¤r+ ^JdEel HI+ + 4.JqL =.+ e*ql qlol^l aacl + 9l+. ol 7l4l ^JEHE Ea
    g zl+aJ4. .J EeE E= tlql+ 1 atm, 2e8 Kql^l 7l-t "Ja ql#qd A.Jq B+ A,* flEi4E q6ljz ^JC¤ a6Jel ¤+ e
    6}jl ++6J ^Jqol+. trI+^l H}+ql^lel E= ?llEJtrt Erl(standard 'J QIBqE UeE.,^,i. +q Hl+ toJ elgll {ffi q6a3-; I
    enthalpychanse, Arr)E E.e tlqlql il= EE HI*EI+ ^J/jEE q. A*g #E rll BesI qlLJzlTl a+g BC6l.= qlqzltrtrI Ell
    =
    $Bq H+= "JsL+. 6J ESel E= S¤ E!=Sl(standard enthalpy Hl* qlBirl= oJ+oln, EJ4 tqI.J trll= HI+ qlBrlb ¤+ol+.
    AHi)= E= tqql ilE gi5tr+El Ed t mol
    of formation,
    EE(s.gtr) + EeE EE Zt(fuelvalue)3 Ee I sol gA
    g "JE= H]+ql^lE etBq Esl.l+. .I++E -E= tlqlql fl= ^lEzt
    .J oll 15r-=6J 9o14. 6FzI trlE
    ^l+3 += ¤E A9 rill. .J
    flts=s AHl" :0ol+. illq 4t6I= bqE +e+. 7I+ B¤zl os
    qB **E s+ elgq Hpl+ HI+ 6 +*Erl ^J{Eg E= ^I+qE ¤EE
    i!9!7lA(natural gas), AEJ(coal)4 eg +4 e!
    c^J dBqe+El dril zl.r}6J + 9l+. qB HI*g E+ qlg'l ^1*(petroleum),
    tl +pl+iol rl. I||g ollLlrE(renewable
    .JBJ
    E(fossil fuel) 4-L
    H+: HI+ + HI+EJ+ ^JCEE E+ dC elBi,le+q d7l al energysource)ql= E}]* qqzl, +q qlLl^1. ElolgEll^ qlLlzl,
    tIsJ + 9l+.
    +q qq^l 5ol 9l+. fl4qe El4 ¤s= ^l-8-6}zl:g*zl"J.
    LIf,*:Z n LHJ" (^J dE) - > zAHi (HI*g) E+9 qzlTl fl: qlTlE il4 EzllE olzl,tlzlrf.

    EJt ,"lal ot
    :g
    BE A+-d +01 qajEe El=E + ?,totoi --Jtrt

    .slE A6Jg
    ^JC6lrlLl #=
    ql +Elq= u]d¤ 4H219 HsI .gslq Hl*^lg ol+6}q 'JC 'Jq(AH)ql^lE HI+ql dgg
    zl¤Ql4(s.lA. +¤ ¤# {l4l: s.r7,s.l8 gqlqzlel rl*91 Tzl+ E4E .Jg +H^la4(s.4¤).
    =i
    . gq+ql^l zle+ +9lE ++dJ+(s.2¤). +d g+ {lxfl: s.as-s.ae
    +H EG 94: s.zt,s.zz . gE +gr+ e+4 g+e} E= Hlg(g4l+H)g Eo6'J g ol.Fg
    .g+ "Je+El ql+ qlq^lE 4l4}6li1 ol T}EE P-aE Ezlt 2141ojc|(s.s¤). +¤ g+ {41: s.so, s.s2-s.s4
    4$.z4.). +fl SG ql4: s.2s-s.28 .Hess E4g ol+6fq HI*el glBe HE+E zl&6Jtrt(s.e?).
    . *ql 6J+E zllt-J$ {$ap 9lE E4(s.29. +d B+ q4l: s.63-s.66

    +¤ g+ ql4l: s.2e, s.3o . _s=


    ^J^J elgq= ol+6}q HI89 arE 4l&*4(s.z¤).
    . AEe+ paytr+q AHE 4141a3Q(s.t¤). +¤ ¤+ ql4l: s.6e, s.zt,s.73,s.7s
    +a g+ ql^ll: s.36-s.38 .s+ a"J qlBqE ol+6l.q -EE EI*E]+
    ^8CEol
    ,l8l tlEll
    .J HI+E HI* elgqE ql++trI(s.8e).
    . qpe+ +{6}q q4 aag +Eq tr}+ gg E= gg
    LHE H}+
    "Jg +ElUEl(s.2&, s34). +fl ¤+ {xll: s.al, s.al
    +fl g+ {l{l: s.sr, s.83, 5.8s, s.87

    zO!-o HI-e-
    u o -rl
    . w=Fxd [s. r] 'Jg il4 4?-le+ tsAaEq.
    . E"l:,(QrQ2/d ls.z) Cdzl4 ulEl¤.lltlxl
    . AE:Ez)+-Ezzt [s. a] ql+ qlqzls.l H5+
    . LE:q+w 4* gE gaAE+(equl4llHzl)
    [s.+] "ilHzl9 Hq¤ 94
    . H:E+PV [s. s] qlBirl Cq
    . w: -PLV ls.zl gd 'Jqq4 ,14 B+q 94^l + g
    . AFI:AE+PLV:qp [s.s] gC "Jqq^l qlBvl H+
    'Q:C"xmxAT [s.zr] Elg, a*, gE Hslqlel+61+ g BEI
    . Q*: -C"aXAT ls.zz) HIgq g*Al,rlol9lr.S¤ ¤
    220 53 gel-+

    (^JC9-:zAal (HI*E)
    . Alfi*n:lnAHi [s.rt1 HI*el s.+ qlBi'l H+
    . AH,*=x(#q{ aQ}$ eB elBirl)->(B^Jg Aq}el A'J qlBq) EJ+.I ql6t E+ eB
    ^Jq EaITl +HE
    ls.zz) Tlali
    elBul E'J+e^J E qI+ Slgul

    oJ+ +41
    tse.-e.E= TllE ,At{,\19

    s.l 4?+ 4t;12.0x l0-5 C, eE& 1.0 kgg 7*-r. I.o cm9 zl4oll
    gq4 fl-e-q old6l= ts F zll9 fz| u|$ol $.= Eqql
    ndqq *4. ts.t¤l
    44114 ul¤l¤ qluJzlb gul-.Jz|?
    (a) ol 419
    L|]
    (b) ol +E¤ +Eq^l +ot +4H tlE zl7lflzlfl=7l, ol
    qt
    qH gqalAETP Ll
    (c) f .r.1o;e1 zle-lz| f;Jrlle Eql q4 4 +E 9oI9 4.r ^l
    ql olerll qEzl? E !o=

    s.2 trl-g.
    ^Illg +tsl ++ol ul-*zlzlE eer. gl: E.+g + s.4 trl^g4 :agE g{l l.tzlE'L zlz;4lE +E}4a ileq, +g
    4g 4o1r{. ts.rdJ s= qE 4Aq 9lq^JE H!+E +4liljr 9l+. +gsq
    (a) ffiol g+aql "14 qfl¤ 9l.lzl* azlrlzil ¤El. El ?olb qe} rry9 t44.J ^llzlE +4U+.ls.zgl
    fl¤ qlLlzlTl $r]6tzl 9loll ollulxl$.rf$ola !l| (a) olg r+Aol +g r}4.J7t?
    "trJ*
    7l? (b) "J.J +rll+4H qe r+Col AE<OoJ 4C.JzI?
    (b) f+9 4e ^J4.JtrIH, f+ol 94zl-* 4"ll 46J q9 (c) 419 4P 91Hzl9 441="zlzl "Jq+= 4aol 9lElH
    +c.E q+6J + 9l=7P qL 48"J7p
    (c) #+3 zlzl$ q a71 +ldl^l 'Jg a|-1, llizlr olffi
    (d)
    ¤B6f^le_.
    ++ol rzql;]9 +tg
    e7l +l"ll 6J "JE a
    "Jg f+ol
    q
    $,, q

    e-e.b +Ee+ tr*ol glbzl?


    (e) ulHl¤ qlq4E {a}i ffio1 g47l= +Ee+
    70 w 71)

    ^}+"1
    ol L 7LO
    lla::/ I !

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    olf¤ ¤E
    6l^l-e-.
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    ^Iole.l
    olffi:ggal^le.
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    s.3 ffi olluJxl EE= -E_n B-a[.rls_. [s.z¤] (b) aE <lg ^l-*4q l}qi Ae+ B9 ql+ qqzl ilolql 46J
    (a) ol :fl$ 4le-l tll+ otlulzl9 ="71¤ +Elq=z| z]4$
    +71^l s.¤g 7l+6l^le.
    444bzI? (c) c4 D tqlql 4aJ ollHzl ilol$ Ee6l^le-.
    (b) olr+Cql^l AEq +nb? (d) ol 4lql^] trq E4= 4E
    ^}4z} *e.4. :19
    qlHzl
    (c) "JoJ ol 4aq^l olalal olE +fl6lzl g:gltrtB, ol rla ql6}q
    b tEI Aql AE:AEr+AEaep a121. d-ql E=
    esg 4cqlzf, ts¤ 4cqlz}? ol tr+tql^] qqq gile}+ 9l=7t?
    u* 221
    =rll

    n
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    ^lol
    SEtlA
    9 zl4l^J HI¤¤ dB^144. [s.ad, s.z¤]
    (a) ol HI+E +B +ql +*^lg oJoJzl, *oJzl,
    ^a, w7l
    s.7 zld4 gs= "J+g ,l Esrr q9lAg I f 914. ts.zdl oqlzl= ql+61-^le_.

    (a) EseI +7lE 4l4n ,IAB q, +rlE "J+EI oll9 ,9 (b) ++ cE zlE= ^l-so6lq, ddE t molol Bd¤ 419
    +E: q+4 9Ezi? 1s5 f;|.rle.
    (b) olullE q9 pa.b +g,ol q=zl? PP
    (c) (a)el (b)q Bql=4d-q, Bsq +7lE'J+B rI a;gl

    x
    s.8 +g rB4
    +E= AAg f 9lEzi? "J"J E7l+6ItrlE aEel +E
    E qBrll ql+g+ 9lEzI? r olfrE+t"J7P
    zlol $zltf Eol BzJ Eql BA 9l+n
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    o !N
    --------------->

    (a) *zl +el 4¤+9 414r. 6l-n, ¤.zl9 H9 Eo6J gE


    ol¤rol 7l+.6}4j1 g trL ale} f+lg &s Hq+ qg
    ,,ll q=7P 4lE +eql^l g ql ol 4CB +g"Jzf, B
    cd ol zLO
    a1-], li
    s.rr rI9 5 r-E9l q6J E*ql E6I^le. [s.6¤]
    (b) +lel Ag +Col ol+qzl: E.J +Elel SqE H+rt (a) (i)"ll ¤Sol slb
    AHnel AHczl olB7l lHos+
    S+8, rll+ qlqzlb tg{ HEIeI+¤fl^l q$4l H =Z6Iq,
    zl aleE +4Lll^ls.
    E[6]+7P
    o) (iilq AHZTI E-Eql^l trtE elBq Hsle+ +
    =rl6lq,
    *.rle.
    4q= 4¤.
    (c) (a)s+ G)qld ++ 4Ee qtr Bzlql 3aE E 4oJ7l?
    (d) 4rlc+ s+g gql ql6|q +^I6J+4lrl dBq=7P
    350 K 290K

    1
    gflq rBq^l +q r+A"l .JCaJ gse| .Jqql^l

    T
    s.e trl-g sl
    ef X
    ol+qA+. [s.z¤. s.:¤] trl
    (a) ol HElql^l rryt: oJ9E Hp+61+zl, g-e--e HElal+zI? Z
    (b) "J.J EE 4C"l4E, ol4t
    HEt I "Jqg dflcl 4
    {+sl 4q1 46lq .I+ qLJzlTI G.7l6J /-oJ7[ ,J46J (i) (ii)
    1oJTl? E aE= oJq_lzt, goJzf?
    5.12 ElqlE Aql^l BEq H;]-E rJ4a1l ez}.
    A.-----B
    + ElqlE es+ sql qi6}q AH/> 6o14. [s.z¤J
    (a):H s.23r+ +^i+ BEIE. HI+ql EI+ flEq EsE r
    el^ls.
    222 53 gtrl+

    (b) dall t}*.l BE EI+g ul qH AEg.llB + 9l4lEz}? EE-4 fihEEl(s.2E)


    El-et ollLlrle.l dE(5.1 E)
    s.2r (a) g, Ee +q^l g'Jllql Eqsa+ q,J + fr= a
    "J,
    s.l3 (a) s3 pmel ,lrlE Eqrq q= A^lel olCz} ^IolE 4d 3 .?{.Jz}? (b) E, .J, Ee 6ql^J rB4lq Eqsrl+
    7l ulHI¤ glulxlE joutetgl.E gEloJTI? (b) d^Iel .J^d +7J + fi= ag F9..JzI? (c) *i9 oJ+ol^ltrJ 219 .J

    ,J4ol 1.0 nm sI+ 6rI-J+H. slHI¤ qLlxlel HEI PzI olU ag +iol{n 6l+7I?
    ^19
    gEI+ qyTl? (c) F 9zl,rlol$ zlelz| 1.0 nm ?716J s.22 gEo+ g+ql^.i $$ulz| rHa,lH dzJ zl7"ll
    a3 9l
    = +.19 dag ++6tn 9i+. +aqe +l+q^.1
    =q
    7l+E E
    Ell+ Ezlg El¤l¤ qlq4= +7lii]E7L olul{ z$als-z}f
    =
    qzlq, oI4+_s_E nI4+rJ4. zlA 4+E +Eel oJg
    s.l4
    'l4e Eq4g"IoJzI?
    flE + dz} ^lol9 cdzl
    (a) 62 pmel r]Hl ^l
    ¤ qlLlzlE jouleB91E (b) + d^f ^Iole-l z4 Ar+ ru6}r| .JCat{.
    ol 1.0 nm rrJ=r +7I6J+8, slHl¤ qlq4E $ali $ulol @) zla 4+E +.lg gfl4loJ7L Efl4l.Jzf, i1B4l.J7I?
    (b) "JE .J+e+ #7t E6lrll s+H, ol al= qq+ a.+
    zl? k\ F flx|,r.po1e1 7lel7} 1.0 nm f;zlal Ell F "JzlE
    9¤l¤ 9lHxli ¤!7f6}:7t. olqH ,Ja6I=7I? I4l7l E)AY7|?

    s.rs f"l Hlql d6IE B F Eill ,r.|olel {{zl4 'Jfl({lul otl


    zlzl olH)g p = x(erezldr)o E +qd+. qTlql^l
    r : 8.ee x 10e N-m2/c2ola. e,4 ezi F EillE d6l(=E
    tr91).14, dE + Eiil ,rlolel zJ{(rlq +9.1)ol+. 1.00x
    102 pm zJ{ o e Eq4 9lE dz}e+ o}^J^},r}ol$ {{zl{ -
    oJ43 Newton +91-E gEloJzt?
    s.z3 (a) ¤94 zllrBzlql qeH qE oJol tr=q=7p (b) 419
    (b) F Eill
    ^IolE
    +qg F:G(min2ld)e.l 4str +q4l 4P.llulzlb F9.9 9ul;IEzf? (c) 8fl419 4P .llulxl
    +. q7l^j G= 6q zla--EE, G:6.674x10-rr N-m2/kg2
    ol4, zr4 mzi * Ealel eelola, d= F E4lE ,J4ol
    6rI=+Eg 9ol6Jf 9lbz}?
    s.2a @) 94 "Jq1 ++ gE+ 4lrB4g +44E 4s,^rls-.
    4. dz}q oJ^JzlzI *ol+zlE 6Hg g"I.Jz|(Newton t (b) qel wzl*4 atol q= a+= qqt 44"J71?
    9lE)?
    rl-e- qdol +g.J^1, tsg.J^lE a34r, AEE Zl&61^le,
    ¤dzl4 .Jq* 6qtr+ P H]]+ Ll Z7l?
    (c)

    s.l5 +xll s.rsqlfoltl 4# ^l-&6}q El¤¤ 4l,tl6l^le-.


    (i q:o.to klol4 ry: -840 )oJ A+
    -srs(b) 4l= 66.r klE gg +9lq %I=6Ir. i9lE ea.o tlg
    (a) 75 pm Eqd + d4ql 46J Cdzl4 *BH
    (b) 7s pm Eqa + $zfzl$olctzl= 6q "Jg 4lql + a+
    (c) f {z}z} +4.J + 9lE+ qlqqE+H + {4+ r..1tr s.26 trI.S 4Aol ¤.gt^1. ggt^l= 446II, Al9 ql+ qlLJ
    d-ofr*7l tt= +g.6}fl=7f? xls.l {ffi 4lt}6}^ls_.
    =7L kfel gg zllTl6}q
    +dol B4Elfl+. +dol B
    ilz rre x l0-re c9 d6l= ,*b 4'Ei ol¤{Na+)4 -r.ox ro-re (a) 0.6ss

    cg r*E gsl- olg(cr-)o| 0.50 nm9 44-e Eq4 9lq. 4ql 9.ll^] ++qfln. 4zlE rsz Iel "Jg +dql +
    q4flq.
    + olg9 ,J4g +6JqlE +71^lvl4E, $ulel olol $e zlpr.lflc-{,
    (b) 100.0 g9 EllzI zs'cgl,rJ so"c744 rzz
    i,J7l?
    19 gg g+6}flr+(+, +qel +irl.= oJAa|Eln zlA
    s.t8 3.2x l0-1e Cel d6l-= ,*E "frql+ olg(1,rgr+)g -3.2 ,*4).
    x 10-re cg. ,*= &sI olg(or-)ol o.rs nmg zl4e Eol
    s.27 aH+ Aol ul^E4 {zl alelz} Eil dilrJ9l z\tlltl zs
    4 gltr|. F olge.l ,J4g ++qltr +7|^l7lqE, 9"I9 I q 9l+. oltrl dzl qElql d+E ¤,611^1 100 l9 9lulzlE
    ol gsqlzl?
    716Ig,trI.
    'l-g-a+ql 'H.fl^-l T1dld flg El6la, "Jol do1dEzlE
    ¤E6i^le.
    -rrs (a) 4^} flE zlgEq gfl a+
    (b) zldTl Esql *7lE.J+,* a+

    s.20 El* a+ql ql6}q 7|6lid E9 Ei6lr, .Jol 4dla=zlE


    ¤B6I^le.
    (a) oy.JzfESEl
    6l ,o
    J.AE ,lalq^l gg r4q 84ol= dz}
    i^l
    r l-
    -l'ai-r
    (b) 4+3 zlal$ ol$a|{ Bzli C*
    223
    =* =rll
    ol a++4= F TIzlE ^J4.J + 9lEl. (1) oilq4= TIEI (b) ol Hl¤-ql^l oltr aol q {lg ?*Y7l?
    q^Eol ¤.4olE 4+, Q) q^Eol naqq +zl
    ql lrl4 (c) (b)E
    =
    dB6[^le-.
    ol^l 9*= a+. olq (a) olE 49714zl9l'lzlE zld + s.36 TlAl^J- HI+ 2 No(s) +ozk) 2 NozG)zI "JA gEql
    zl4lzl:q *e gEE zlzlt)l ulizl? (b) ,: A+ql qlql^J g}ql^l -
    ^l "JC6J +qq +rl 4lqqflqjr. zlA6ll trz}.
    qe] w 119 +ne}, g, 0)E ffl.Jzt? (c) 4 4*"ilr1 4l({ (a) 48¤ g H+= AHE s¤61+71, LEA -EE6}E7I?
    flq 4+9 Tlill)el AEg &ol trl ag q¤ 4oJ7l? (b) ilolTl 9l+8, ol ql+ql qlql qL A"l4 Azl?
    = "J"J
    s.zs q+ rB4 Aol zl4 rrE}=l. ¤q4 9lil Aql ,lgrJ 9l= (c) (b)91 ql.J Bq olr9¤- ¤E6I^le.
    Hlql d6l-= E F z}|9 +E ol+q4l 4lE ^J4"ll 5-z|. o1 *tz te s.ao] zlol7l8l7| ga qlTl"Jql^J dflqq Eq 9l
    +. ol TlallTt EA+ 3rl+ HI¤¤ El q 824 lE gg ++lql
    (a) 419 EIHI¤ qq^lqlE 9rlfl Hslz} $^J6IH=7I? ,! $falr, +fl= 4ql 0.6s kl p-v.Jg t4. ol 4aE
    o) +ag 5aI¤ *ql= olH Hplz} ts{al-flEz}?
    ol
    AHe+ AEE <t3 g,I.JzI?
    ^E qtr
    (c) ol r+Cql^l qe| w9lE Ha|r} tsrJalflEz}? s.38 -r.H s.ae| pol .J4 4zl.JqlrJ 7li{7} dflqql Eq 914.
    ol zlrlloll 0.4e klg gg 7ig rll zl4lE s+6}r. +gtr
    2t4lE gg ++. ol r+Cel AHe+ AEq fl¤ guI"JzI?
    s-ls "JC "Jqql^l
    ql+g(c,HsoH(t))o1 sd ¤ig 4l H,o(s)
    + + e+ Cor(8)E
    ^dC6l-r, C2HsoH 1 molB l23s klE gg *

    +B g+E EI*4g r.rle.


    =ETE}.
    ol
    (a) Hi*e.l
    r1 /2 (b) ol EI*E SBul EEE r7l^1e..
    s.40 oJa+ sqq^l ca(oH)z(s)E cao(s)q H20(8)-+. ts6ll6}7l
    s.ze (a) tEil E+= F{9 9"lal-E7l? bl tr-Eil ,*+e+ ^}q 6J
    9all ca(oH)z I molB 10e klel 9$ z|flo}oj4.
    fzl oiH aE q¤. E^ls. (c) 419 +vlE aJf.Jzf?
    ^Jql (a) ol HI+el +B gclq Hl+!g r,-,tlg.
    ol-,gg {ga}rle. (b) ol HI+sl 9lgEl EsE rq^le.
    s.30 +gq^l HsIrI 'JqB ql aeel ++6J71-= BL6l^le. -s¤ o,(s)g d+flql^.t t^el 5'A4lE, ^le1dg ¤+61
    (a) 49 4tlq^l 4tlstr SA qlE Ei¤l¤ qLlzl H+
    6s6J qc.g e_=g der+ qlTl"Jql^l trl-g HIg
    (b) 4¤"* 6J i4ol cozk)cl H2o(s)E &4¤ EilE gg"* -s.ar=q^lel aol o,(g)E"J4.
    E6llg+.
    (c) rrJd9 7l¤flol E trll +B¤ "J
    LOs@) 3Oz(g) LH: -28a.6k1
    fllBtrl(s.3tr, 5.4tr) -
    (a) ol {l$oll,t] or(f) I mol* QIEUI Bq+ gEtoJzp
    s.3l 'JEl4gs sg6J trll 8lE t.o atm9 9P'J99lrl o.so I (b) ol t}4ql^l 2 o,(g)e} r ozk) + q! aol q $Bq
    tr S+¤trI. .ltrllel "J0)g 9"1-.JzI? I7l-1L9
    xa_,tI
    =
    =
    5.32 oJa oJq o.asz atmql ql6}q s.00 Lql^-l r.26 Ltr +-!471 s.42 s.E +4 Sol 44E 4+, EI-S + q! aol q t {Bq
    ar6lq+8, ++ Hl*ql^l .J0)3 ¤"hoJz}? r+=^l q^J'6f^19_.
    =
    s.33 (a) Lil+ qLlzlE Hpl¤ +aq-b aB4 qlBirl Hsl¤ + (a) FB gEql^l coz(s) I mol$ co2@) t mol
    c6l.7l +lg olf+ +ioJ7t? o) H: {l.rll *folxl"J sE (b) +^ flx[ z mol$ H2 I mol
    tr4 Elfz} olqE|. ol= ¤B6l^le (c) .JC "Jq +Cql^l (c) 2s'C91.! Hrk) 1 molr| O2@) 0.5 mol, E::2s "Cql^l
    AHT| o}q AolE tsg 4atzf, gts 4aqlzl-? H2O(g) I mol
    5.34 (a) 9H -J r+4E flEi'l Hs|rI r 4lel ,l]+ E (d) 100'coll^l Nzk) 1 mol4 300'cql^l N2(8) I mol
    =4q1,r1
    q+E dBq= 99 .J4 E"J6J7I? (b) "JA .Jq r+A r*. Hl¤¤ d46il EzI.
    = 4l=
    Fei ¤g ++1tr %L=6J+. ol r+C E?I419 SIEEIE 2Mg(s) + oz?) 2Mgo(s) AI{: -tzo4kl
    rtzlalitl, +}6l=.z12 (c) .JC6J Sq !+4ql^l AH:0ol
    -on, -
    (a) ol
    HI¤+ EE.JzL ¤:g"JTI?
    c|. ar, 4, ilql ql6l ++ AEg 49 + 9lbz}? olf6l-= gel
    (b)'JC 'Jqql^l Mg(s) 3.ss Bol Hls"6J trll,
    gC oJqql^l Els-+ Ag HI;.ol "Jqts+l7146ll !-^1. oJ¤ al4}6l^le.
    -- 2AICls(s)
    2Al(s) + 3Cl2(J:) (c) -Ba klel 91gq Hp| F'J H 99 rulgozl rJrJglz}?
    -s3s ol
    (a) t]+E L,Hzl ao1as. q, ol +4E AEE +6171 +l (d) "JC "Jqql^'l a0.3 gel Mgo(s)z| vrgG)c+ or(g)E E6ll
    6ll^lb +714 e-e qB A-H-71 ge-+7|? g Eil H krq gg=-+q+7I?
    224 53 g6t+

    s.44 +¤- Hl¤¤ ^J461l !-^f. +l"ll^l q¤ AESol gs,t7l.?


    2CH3OH(g) zCHs(g) + oz(S) A'H = +252.8k1 s.so F ni{ Ea #= Eq Hq E4 Ag gE7} qE
    Ae+ BE
    -
    (a) ol HI¤+ ES.JzL +¤.JzI? + 6JtrI. -r.d q¤. 4 EAg 4Lllq 10.0.ce_l E 1000 sol
    G) ga
    'Jqql^J ol ++ql el6ll cH3oH(c) 24.0 sol E6ll ?l= El4 + 4loll7:7: H=E|. Ee A= Eq gEE
    g Ell. olE"6l.= ¤E o}g 4l.t}6}^le_. =q
    3.so'c +9i1, Ee B= 2.60'CEJ+ +*+.
    (c) iol4l cH3oH(s) rllql ql+ EqlE qlBq H+ g++g ,.*Y7l?
    ^lEql (a) 9L ESol rJ
    :: az.t klol+. q cel Eilql'J TlillTl ^JcqETp (b) Ae+
    =
    Bq Hlgql ql4 +9,9 g6J + 9lEzI?
    (d) ga .Jqql^l cH4k) 38.s col o2k)e+$d6l Hls"6lq
    (") Eel Blgg guloJzt? o) Eq Eg+"Je gtrroJT1? (c)
    cH3oH(s)= ^J^Jg Eil H klg gg *¤61+7I?
    E l8s 99 g+*g goloJz}? (d) E ro.oo t<gol z+.6'cgl
    s.4s g ole$ g+ olgol 5{ 9lE +"lg 4 "E gslgol a -ssr {}5"g ql ge+ g(kl)g g"toJz}?
    dEEI. ^l46.2"C8
    s.s2 *. s.2ql fl= Eg
    (a) s0.0 89 l0 K gg ql 7l* 4
    Agn(aq) + Cl-(aq) ASCl(s) AII: -65.5kJ
    - molol dcB ql AHE 4l&6}^l e "J9 qlq^l= gs-e al+ ag q! 4"J71? 0) ol gE
    =.ql^l
    (a) ol H}+ql^l Agcl0.a50
    o Hslql ge+ qq^lE 4ltl6f^le-.
    +q .J (c8H el al EZ z.zz I/s-Ko I trI.
    ^Jc¤ 4 aH= 4lt6l^ls.
    r s(/ ))
    (b) Agcl e.00 sol
    (a) 80.0 cE +elqlg 10.0 "Cq^l 2s.0'c.e. +oJ Ell g-s.+
    (c) AgCI e.2sxto-4 molg E9l +"J trll AH= 4l&61^19.
    -ssr ¤3 H I(joule)tz}?
    s.46 ite] &^ TlillE dedql^l ^dd^l7l= "JHlzl %LBg (b) c8Hr8(/) mol9 gE= 999 "J"J+ gE= an+
    l
    TIgq+ aol+.
    HrO(r) I mol9 ¤s.E E"JEI "J"J+ 94= a 6 q!
    KClo3E
    2KCIO3(s) 2KCl(s) + 3Oz(g) AII: -89.4kJ
    ol Hl+ql^i (a)-02 1.36 mol, (b) KCI 10.4 sg '*9 gg gee 6l+7I?
    7!ol cl
    ^JC6I7I I
    6J AHE 4l4l6}^le. (c) KCloa9 EEIE 7tg zigzl_e_ s.s4 E^ll s.26(b)q + ++q 4;j x[-E=i rd46ll Bz].
    ^l r
    -e {.!gE}. ol49 zl.9 H}*, + KClr} or-a+El KClo3E
    (a) *7lE Au(s)E Elgg 4l+I6}^ls.
    z|-E$

    "JHI4aql^l fl4 gqg


    aes ^d4q=7r? olql o) ag "Jg gol zTlql rJe gEql^J F zl]g 10.0 g ro4
    ^J^"rol
    r|]+ Bg ¤E6l^le_. *491 zEl+l4a ^J46ll -H-^I. 6J "-|4= +olj1, +g
    .q^1 ull+g(cH3oH(/)el gi HI¤¤
    6I+E eolq. I gol 716111] + qL EqlTt q +gg
    ^J4ElBzl. tre ?7tqflE7p
    CH3OH(I) +ZOr(9 ----- Coz(s) +zpzo(l)
    -1a7 LH = -726.5kJ
    (c) AuG)9 gg+*g 9uloJz}?
    l^lt +,tlsl4E gg 4slA g"6E4l(rg s.l8) .Jql 5
    o.so
    (a) 9HI*9 dE4 H+= 9"toJz}?
    q
    -sssE fl*
    L|4 100.0 gel Eql +ol{, s--E7l21.6 'Cq^l 37.8'C
    (b) AH]¤¤ C+E 4+e t¤-o- E;t+^le-. ol
    ^l"E ^J"+r+.
    U EI+g AHE gEtoJzI?
    gE .jkl)g 4ltl6t^le_.
    (a) ol HI¤-q^l ILI=El.b
    (c) aHls"4 qEI-i + qL aol gqol4ee trl +E6J7I?
    (b) (a)9 Aq¤ ol+6iol S99 m(U/mol NaoH)$ !l{!af
    (d) ol tl-$ol Hro(l) qldq Hro(s)E
    ^Jc+qr 7l+6IH r Hlgg ++* E4 e+n 71444).
    AHE r7l= ¤!7161+71, +^'6i=7} g.= rq-e.oJ7f? ^ls(+, +"qq
    ¤H6I^le-. s.s5 (a) nill e^I oJE_E a.zs sS rlEla g*41(rB s.l8)
    ^lE.
    s.48 olill HId crHu(l)ol zl4l^J of^]lB{l c2H2k)se.-8"116l.=
    qlql 9ii 0o.o cel Eq +olB, gE= 22.0'cql^l
    =q
    16.e'CE *oftl4. +g +4 4C9 Aa(U/mol NHaNor)
    ag BzI.
    E 4l1}6l.^le_(+, r +"+E Elgg ++6'J Erl A4r ,fC
    ^J46ll
    C5H6(/) + JCzHz@) AH: +630kJ
    614).
    (a) 9HI89l 4.J tlgE HEli 9uloJztr
    (b) o|,qgq1 I mol q6J AH= g"IoJzl? -+ NHa*(aq) + NOt(,q)
    NHaNO3(s)
    ^Jcll (b) ol r+89 gg.J7t, ggqlTp
    (c) cHlso:I q++ + qe aol gqqzleE q +?-l6J7l?
    (d)
    "J'J c6H6(l) 4d c6Hu1g15 4El++8, AHE r7l= ssz +l+(quinone. C6HaO) 2.200 c"l + g+* 7.8s4kll"C4
    +7ltj[7l. A4d+7f. rqiE oJzl? ¤B6I^l e-. Fg?*4ql^l ¤49+. e_Ei 23.44.Cq1^.1 30.s7.Ce 6
    7I6J+. +lEg rgB g^¤g gul"Jzl? +l=E EB g^
    g4lgH(s.5E)
    ts* gpt.Jzl.?
    s.4e (a) gg+*E +91=+E'JrP
    (b) Hlgq +9lE +Et7P s.s8 ql5(coHsoH) 1.800 gol + g+P* 11.66 kll"CE F
    ^l-E'
    (c) 749 Hlgg oJn 914H, +4+ 9P9 ¤*e.t$ 9zl g#lql^l fl4¤4. 8E.3 zr.:0 rcql^l 26.37'ce. +7[.JE].
    EA E^ll 225

    (a) ql++B E+q +*4¤. r


    F9=J4l HlSq zNo(s) + oz(g) 2No2(g) AI{: -113.1kJ
    ^ls.
    (b) ,ilEe.l r+"J ¤dg+ gB tsige 7:7J EtrloJTl? - 2Nro(g) 2Nz(g) + oz(c) LH: -t63.2W
    sss "JA +q -
    Hess Hzl¤ ol+6}q ls=.
    =aql^l =+n4(c6HrzoJ9 tsa¤g
    $.57 ktl +g Hl+el zjl4lalr.le.
    gol4. t.soo cel rlezl 5igr}Zlql^l Si¤+. g Nzo(C) +No2(g) 3No(8)
    =+i^
    *al gEb 20.e4'cql^J 24.72"C8 +7}etrI. -
    8C S!gEt(s.7E)
    (a) 9*419 + g+=*g guloJz}?
    s.67 (a) qlgulel H+eI+fl6}q s.++4q 9ullFi"JzI?
    (b) olg aq6lzl + EllE g"Jalg
    =+"r- ^lEg =48 (b) {lgul= *i9 9ulaltz[? (c) .E# ^JC SBul
    gE* qBrll HclalYz}? ^JC
    + +qg s_lulalizfl
    s.60 gc +q 4aql4 Hl=&(cus,cooH)E ¤agg zo.:s s.68 (a) + flrE ,ItL qlA¤ Belg s.+ {d flBiil <te +
    ^1tr7}5g+4lql^J fl48q.
    kllgol4. 2.760 se) Hl4.tl
    tqlzl? o) $lgq HEITI +r-E4(¤+, c12H22011(s))e.l
    gE*zl gE= 21.60'Cql^l 2e.e3"Ctr +7I.J+.
    E= ^Jd tlBul(AHitcrzHzzorr(s)loJg +44= e++ El
    (a) E=J419 + g+?*g $"I"JzI? -g-,(l9- rl o
    o - a _z.l!-
    ^a
    ^llEg #zl Ed ^lE
    (b) 1.440 gol Eg.J Egr+4q^l S
    s.6e trl.s-E 4 slql$q ql6}ol s+ {l49 flaepH r mot pl
    dg+. g*Zl &Ei 22.t4"cql,ti zz.og'ce. +7|.JEI.
    geE gB Sa93 gol"Jzl? "JE ^Jdg ¤H6l+ tB gElq Els"^lg ^An. ++ c=
    ^l] AHi <X& +6f^le-.
    (c) ll.E$$ -il.^ll6l-471 .JAaJ$ Eol +dqfl{. ol Hsl ^l^S6Iq
    (a) Nor(g) (b) So3k) (c) NaBr(s) (d) Pb (NoJr(s)
    tr g=*4E g+elol -gel^l+7\?
    s.70 *.= tqlq^J g^EE+q +g sltlEE {tg +E+.ti=
    Hess E={(5.6E)
    +B "*= Hl+4g ^'.^le. ol a+ ++ cE ^l-*6}q olE
    5.61 HessE4r+ Hl+6}rll 'J6lH g6l+ Arll HI¤¤ LlE}Lll= E E= C^J tlgul ilg +61-^le-.
    HI¤¤el 4F 9lHzl(aE)= trl'Je-trr^l 4+6Iq 4P "lluJ (a) H2O2@) 0) CaCO:(s) (c) POCI3(/) (d) CTHsOH(/)
    zls.l EE+ AE¤ 4lt6J i ?l=zf?
    q1=Elthermite) HI¤+q-q-4?ol .JEJ4 gl+.
    s.0z r|99 zF6I HI¤¤ rd461i trzt. 2Al(s) + Fe2O3(s) + Al2O3(s) + 2Fe(s)
    [-B AI{:+30kJ -slr olBlqL ql+61 gg HI+e Hl]E EEgel
    S-C AI{:+60kJ = = 'Je = Eill
    +dql ^l-SE+. ++ c9
    e.l iJC elBElE ol
    ^|qo4q HI
    (a) Hess B4g ol+4q A c HI*ql ql6J SBq Ec| *9 mrg 4l&6|^l!-.
    E AltI6I^ls-. -
    s.72 E*g #4* z}^alElel rgg rEEulloJ(c3H8k))9 ¤E-e
    E4 A, B, Cql Eil+ SlBEl E_S.E +61-^le. EaJ
    (b) Hess
    .s'= ^Jd qlgqE s+ ^JEIE +71 +
    B4ol qBr] zl+6}=alE trol^le. ^l-.s"oJ+. ^l-&6}q
    ql^l 10.0 sg gEqloJol $d ¤46J.11 g+g Zl ^Jdq=
    srl +qa El-s Hl+g $lgqe+El &6t^le_.
    Pa(s) + 3Ozk) .+ PaO6(s) AH: -1640.1kJ
    P4(s) + soz(s) -+ PaO16(s) A,H:
    +=. cel Ag ol+6}q q-g 4 EI-&gl s+ slBul Hal¤
    -294O.1kJ
    414l6f^le.
    tr|$ Hl+E elgul Hsl¤ +6}^ls. -svr(a) 2so2(3) + oz(g) 2So3(g)
    PaO6(s) +2Oz@) + PaOle(s) (b) Mg(OH)r(s) -----*-Mgo(s) + H2o(/)
    s.64 +qd El-g HI+gl qlBqe+q (c) N2Oa(3) + 4H2(9 Nz(g) + 4H2O(8)
    2C(s) + oz(t) zco(g) A,H: -zzr.OkJ (d) SiCl4(I) + 2H2o(l)- Sioz(s) + 4HCl(g)
    2C(s) + ozk) + aHz@) - 2CHsOH(S) AH : -402.4k1 s.74 ++ cE llg ol+6}q -q+ 4 H]*9 lrrgl <tg 4l&6I
    trl-g HI-&el 6s.$ -
    fa|.rle. ^lg.
    Co(s) + zHz@) CHsoH(g) (a) Cao(s) + zHcl(g) CaClz(s) + H2o(s:)
    - @) aFeO(s) + Oz(g) +- 2Fe2O3(s)
    3X trl-S Hl*E elBule+El (c) zCuO(s) + NO(g) --+ Cu2O(s) + NO2(g)
    HzG) + Fz(g) 2HF(9 AII : -537 kJ
    -5s5 -
    C(s) + zFz@) CFrk) AIl:
    -680kJ
    (d) aNHg(s) + oz(g) 2N2Ha(s) + 2Hzo(l)

    2C(s) + zHz@) - CzHq(g) AH: +52.3kJ .1r=,c3H6o) I motg- $d ¤4618 l7e0 klg BI6.J.+.
    - al4}6f^le_.
    qlp{lr+ F, H}-&el AHE C3H6O(I) + 4Oz@) + JCO2(g) + 3HrO(/)
    -s.zs AII': -1790kJ
    CzH{$ + 6F2@) 2CFa@) + 4HF(s)
    -
    ol
    ^I-E"el
    ++ cq 9lE or9, cozk), Hzo(/)9 s= ^J^J
    s.66 +q4l q¤. zlEtr+q glgqE B4l
    ^Jd tgqE 4l&6f
    oI^]EE E=
    Nz(g) + Oz(g) 2NO(g) AII: +180.7kJ
    ^F8-6Iq
    - ^ls.
    226 53 gtrtqf

    s.76 vJi ululolE(caC2)= Er+ Hl-&6Iq ol,!lB{l(CzHJ4 i (d) I2(s) rz!)


    tlcl ?f,((ca(oH)Jg ^Jc"Jtrl. q+E HI+ qlgq z}tre+ -
    s.82 H4= Al& Sol, trl-$ ++ql 4t aaE +aE ql+6}^ls.
    5+ c9 uleE-EPq cacz(s)9 AHi= Zl&6}^ls. (a) 2NOz(g) NzOek)
    CaC2(s) + 2HzO(l) .+ Ca(OH)2@) + C2H2@) - Fz(8)
    (b) zr(s) -.-.-
    A,H": -727.2kJ (c) Mg2*(g) + zCl-(g) + MgCl2(s)
    (d) HBr(s) -+ H(8) + Br(8)
    glp-p *HloJ(octane)ol4E azl +i gzle+ g4 zlxlE
    s.83 -tr s.4el AEI elgqE ol'e"ol.{ El-g E}+ql qi+ AH= ql
    gEL6J +q+Atr +^JgtrI. 7l]} r4,,j:6141gld+ +ql.J
    -s.zz+ 6I+= 2.3.4_E4olqlB$qlflol4= +6JEolj1. r + +6I^le.
    (a) H-H(S) + Br-Br(8) 2H-Br(8)
    a4g trlg4 rJ+. (b) -
    H
    I

    fH3 fH3 fH3 2H


    -c-o-H + 3O:O
    H3C-CH-CH-CH-CH3 I
    H
    ol p+6JE I molol SA g46IE Cor(s)e+ Hrok)e. H6E
    arr: -s064.e klol+.
    ?O-C:O + 4H-O-H
    -------->

    s.84 -tr s.4el Aql elBElE ol+6}q +S HI*ql qldJ aH= ql


    (a) CaHra(l) t mol ¤i9 tB HI-&^lg ']
    ^19.
    (b) ol +4lE C!-e+ s s.3e-l
    ^l-E= ^Fs"6Iq
    2,3.4-E4ol +6I^19.
    (a)
    ,l Efl ql
    "JE AHI"E 4l&61^le.
    s.78 Qolqg qlq(c4H'oo(,))E eqFq] e.lrl-8- El+lzlle Br Br
    ^l-8'
    ¤'J+d sl{lEe, +a^lg 4g-44+. Br- C -H + Cl-Cl
    I

    --------+ Br
    I
    + Cl-H
    -C-CI
    H3C-CH2-O-CH2-CH3 I

    Br
    I
    Br
    c4Hroo(/) I molol $d s46IE cor(8)e+ Hro(l)e. H6I
    a- If :-2723.7 klo14. (b)
    (a) CaH16O(l) l mol S49 +B Hi+^lg ;A^19.
    (b) ol gx]lg AEe+ s s.39 alE.= 4.l9lB 9l
    ^l-s"619
    el9 aa;= zl4l6}^le. +2 O:O --------+ O-C-O + 2 H-O-H
    qEg(c2HsoH)g 7l¤fll+ eqlqq f,xll zffizf gee H

    -s-zs^F*g+. s.ss (a) ++ Cq +q{ ^dC


    ^l-+6}q
    qlBgl= Br2(g)
    (a) *zl +ql^.] E4l qlegg scql ql.J +B HI¤.^lg 4 2 Brrs) HI+ql qlql AH= 4lt}6l-i1, ol {}g ol+6lq -
    a'J
    ^lg. QIEUI p(sr-Br)$ Qlqalz.ls. O) G)ql^l al$g <i+ s
    (b) H,o(s)= {C$ol{r 7}C'J trL ol H}*ql ql+ s+ s.4ql +q{ Aq i}ol= 9u}4 7z}?
    etBq Hq¤ +6}^le. s.s6 (a) e^ a4 g^I= +i+ a*ql 98ll^J ¤aq
    E^lql^l
    (c) 9C "Jg6lql^l ql$ge] glq ql6J ql+g r"-lq*
    ^J^J q 914. ++ ce.l ^Jc flgq= ol+6H ol aql o(N=N)
    9b gg 4l4}6}^le(t. ql+gel Ee= o.zes g/-rol4). I qlgrlE ql+dl^le_. (b) 610lE4{(hydrazine)4 i4e}
    (d) HJ=qb ts r r.lB-^JCq= co,9 ¤=J9 Zl^I6I^ls_.
    9 Hls"9E SEqoh= ^JddI: HI* Nrun1g) + H2(g) -.-
    s.so Ell+g(cH3oH)* a++ ilql sEql ,,.;e,"p4. 2 NH3k)=
    ^J46ll tr^L. {d $gEe} dE} tlBqE
    .l*
    (a) *zl +ql^J
    "q4l
    ,ile99 s^q qt+ +¤ HI*^lg 4 4q 6IolE+{E A^-e} AE}g qlBqE q+4^le-.
    (c) (a)c| (b)el gg *zie. ap1=4{9 e^-e^ A'*ol
    ^ls.
    (b)H,o(s)=
    ^JCEol4r T}CEJ Hl*ql 4t s= Ell, ol
    e^ Ezl-el eElql El6ll^l qqEJ^lE ql+g + fl=71?
    flE:rl Hsl¤ +6t^le. 5.87 2H2@) + oz(s) ZHzo(t) Hl+ql ql6ll E^1.
    (c)ElE¤ rr]q'.+ ¤^ql 96il ^Jdq= gg 4l&6l.^le- ^J46ll
    (a) .*. s.a9 ai+-qlgtl= ol+6}q ol Hl+q ql6J AH=
    (t, ,ileg9 "Jsb o.zst 8/mro1q1. q+6}^ls-(+. E.ol /J.4.J ag +^l6J a).
    .-4zll
    (d) HJ6q= ¤ r r<16 4Cq= co,9 4*9 4l4l6}^le.
    (b) 4l4I g{ol, (4)ollr.-l ql+g t}ol d8l u¤- qlBulql Hldl
    E!=Jtrl(s.8E) gE A.J^1, o.i9 <lelzl q+q^le_.
    =-st
    s.8r E+E 4l& S.ol. El-S HI*ql 4t asE +E= ql+6}^1s.. (c) 4¤ c9 ^J^d 9lB5l= ^l-s"6lq dzll tI+ elBq¤ ¤
    (a) NaCl(s) Na*(8) + Cl-(g) a6I^le_.
    - Hz(g)
    (b) zH(s) ------
    5.88 H2(s) + I2(s) ..---- zHI(g) Hl*ql r16il trz1.
    (c) Na(S) -+ Na*(g) + e- ^J46I
    +71.86 E^ll 227

    (a) E s.a9 aB qlp l= ol Hl+ql ql6J AHE ql kllmol, -103.8 kf/mololQ.


    ^l=&flq
    +alrle(s. ololeHol nill ^J4r+: ag +^16I+). (a) 4 Edol Sd6lq cor(g)el H2o(s)E
    "JE
    ull g;86J
    (b) 4l+I frol, (a)oll! q+g *ol dxll tl+ qlgflql Hl6ll gg 4lt}6l^le-.
    39 <t.Jzl, oJ9 Al"Jxl ql+6t^le. o) 4ga ¤c9¤ al&61^le-.
    r kg9
    (c) i¤ cg ^JC SIBII= ^l-S4q dril HI* $BqE A E9 e=*B ts^J{} g*etr B trL qL aol ztt} Eg
    (c)
    Ad[^lj-. c 9l= ¤-eEz;r
    Ee(s.etr) s.e6 'sa <i'g Eljrdl -B?ig ql 4I4z| 4a3g tsi++dBEI E
    ^lE4 (a)
    s.8e ¤E. {tg Flg 9ulal-E7f? (b) ollulxlfle-e. +sflol a6Jg +EI+azI se. #ol rl t4i 13 *,1
    ^l+ql,tl trg gol+. cFr(g)9 dd tgq= -67e.e kflmololr|.
    zlHJ s cI+ +++E I g 6 o1.: Aol L) (c) EF=^
    =71? trIg + HI* +ql^l 9B 4ol tsgCol 7tt;J7l?
    E 4^l= cor(s)4 Hro(/)g ^JdqL+. ^I%IE Eg olBl+ EJ

    CH4(8) + 2Oz@) Coz(g) +


    Hl* aq-59 qB4l Hll=61-=7f? 2HzO(S)
    CH4(J:) + 4FzG) - CFa(3) + 4HF(g)
    s.eo (a) t g EfolE4 I g zl'J + ql^I7I qflg ql qH 4ol
    qlqzlE,J¤61+71? (b) zJzI?¤ Eu4d rzyo, zl *s7 :,r.tz'J "J .J+b -
    E 70q Bol4. "J LJ Eq]. 4+ql
    5a ^ll4l
    =
    E; tr+slEtr ol+q4 914. ol +4 6ql zl loJB gs6J ¤.J+g 1500 cal gl+6171 +16ll^-l: P ke9
    r4o/o. +tr1^l:.
    *q q
    ,JEE.]= yooJTl? (c) ul* 2s gg ¤E #r+ ag ¤ gs+7i? (t, Elg gslq4ql q+
    =+a^7I
    ql^lqq sd6l co,e} H,oE =++^7I
    E Tig r*= EEeg H g"Jz|? ^Jct4-7 7}a6l-4.)
    +
    ("1 6J Z ts3}9 *:Lt1 n" +4 sE]ql= xlf,r 2.s c, ++
    C6H12O6(s) + AOz@) 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(/)
    rsr AH' :
    plE ra g, Br_4¤ 7 g"l 59 91trI. + vl E* -2803 kJ
    es4
    (cuD= g"loJz}? (b) gola s.ql 4EE. ag^sE s.98 E8s4-7 6l+ 7]-Eroz} ¤E= ql+g 8s704 zl¤fl 15708 E
    q^l 6e0 mgol ESclq 914. ol 4Eol r-EE ^3q ,Js4ql^-Ezl {}++. E8s= 7}¤il, qleg EE s6J ¤E= ^l*g +
    qB aolq 9lE +¤+ ¤E ^tq EqTlE-*trI. ol 7l¤fl9 +qlql
    ^J461+71?
    (crH,r9 oldeil)g El+61+ g6}golelr. 7l-461-fl9 Ell,
    s.sz "JHl M&M
    ,Jq lrl8Eq zli$ e6 g, Ei*E 320 g, tE{
    3 zt go1 Eq 914. lEl xll+-?d'ol a2 e(* t.s oz)oJ ull, ¤ B+ ¤4gol 5400 kf/mololr, 7l¤flE ¤+
    C8Hr8(l)e.l

    E <Ig 9EIoJzI? olql q calzt zll*9EzP "JsE o.zo B/mL o14. qlegE "JsE o.zs B/mro1q-.
    (a) PB cE CtrE ol+6}q, 1.0 Lel 7l+fl4 1.0 tE ql
    s.lr =qe^(C6Hr2o6)q Eigg -2812 kllmololtrl.
    ^F+
    dJ
    +gol ¤i6J 4l rJzlb qlqzl= HIjr6I^le-.
    4l! s.zt oz(rzo g)oll uflE^z| 16.0 I EElqq 9148,
    (b) EssE "Jse| ¤agol q+g 857o, zl¤fl l5%o= EB
    ol ;.ploll.! EelE-^.717lq6h= zJs4 zlqs.b gol-oJz}?
    q+ aol?+i1 TIC6IHS 41, r.o LE E8s7I g^g Ell

    s.e4 qltsg(crHsoH(l))E g4gg -867 kllmotolQ. E-E? %[eq= qlq^lY E"]tlzt?


    ql+gol EE:qq gEl. +tr+el EJETI
    A=JBIE l0.6yo (c) r0 gal9 7l¤44 Eg+ qlq4E qA
    = 4l+61-= E8s=
    1.0 g/ml4r 7IA++8, 6 oz(rzz mL) 6J +E eE+ql
    floJ7I?
    E'Jqq flE.J?g(ql+gJg AEeli guloJzl? (d) 7l¤flq 7|4ol eflB 3.889401+. "JE Ae qlqzl
    *gs ,lAl ^J4el etr+"J(crun), E-e.gHl(c3H.), es4loJ E 4# trll r4fl%l Pes9 39 Ezld3 Eultzi?
    (c.uJ9 E= ^J^J qlBqE 44 +r9s.4 kllmol, +zo.q

    ,+7l.oJ+ +41
    qlqEg miE Elq4 HlsoeE f $=]a=i,Jtrq el6ll ++q4 flbql, ol ,JsE g
    s.ee zl-Fi}
    ^Irq^l Ba ltulg
    ol
    .J6I ol
    "J+'J4. +4 EI¤+g 4lE ^J4g Ell, HI¤-el 4el flg + E}l geEl4 ¤tr}. ol ¤4^rEe sq
    l,/9 PsE F9.alz[?
    =4^r7}
    6lzl e¤ zl4zl99 ¤z}^r +9e g fl4n 7I
    =Eol
    s.100 a?t gEq .J+Elb ag BEr .Jql -+^I. +ql. r ,Jg 46ll tr^l-. uJez} ¤flg u)l tlAltl Tl-+ + *ql^l+El Sb
    Eleqq gE4 9li1.I+Ee gq 9i+. 7l-6lld oJe ,Jg *"e #47|ll gtrl-.
    irlg6}q gEAl .J 4o14. ol 99 {HzlE qq^j +*= (a) tl4ltl s+61+ tLoJ gol 4dlzl=z}?

    7l? O) ell rfl7t, E= ell r+^l glgT}?


    (c) ol 4C9lrl AE Zlg ACEI + il='7l?
    s.r0r ++ 5{l=-91 71471-*AA 9lr += ++.il= A+ss
    9q flE El-*-zl+¤ ^J46il tr^f.
    228 s3 gntqj

    A B s.106 :1H s. l8+ ?3 ++E 4q A g=*4ql 2s. 1 'cel $ rso.o g


    ol Eq 9lE+. 121.0 gel +;l Bqq= #= Eol Ba El4ql
    .J9 roo.+"czl^l gg 71619+. cuG)9 Hlgg 0.38s I/c-K
    ol4. g%F4lql ol cu= 7}6ln gEtrrJ=- gElrlq g
    atrn
    L TIA ^laol
    E7l. 30.1'Cql EE-4q Hilol sfl+.
    s.t027l^11^lE7l dAq-ll^Eql Brl 9l+. trI¤. re$ aol (a) t4 B94zf ge g+9IE
    '+Elql^ls,
    tlqlz} Ht4. (b) Eol Ee g+g L+E+4^ls. EE ulgg a.18 l/g-KolQ.
    (a) d Hr{l dilq-q^Ee gq6}4 +gol Elq gr+} (c) ^QolE$ ael g+d4 ol a.ilg ql+q^l gE= g
    ol s.+r 7}a6}xl. tlEI Halql 4E q <t3 qBal qE 4zl 9loll gs6J gol B4.rl (a)el (u)9 Bol E+e+. g
    7I?
    "l ^Jq Hqq
    qg w9 P-ci fQtz}? ol tlql *4lE g+=*3 ol tlzl(Ar+ "tzl])9 ggE r K gg Ell
    H+ql qE AEE qEal "JB + 9lEzl? gs-6J g=Jol+. ol g*4lE g+=*g I/KE 4l1}6l^le.
    (b) ¤iltr1-El^Eol ++r+ e3 gdEillE ol+qaqa (d) g*al .Jql 9l= Eol +4 B94zI *9 99 e
    "JE
    zlColl Lzl. t4zt HEIE rI dilq= qI4 trH tr+* + g++4H, ol Alel al+ gE: gEl-7I qbtl?
    6I+. olfl ?g.I q9 +E= +g.J7l? ol + dg9
    "l s.107(a) Hle^}
    ^le 0.235 gol Fg*41(rH s.le)
    qlql^l ¤4
    zlE !+Cql^l 4le.l tlEllE ,,I-olql qlql^] ¤B6f^le. g trL gE7I r.642"C "J=- ^J4"6lBEl. z}9loJ(CaH,oN+OJ
    AE <lsl ^Jql4qI &g +qol+ "J6J + ",)+71? 0.26s gol ¤^98 .gs= t.szs'C ^J++El. 8144I
    ^lE
    E ¤^ge 26.38 ktlsolr+. ol5 ol$alq "Ja +Elql^l
    l mol* rtEl.Je-l ¤igg al4l6l^ls. G) gEE 9lg uI
    I- 0.002'c, +al= a 4l o.oor g9 e^|z| glrfl z14a19g
    uil, TIEll.J I molB szls +Aq= gigg 4l&6t^le-.
    s.r08 +^Je?.1(MREs)= Eol s.E zlpt)e ql+l^l E= +ql *.

    + rlol4. ol ge ++ HI¤¤ F5l] ^Jd¤trf.


    Mg(s) + 2H2o(t)
    (a) ol Hl+E E= $BqE - 4l&6t^le.
    Mg(oH)2$) + 2H2@)

    (b) ol HI¤¤ zs mL9 E9 2l"Cql^l 7e "Crlzl $t)zl


    =:all
    +1611 +E+ qq^lE,J=6I= Ms9
    o&9 4l&6f^le-.

    s.loe EllqloJg td
    +q^l Ell+E +^= -E6.J6l+ .tll zfzl r|$
    s.r03 EoE + ++4r+lj+g trIg_r+ eg Hlgo_s-E "J5q4lq.
    CaZ+(aq) + 2HCO3 @q) .+ CaCOs(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(/)
    ^JCE. + rg+(q]+ aS.Jzlg +¤), co(c), co2k)E
    "JE +
    glEt.
    1 atm, 298 Kollr'l CaCO: I molol ^d^Jg+E, HI¤-q^l 2.47
    ^JcEl= ^ll Tfzl {dEq
    (a) ,tlqlql zl^ile}4}+tr +B "*
    ktel P-v "Jg tl44q co, Tlillq 9EL *8401 ^Jzl.r, + HJ+^lg 449 4+ H,o(l)g +c
    ^"^ls. ^JcEtr
    +^lql 38.es klE gg ++le+q E+5J+. ol*l+ H]¤-ql z|{a}.rle.
    ^l
    aHe+ aEg ag gEf"JTt?
    (b) (a) E}*ql.<l 449 e+ qlgi'l5 a45l^le-.
    s.r04 r.3 s.loql fl: 4lE .H.i1 ,S46I ts^t. 6J A+E 6lqE (c)4Id9 ++ol +e6J ql e^=
    sd.61+ Eilql"JE s^
    F6I d+7I 6E e_-+,!q. EtE A+= 4+7l7l4E"oJgea] xlull{olz}r
    ^JCE + 9l cor@z1
    44{1tl Sd6l %I{EE|. + A+ .JA+ "Jqq^J .Jqf s.llo +Ag + fl= qlgrl H+= Hess B49 ol++q 4&.J
    +. *4 HEIE Aq. 44^171f}d6l +dE tlqq^l $d + 91trI. trl+g qlqloJol qlg{l_g-E H+El= t}gol4.
    6l HJdol 9fl4. :44 6t zlzl A+= gg gol 4r. +
    zCHa@) CzHq(g +HzG)
    E a++ qlE gol +trI. ol + a+ etBqg H+E ag El-gel - "l +¤.9 aH.= 4lt}6}^le.
    gp}+ c!_E ol+6}q
    7t? r+zl qgrll SlBq= tlq El+e ^J46J
    "JE ?++8, CH4@) + 2oz@) Cozk) +2620(l) Ar1" : -890.3kJ
    + 9l:7I? "JE r++E += aqd}fl'J ar+ ulid.tf,g CzHq(il + Hz(8) _-
    - CzHo(g) LHo : -136.3 U
    trll tlgtl Hplc| q9 +ZlE qB4 g6J + ?l:ii? zHz@) + Oz@) 2HzO(l) AIi' : -s71.6 kJ
    s.los 7Ig+ 4oJ 9lulrl= tsE+ ¤451q 914. g ¤:+^llE zI 2C2H6@) +7 OzG)+ - 4 CO2k)+6 HrO(/) AH" : -3120.8kJ
    +6lE+ z|$el {1t{e4 qE¤ ^F.*+tr}. 4 qEq + s.lll trl+ zfsql 7I^l +4ld ?l= flE- -H-L, ol{ {ol
    z]l= t.s kgol4. EEq Elgg 0.8s I/g-KolEl. g 1.7x 103 ^ll
    tfl +trl$ 9lrjzlzl7l1t tg^l Zltld}^le.
    cal+ +ag + g+=*g r*rll ".lErJE. zt+g LllA-rlE ^I
    +6l]ot 6l+ qEe H 49171?
    229
    =u =* =rll
    20'c0fl .l gE E4 t!=Jtrl
    (a) ol Ed 44q qlql co,(g)el H2o(/)trE s4 EtBq
    d=
    JE (g/t'n') = (kllmot) E 4l4}6}^le. (b) olE 4 +!lEE ge *(krldg 4l&al
    +ol trsql ql.J(c2HsNo2(, ) 1.052 -1368
    .rle. (c) 4 +cI+^$ ¤=*q 4E +4ei EES$ AC6I
    ql+g(crHsoH(l)) 0.789 .rle.. (d) (b)s+ G)9 B-g Hlr*_qtrxl s{faql^] +a
    -1367
    Ell B610l E4d(CH6N2(/)) 0.874 4**4 ¤e {I ^}olE *ZlE 4l.Joll 5-^le.
    s.llsE+417I200lboJ ,<f$ol a|.foll 20sl4l 4s ft9 zl4"J :+
    s.il2 EE}+doJ o}^'llB{l(czHJ4 Hldl(ceHJe dB^lol a+.
    E 4l+g eTle 6}9tr]., ol$ ollulzl 4!J7l rE^l7lllE
    {dq'%}6}a- +E:l+^ol+. ol +ql^.1 6J zl= +a4 o-tr rltoll :rQlil g4ol=
    ,ll+.J46IE}.
    zas calel izle Bols. ++alel
    (a) PE cel ZI-EE ole"6|{ 3 c2lj2,f.) ---- coHo(t)9 E.
    HsIrI fl4r 4l&619+. rq TICg *3 l.Jxl ¤BoI
    qlBE H5+= al4}6}^ls. ^lg.
    =
    (b) 3 mol9 ol^llB¤lk)r+ I mol9 ddl(/) 6ql^J QIBulz[ s.rr6 qolg EE4q xll*ulE* E 1.0 kwE 9lHzlE ++++
    q=ae? (1.0 kw/m2, I watt :1 r/s). 4Eg xll+"lelB l,tlzJoll 0.20

    (c) o|,qgq1r1Hidl9 ¤e ii(kt/dg +6}^le. g9 f,ae:(c,rHrro,r)E ^J4I++. +.zet'zy El-q-r} a


    ^Jtlqflg Ell ^F&q: q.JpE qdEE al4}6}^le_.
    ol
    s.l13oJEqolNHr= -33"cq^l #sq, ol gEql^Jel EJ-E=
    qlpr{= t2Co2@) + 11H2O(l) CpH22orr+ 1.2o2(g)
    o.8t g/cm3ol4. NH3g)E ^J^J -46.2 kllmolol - AH: 5645kJ
    n, 7l+ SlBq= B.2kllmotol+. '-q4 NH3 I L
    NH3(l)el
    7l +7]|+ql^l S^qol Nzk)q H,oG)E CC6J ollel el s.tt7
    ^l+
    ql+ql^J %I6Jcq el6ll na¤ oltl]Il. +iE "Jg
    gq H+E 4lt}6f^le. aI4 ql+g(cH3oH(l)) 1 Lel s s.sx1016 s/LJo-E +Aqfl+. Coz 4 EE e47I
    .'-s ul-1lQ-L 7fa6h^t. =+?
    d ¤lel AHe+ cH3oH(l)q AHE HlrdlE oltrl'aJ7}? (+,
    Lnl:-239 (a) 1HEJ'J,*dql e-l6l ql+ql kIE 4l4I
    2s"Cql^l CH3OH(/)e.l "JE= 0.792 glcm3, ^l+q= "IulxlE
    6I^19.
    kf/mololci.)
    o) ql.Jg H+e] ¤+$g ** qlHzl Mw(r w :r l/s)s
    s.ll4El.*ql Bq^lb a^lH Ttxl .JHI4.J Sffi+i {l zfl
    ^ll
    e.l+4Er+n gl+. olgg s6^Jd qlgqbq=q_4a+. al&6}^le. 6.J 4lE gzlq tsd}.b o_; ro3 uwE d4l
    ,*tr}. Ell.J 9lHzl H¤FI E.J6J qlq^lE
    EJ6I+A ^JC6|71 9]6f
    =16l,\t AH/'(kJlmol)
    I H ?l^Iq
    zll9 gd^z} gs+7f?
    t,:-$rlclol{ CeHok) 111.9
    1-+HI clHsk) 1.2

    n-Brlltl CaHro(f) -t24 7

    5EF
    oJ+
    +41
    s.llsgE 20'c(ql+ ,Jgql^'t 4zl ¤! Nz EzI9 B+ +qg s.120 CH4k)q +g +zl+ ¤i + H2o(l)E ^JCEJ+.
    l0s0 mPholr{. (a) ol l]-$ol"Jq+= E.J ^J{lqb "ilHulfi)b $"ItzI?
    (a) ¤t! +E= q m/soJz}? (b) "JEI4.J x.d rlgg 8 kevg glulxlE zI+14. xd *fl
    (b) ol +EE s4ol= N, EuI9 e+ qlLlzl= H l"JzI? 9 "lluJxlq CH4k)g ¤4 qlq^lE Eli6t^ls.
    (c) ol +EE *-zlolb Nz ¤^l I mol9 + gF glHzlb I E;l+l^l^l ?*e
    s.r2r El.sq +Bol t}+-+g Hl¤¤ ++.lql^l
    rrloJTl?
    ^Jzh]ltrzl.
    s.tte E+4]7I s2.0 ks"J 984 4.lEJ d+7I ¤*+.e-EPq ro Ag*@q) + Li(s) Ag(s) + Li+(aq)
    m oI4E 4olB¤ aI*4. 4oloJ dfzl +lgE 4rd+q Fe(s) + Na+(aq) - Fez*(aq) + Na(s)
    4olB.* E EE4zl 10.8 mol4. K(s) + H2O(/) - KoH(aQ) + Hr(S)
    (a) 4olB dizl HgE aladr+ E. sHr+g ulHl¤ qlq (a) 4 Hl*9 t¤s "*+^le.
    -
    zl iiol=?
    o) +q c5 ol+6}q 4 +*q ArfE 4lt}6}^le.
    O) E sEql^J EE ElHl¤ qlLJzlTI .&E qlqzlE EIflq (c) 99 A,r1 tlee E q, qtr El¤.1 gq+zl_s_E oJa6J7I?
    H, 4olB d+7I EE Eqa EIg +EE P m/soJz}? (d) gEoE ol+dfq q¤ HI*ol "Jq+=zl ql+6}
    (c) +olEJ d+71 EE Eqa q + .Jol 9l=7I? ¤B6l
    ^]gg ol
    Al9.:,:u, (4.4i'l). ar+b (c)9 ¤4el oJil6l+71?
    ^ls.
    230 53 gat-+

    s.r22 q-gg zJ¤zl NaoH(a4)z| S{ol-3 &-++ H}*olq. Hzo(g) a.a7 sa+ 3ll klg gg
    ^JC"JtrI.
    HNO3(aq) + NaOH(aq) ..---- NaNOs(aq) + H2O(l) (a) ¤aB +q+49 a*g gE}fl7l?
    HCI(aq) + NaoH(aq) NaCl(aq) + Hzo(/) G) $rlfael dE4e Ft.JzI?
    NHa+(a4) +NaOH(a4) .+
    - NH3(a4)+Na+(44) + HzO(l) (c) Ea:l+ael dil^l +91'J A.H'Zlg 4l&6}^1e..
    (a) 5¤ cE ol+6lq 4 EI*e.l Arf= 4l^l6f^le. (d) ol +E++^= ++ cql ++¤ a 6 a}4.Jzl ¤86il B
    (b) trtl=ol, e&rl g4le a&olE|. olq6J
    ^114.3¤ql^l ^lg.
    +Eq ++= 9l+ "JaI olg Hls.49 r ^ls. s.r26 ulqloJ(cH, ezl+ aA z.vql qqLI ?l= 716l +z= 7l
    (c) zi¤. + Hl8el arf (t¤. Eljr6}^le-. qE4 aE .llg
    Aci. ol ollEl.J Eztz} S+4q E^lql EE c-H A*ol
    A ol u zlr)
    -1- )^7=/ t:
    +6J61 '+ttq= 7ru4 439 ^J44 -ez|
    (d)
    ^ll
    H4 H}+^lql^l NHa+(aq)i &48 zt*rJ4. alf CHn(s) -+ C(s) + 4H(g)
    <iql NH4+z| a^loJzl, E&"Jzl .gB6}^le. (a) ol 4c9 cH4k)el E=
    ^Jc flBq= +44E
    ol Hl+
    =rl6lq
    s.123 1.00 M cuson 50.0 mle| 2.oo M KoH s0.0 mL F *9ol e-l qHI¤:!+ 6J4l Hlir.dl -H_^le.
    gl+. ol F +.lol .Ja+.Jq g?*zlq4 g'*Elflg ql a (s) 4 a+ql^l qlBqE HE+= 4l&61^le. qts HI*ol q
    dg Bc6lj1eEE zr.s "solv'l27.7 "cE. tI+qI+. +g HI+"J71? AIf liel il-olY gtrfoJTl?
    (a)Eil d9l cusonE +E "Jq fli cu9 d=JG)g EoI (c) cHak) 3.4s go1 F2@) 1.22 g4 Hls.al-q CF4k)s+ HF(g)

    "J7Y?
    s ^JC++n 7IC6IZI. ol HI*el 6JZl HI+Ee +Eql
    (b) ol EI¤-gaaEol +9..JxlE ql+611tr^le. zP .JC .Jqql^l .Jq*g
    ol Hl*ol ql
    "JqE ^JCgg
    (c) F *9ol sqlg A+ql "JqLI= $A olg HI+44 "J g"IoJzI?
    4 olg EI+{g 44 4".<ls-. s.127 7l+ Etol gq= t)et)zl49 E+E +-t4e 4.2yo7l oJa-
    (d) ge*41 ol¤-6lq ei+ EJ+E EI*g aHE +6I
    ^lEE gJola- D-oz B I l0 Calg se}+4(t Cal : 1000 cal : l kcal).
    g g:+= +^l6J+n 7Ia6I+. +.19 + gagE oJ6J car9 UIE¤-S ql+6}71 +ldl^l trl-g+ ?g
    ^le(g*alel
    *9E roo.o mlolr +Eg gql +q +.-lE g+ "JE egg ^J46I trz}.
    +++ gr+ aED. (a) ollE9(czuroH)n|.tl^e+ Hls"6Iq ol&+ e^e+ Et3
    =
    5.124 AgNOr(aq)e] NaCl(s) ad HI¤+ trls-+ gEI. "JEE HI*q +B Elq EI¤-^lg 4^le.
    ^IolE
    AgNO3(a4) + NaCl(aq) + NaNOs(a4) + AgCl(s) G) +q cel ^J^J flBq= ol+6}q ol HI+ql ql6} AH=
    (a)P9 cE ol+6lq ol HI+E gai ol8 HI*4E ArrE 4l1}6f^ls.
    alt6l^lc_. (c) dzll P44 +.zwl ql+goln r EJETI0.78e g/mLB
    (b).Jz+olg Hl+^l+ ulaa|fl$ ql d4 +^l Hl+^lE u\.12-oz E+qlse}g qlEgg d=}3 ¤"}.Jz}?
    AH'<lg q$rll q=4 ¤E6f^le. (d) (a)9 HI+ql ql+gE ql^le+q Eqzl= rJEal+ g
    (c) *9 c, (a) d4, 6) A4E ol+6H AgNog(aq)9 AIi' uloJzI?
    atg aaail-H.^ls. (e) ll0 cal6 H uld=zl qlEge+El 4eizt?
    s.r2s qE tsEl+^:: or(s) +ql^l $d ¤iqq co2@) 21.83 g,

    T6J ¤4I +4I


    gEqE z|1r fe6.J zl]rE.g 9lHzlz} gol+ oJg ¤4-e d+ +E.J7p
    B + 9l+= {o}Q. r80uJ dql= gr+ g ,JE +Zlr} g aB o) deg Er.l6}7l 9oll "twl+ A.oJzl?
    ^lg ^l-8.El
    q4 *9I+= ag 6lt}4 tr+. ee .Jel gg ag .Jel gq (c) 6J H9 ¤e]9._e olilql "*= aq¤ Eg ase
    ^J4qb
    a:fl¤ + gl4i zt¤g ¤46IB,+. olBl+ trzl ^d4g.rlflfl r+zl ?tgzl?
    7I? eI.JTL eI
    9"I. Q-gr+ eg +il$ ^l-*61= dflg i1q}6lfltrI. galdl+ (O qq+ EJ^lse dE9 CBszI A4ql $ffi zlzliz|!
    +Al +7lEEqlql ¤aqa tra49 +e E+ql Ba E4%'- (e) l80E dol
    "Iulzl d4l ¤tlg +E6I9trtE, dE aq¤
    ol
    oI4 Sdol qq 9lq. ol dllg James louleol l840Hqlq iI 6J,!.^l7l7l +14^l
    "t¤ +ilE¤+aB+
    glbzl ulBgI
    H i1d d¤oltrt. .JEl"iql 'foule experiment images'$ fl{o} 46I^le_.
    E E}.J6J de lr-il$ E + 9ltl. (0 94 ,lZlzl g ol9lg EIE qlLl4 Bqelel +4lE +Bg
    ol dril$ ol+6}q, TIag geql +43 + flg4ql +* qlE Eqs^le_.
    (a) 916ll^l
    ^l¤6171
    6.1 > "!el EtE¤ H(+^I qlqzl Eb dzl
    zl +rld)g +Fq Cdg 7l^lq. sl
    +, {++, 4=2i54o14.
    6.2 > g^tEtEJ 0{lLlxlel ElIl dz}71 +^fd
    g E^Lq Cds. zl-zlq, 'Hel Ezf.J
    *-zlel 7lH_e_e ¤E¤ + 91trI.
    6.3 > d AEEaJ"I Bohr 9E flx]z] EE

    flrl drtT= tEilql^l %L=6I= i1+9 q.J d 3


    EE.HS dzl-z}4 ++lE qq.J 54
    9lulzl ?9l"ll ¤xHsL+=
    +. g^tg Bohr
    ag +4d
    eBg {zfz} flz}fl
    +?19 -"1+g fllEsql^J"J ol
    56I= =E6l
    ag ¤B6JE+.
    6.4 r' Eillsl trI"=d Eee rl*e-] ^deE 7I
    20Nl7l i= Tl¤ at+4 geqt ?tol^t 7tB ElTlqoJ 7pJ eetotr-tfis trfiEql. galql^J dzf9
    q F 7l^l 0lE4?l d7tl7l. ?T0ll ttl-.J ^lrl 9l7l C
    ^l40ll =4oJ
    EEl.= Tlxl$tl. lrllE ++ gile| c+6J +F=6Lg F^lql a
    Ei nstei n 9 Altll d 0 E e e. ErJrf /. lrJ /.to e.l
    I
    rJzpll trJ-d A6ll= EEd I H t+ A6l= a.$ $z$alQ(Heisenbergg
    q Enfl= 0l8slEEolq, grlL|.| fl^le.l ZEoil rl1-d LIJFE= ¤B-g E+AC gr.l).
    =?tt|..
    + 91= glxf olEoltl. 5.5 > grtq+4 flxl.e8lts +^ gzl-ql^l
    "lB4l dzlzl +{6l-=zl} dzl-3 C
    thr}.J 4ilB +l;:*ceal ¤B6J+
    9l+. g^Iql^l dzlE +lilel ollulxlE
    "JzI olE+ zr\1zl 7l+ qEE +gg olgq *teq +n] ^Jgel +qt4es E¤6|i +F tI+E gzl
    +"*e +Hql^J gql Hqg 'JeA+. {zlqlE r^db, zJolluJzl gElgol4r. +tr}. 44E sHlgg oJ
    +q $flog "*ol ¤}89= EI¤F tr]ol9-E(rEn)c+, ellolrl ag s zl+E 36Je E qAl.=EI.
    3a1 4lEg *Sol E6J¤+. E* oJzI ol# a+El, +qdsl E, 6.6 > 9ulgo; Efl sEl$q d-^|.gzloJ E
    oJg d^i Bs.el :4=e +EIB +
    e + $.ol Elg dx} 7]|71= 7l-b6|al * n^] (*r^l11 dx} +49 el4.
    gg9 7149ll.
    5.7 > Eldxtfl^t qBl ,l]g dxlE z*L fl
    ol Alql^l= "JzI olEr+ a7.4 e+ql4 +sCql ql"]] ¤B6J a 4E qlLlzl +4 flzl.9 c+c+
    ol+. Hzl qel ^d¤q ql6l] + rJ ,Jol ¤Eltrr, oJzI olEql I +e+. E6J=91= 4 dz}= 6I
    E +7I4.J oJ4 q+4 ^¤ol4iz
    Ceg r*=
    ql qql 4eI ¤Eol q$rll u}+lflEzl ¤ElE 4o14. S{-E *zll r|. Pauli ull4 gE= t gz} qlql ql
    ¤E.J + glE+ gd6l] g'^llE3' E4qI"J olxl q+(quantum 7]]9 oJ^I+71t."J+F Tlel dz}:
    txt + fl+E a.l+. tr+4^J + 4
    ^t+EI= 4.zlzl %l$g ¤qg 4,o14. flz}9
    mechanics)ql^l
    =416J
    +lE(electronicstructure), + gxlq^l dzl¤g Hl]gg ¤g617l +l
    9 s_u1go1 714. + 9= ;lqle_l dzl
    6lll E {ol4. flzl9 dz} +a= g^|ql 9l=
    :F Zlol+.
    611 oJzI olEg
    ^pso 6.8 > drt Hflil 4dz} 9zl-91,{ {z} ullzl
    Az[9 4+S"J otqel q +9]9 Azi EEe+ qlqzlE 'tqttrl-. ¤B;I7l 9ldl qB4l +^ gzlel
    =
    eHlBol gzl g aol+.
    flzl.9 dz}7a4l qloJ "Jzl-4 ¤Ee +TlgEql^J aAg Hllgg ^F&El=71=
    Hund il49l e.l6}q ¤Eq= 9. zlzl
    olafloli Ell E+9 ag gal B 1o14. ql= EH E
    dxf9 zlts ^dee EE sElg qLJ
    =+=
    El-+e +sI EI*Col 3 ++ql HlHql, gE4 LJlgg E+ g^d ^E.4 qlHg dzlEol ol
    ol S.= zlzllolzlS ol6]]g + 9lg 4o14. grll sHl gql^l-s*otrril
    ^lel
    +E(dzl dlil)El:7l-E
    aa++.
    6.9 > Ix[ u}|ilel +7lEE $xf$ {xf ul]il
    E +Tlgsql^]$ g^E fl^le+ +¤
    ol 9l+.
    ( E?B(Aurora Boreali)P g6lE0ll gl-l-b EtalEt 448= IllS'JtL :ziE
    3 11199 8^lel gd^i?] EHSEoll^1 0l3il.El g^lEol rtlTlsl fl^telE^l¤
    g=!!Zl -J nfl gg:drL
    "Jg olal-d dE|1 fl^tg Ixp|. oilLj^l= 9.a ulq
    =E Perrak0v/shuttersrock
    .sEllg.l flItr P .sOlE ttl1 gSEltL .t,rvadim

    233
    6.1 I gsl trl¤Js

    # flzt9 dz} +aql +'J zl^lE EI+E9 EAol %I=614+ ++6|= qg E^J6|
    q Eq{+. f4o-*. d7i +a= olalla}elE +d Hql +6l.q oJo}o}.J+. +
    rl 89tr g + 9l= H, ? zlrl*C(usible light)3 ErtzlEJlt!(electromagnetic
    alg 6.1 EE trl"E E +lsl Bl]slt^] radiation) el 6J ++olrt. {z}zl $.r}rjg +ag Edl qlLJ zlE g+6}E-s +^}
    "ll
    "J= trl-E¤:ddzrrl. trlEq !f+e]
    =rf r{zl (radiant energy) apS- "JEl/i 9l+.
    +^14?] Esl: Hl]e+El tr1501 E0l^1
    )l= 7^= Lzl/l 6H=tl 7I^]%IC ole_lqlE dz}Tl +^Ide q4 *#zl9ltrl. +qe= E6I +Eg +HI
    O ver0nicka/Shutterstock 6l+ +qs!+, Hte +Fql^J +sE 4el +^[(g), xd Eo 4 zJo] {4 qE eEI
    el +^tde
    ^JE
    ,I+ +E aafl r{olzl+, olSe +Fag r*r 9l+.
    Tl5+ts 4.J olE E=
    ^tLt=
    =84.J
    E= ="+9 {z}zl g.<}rjg Tl+ql^] H9 *5.Gpeed of light)oJ 2.ss}xt08 m/s
    sd-d trle] +0lrl.
    s +4.J+. E= ¤EIE dzlTl +^Idg +g E"6l¤ *4olE ir+-"r+ Eli'J
    4A g r*=+. E flq q il: u]lz| $zlolfl+ Eql E"JolE'Je ql Eql dgq==C ql
    El+
    qzlel 44tr $el ffiol o1 qlqzl= E9 tl6t 3E"eE +4+
    ^Ja+(rg 6.1).
    rI.
    EE q*' +E(ra 6.2)3 ?zlCg eolirll, oli n|$(peak)el E(trough)el u.
    Elg
    =
    a].g 6.2 Eq tr183 ?]E-Li oJol +44oJ zf,ls_tr_ HI+ES g"ld4. al+6I^l olgzlE
    tr1.5 F F zllg trl+(E=
    7l]e.l r|.+(!E= z4E "J-drl. =)
    =) ^lolel
    ^IolE
    ?J4+= trft[(wavelensth)ol4l ++.
    "JC+ dg Fr+61-= +r]E zllf EE
    izl(cycle)E taq vl$9 tt=+(frequency)4I 6J4.
    ^lte--+ Al{!J $FE +E
    rH 6.3q1^J ¤B+ Eg ir+.rE"4 uftlzlzlE, dz}Tl +^idql 4El a#e+ qt}
    :aJ (a)9 trtE0ll tflEt n[80] 2.0 m 9 zlCB + 9l+. dz}Tl +^idg E= EI*l 5Cg +^lCr+ +dg flzlzla\ zlzl
    ola, {15471 1.5 x 108 cycles/sol tl ^llzlel +7)4"J {E qEq +4+tr}.
    E, rH (b)oll^j trlEsl tr18"1TIE Eq v+* +E= r+¤E g.Jql q+ +e+. ql= rf equ eql 96ll ^Jc
    +b 7+rJ gDl"glTl? g E+.5+ ]trE ol+6lq ¤-zlolE trEql 96l] =E
    q*l!-tr}utsls+. HlEql, E.E
    ^Jcg
    trt8I {z}zl g.r}.ge E+ ag +E.E ¤'zlol4, ol gEE Hg 4sol4. ar}4eE
    d47l +^PJE "It}!+ tlE+= zldzle ¤+c9 7l4tr+. yl^Jol zJ ull 4aB.J
    (a) c+ dg E"r}6lt q.5'el q+= q 4e_!.s, ll#= 4}tr1. HIEIE "5t8, 41
    $f9 t+f,$ ffi u|g ,Jq 442[ S.]"] ++(5|-e y]^]). ol4q] {z}zl g.<}rj =
    I d*+e+ ul^J zJ9 *ulql +Zl= q-q_r+ Ae ^lee ++,J + 9l+.
    i iy: c [o.t]
    {zlr.'l r(lamda)i 4z}, z(nu)t A#, c= Pel +E= +E}U+.
    (b) dz[7] +^]d9 a"Fz] 4sE eI tr]= CAg ,*y7l?: z]o15 u]arol 4e.zl rll
    +q +4++. lB 6.4= dztTl spectrum)olrl.I. q+ql,
    qel 4"+9 ^EEH(electromagnetic
    a.LEJ 6.3 ErlTl +1t.5 Eofl^el dzlzl +^Idg +1tol +7161+ +^ls ts]]g6l9trl. u}1lel Hglz} 4
    r4Erf aol, d^l7l +^l.cE trl6fe.-e +61 'J+E aql +E-6[+. ,J"]dE ir+tle flz]49 zlE4 Hli'* H]Eql, +qe
    +88+. S= tr|8(r)"J+¤ dE u+el Eltlg
    = trl
    #(u)E 4tsrf. (b)e.l trl[tp (a)E
    ++tI!-+ Ll ,J + gt+. E 400-700 nm (+ x to-7 -7 x 10-7 -)g 4
    89 EJol-e, (b)sl Tl$f! (a)9 tl flq 4'J6I= 7I^l%IdE {z}zl ;-u;efl + +61 z}9 "JY Eol+= aql +E-6}
    E+e.lF HHolt.l-. +. ++s E^l6l7l gql dq6l-= 'Jol +9= E 6.1ile +^ldE ++ql E=6J+.
    Tl5+= Ellez(Hertz, Hz)4E +91= 7Flq, a'* {lF 9+= E6J+. llE
    + ++l= ,J+61 ,Ha'JE q+ +gltr LlElrlljr, s-r Eb /seE .Ezlojrl. qE Eq +
    qldE}9 rllE4"J 1l#"J 6e8 megahertz(MHz)g d# 698 MHz, 6e8,000,000 Hz,
    698,000,000 r-' E.= 69s,000,000/s4r ¤ + 914.

    234
    6.1 gsltrlEd 235

    :i ofole.tr.qel tri89 7f^lgdE trf8H+ #=7l. rJl? F trlEe-l tr18 ilol= 10el H xllE
    oJ)l?

    a d Url,,
    10-11 10-e to-7 10-5 10-3 10-1 101 103

    ,J0ld xd II9Id 4sld Dlol= Pi4 alqgEl

    1020 1018 1016 1014 rol? 1o1o 108 106 1oa


    I
    ,)
    C#(s
    7Lr li4^l cqq
    zt..tou o-

    400 500 600 700 750nm

    A.LH 6.4 dxtzl rn:lea* nl83 0l|+ 5J= AnlN+E otl+ Z afqgtrpll 3^1?,ltl.
    ^ElEaJE

    E 6.1 {^t7l E-^l.tel oJU4loJ trtT tgl


    E+t 7la 'Jol(^) E^tcsl=+
    .q-,AE-e-
    o
    -_E
    A l0-10 xd
    4u"14 nm I 0-' z}e,ld,7l-^lXld
    uloleEulQ pm l 0-6 zl ol ,(l
    --u
    "J4rl4 mm l0' uloll-truI
    Cl4"lrl cm 10' Elol?trrI
    "lq m I BqlHld. +qs
    ?e."lri km 1000 4qs

    xdg p4 EE Erl6t^ru 7t^Bde Er'6rxr=-drr. orae x.Eor 7f^rB-sErr rilte^


    AU6J6l7lqlEoJTt?
    I
    qFl
    F 41tallE+E
    6.1
    71lH

    + d^l7ltrfE 9E4 rBql +E|LJE[. (a) olq aol tl dS+E 7lrlr. ?l


    =
    F)E 6l"Ll'= 7l^l3Jd=, tlE 6tLt= ^1sld= LIEIL[|= a0lal.E, 4
    =
    ,] 01qJ 4oJ)l?
    =71?
    tr.12

    8tlH
    ut lol q a ultlg zl-zll gl4(F trt+
    ^tolg z4ol
    (a)
    q 'J+). A v++e trl ztg 4l+= 44t4(,:c/x). q1
    qe}^l ul lol q 4e. 41¤+E zlzlt_, * zzy q dE
    += r*=+. = (b) dx}Tl 0.+)4rl 4qde 7\^l*dEq a
    +tl¤. ^EtrH(:B
    r*=4. trl+^J "Jql $E
    y| rol 49dol g+.

    *Based on B.A. Averill and P. Eldredge, Chemistry: Principles, Patterns, and Applications 1e, O 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.
    236 68 3^lE 8^l+r

    >E5qtH1 > H.= qlrtl 2


    {z}zl $/}rj9 *Sol 4eld Hg g^Jttr}tr, ++ + g+4 Hr+ q+^I H + qE 6+9 7t^l*dol uffiol rl
    "l- ul.^Jol ol 4E Elattzl? zJzl?
    (a)3.0nm O)4.7cm (c)66.8m (d)3a.spm (e)16.54

    qFjl 6.2
    uftt c_E
    sq llE+ 4lt6l.' I

    7l.tr5 E"loll AE g=El= .L.al "isl tr|.83 58e nmoltl. 0l +^|.'!e.l t]E+= g0l?17[?
    ^I'EEIE =7l50ll^l
    Tl{U > H= qFlll
    E4 +^i.^JE q+(r)ol +q4r, fag 4l#(r)= zl& ++ ^ll 714 1l+g ^J4dl trzt.
    6l+ E4lol+. (i) qtr dzlTl +^PJ.ll 46Iq r|+r+ 4lE+9 +e "Ja
    6t4.
    4le +tI4 alt+ 6.1s +4U+. rel c
    ^Iol9 +AlE ^l (ii) +"JgE uffiol a.oAolH, {ff: l.0x l0r8 uzol4.
    E Ag ,oll 4oll Eq {tg +tr + 9iEl(HE +E
    ^F&6I-r.,
    c= +E tzl,tJl ztfle +Elt+H E.oox 108 m/solr|).
    (iii) zls.ldg +qg Elol=+rlel +qB4 34.
    +lE Tlrl Tl+(sJql Ell6}q "*= ae 9= xoJz}?
    Eol 4lF+ql ql6|q 6.12 v:c/,r-+ u14,3r1. cc+ r <t ^ll
    ^l (a) E {} rl]E 1l+"Jol *+.
    g .+g u]l. + itg eol +917} 4= dg +E6}+. 4+E
    (b) 4l+ (il4 (iilzI*4.
    *r"14 (nanometer)E ule'l(meter).B ¤I4iEI7l +16l] H¤I
    oJz|= rel{ u|+E ++l= Sqdq.
    (c) d¤ (i)r+ (iiilol *tr}
    ^l-&'*trt. (d) A+ (rilel (iiilol *+.
    c / 3.OO x 108 trIls\ / 1 pm \ (e) .r,ll zlzl tl¤ e; gu1.
    v -i-\ -
    I
    sag
    lt
    nnri /\ ro-, -/
    I

    > !d'= fflril2


    = 5.09 x 1614t-1
    (a) cB94g 3+ ++q= vltrol z.r0 pmoJ 4lolz]
    a.tr x54 fie-e ae *e +tg ,*E aolE
    zl4IE
    ^l-Sg+. +^Idg Tlf,fi $,toJzl?
    7I ol + (b) FM
    =
    E 6JelzJola, d5+E EgE'/s, E= s-'olEE +f.lE q9. oJ"+ql^] 103.4 MHz(t MHz: lo6 s-t)fl 45i;
    4dElg g + el4. ,*= d7t7l +^HJg +=e ql, ol +^|cE +tlg 4l
    =
    4}6i^le_(+, qel +E= q zI?.1 +E tzlE -E^l6tH
    2.s98x 108 m/solr{).

    Eol baJlqo+ ";LIts +E 0.2 I %RIEIEJ qlHzlsl Szl


    4 53^{oe "!LlE +E e
    ol! aol rl Ee ?r";np H9 vl*E¤oe. qel qq 4#¤Bgf 9lzl"J, H zlzl ++q 96IH ol esog
    E 6HaB + S+. ffi ,rll 7l7l+ {z}zl $.rirj4 flz}zl. qB4l t}E z}¤¤ q+4E ol
    "116l.: 4¤6I+. (1) E4+ Ei]E+ElE qE %r-=(g+9 Eltl.ol q: EalTl 7l-
    ql +61
    EEzl d9l dzl ullE9l q41 4,t|(btackbody radiation)qa oJq), (z) HB 4q + ++
    T sHs-E+ElE Axl %|=(+d Er-|(photoelectric effect)), (3) EE dz} tl"qq zl4l gzi
    s+q qel %l¤(*= spectrum)). q7l^l= il+ + Tlzlq ql6]] ¤E
    ^EEH(emission
    6lr, {rll ql¤+ 6.3¤ql^l ¤tl$t}.
    ^ll
    uzl¤. Eillcl qlLlT,le.l salEl
    arH 6.5 EEoll nlE 7l
    g-d ^4
    rETlE E^ll0ll rAlE zlg6}H dzl*e9 Sg qolL} B^HI d+el Ele g^4 qq1,tl -u-i ar+ Ag +
    =rle0l.
    oJ=E "!9 ^lrl^ll7l= %I=.J+. +^IdE yI^J Ee= gEq E=6}]1, Se4E E4+ Ei]= L*4ol
    ^l
    illqEEql = ^idg
    el=Errl.
    + g4E E4e E4ltr+ gE7| q *+(r=J 6.5). 1S00LJEH +Hlql B3 E4oizl-E=g *
    6.2 g^ltrlEJ ollLl^lef B^f 237

    +^ldE gEeI olEE ^ll7l "l jlr+ ,J9 +41= ol6ll6l.eJ-7. ol e^Jg ¤+6tfle'+,
    =
    r ^lzlel EEIqL H4e olqt'Atr-g ¤Eg + flfl+. G
    reooLJqlq +gE E4qlzl Max Planck(r8s8-1e47)7t, qlqzlE qtr 44 azl$ z)
    B¤+4ql 'Bq4 (chunks)' ¤qltrEJ g4ql^l EJ=q4+ g+g+E rllB+ 7t¤g E
    =
    "J6Iq EzilE 6I]a6I9+. planck= dzl.Tl +^ldss EJ=q4+ g+g + 9lb ollulzl
    I 4i+g tfi[(quantum, '"JC+ .J'g *,*)4]1 BHt]. lb
    I
    *"J oJz]g "llHzl(DE I
    +^Idg rl5+q 1}+E +'J an+ ,JL+a 6Iq, +*.4 eol
    ^lloJ6IH+.
    E: hv 16.21

    g4(rhnck'sconstant)4-z 6rq, 6.626x t0-341-s Ztg ,*YLl.


    ^J+ hE Planck 3^tTl a3
    =47l:
    gE6l4l
    ^t=Jel
    EIEJI¤ ollLl^l=
    planck olEql el"IE, Eeg x!$ hv,2hv,3hv F4 zJol, hy9 CfEl].e."J.llulzlE ¤] E+
    40J EEfle
    +6[4+ %]=++. ql=
    =q
    t flztgld 3hu4y oJz]s]g glHzlz] %]=g+8, oJz[ ^ll =7Eltrl.

    zflel olluJzlz[ %r-=qfl+il "J++. ol q]qzl= o]oe.EJ *eEl7l qEql ole+ a


    =ag
    olqql aEe qE "Jd+ oJeE 4l6J G
    "l 6l+9 qlLJzl='olz}+qg+'+r "J*+. = ig
    q= aol+. glHzlzl "Jzls+¤+L planck9 qB4 4l.Jg *g asE +Hq9i1, r= a

    lelsrd "*zI olCE E49E Lg E?.lEL^Jg E9t+.


    oJxlglg qLlzlel 4lHol ,Jr} 4l+g
    ^Jd6I+8, .re 6.6q^l Hb ar+ aol, a^I{
    ulr.oft.ag ++6tE Egol ¤ 1o14. 4^l4 rJg gelaq q+ qrlE9 slHl¤ 9lul
    zl= al+6ll^J 946l-rll +7}*tr1 41+e g{a q= 449 {+"Jg *g + fle-q, :1
    +?Jg qg + flr}. + "i¤]¤ oilLJzlE=a #=q +cqq 9leq, ul+^J .Jzt3rlqq
    fl= aolq.
    planck9 olz| ol$ol S+H,
    "Jz[ Er+= eI +4E gt]^Jgql^l EB6]rll *44x1 ?* zl.J= g47lE
    ell 9lHzl9 trplr} 4l+4ss "J4glqq glzl ?*r g+4e 4^14 Eol=7|? tr1E!¤ ol|Ll^l= ^PJel
    EZl4olr.
    =7I? g^tElE 11LJoe
    planck *itl +dl 4lg +il+= aql +E_6I+. l4oe
    "JzI qq4 h/= q+61 +g =7tEtrt.
    olol+. "Jtl^Jgql^l a+61= a rB 6.6 grtEtE ?ir+ E+
    =zl tr-u.oll {r.B.6}= E4l= "l^lzloJ Eill=, "llHzlE $ 4?.!oilL1rlE E+
    ,l+ E= aql ++ Planck +4*.J^J qA+. gt^Jgq^J +l+q= Aql^J qlq4 +"J
    olzlel +dol+ +l+ q+ zlol +d6l +^]g sol+. H]Eql, flz[ ffio]l/.JE Eeg
    +l+E ql .Jzts}¤ qq4E ¤'Jg +lt q +.q6I+.

    qol'e E + 9,r= g?+lr Err. ortr Eor^r trrotr7'g^lat= qr


    A .t, ts?#]E.7l? ==
    olet P^lpl qE^l HtolBaJe fl+4e ,t?l7t sxtqtE
    ^r^.Je]
    219-.71?
    |
    Eqe= "I9 TIE+71 zfirtE, "J=
    Elts c^l-e_l oilLJrlE e4
    tst aqe; gz1
    6lts7l.olt-lE ee
    =7t6lE7f,
    SEllB "JrAZ)l?
    PlanckT| oJzIolEg xll.'.lap +^J q tr +ql, 4el4¤3 gg dEzl +39 E
    6rq r olEg ++ zl+^dg oJTl ollujxl hvE'zlE B^f 0llLl^1011 E6|]
    rsosH"ll Albert Einstein(I87e- sg= ErPl EEoll^1
    ^146|94. BrtTt ql
    tsss)9 ral 6.7q^Jc+ eol SE E?l(photoelectric effect)E ¤E617l +lalq c!trt. "J=EtrI.
    planck9 olgg Zl*,* ++ EEql HS =rlatE, EEql^J 4zltl
    ^l-S6Ig,trI.
    %I=gEI. dzl-E %I¤6171 fl+ Hs.l ;i4 Affi -o49 ++ql trl4 trls+. ql
    Eq 4.60x r0r4 s-r E: tl tl54g qg. ^11+ *+ql^l dzl-3 ,J¤dlzl"J,
    =
    olEq rJ 4lg df,fE qe d:d = go:&3
    +zl *6|q d4-='*=6I^l *'J+.
    Einstein9 *d a4E ¤B617l +1611, ++ sEg ullrl: +^I qlqzl= 4e ql
    +gq sEile q5.J+r
    fA EEH
    LJxl zta6}fr.r}. qlLlzlE 'flz}'c+
    4 9lHzl +ge
    Agq, r Ezl¤ Sri(photon)4;.'*4. Einstein9 Planck9 oJzr olEg qtlol a:19 6.7 gfl E+
    238 68 3^tet I^t+^

    {, 4 *z}ts qE A#ql Planck tr-+E +6J oJr} ?9 9lulxlE 7l4o| oJ+I +E6}
    fl+.
    *zi9 ollvlzl:2:7, [0.t]
    trI4^l +^I qlLJ4 4i{= "}z}s}qq 9lq.
    4¤+ aaql^J ;.+ sHq +561+ *zlE: olluJzlg ++ L}]el dzl9l dgg + 9l
    +. qLJzlE "JA=*e ++.Jql^l dzl-pol a6J6[n 9l= {qg ++6}7lql g_s+ o}e
    tr^J, "JEl+(work function)4.1. .J+. ++ql +EoJ *zlzl.JEI+tr+ q zlg {HzlE
    7V)q, 4^l7l ++ sHq^l H44 4zlzl +l* ++.J qlqzlE z*zl *4J4. %Igq
    ^ll
    zls rtzltlzl= aol ++es+El dxl-E %l=6I= aeL ololzlzl s=+. Eq9.= H
    I rlffi Es+^l7l= atrJol dzr EJ=E a+= 7t4g+. qE
    ^Jl7l(Etzl)E
    ++l
    ^lrJ
    E?I EHql +E6l= BxI9 +e+ S+qq 9g g, 4 *zI9 qqrlq+ ¤*9zl ?*E
    r+. Einsteing *d a4g ¤HEl"e*l tsztLJ9l r.rJ Ei]qtlg E9t+.

    wel E2J^{ ellol^1 E'?]EJ_e 4^lg e+


    "Je+ 10 d^t7tg=.Erl.E, Eg-d
    4 =+0il^1 =+
    0ll s we.l { Ellol^l s.9.lEl= l-g 3?= olg4l Enp
    ^+
    (a) Exlzl HJ=Ert. (b) d^t7t B=Elrl ?Jtsrt. (c) 0l trEoll EJEtTl ?16t1^1ts tr1 oJ8 gETf
    =
    "J9.alr[.

    "Jzlzl *q.Jxl
    q+ fl6ll^l +"J +tL +^Idg ^Jd6l+ "Jflg rJ4oil ezl
    01611617l

    cl r{o}z} +ggr qg uu}e.41 a-r. g,oEr.! q+ q 4-e qlLlzlT}.J4Hq qE4rl=


    ag ^J461t !-zI. Einstei"9 *zl ol.Ee E:hvtr_ +qzl= 7l* 42 qlqzl9 'iJ=ql +
    +49-E Eg6l+ ag q+flril oJ+. ol ?l* 4e {Hzl9 EJ¤ol H'* zll9 *z}o14.
    qH 6.3
    B.7,fq qlLJ7.l

    tr|.801589 nmoJ EaJ^4 "J B^tg ollLlxl= 4llbl-119.

    cll.J
    E/q +qd I :58e nmE 7*E gzlel of uJz,l(E)= 41416l+ rls 4 0.r9 rl-.*olE EI+g dFfe +48 f 914(,:
    E4lolEl. cl^).4 o.a9l 9oll qqAE 4l^}g+ olr+(E:hv).
    Eol 4l+?(z)= +qd +z}g-s+q qzI 6.2q1^lel +ol +
    e+ el4. z: (3.00 x 108m/s)/(589 x 1O-eE0:5.09 x 16trt-t
    Planck t}+(h) l}g 4E q]+.Jol+ 49 oJ+E Eq
    +1.*.21
    tL+ sql +qzlq, olg olgaiS EE d4l ahl.J+ 9l+. 6: (6.626 x 1O-34J-t)(5.09 x 1014s;*) : 3.37 x 10-1eJ

    +el +^t glulzlg *zl '* 7l|171 337 x lo-re l-e. +qTl+ > s= qlr{l2
    E, olE $z|el mole* qlHzlts trIg-+ e+. X54g r*=48, ol +^]
    (a) ellolzJz[ 4.6e x lora s-'e1

    (6.02x to23 ffilmol)(3.37 x 10-1t11941: 2.o3xlosJ/mol CE *zl i;J 1171r*= qLlzlE golqlzl? (b) ellolzlzl.
    ol +^l-dE s.0 x l0'72H9 *zl¤ s{}6J+8, dz{ glHxl
    >H.+qm1 gutqlTl? (c) ellolzlE zl $:zl1.3 x l0-2 Iql .ll'JF6}
    El-g + slrlol lt] $x| r mol9 qlq4E gHlqr]l +4 = qlq4E,J=6JtrIH, 4 g^ql^l= H zilg
    +zt7t *
    u ^le {¤ 4"Jzt? =
    e4tszt?
    (a)E:
    f olr: rv,t etl:* (d)E: ,,f r"l ,: *^+
    6.3 I C ^E=grf Bohr -?-d 239

    P9 9lHzl atol 49 AF+ql E=++= ol-olqq= +E ++E {z}zl $;.H3o1 g


    illoll ulxli ¤4 zlzl ar}$ olalaJf ql E+g ++. qE Eq xd(rfl 6.4)ol = 4:a

    E^l7l +49+.
    qg ule" -H-4E *zl9 6=ie-E ¤H6.J Einsteinel ol# lJd aqe+ += Flg ++5
    t
    g ¤¤g + 9l^lEI, zlzl tz]91 +qqzl gq. qe ul*"Jzl, olqB oJxle +cg
    1"J71? flxllzlzl olTl6.J tzllE 6]la47l +l* + 6J 7l^l rJBg Eol* ^JqlilH _u.olb
    a9 Eol¤ol= Aolq. + qe n+ ae cer+ .Jzlcl ae ceg E^lql ,*YLla
    "4
    olEl+ qE n+*-Ez| oli{E E^llE E+q} C4ol4= ag.Jrll B 4o14.

    +rtTtlq g¤g'tot
    A gga.tr trtE,t e=¤ tl E ¤E-d+r d,Jol'ts7t, olLtE grtet t1 egg
    i ts25E4?

    6.3 I 4lEaJal Bohr -EB


    ^J
    Planckel Einstein9S+tr, gzlql dxl-Eol q$rll Ellrlq=7pl qlaj o1oflel zl
    ol gfl+. rsr:'Jgl r3lu|=.9 E44zl Niels Bohr(lal 6.8)= tsr]lzl al4zl¤9
    ++4lvlB.rc E El= ¤tlg d (line spectrum) 9 olE4.J ¤BS zll.J
    ^EEH
    619+. BohrT[ +^E d 1E]EH9 ¤86]71 +16]q Plancke] Einstein9 o]olq
    q= 619¤¤ "Jrll E 4o14.
    ^|s"
    ,^J ,/\r1lE a{
    u--.t-E
    qq 5c.J 4rIqlHzl +ge 4ola-l HilH +"J irltig g^J+q, olpi zJol E
    ArB 6.8 Niels Boh(188S-
    "J ut*-qE +Cg +^tdg t4(monochromatic)$ol4-2.J4. rrl+ Egd+ E=
    g 1962) ol 1960LJr|1 trJloE ?+
    4 ?ol, q+Eg trE +^rd "Jge ^1tr += Be +tlg EEIo.I+ +^Idg g^J6Iq, tsl-Er}]Il Bohr9 g^l. Ee= 7lE6lq
    rI
    ol a+ 44(polychromatic)$olap aJr|. :zelal +4
    "Jflql^l q9= +^tdg, ol5 + u=v tuLI. D

    Cdl: rlrJ C+oe S46IH rA 6.9q1^Je+ Ag AEIES(spectrum)g g=EL ol+rll


    Ee H44g ts^{q, B4e a4 f,f,, ¤ulol(49) S.ol ol*44 6Jazl:
    ^{EHe
    4+ rJe ¤+4.J H9lel 4.9.E +Cg+. E= q*9 qg EEI6]-= olel+ +zl7H^{g
    E+AqEe(continuousspectrum)ol4a ++. ¤+ TttL +^IEl ql= 9l%r-g
    ol4 "Jzlioll E+ qq E4leE $Z $zlzflol4. ^dlEHE
    E= +^ld ""rflol ¤+ 4= 4* ot,l4. +rl+q *e E.qsE ^lE +
    ^EEHS
    E zlillE -+r +g d"Jg dE, zlillE ^Js rl= qg rJ¤.J+(=e e.ro). ulle zlzjl.ll
    96ll %}=E P3'u]8 q'ol4r .JqA 4l='J 4+4el EHolr, aE +71= d4 zle

    1=el
    < rB 6.9 ^r4EgE gd 7|
    !+aJ H_{^qB ";¤01 Eal=E
    4at
    =x !--d 5r[-g tttl, E+4?_l TtllzJ r'.tr]r

    Bfl EaJol .gdErl.. E^4Be Eilg


    B(rtH!) o l7-1Lt. EEg+oil^] Lt
    o!
    +L
    H-lol
    Xd
    AI olrf
    M-t.
    240 68 g^tg d^t+4

    > rE 6.10 Ljlg fl^l.et +4


    fl^lofl^j u=El= H +=
    7l^lloil +3 l"J= ^le
    ,Jol +E 4 I
    7l -=._=6t,^.H2lOl HlnI Hl+E_lrl
    - --- -dl
    o=-*1.
    -vl ltt

    't

    Lllt(Ne) + (H)

    > rE 6.11 f4e1 11|-ecl 5 H


    BJ=01 gg6f: trl,goll
    ^E4EaJ
    nl=.N01 Lf+Llq. z3
    ^l ^!E 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 nm
    BEg trlgoll^l= Glirlzf g
    ^l
    +E. Ht=trlTl otlrt
    o=-/\l E-L+|.

    Ne

    400 450 500 550 600 650 700 nm

    E9 L+4 qg %I='JtrL .r-BloJ dEq^l +e Hg sal=ql E l^l7lE f.s 6.119 e


    r+z]H H zll9 utt}"J LtEt+rll gE|. ol 49 B ?+r+E dg .J 7l7l -qz],
    g Hg +4'Hq, ol4 zJol ^EEHql^l
    +4.g +^[d"J sEl_aF= d +E|EE(line
    sPectrum)olaP aJr[.
    =lA6J ^E]EHS
    1800Hql +Hlql +^9 d lulcHol A=qflg rll, :49 ++C trIEql
    7'l¤--s--E

    4qtzl-Sol ,llqqfl+. r'J^lql= rH 6.uql +4+ 44 ?ol ylZtol 410 nm(-84


    l4), +:+"-(vl*4), a86nm({$.$),0s0nm(BrJal)oJ +zl ql 4E d"Jol *399.
    4. tsss¤9l 4l l,t19g |ohann BalmerE ol 9l zll9 dql 4+ +6lEg 4
    ^911E .Jil6I= ag BleB+. r + +d d
    ¤-4 zJol ul^Jol A+eI ¤+ial= ,J+6J
    EHq x}e]d4 4qC ¤qq^l
    ^lr+ ^E
    dSol Sd9H4. Balmerq 49 E Rydberg
    +71-4oJ
    al(Rydbergequation)ol4r 6I= ¤ trl "JHlzl"J 4sE ++qq E= +^ d
    Eql ql+ +rlg 4l&B + 9lrtl q9+.
    ^ElEHq
    1 lr
    (Rn) I ___t
    r\
    i \r? n|) [6.4]

    ol
    ^lq^l
    l= ul^Joll, RHE Rydberg ^Jf (nydberg constant, t.096776x
    r07 m
    1)o14, ^EEerJ9
    rr4 rzE *9 A+E, n27l n1E\ trl <Ig z*=+. E?+g AEE ,J++
    ol qg4 ¤Bg f ?lEzI? ol ErqlE 6ilBg e= = ql 30H ol^JE
    ^lg a ^lrJol AH+.
    Bohr -EE

    Rutherford9 gzlq Bd * Q.24) o 4, flxl-E 4^l7l fl2}49 fllE= E=, + 'El^14


    6.3 I N ,^.n1=fl{ Bohr,?-$ 241

    ql.J4l'e+ eg z].J!zll qfl+. BohrE +49 d EEH$ ¤86[7] +]"}| +A


    ^J4ol
    flxt9 4^l7l qg +dc.s 6|= +l ?ll.E(orbit)E eE*+r 7I46Ifl4. rrl+ ol zl4
    e Exlldol xllzl994. l1d Eqqlql 96|8, g TllEE ¤.zlolE d6l¤ ¤ .Jz}(dxte+
    e9= 4l+6}q 9luJzl$ gj{o} +trt. tr14^J dzl¤ol qlLJzlE 9J4l EIE dzlE=* 4d
    ¤ee dq4q old6l-= E q +sE qlq. rq+ +i 94+ oJ{a}:.e o1q
    =q7IoF
    ql +zl"Je g^J6l7l ?+=El. olel aol +a gzITI Bq+ E4 Hzlg +l+61= ag q
    ¤al ¤E6J 4"J71? BohrE E4e Eillql^l "J=q= +^|d9 ^J4ql +* E^ilql q6}q
    planckT|
    ^lE6J
    a4 q+q +^I+ rJ^l-s-e ol Ezllql d=6IB+. Bohr= r r*^l xlEl]
    4"J Eal H4Eol +l4¤9 EE oJ^Jg ¤E6r7lql +4t}6[+1 7t46]S.+. ololl Bohr
    E, 9lHzli "Jzlp+slq gl+: pranck9 ololqq= il]q6|s.trt.
    BohrE rq EBg ++9 ztxl TIAql zl=E +fl+.
    ^ll
    r. 5C <ig 9lrlz1.ll 6}l*6l+ 54 tlzl+g +llE"Jol +a grlE d4ql _.1+g+.
    2.'-.1+g' +llEql 9l= dzl-= '"1+g' 9lHzl t4.ll 9lr+r *+. =.1+¤ glulzl t4
    9 dzlb 9lHzl=',J=6Izl *_s_E_E, +dB-s-s dqolq q +etr ?+=+.
    r. eE4 -.1+¤ oJ qlqxl ^JEilE+q += qlqzl ^Jeleg {z} {E}e{, =q7}4
    dztgl gall
    qlLJzlTI,J=qrl+ g+g+. ol qlLlzl(E:hu)y ,*zI9 ¤4e %I=q4+ ¤:+g+.

    ral 6.68 Er-rE g *|], t^ Brlol rH-d Bohr EEE orE Eog^r e^[E-Err.
    A ZlEalee dBoll L17Wla.d,+d=71?
    I =
    dxlTl n = 3 8r[l0l,\1 n = 2 .SEllE dol
    +a eJafe.l qlLlzl -$El|
    g ttll Tt^lBdol "J=EtlE, n=2 EEll
    9l"ll +g.J,rll zlzl 7l4o e BohrE l1d4"J AE %IA44 d6rE tI oll^1 n = 1 8elle. 8ol-cf rll= 4eldnl
    s 4r-+q ql+rdzloJ 49 =g:.Iq,
    olo-"a|{, +i
    gziql fl= dz}g 4 -.1+g +lE 6 q! aol "J=Elr^{=7f?
    ^fsld
    q 4'J6l+ gluJzlE zl4l6tg+. AhI¤ qlLlzl= trtg=r+ ae 0
    ==4_q-E ^lql _1 hcRn 5
    Eql Eq4l+. 1.6 4
    _1 hcR,,
    J

    , ro ,'l)(1)
    n
    "'\n'/ : 1-r.ra
    r: (hcafi(l) 9

    ' "\nz) ru.rt


    _1 hcR,, I 2
    4 n l
    ol h, c, R,E:44 planck qel gE, Rydberg ttfol4. Cfgl n3 r,
    ^lql^l ^J+,
    *9 Ciii$ 7[lq, +$rffi(principal quantum number) 4J. t4.
    z, 3, . .. T
    I

    oi
    -.1+g 4 +llE= Els lkg=- zlzlq, r +llEel elxl+g n <k"1==zig+
    ^lE " I^[
    + +7[.J+. tr]+^J a H4 q+ +llE(qq z[^J d=oJ +]lE)= n:1ola, ffi L
    :.1+
    E ?llE(qql + H4lE +{E)= n:29 +llE #ol g+. +^ gz} 1
    =d6J
    9 dzl-b qrlal -"1+g +JEqlE +4g + 9leq, zl 0.s:4 6l+9 +uEql 9l otl
    Ll

    dzlE qlqzl= +ElutrI. ^l


    = rl 6.sE E^l6J
    +i flz}sl dxl. qlLlzl= EE n &ql Ell6}q ¤+"Jg +=-dl
    4. rl zlg($f;;ol ollrJz1o3lg. flzl* rl .JC6i+. n:19 ull glrizl
    =++)
    717l* *4Ql* g+oltrI) . nol zlgf) 9lLlzlb q zle ++ilol 9zl oI -hcR, 1

    =
    Eql oilLlzlTl 6z[aJ4. 41+g eq^J+El +ie ¤42]H^l HsE E alH 6.'12 Bohr -EECIl tqE i4 Bxl'
    oli go]ee Hl+g + ^[+4e]
    gl+. r}44z[ tri +ol se]a+E_(,, <].1 4df E) gl elollLlrl=9.1 trl¤E= I^l-7[ AtE cj
    011L1^l .sEHoil^l tfE ollLl^l gElle I0l
    Hzl= rJ *olt14. ?l* *? 9lHxl rJ4 (n:r, ^lqq ,J Eq Al+r+ +^I6t 6l: ,i= LlElLJt[. E/.lE AEH= n = 1o]l
    +)E gzlE ul=JsrllGroundstate)4tr,*4. dzl¤ol q ollr{zl {trll(r:2 n = 67lxle1, qlq^l(E)71 0ol Elts
    E= :a ol^Dql qg rll, flzlE G Srll(excited state)ql=fl4j1 trJ6J+. fg a^'l- m ltrflolrf.
    242 68 ?^lel d^l-+^

    6.12= H zlz) n itql qldl +a gzlql^l -.1+g qlqzl L+4U 4.o14


    =9lE

    A e,r=Jer oilLr^r =9r7f 'fo1t!r1E, Ertts E{'il er6fl e-d, orLrg E:d EaJE "JEz1? !E
    +ts urEe
    i =:PJnt.,Jl¤Dt?

    *dal 44H qB "Jol tgz)izll HlzlEol ?z|"Itr, q4 az} ^IolE


    nol oJqg 0ol
    gtrI. trI4^] 1:mol{, dxl-= q9-E+q sd6l Ef-lqs-e. dz}el qlqzl= ooltr}.
    B: (-z.rs, ro-"ll(1) : o

    4zlzl qql^J sd6l Er.lg tr-EIE +i gzlE 7l= t4 E= 0g qLJzl t44r. *+.
    BohrE Hrll 7r4ql^1, d4+ 6l+9 + ?llE ^Iol9 qlqxl ilolq 4qq oJil6}=
    ^ll
    +^I qlLlzlE *zl-B ¤+6[a+ BJ=q]sqrl + "ilHzl c.4ql! +E qlLlzl t]4e 'E
    q+(ump)'g + glqr 7146I*,+. 4zltl H+ t+ 9lHzl tr4(ts-trt n,*)e EE6I7]
    =
    +16ll^l= "llH xlE ¤+6llot qlEl. q o e , .3.zlzl *e qlLl zl ^JEl] (trtrI ** n 41-e Eg

    ^lH
    +^l "llHzlz} 1ll=$trt.
    4zlzl +oJzl+ r,9} ollHzl EiE *E a7l t[4ql^] +oJ4+
    n¤i qlHzl EE r*+ al+ tl-EIE Eo+:"l* A+= riz-|olx1. o1
    e+ ae dolgl!9 9lHxl HEI= q-gr+ g+
    n=2a.dot5tts ,8?el, n=40il& n = 3or
    n =3oilAj I ^l
    6.sE
    ^l-.&6|q
    016t= e+ e olg )Sol q )J 489 Hol HJ=Elts7l'? g 'J + 9i+.
    6 aE: Er- Ei: e2.8, rO-,rll(4 - ni1r) t6.61
    0
    \'?i /
    n:4
    n:3 m9 YEoll 4aJ 9ulE Fq"JzI? nll niilrl ql aE= oJel
    o =E
    8Efl
    =
    {lol4. + olag 4^l7l +g +lltrE 94ztE {olzl $$oll ol
    (g

    n:2 ni : 2oll,(l
    ilq "*4. HlqlE nsTl ni[fr 49 trI= +E ,Jg 7}zl4, oltrll
    dzl^b *e qqzl i]EE ¤qzlll g+.
    O
    N
    O
    -100 ft: 189 dol,
    OJ=
    AE < BII
    +lql^J ¤B'J utq zJol, 6l+9 .J tlqlql^J += tr-4e d
    O,
    X
    K
    5
    n,:10h1
    016l+ ull| $zlz| E+g 1o14. *xl9 oflujzl(E+a)E + /J.
    6
    q: 2Pel Eol, Ell 4lr{zl i}ol(AE)e} rJ.l.} +4. arzt "J9 <}olE d
    AE> O, Elxl g4 ^Iolsl
    -200 ztTr tg qlqzlE E.+*ql uI4 *ztzt e+9"lot atQ, arzl
    n:l
    -218 Ht.f SEll *9 <IolH 4zlzl *e qlLJzl
    =fls
    EqzlE^l *zlz\ oJ=
    af.H 6.13 E+sl.g=oll r|]-"|ollL1^l SEtlsl EEI
    gE|. F 7l^l 4+ E+ g.z}9
    "lluJzl= + tr-q
    rlolel ojlrJzl
    T}ole+ oJzl6llot 6J+. {5+ yE.Jt oj=lolEE
    "JxI9 "llrJ
    zf (ftv)E 6J^J
    "J+qot 6J+. trI4^l aEE +s= *zlzl g+q
    flEzt E= %L=81fr.=71-= +41ilril g+.
    A.e>O(n6> n1): E"S^y:hv:AE= *zlzl ++q= A+ 'Z*=
    Ln<o(nr<nJ:r*+:hv: -AE= zlitlzlzl *+q= A+ b1l
    olqoJ +71^l tlsJg 6.13oll -g.E6[B+. +4 ga]E Bohr jr¤e a ezl 6.79 uJ
    =aJ ^l
    +6I= d5+-= r*= H"Jol flxl9l 9ol1 ++qz+ %l=94= aEg olEq B+.
    =Ag
    1-471n,:3oll.rl w:rE ol+61+ dol.ll 'll6}q 919 zllHol qBZl 489izl-E.Jof
    EzI.
    ^l
    6.60E+q 44t4.
    El-gr+ zJ"l

    (-2.t8, ro-"ll(| - : ez.Ls * ro-"lr($) : -,.nn x r0-18r


    ^E: +)
    6.3 d ,\llrEaJzf Bohr ?fl 249

    ++tr +++ 1+ 4^l7l +g qlqzl T]lE(re :3)ql^l *9 "llulzl TllE(r : l)E


    AE 7,[o1
    B"lzlzl ,llE"J aetr QBoJ ¤4o14. ole+ eg dolql^J *zlzl *=qq lulxl9 "ilH
    zl|'Egzi: hv: -LE: +1.94x l0 r8 1r4-'ZJlc+.

    9l AE gel -+Esl e.lDl= +1oJ7l-?


    ^l0ll^1

    %l=g +rxt9 "llulzlE E_qeal ol ¤.zI9 +q+cl +tlg 4l&g


    oJz]l
    + glrt. +tlE
    A+, ^l 6.1(I: clv)* rl 0.:(r++:hv)* +*e-1 a+= fl6l] A6J6J+.
    . c hc hc (6.626 x tO-34X-t112.598 x 108 m//)
    ,*--AE- +l_r4x10-"J
    tr14^l ul^Jol 1.02 x 10-7 m(roz nm)ql %rz[z] %]=gr].
    ol^il +ul= salmergl 9611 7]g gag +a gzlel d lEtrHql
    tsg "J# ,J+* +6J
    g4E olullg + 9lrll qflq. d %l=el e$"Jg qoJ6rqn, ol4+ d"lglrJ
    E*4=hv:hcl)t: -LE7l gtrl. ^EEH$
    6.se+ 4l 6,69 Eli]E
    ^l
    ,**:T: -aE: *"("i-
    f)r*=e a+r
    zl qq, ol !g El^l AE6IE tt-gg Eril g+.

    ::+G +)
    : -.(h -
    *), *.n,4 4*
    trl?+^J Eg+4"J $rNalf 49 "lluJxl d4¤ol "J^l+g
    qlEql ^EEHd=ol =+l ^lolq^l
    Eo+g 617l 4zJ4r.J + 914.

    Er-oJ7l,, 41!?]7|':rJrlol 0]lLl^lTlElrtl -dzl0fl ?ltlE. t4 fl^le+El g==J + ?trl.

    I
    F\_l qFl 6.4
    /,1 +a fl1Hl^'lq {zl tol
    t4 fl^lel Bohr -EE0l^1, d^l= ZltJol 7|-5-d aEEJ U^l=el +lEoll ?tt. +lE U^Ee olafl raJ4 er, HJ^l=el
    oli z1z1
    =-dElol =
    0.s3.2.12, +.20, a.+o Aolrl.
    (a) ilqt $xl7f n;4 nF3,2.1el He ollt-l^l E0l7l oJolLJtlE, qE E0l7f 7EI 5r'P trEiel BxlE 8d61.=71?
    =9l0ll^l =fle
    (b) olal-d rJ^le] qlq^Eltrt8P Eoplq, flx[z; .rn:1=arql^1 ol! gqq flx,l=7f?
    (c) 9E4 reJP 449 ?xPl n=4 SEtloll,\l ,\lAtElol SEtlei t4 fl^lel HJ=EJ
    "Jel +¤-d ?J=)lol2Jate=
    =E
    L[EIL.! aolq. trt^lE{ EZlej nt Eolts +901 E=Elfl=7|?
    ^lEoll^l ^1171=

    n:4
    n:3 at

    n:2 =
    EI
    B_l

    el

    e )l
    ^11

    300 400 500 600 700 800 900

    n: 1
    u+S(nm)
    2U 68 fl^tg d^l+^

    Btl'J
    E{ +r $z}el n=4 t}qlql^J + +41 +e t49 *e 4. rl 0.09 ^l-S6Iq l}zle+q ,J=9 9lHzl$ Al4i6ta,
    ^ll
    qlLlzltrE dzl ol$9 EEI6I= 4oJ* d"le| *H¤ E:hv. c: zr ol+6lq 9lHzl= +zJe_-E H+.J + 9l
    "llui ^19
    zl "t +tlg "Jolql= Aol+. 4. 9lHzlq EI6r-e HlElql6[z] trllEql, 7]t[ tg qlLJ4E
    xE +q{ A+*e dz}g a7l t}4e+ 4+ /6tEliE +E}U ttzlzl zlzt 5}g tltlg 7l4Al9- 4o14.

    E0l
    (a) E:hv=hcl,t $4lal9l 9oll *xI9 ularS qlHxlc+ ¤ ql 44 Ai++. {z}i n,:4 tr-{ql^l nr:loJ ^JqlE d
    *99 :lzl trIEq, 7l* *e ulet9 *zl^b 7I+ k+ ol6}q {+Eq qq4= $L, 3o1q1,q +rztE ztat k3
    9lHzlE 7l4L| dz} +ilEE qq4 e+l= lol zjla] "llHzlgi
    7I+ se ir}+g %l¤++.
    (b) 4 0.09 $eoop. ni:4, nr: lg qlE4q +ru}9 "llH LE: -2.18, ro-"1(| - i): -2.04 x 10-18;
    4ltI6J+.
    ^l=
    Es4: -AE: 2.04 x 10-18J

    rl-99E. plank *449 E6ll %i=¤ *zI9 +l¤:fE


    4t+++. v : Elh: (2.o4 x to-18yy710.026 x 10-34y'-s; :3.02 x 161st-1

    gs At+= ole"o}q +flg +tEI. olelt ++ : x


    4=.zl A clu -- (2.99s 108 m/t)/(3.02 x tots s,1;
    E He {z}zl :.u1=Hq^l zteld Bqetr H+¤4. : 9.72 x 10-8m : 97.2nm
    (c) r4se+q *zI9 r|*g qlq40-8 480 nm-tr ?c
    g + 9l+. +tlsE+q al 0.+=
    ^l-s4q
    nrlLg= d4l +=-6J + 9l+.
    =94q, |:^,G i)
    trt^l "J6I8, llllI
    nr:2oJ ull, 11:4o1l,rl zr:2 t4E {ol$ {z}oll,r.l [t nl nl ' nst +2
    ' 1t.ost x 107m-t)(480 x 10 em)
    I
    +zt7i ?=zl"ll ++g aol+. o.zs
    =g =:
    ni

    Atr rB 6.12q1 E6IE, r:aoll^] n:1tr9 dolE zleoql EtrHql^l *e^q dql 4dJ n, 7}e q+ + q! 4{zl?
    ,r{ z}zl$ dol # 7l* qlq4 ag 714 + il¤¤ q"J6} (a) : (b) a (c) s (d) 6 (e) 7
    =
    9+. >E=qlfl2
    >r=qldl trI-+ 449 dz} dolql^l AEE +se+, qlLlTlTI %I=q
    :H 0.lrE q+Eq +E{ +^ a4l 4? ni g+q=zlg {r}ull.rle.
    >2 nf:2 +fla dol9E^EtrBel ol 1 =4,
    (a)n:39lr] n:1 n:zoll^ln:4
    aql 'ltt+. (b)
    =gqld

    Bohr E-$el tj4;


    Bohr -nBe +A gzlel d lqEeg ¤¤61^1"J, += gz}9 ¤Eg + S
    r|. Bohri ge-E 6ldg .d.47l "Jes 6ld¤ qse ule g4 ^EEHg ?+= Ezlldg,
    ++q rq+ $ol polxlzl =q7}zl
    ?+Eqn zlz$a]eEal !14 +7t+. trl+ol adla ar.lql^J
    q ++l +llE= E= dziql 4f, son'.EBg dzll olEql +tl6rzl ?+:+. .J
    ^il6.44q1^l
    i llFol, dzl-b sl5g C4g +$L|jq, dzt +aql 4t {ul* 4'J,* s¤E olqe
    E
    ^Idg }6110}6J4. q
    olEq q= Ell +st qgg +, 6J 7I
    "Ia.ll Bohr :r¤3 # Eg4qI EBE tsdg
    zle ¤zlqflr|. nohr E¤"ll^J zlZt 6.e-+ 19 dxH9 .Er¤g fli4l ea;a1g +.Sel +
    zlzl oplqq= EE6J 4.o14.
    l. dzl-= oJ.zlfE cEg + 9E "lB +4* BB+4"J "llHzl ++loll^l"J
    =4*4.
    6.4 | E^llsltrf5d 245

    2.44* + qq4 4E qlLlzl doltlTl 914dE oilHzlzl +H¤+.


    =+lq^l =+ls
    olzll$el Eeel zt¤¤ S uJ z|,<lla|r11 go|_ts_E ql g3-{l Bohr E_¤9 4l+ gd^l7l=
    "J
    g trz|.
    ^lz16ll

    6.4 I E"llsl El5,tJ


    +i g4q *6J sohr EBol xil^lqr +^l= 4rl "ilHzl9 olf,rJ(dual nature)el zllujol
    H+ rl+qla+. dEl +aq] q+ +^Idg q* E: .JzI(*zI)e+ ee ceg ?*+ 4,1
    H Broglie(t892-1987)* Paris Sorbonne 4ql9 EE+ E^[o+9] t¤ql
    -H-oJtrI. Louis de
    qlB6tr,ll olq6Jololqq= dzHa}q4. 4'J* aa6}ql^J +^I qlqzlTl "Jzx*x})9
    ^J
    sETl H aE+qE, 4 ¤+ eaql^J E^ll 7t q4ql= { ol zl-u" aJz}f
    "+Eq C AS
    De Brogrie= flz}9 4 ++l= +F6l-b 4^l7l ulE4 eol zE 5Ir., q+^J ultr-g r*
    zll.J6lHtrI. r= dzt E= += qE += flz}g sl^J3 EillE d=J(.)4 4E(v)
    =+r
    ql q=.Jqr q-q=r+ z;-o1 z,fl,r.lo[flQ.

    h
    mv
    [6.8]

    9zl9ld }E Planck tfol4. q¤ Eill9 mv 4k9- r E^llg SEf (momentum)ol4t


    *4. De Brogliei EallE 'JzI5¤9 7l¤t;l7l +l4q f,flIxf(matterwave)+= +qE
    ^]
    s" 6IS.4.

    qH
    F
    6.s
    EEEI

    5.97x106 m/sel4a;oe trlol= E^l.e.ltrl8P gEl"9l7f? (E!, d^lel traJS s.t1x10-31 kgolrt).

    dflB
    E^{ dr}el 4%i(rz)4 +E(r)z} +qe ql dz}9 ae Broglie 4|q gzlol= oJzlel +tlg al 0.aql 96l] E. + 9l+. tr|4
    ulat(,t)¤ 4l&61-= +xll ol +. ,\= 9r glE lz, m, v3 4oJ6[q g+. :flrl] olql
    ^j =E
    *9lql +g"l]ot e+.
    E0l
    PlancktI+ <tg ol+'++. h:6.626 x t0 3a
    I-s

    +q-r} ag Bg E=+. h
    mv
    (6.626 x ro-34;-r; r xg-m27*1
    (9.11 x ro-31tg)1s.lz x106wt1s1 lJ )
    : 1.22 x 10-10m : O.l22nm : t.ZZA

    +el ol Atg rH 6.+9 4zlz\ +^ld +tlr+ Hlf,6tE, ol +lE zlzl gAlE de Broglie s|*ol Sg aql^'l A +^l
    ^ll
    $zlzl zly El+g xd +tlr+ ql+ egg .J + 9l+. -q +g6l^ls.
    > .H.E qE{ 1
    (a)i<iii< ii (b) ii< iii <i (c)iii<ii< i
    ql6}q (d) i< ii< iii (e) iii< i < ii
    4S ¤-4olb ^jl
    Edq ^84611
    trzl.
    (il so.o m/sel ${ o e ¤-zlol= +s.s 94 Eg+ > .H.= qH 2
    (iil :.sox los m/s9 +qss +zlol= dzt 505 pm$ de Broglie q*g r*= +^dz}g +E= 21416I
    (iii) z.a x 102 m/s9 49 oE S4olE +Czl ¤*3 ol 4el flEzl "J+ sql '+4+ 9ltrI).
    ^le(+czrg
    246 6zJ g^19 E^t+^

    7I¤g E= E4ql ¤+¤ f glo oE 4* m4 +E yE r*= qH EillE


    I a J De Broglieel

    I 5d Edulzl. ^Jzlzll gq. rBlLf ^l 6.8q1^l 44q*ol. gs+ ?9 u_E a7l9 Eille+
    +4lg ultle q++ Sot dE ++g + Sal g+. .J¤, ql4l 6.sql^J E f glFol, dzt
    I? e%Iol ,il+zl7l qEql ol4oJ¤t}ol "Jq+zl g:r1++ HflE H.g4zl ?+ril gtrl.
    =De BroglieTl-:29 olEg
    tsE6.J ,l +tr +ql dzlg ffi^Jol dE4etr +Eqflq. x
    a
    fi col ¤c* E"rl6IE dzrTl +^Idg irlErl ge 5c.J sl¤ P9zl4cgtrI. ol ¤^Jg
    xd cl¤(X-ray diffraction)ol+-l1 6Jr+. 4^l7l a¤g F46Jql ulrt ol4 +^t6lrll sl¤
    \- }, T g+. trr4^l *zlol= dz}9 q# xd q +E BEilel -u-E dzfTl +^tdql^le} Eg+
    -II-
    a.l.H trtEoe^lsl E
    6.14 ++el $fCg ++U+.
    3^r[ q4:ds] gd B|]
    EJA
    ^l
    E= ,*= reHllel +rlTl^l fl dzl 9¤83 f4l gdqq *+. q= dz| d"l?"lld d,'lel q+ +¤g g^I
    !13(TEtt/, transmission elec- a7l4 ¤tlg E= ql =q
    ol ¤"143 4+61 HISE qr.ilo}q EE Btr.g ts+
    I ^Fs¤+. z$21 =
    tron micrograph) ,\lIl. HJP 6r: ql +so.J zlzlolQ(aa' 6.1a). ¤o143 7l^l"3,dg ^l-*g rI("Jq ¤ol?9 4
    aJ^I= nlE't(mountain)'EP
    EJ^ g^1.= LlElL.lrl. +, I000HH)-H-+ +4{ rJ 7 :,ooo,os6ullz}zl ql^J E^ll= +.Ig + 9l:Ell, olag dz[g
    ultol z|^l"jdE +t}tr+ ga+rll Szl ullEol4.

    0[?0ll^] FfE gs mile/h AEol uul= 8E E^l7lE -dtl. Ellolts 0F+8e EE4E g
    e.Jnl? u*:=_:rrE ra= El¤-g + glEzn

    Eqft¤ flal
    EeE ,+*lC gae H zlzl ^l]e,a +trlee +4lE 4l7l6t9+. el= a^tT! eg
    qlqs= +g ^J46ll B^t. rd ol+6[E qE =q
    ^lAql +9 +]il, +E *6],
    Eq Eqqlg
    eE +qg ql+61 cq6}zl 4l^IB + 9lEl. '+-Fcg +E4= dzlql q6I^JE qeol 4l
    4Ig + 9)*t4? r+*e +Aes sl4 4214, :ll+9 +lil} dq6||l E{gzl *6J+. r
    kH flEE qE 5d+ +rJql 4^l7l qqql +lil6t=71¤ Aqo}{ Adq-= 19 EzLbaI4
    a ql^Jg + 9l+.
    !

    +"Jel E4otz} werner Heisenberg(r1al 6.15)= E,.lle-l ol6^dol +q4l +rJql E^llE
    +lilel SE+ E+= 9"tt dq6.}rll .J f ll:zlq +e4.J .J4l= A'JEtr zll"J6t9
    4. r aJZl= gzi+ olB+ 4? zzlq(subatomic) ++. dzle+ zJol 43 E4g a
    I. =
    +g trilEI6,S6lltl+. Heisenberg g?]E EllBtl flal(uncertaintyprinciple)41d4. ol
    94= sz}9 dzlql ¤.e" g ull, dz}9 cq+ +F.*4 +rJql^Jel aq.J 9zl= F^lql
    oI= ae Ee4sE Ezl-L";I4* 49 *6J+.
    A rH 6.15 Werner Heisenberg
    (1901 -1976) Heisenberg! HeisenbergE +q}4ee +lzlel Bqac(u;4 +E%iE Eqcc(a(zv))g planck
    ^J
    Niels Bohrollrll,rl EI/.l+ rf8= +E EEL6I+ "Js.tr. ¤Szlfl+.
    7l^l= EoJ EqEd B
    "E-dsz,l;q; 1gg
    al= eJddlfiLl. tx.t(ml >
    f bsl
    EP r= 7lg 5= Lfoloil tr
    = ,J+oJ 4l+IeE E+dd gqq 5g
    "JoJ Ar+E ¤H6J + 9l+. dzl.E e.1r x l0-3r
    ga= Ee d
    ^faJoltf.
    kg9 d*9 zlzlt- * s x ro6 m/s9 ¤# +q-g.e +i gz} .llql^l +4.J+. +Ee-l l%o
    ql 4'J E$Ctol glll(ol ?*(o.ot) (s x to6 -/s) : s x 104 m/s9 ESCrj), ol{u.!ol
    $Ee&(A(zv):mL,v)9 EqdCq q]6J +s_6J eoJol4r 7lC6ll -E.zI. 6.eE
    ^l ^l-.&6I
    I dz}9 9lzlql Ell+ EqACg 4l4I6J + 9l+.
    Lr_ h _1 o.ozoxto-34l-s
    ):r*1oem
    -^ - 4rmLv \+"'19.tr x 10-31kg)(5 x tOaml)) '
    6.5 I g^lqq4 B^leHl= 247

    +A gzlE zl=¤ qI r x to-'o molzl qlEoll +l ,Jl&ql^J g f 9lFol, flzloll,<l {z}


    el +lilql ql.JE+Adggzlel aTll.qE loEll dE=<tgr*=+. tr|+^l tse4eE
    flz}glrl 4zltl qqql erl7l6tr. il=zl= d:"i g + S+. Hi$ql qlq^="4 zJol eF9
    e+g r*= E^{ql EI6tt ,Je *H-s.E 4l&g ++6ll E+8, Bq4^de ,l]+ 4}rll L}e+^l
    fealzl ?*+g .J + 9l+. ol a+ 4* *! rj1, E4CC ArE H* ztot +Ag + S
    o rr-8, d4lE +-e-6l.zl *zll gtrt.
    7|¤4 Heisenberg9 E$AC flfl= tl gzl.
    De Broglie
    ^l]Eit +H4 ¤-s"g + 9=
    7a"ll qlo-J olEq zl=¤ BoI F?t4. olEl'tl d=Eql "14 dz}9 +rJ +lzle+ ¤++g
    cq44l +a6IEl= "lul* ^lEE s7lqfr,+. d49 ffirjol qlaq*,j1, dzl.9 4F
    e 'l-Fel 4e* +qE ¤Eqfl+. -14+ dq.6lzl 9** dzl9 flxltr+= ffio143
    *"le ¤E6IE^I dz}9 ql',lzlE dqd}rl 7l¤6|= EB oe. +4+41 qH+.
    +¤AI EE¤^J flAI

    "lrlal +C.g E
    ullul4 9"tzJ9 EqCCe trfH g qlLl^lel *zlzl 6J9 9,lsl4. *4zl 4 A
    ^l=Sqqot
    oltrI. +. zlz[. Ei
    tHle+ zJol
    ¤Ed *4 =zl]617l
    .Jt^J¤]q^l glHzlE zl!|) *zI7I d4ql +qa ql q Y+e 95"*ol
    d6t= =7lel Ea{ql^l qg 4toJ tr-Hlg+E +Cql 4* dgqq. olTlol {z}g ¤¤¤ ql+tr + S= E}^lo.e H
    E+ACS ¤q ag aE6I9g aol4. ¤allE + pl^l7l4l gq. A^I9 9l^l= dq4zll
    =+= =Callzf ^lE6lE
    Cql^]el BqACe 4617l qalg AEs z+41 g + 9ltrli1 dxlE g+*ql glq^l tr-*6J Eqa/3o1 z.llzlrlzil g+.
    zl4* f 9l+. rel+ E4AC 94= +CE AqEq d =
    ++AE dzl flzlE +aq+ q+l= 6J+ -r. fl^l$ eq6}
    xllE 6J4l7I 9lq= ag "JtL+. olBl.J,*al: tlHl= qg zl .J + s.4 "JEts aolq.
    zl + "JE + 9l=7Hl ql+ zllEol olule] ealal xl¤E e olHql= a +t}e.l !o+zl-=
    ^l-+6t= a+= ^J46l]
    trzt.
    d4.J 1o14. ol ,*Zl= -H_5 eTlE Ezll= trl-E *l= ¤{ ol=E r*4+ *3 qluJzlE z*zl ullEql +C6l+ E$ dzl
    4 os dq +,s_61xl ?*xl"J, dzl_e+ eol o|fl2|(subatomic) el g+"+g .bql 9= AEq H+= Etr $.9 Ellzl"J +lzl
    oJzl= fltB a+qlts eltrl= tlq4str 'J a+4zl "JeJe a"l+. olaol Sqcc
    = al+oJ^lH+.
    a+ol4E +4 7l+s =
    grl9 ga"l+. + dzlel gilel +E* s+= t^l.ll "J
    EalE +46171 +16l]^-l=
    E4E aEslot 6Jtri. S{ql^l +d¤¤ ^l-s6}q 44* I rzl 6l+ aqE Eq4.tiol ¤zllrJQ-i 4.o14, olE+ E
    ++g += ag ^J46l] BzI. +dFql^l i+g Hol n+t +ACe q¤ +C¤ 3l^ ++ olalE 69 + fl+. 6I+=
    ql^l HI^Iqq bql *¤ tr4 g+. .J =zl9 *zI q q¤6}rll 941 qE q= 6l+: E 4q6H4E aol+.
    =qg.tr
    zI ole+ ,JZ zz\4 E^{ql +P^1tr EillE 9{+ ¤+* dzlE +lile+ +E%ig cq6l .Jtrt= ae ¤Eils Ezl-b
    ql glq^l qB de4"J aEE EqlE rlzlxl $!r-|. :el 6|zl"J. ++tlql^l q¤ xldql 4¤ql ql6]]^J= EJ
    =7l]61+ qlq
    + 9e]. +^l6trll qol HI^Iqq 9E ?=zl +oE B + 9itrI. zllo.s¤9lrlE flzl9 o]E +lzlql^l
    =q7t=
    %LEee dztE +l^lE 4q44 ;folufllz[ 6Jtr]rl tr-tL6H zl= ,*= a4-= ga4= +Eg ^ll^16l-= gzlE =a+
    t.Bg
    ^
    ^I+g +^Idg +tlB+= 4le H9l {olr}.
    tsz}. E^llE.g +lzl= zflal
    el cq.Es^-l "JoI'J + 9l+. E+4^l dzlel c+6J f-lzle+ +¤ ¤+ E4l: 6.sl, 6.52, 6.e6, 6.eZ
    ++%h3 .Jj1 4+E a-e +a-g ;J4. "143 k
    ^l-sullot

    s
    6.s I %Fl o-{qlul sJrl sHlH
    1926LJql gxeelof E4q]zt Erwin dz]9 u[Fc4 "Jz[
    Schrcidinger(1887-rSOr)::
    Cg l+4 E.eoJ Schrtidinger irl* %lC l(Schr<;dinger wave equation)olzlL 'JEl{ ^l
    I zll.Ja}fl4. rg E+: ¤zli "or4 9$(quantum mechanic) s= ffi $$(wave
    248 68 3^19 d^l+^

    >rB 6.16 T156l.= Eg


    tr[ =el

    n:l TlE al=

    DI

    n:2 1Hfl Tl=

    OItr] Dfi

    n:3 28H T]E

    mechanics)ol+r1 + 94+ olB+ zlS lgzlgg a+61= ,r'll-Es %[Hg x]lq]6]


    6I=,
    H4. schrodinger *443 rE trlziBElg gse 6t=ql, olq ql+ zl.^llql fl?g lel
    6}zl ?*g 4o14. rELI olae dzl. +aE ,Jq6rH.{r 4l.E¤ *
    ^lld6l ¤ulBzl 91il
    Hg 4l+6t71 qlEq SchrodingerTt ++ a+= ac4 0e a+oJ 4014. z|$ z3g;j g
    ztql +^ flzl9 dz} +aE grltr= a+q E^I.
    ^lz|6]]
    SchrodingerE +4 gz}9 dzl-= TlEl¤g BrJ trll ..JzlE 4(wave)el zJol ?to}g
    +(f=J 6.16). o1s} Ag vi: +rJtl'gE 4l46tzl ?J:s Irg Ctr4(standing wave)E|-7
    oJrl. EZzIE zl4 71ts d#(fundamentat frequency)e|:il.i} HHtl=+(higher
    =ol
    overtonel e+ TlE+(harmonic frequency))$
    'Z*= CtLr+¤ ^JC6l'b 44'Jol, dzl=
    ,lt} *g qlulzl9 d{}ule+ k.g qlq4E dtlulE Hq Al4zl 21fi+-4 tsll4lEol
    =+.
    q¤E 41qol sol q= d.J ul4 (node)E ?*y a4 u[!z]xl_+, dz]9 u]E 5,BE gg
    SAg r*Zl gtrl.
    +A flzlql {o}{ Schrodinger %}C^lg EE, gxt ?}ql^Jel AzF= 7l+6}: EIE g+
    "JAE +qL4.J E}+zl ?qt+. ol*l6.J El-F 6J+: 9Hlzl e zla
    (wave tunction)E|= o

    ,/(r-4^q psi)-e. {Q{rl. E}* *f : z}ill= zld4e E?-lqzi 9"lE $.zl"J, v}.El E}
    +9 ,ll=-(l/l)3 dzlzl6l+9 glHzl tt4"ll 9lg "lt dzrel glilql qEl AtrE zll+*+.
    +4 gzlql 9lq^] 6l+E qlHxlEg Bohr n$$ ^l-s6[q ql+g aE4 e+. rB]L]
    Bohr l-Soll.rl= dz]-5ol q ++lE qH 5A.J *zl=¤ ,*= g¤ +llEql zt
    oJzl qqzi EBq^l dxlE +lil=:l+al ,J+6I7ll ¤EB + fl+.=^ll6J+r.
    cE}trt. EiHql,
    Eqcc g4q qsH, dxt9 sF*9 q+61 c+61ril .J+r B a+ql dzl9 9lxl
    q q+q E^lql "J + 9l= cH= ,I+ B+d6ilr1+. tr14^J flzl-q +9lq 4 Azlql ql
    * cq+ +lil= E^l6h= 49 zl4g + srll 94. tzl E4l4.J zl^14 ,Eg 4u.leE
    "J+6ll"taJr[. :e]ue 1d.471qL+rJql +rJq qH gqql
    t+61-= 4o14. a+ +rJg .J4+ Aql^l q-5'6J+9 4lt-(,/)e r f.lrlql^l dxl-E ts
    =4ggg(probabitity)S
    ag + fl= qE¤. +ElUtrI. olq,* ol+s l9 *}t "JE(probabilitydensity) E= Ert
    "JE(electron density) +-a 6J+.
    6.5 I g^l q-.,rrlfl^l eHl= 249

    Eoll +l^letrl-."ahts rirl "E^l7l"8z8el olE -d


    A.E^r7r BrJdsl
    =EEJ
    elildE qEo tstl.'al= T]6
    -el

    +1?l7l?
    =88
    E0ll

    I I
    ^l.0lel ^l0l= drl "J-E7l7El
    rBoll,\l ts
    a +Ea oi! *gl7l-?
    flzI 4 q+l ¤Eql^l dzl-= gaB +Eg +4rH: %IE +g 6tLl-= fH 6.nql +EI E"JE, rh2ZI,
    Heq, ol :floll.! dg "JEE d4-= tsa.J q¤g 'IEIB+. d9 "Jszl +e gqe -0l gqql^i =
    F3
    Elr4 ,1,, *ql trI+^l d4-= gaB ffio1 kg ¤9ol ¤4. ol4 ?3 +.<1 drt gz 4=
    = "llB.Jtrl.
    ql flzl* {z} fe=e-tr E=lr }q] flx}fleE ol+qd aes la^}¤+. z
    =rl6}q
    sHlEJal-tal+
    +4' g^Iql 4qt sctrrodinger *4119 ailE gulEJ(orbital)ol=p 6l+ 6J eoJE tl* +
    +E 4l+6}q, 4 sElBe EoF+ oilulzlE r*rl g+. q= EH +^ gzig 7I v
    + *e qlLJ4g _sHlBg re =C4e6.l7ql +48 4r+ eol + Eolg 714q, -2.18x r0-r8
    l9 ollulzl= r*=tr}. 9ul$(orbitar, dzl-='dz1 79.' EoJe-e, rfl q¤ +qtr -E I6t x
    b oJzI qo+zi EB)e flE(orbit, EE ++lE 4Col 5 uilE Er-lzlt +llEe+ rJol, dzl.
    zI *4ol= ag rfl Bohr -EB)4 EoJ6Izl 9++= aq +E6I4. gziql^l dz}9 *F
    'fg E"JE, 4? {t2'J,
    e cqq aaE f szl trllEql(Heisenberg Eqac ge]), .JzI qElzl E¤3 +JEq zi ol gEoll,'.J "J3
    Ext gz +E
    *9xl S=trt.
    Bohr E8oll.!= fllEE ¤E6I7l +16[q 6[+e] oJz]+ r3 Efla]B+. +S, o]^] qq] a.fB 6.17 d^[ "JE Es
    zl E¤ql^J= -qHlgg ¤B617l +16|q 7l-71 oJzl+ n, t, m& olel* ol a+El EBg Htq aE|le]
    ^ll ^l*8-6k"Ell, ^ll
    +4 ?^l-oil^l t^tE ga-g
    zl-zl o3.2143 iqzl
    "e Schr<idinger %la4g E ql z}ts^Hzl +9-= ?4o14. q=gl ,/29 E,(f-ertf. 4trzl
    r.+ot4+(n)* r, z, 3, ... Eo4zJol oJ9 C+Ag 714.+ 9.1.4. nol 6z|$4q-so1 oll^l flEP g^l-o!0lrf.

    g3 rl 4^]tL, dztE o4se+El trl gr-l gqa *ql y*ol qE4 84. n <14 ?zl
    * d4¤ol rJ +g qlLlzlE r*=+* 4.o14, IrI4^] qql g5}rll a6Jqq fl+g e.l
    Elqlq. +^q 4* sohr E¤ql^Je+ ?ol .llHxlE E,: - (z.tsx to-" I) Oln'\o\
    trI.
    2. + Hxll olzl+oJ 4FJ
    Btr]f (angular momentum quantum number, l)Y 4 n 4k
    ql qt4q oql^l(n-r)4219 A+{lg 714 + ?14. ol oJzh= -qHlBE Eolg A
    A.Jq. t sHlB{l^l I {tg .JH}4 oB s, p, d, f.4 Ez}.+ s^lqq, ole=9
    t r"Io) 44 =4+
    o, t,2,3ql di'J*+.
    r<l 0 I 2 3

    ^l-&q=
    E4 s p d f
    rPl ?fr]#(magnetic quantum number, -)* OS E*6iol -/ql^] /
    3.
    ol olzl+= ^Iol9 4+
    <19 zld + glr}. 6.6¤q^J ¤B6l+ Ete+ eol, +rJql^l sHlgel ull
    6J (orientatio") I ¤ H 6J4.
    n 4k9_ E= "Jel Aitl g f
    ?lzl Ell+ql +A gzlql^l: +++ 7H+E eHlBol 9l+
    aql ;qrle|. qE +q4l ++q1 +^ grtg dzl^b ol eulp$ 6E 6tLtEEJ ¤E
    = r
    94, olol 4^l7l e_Elgg z}^l++n "J++. ts"t 9iE sHlge +4 g^IE 5a r
    g tqql q6tq d+qq glxl sE4r. a4. $e_eE +tr. zlg <t9 ,9 r*= sHlBql
    adg "*+q ¤Bg 4.o14.

    .ol Ez}e=g 44 sharp, principal, diffirse, tundamentatel +qql^J +46J aolq, oJxI qolol i4q7l dq
    ¤4= ¤B617l +l6lq
    ^EEH9
    ^F*qfl+.
    250 6TJ 3^lsl !^l+^

    rl.I" !6J{experirnent)r} Schrodinger:91 :-oJo|

    c-4c olE4 olzl olEq e_lall olzl$ r+EI4 ^J49 eE ilel g5Elg A+61 'J + S*g q'J6I= Heisenberg9
    e r+qlg Et+q + tg B"J otq+ +?_1 +9E ^Jl^Jg q Eqe^"r gr_lE B:g eqI4.J eEEg *qll, dx]l.E ql
    BAI ol6l]dl]o}6l+7[q q]4q ga* HEI¤ z]4S4. t4 E6l *g 4!ol tes8Egl HeisenbergT[ "gEqr+ a
    C olErl "JzI olE oldq "Jg6J E4qL
    olE+ ts44 os $(Physics and Philosophy)"o14= 4ql =++
    +4+ 9t4.
    ACE4(deterministic).J aq.=., gzllE +4 ad(9lzl. 4 oJzI olE aTlql xll.Jg zlzJ +B+
    E, Eillql ulz).i fl)ol +qzlE El4 q! 6I+=
    ^14
    olEg ^Ir de +
    ^lrJql^jE
    Eill I SchrridingerTl- ill4lEl6l-fle-4 ¤xll
    E +lzle+ ¤+e 4q6}ril eAB+= aol+. Newton H4 "schrridinger9l lolol (Schnidinger cat) "Ep "JeJ{ aol+.
    gtr+El Maxwellel dzlzlqr ol$ql ol=-L- ol olgg qC ol dee * 4= +a47lql +^l 417[']+E -.1+g ++
    I g+, B^iillg +]E "f qel Ele+ ee EE.l4 ¤dlg c 6J+E 7te + fl=rlE EEg
    ^llrlq}+. += "Je, S4zI
    +zletr ¤86}fl+. r
    dz{e zl= s=6f4 *6JtrtE, +9 ^}qlql ql6J qtr a
    t4C olE4 oJzf ol# E+ ++E AAE4"J +eql olelr ofi 4ol ?l4llz}? ole+ eg q¤ql^1, 7t^JE aoJ
    ql+ EdolfleH, dzlol ol olE$$ zll$tJ $qtzlg,tlo1 ol7[ gql¤ /J.zl +q fleq, ol *z]ql= aoJolqlal
    ^l^[
    ql^la^lE
    ^J*.J cEq
    q+dg "Jsa+. olqaJ^l]E+ *el +4}+1tr Bs6I= tlilTl geJ gl+. oJxI olEel
    olgy$/lpali rll z[zl H_$4oJ *H
    $o[,]fol ^l-S,t],* .J+ =¤.
    ql4ql Ele.H, trzl= ¤l a"Jol= +ag EllTtzl r.oJ
    g i+l '^tr de(thought experiment)'ol+a E?-l= %IB olTl-got 914+ +94+ 6]+ +dg ryJ"l ,J+qqoi ++.
    g +d 4019.4. ol .rp dqlg +q4l olE .Jql^l q¤g schrodinger= ol q¤g olzl olEg .J+ 6H4ql
    olEq g + 9l= 7t^JE
    'I
    olE 4q14 oI qI Edg zl{a}zl fla}{ zllzlaf9e+. qllql ol E¤g
    ^l+Zleol+. "JzI
    olqq= 916]] ole+ ag ¤eq 6I+= Schr<idingerel ].oJolg +Hrl9o1"il 4aI9 zl+zloln
    ^lC6t7l ^l-S¤ ^I.a ^J
    ol¤q H,+. 20r2LJql LB E?]qtlg g%IlE
    A+q EE61] Ezt. ^8* EEg
    olzl
    "lE+ Eillg EleCE4 ^l+ql rll4q tL'JEl EE Serge Harochep]
    "lt9 David Winelandollzll +qqfl=tll,
    g ol¤q H4. ol +ql^l= "lBl+ + Tlzl ? Eql q6}q $ .lae tI4E +q6I= ++ 4ti' s."l ".rztq EzlE oJzl
    #6ll s+. a4ltr qe "Jz[e] ae ceg, ¤-zlolb E,ll= 7lg6J oJ$ql $aJ 4ols.4. olzloll.! :$
    ^Jql= +a6l=
    ag ceg r*=+= 44 zJol, qr+ E^ilql 4,t s. g qH ag "JHI4.J 4lel 'l."3,o1 t4(cat state)'4.11+e
    "FEr+
    ^l-7['J +*61]4]+= 4o14.
    drl-71qqql glEzl-E csal ++6t9eq, ol ^JEllqlE ""rx[q "J47] + 7v\ q
    =71-=
    "J7 ?l+= aq Hl4q, $zl {z}z} qe zldql flg +E E .Jzl- tlqlq^J f,z.loll fxNof,rf. c"Je ++Alvl ae q
    ql ql4^l"J ololzl6J+ 9t+= Aq¤ 7t4_s= Eiilql 4+ ¤olzl"J, *4= afl "J4 A+El+ qq A_,/d +
    ^l4lE
    E^I= qBl Hql^l El]+ 4++= ^J4"J +E il+. qlE a6}7l 96J El.^l ^Jql= air.6l 6I= 41e.9 %IH9l fi! o

    I EinsteinS olalfl ffi$4.J ¤Eql^J "tlg ^llt4 +^l= g +E 9l+.


    -e olsT,ll
    9l SolE 6}zl ?+=+."?+= +$f, "Jg 6}f,tr1 ?zl9 9l +H g+E4l:6.e7

    Z! t4 E^l-orl rfl-d Bohr EEoll^ie] fllE(orbit)e1., gxl q-+4 Eeql^ig eu|EJ(orbitar)9


    I ^lolEg +EoJ7l"?
    ,J! n <lg ,+= -sHlgE dqlillE Er] EE(electron shell) olE}I. .J4. qlE EQ n :3
    E EE sHlBg ,tll Hall eeql 9l+a ++. eg n ,"14 +? t ?*g r*= 9HIBE dq}
    ¤ FEE(subshell)ola|-r, El+. 4 +Aeg *4@ {})p] EzI( {Iql 4r}6}= s. p, d, fltr
    E7l,tl+. qE Eq n:341:2= r*: sBlgg 3d stslB-ol?+r 6Ir, olSg 3d +44
    ql 9l+i1"J++.
    E6.2q n:+Tlzlolltl4 ql.J 7l-b* t4 mrTt* eE4 +9i+.
    " 4l4l "J^hE TlsotJ
    *q ql* zlloJg rf.g4 ae H TIzl ,il+ +s_6J Bq
    ^t¤g =q.
    r. +"JzI+ n& 7*i Age {$tl rzfisl *dde +C¤+. ?: +44+ 6o]l.r.l (r-1)
    vl:"l{ -.1+g 4zl 4e I Alq 6ll'J$trl. trl{^J a d41 44@:1).$ Ezl * zH
    9 +Ae, 1k(t:0)uJeE +dg+. + Urll 44(z:2)e F,t]q +44.4
    6.5 g^lq++ 3^leul= 251

    E-6.2 +oJIl+ n:417lxlql cfldJ n,l, ,,rr il g4l


    ^iolgl
    HrAxlol
    THAd AtrE ti{
    fl 7lE._dIZT +Agq E l 7E-ilmtAi gHl=J+ eHl=+
    l0 1s 0 I 1

    20 2s 0 1

    1 2p I 0, J 4

    30 3s 0 I
    1 3p I 0, -1 3
    2 3d 2. r,0, -r, -2 5 9

    40 4s 0 1

    1 4p l. 0, -1 3

    2 4d ) t, 0, -1, -2 5
    3 4f 3, 2, t, 0, -t, -2, -3 7 l6

    zs(/:0)4 2p(t:t)E +Cgtrt. H4l 44? rll zl], ?


    ^ll
    3s,3p,3d-E +Cq4, ol+qE oliNal BI^lg qE+. q7l fal ?{b n = 1. 2. 3 A¤el 0lll-lxl :19P. rH 6.12
    2.4 +44e.JC+ f9 9-ulBe +¤¤+. 4 sElBe -.1 9 Bohr -E'Bql tllE! g^[el ollLlxl rts4 ?J37|.. Ll=7ft
    =+l
    +g trl-= mt4I4l6ll'J6J4. +qd l r,iql qdlq _/ql^J / n:@
    vl^14 H9lql^l (zl+ r;zgel q+g *rrt9=_ +=+. trI4^l
    0

    zl s(t:0) +eAg'q} zll9 e-HlgE +Cqr, 4 p(t:t) n:


    +Aee ^ll 7l]E eulBs, 4 A1t.=2) +44+ 4!. zl]9 JS 3p 3d
    sulgE +^"ig+. ol+qE olEld-%I4g tr+=+. n-
    3.6J ?e q9 d4 stslB iE r,ol4. {zl{lrl n+.449 a^
    44el7tE="J3 6tLt
    el UEE LlElL.lrf
    Zb 2p
    +olxr+"I+. ¤44str 44E _erulg iE r, 4, e, t64
    zt Elq, oli fzlggql +4kl ?F^Fl +flqq fl+. + qlE ai^tel4 dE3 a
    TlgsE 6J +7lql ilE g4 iY 2,8, ts, 327fltr, ol s 1
    7HE +ztr= LlEll.lrf.
    ql
    Elg +q + Hl]eI zJg <Iol4. ol i+41= 6.e¤ql^l q ¤B L1

    6J Aol+. ^l

    fH 6.18qlE n:3llzl +A gzt sHlgE ^Jq4.J qlHxlE


    +EI.Ig+. '+?+E qlE= etslBg 4r*44, ^ll ZIE 2p jal
    g4 ,Jol E.J.J +Aeg sHIgE¤ l}4l +q s^16[BE]. + 44el Llls at^lE
    el 9Hl=E LfElL.!L[.
    =.J 7H

    re.l {zlg.ol z}^} *3 qlLlzl sElR(rs s.u1Bql il¤- trll, +


    4. gz}+ Etq tEX(ground state)9] ?.r+j1 "Jqi+. t flzlzl
    n-
    olelE += q¤ stsl$ql flg ,ll, :a g{+ 5E t4(excited
    1s
    state)91 9l+r BaJ4(dzl¤9 4e+ 9lulzl9 *4-3 E+6i
    n=1 4!J? lTllel gHIEJ= 'J=tr|.
    q +e qlLJzl tlq-e p$ + 9l+). trFg gEql^J E.5 +4 n =2 44? 47llE eHl=Je oFqd Dlls{ +2ll= *=Ll.
    fl!* zl-$!_e--tr. Elq
    ^Jqql 9l+.
    n=3 A!:? eTtlsl 9Hl=Je 0l+olt! 37ltE +UEg '2f=trt.
    arg 6.18 t4 flrl'el .g.HIEJ oilLlxl
    =+l
    qEl
    F +I
    6.6
    salel +?E

    n 6.2E ern6f^l
    (a) ?Jr, Lll Unl| Utr n =49 +Etr 7H+E G|*al,tlg. (b) 4 +AtrE E^l6f^19. (c) 4 F'4trotl flts eu1gol
    +E H )lloJ)l?
    252 63 3^lsl E^l+^

    6ilu 4l.r9 7Ib+ 37HE (l9 r, 0, -tol4). 4d e}llEqJe s7n7l


    E4"l 4q +oJzI+oJ ,1el {}ol +qa+. +q{ +o}zl.+ 9l+(l: z"J 4 mrq 6l+l}3 s71].tr- 2, 1, 0, -1, -2ol+).
    ,?ql ql6}q El+q= t4 mr\ <ie a4+ +, 4 +Aeel e 4/sHlBg 71171*q(t:3"J ull 741 de"7t* 3, 2, 1, 0, -1,
    HIB +E ac6l= E7ilol+. -2, -30lED.
    ql B4 Aeq= 4 zll9 7ls"6J I ii"J o, r, z, :oll oll > E= qt41
    =01 LJI
    'J6l-= zllE +Aeol 9l+. n:44 ru: -r9e r*= sHlgql^l /ol 7t¤ f 9lE zl-b
    .lal+ +AeZ +s, +p, 4d, 4f tr- E^l¤+. +AAql s^l 6J #e {g 4.Jz}?

    s i4E +oJal+(,?)olr, E4+ 4¤+eJ o}7l+(l)el {t (a) 0,1,2,3 (b) -3, -2, -1,0, l, 2,3 (c) t,2,3
    g ++U+. 4 l:oolH s, /:1olE P, t:2o],4 d, t:30]' (d) -3, -2 (e) t,2, 3, 4
    tr/ol'I. > E6qlfl2
    +s eulBS lzl7l gl+(,:ooJ ull= s4
    zlzlel zp."rJ
    6J
    l= l"J +Aag qg4l s^l6l+71-? O) ol +/d
    (a) n= 5eI
    *A 1I¤ 7}zlq, oolEt). 4p e-HlBql=:zHzl 914(l: rE eq sElg +L-? (c) ol$ 9ul$ 7J44 mt*g E l6l-^ls_.

    6.6 I sHI=Jel Etr


    zj+vl^l+ sHl$g ¤B6l-= Ell 9lq^l qLJzl= Aaq *4. :44 dzl¤ol 54 eul
    Bql ilg ,ll, r+d. EI++ *?J + dxt glzloll +e atrE zll+*+. olTll sHlgg Ef,6I
    %r-Bg ¤ElHzI. ol eul$sl -Eo&g E6L +4= q +Eql +Eqq gl= dzlE "JE
    = 7l^lplg
    + 91trt.
    =
    s -9-ulEJ
    7|tl *g qlqxl= r*= +d ?lztel rs eElBg:zH 0.1iql +4H+. dz} "JsE 44
    4E ol4al rHe sHlBg ++Lll= 4 zlzl %1-H + 6r+oltrI. Hzl ls sHlBg +B ql
    {(spherically symmetric)el dz} gE= 7l4L+. ol= +^l "J6H, qsE+El ee. 4EE
    Bq{ *ql^J= r %}.}ql *4ls,ol dz} EJET} a+= d9 9"lt}4. 4E s eHlBoJ 2s,
    gEE r*=+.
    3s, 4s 5E +H
    'llael d4
    s eHlB* t ol^l+710ol4= ag gqE HI gl+. qet^J mloJTllE 0olqol ++. trI
    E,\ 4?+E n T"J4fql 4oI9 s sElBg e4 + 4"J ¤xHaJ4. re+E 4E n +"JzI
    +.= 7|xlr. 9l= s eHlg=el zloldg *q.tz}? qlE
    =q
    fc flzlql,i-1 4^l7l is eHl
    Bq^l 2s etslBE E¤ ull dzl "JE' +s= qBal E4xlEz[? olo]l ga[z] +l6ll^lE q
    g-e+El .JC ,l?.1
    Bq4l +lrlql^l dxl-= gag + 9l= +Eg 9"lal-L e-ElBel %L^I
    %D* qE ggzi 914.
    EIE(radialprobabilitydensity)E
    ^J46J
    qes+q Eq{ 44 ,9 6J+s^J +}E ts, 2s, 3s e-HlB9 %}^t %}6} +E gE
    E rg 6.1eq +4H+. ol +d# 4 9HIEE g^t rlg *ll Hf (radial probability
    tunction)4j1 ++. ol q¤-EJE ++ql^l 7l]9 ql$ elulz[ gltr].
    zllf, ffi Eliz}0 e d=61+ ulQ (node)9 7H+, stslBE f7l= ¤czlg=++qE
    =ag
    ^ll
    0
    + gl= d
    ^I
    +EE :{{ol :{olQ.
    rs sElE9 %|^I "J6J. qE E-+ql^l qeE+El dzlE 44zt "J 0.s AoJ rll dzlzl B
    ag qEe #4ol 44e +7lt;1a., r ol+ql +461 A^61+ ag ++* + 9l+. trl?+
    0.sAq An-lql^l dzlE ga6Jffio1 =l4zt ¤trI.,t B$CC grlel g+Cg Tlxl=
    ^l
    -oJzI qEI sBq^l ts eulB9 d4= gaB 4ql +B aq= 0.s2e Aol4. ol: sohrzl ql+6I9H n : t9 illE Hlzl
    Er+ a+. o.szs A3 Bohr EJxlE olri-nE 6J+.
    6.6 | eHl=slEE 253

    +4 3^te.l 4s eHlgel g&,Jar qE B+E LlElt! refliIE ,84-g nl|, Elcll E+alts E 7l{E qlg-g + ?1ts7t? ral-r. ntq
    ts 7tlE ql8g+ 91ts71-?
    =
    -4o_e+E1E 7 ltsido I

    =rllg
    TEttsezal-05A
    -"jee+ElE
    =rll7l550l
    7EJ+e71a1-3A
    0El
    -40P+Ele.l 7ltsdol
    )w E? =Ill
    - 7A
    71e,l
    E}
    =
    E Elrl

    1s g
    =

    01234567 8910 01234567 8910 01234567 8910


    Eqo-e+ElE Zelr(A) ,Eqop+Elel z14 r1A) EIeE+Ele.l lalr(A)

    AfH 6.19 1s, 2s,3s 9.ul=Je.l HJ,(| HJ-d qE -Bt+ 0l raJg ="1-oe+Elsl 7'lal01l tH-d B#-a,t1, E^17[ gAE a-fE¤ LfElL|lr ?1q'. +g
    rl#(n) ilol qal -"]eE+El E^l-71 gaE dq EfE¤ TlIl zal(7l.8+e E+alE rl gGlTltL
    =71--Bf0ll

    ffi zflus$ ^hse+. E* q_q_-E+H : Au-r1 q H z?.lql^J= dzl-= gag ffio1 4


    9 ool 9E ag g + 9lrl.
    ls, 2s, 3s sHlBel %L^I qE +E= ulno|fl ffi,rll TIzl a6}g EoJrI.

    r. rs eH]Boll^l ++qel 7ll++ +"JzI+ 14 Be4, EIA+E ++q= "J+el ++q


    E+ r+.
    z. ns etslg{l^l EtqE fL(n-r;o14.
    3. +olzl+4 +7t+ql ul4 dzt Es= qse+q Ej gq q4 9l+. + Eql^-l El H
    *ql^'l dzFE gag $$o1 tot4l+.
    sHlBg E-olGhape)g s.¤6I= ql +Hal 6l+= sHlgel dz} 'J
    ^l-s6l= %IB +e.1
    E aol e07o ollJ- q:. a4lHg.E +4rllE 4o14. olel¤l rJBg o-trE s'dB(contour
    representation)ol+I'*+. ol %l-Hg EoEJ s gHlElE FrE= 7qo1r|(:al 6.20). rE
    g ag EoJolzluJ a71+ qeq. ol= E6ll +olzl-+ rol stslBg aTlY 4
    zl=, +*^l+71+7I6J+=. dzl rrJET[ qes+q gE]=r7tE+E
    rIl4 gl¤¤ q"Jg + gl+.
    =
    dz} trJEzl -EHq^J qBril H6l+zlql q6J zl^ll+ Ctr= ol gflE o + +4.J f $.zl

    < rH 6.20 1s, 2s, 3s 9HIEJ


    E Hlr (a) 1s 9ulEJoll,tl9 Erl
    "JE EL, (b) E,r+ E-dts= E
    -d 1s, 2s, 3s gHl=. ?+?":9 +
    fl^l.s.l -"-48 6do+ 6;q, E
    1s = ga qEol 90% 0lA q=
    %
    ^[E
    3s ezlEEolrl.

    (a) l^l "JE.PB (b) srE -P.A


    254 68 3^tet E^t+a

    qI, ol4ol r4 E4l= ot.l4. trr+ rl d^d4"J r+ql^l zltt 6s-oJ sHlgg E4g
    r$el = EoJolr+. ol+l+
    tlEilz]ql zzls} E r.E E¤B o-e A +4++.
    =Cg
    qB gssl,J^l *6J EB EF+

    "JzI
    pl+ql 4eE, +r
    gz} 4E dztE +14= aq.J g +.J+<lol zI"It!4. r+l+ arl*#.ll ggoJ^I*.Jq
    ^lB+= $E9
    z}]uJS ol+flq .s¤6flot +trI. +Eql ql6J E.J+ql^l= qql^l gqa++ ++rl7l. dd rl Azly 4.
    4BE Schrddinser %lC^loE+El Eq4= tl.5: g.+(4,)ql eE+ glrl(:B o.ts).
    E6Jqq 914. g^.1 fl#6}fl'J a4 ?Jol, qE trJE E= d
    zl. ulraln 6l+ ol r+*.,*+9 xll*(,r)e
    "JqE 4dql^] trr2lq(r)l2g B^1.B:d qE -Br+
    dxlT[ q¤g +4{+. s sHlgg 7E 44olzl u]] e^1, r9 qE +qt.] ',1 l,!Ol2=
    =xI]6J e+
    E9l s s_u1gE ,I5l;34E e4 qetr+Elg 44 ."il 4eI
    trl-.J aolEl.

    EI+e +4+rll ¤+. Ei+^l rql^lE pg 4,14olzp alE,


    4-E "Js o;i5 [r2(r)]'?ol ¤tri. ol [,/(r)]2 6J+: 6rr oE+ l,t0)22 qE +ot{i
    qE A 4 .9l,rJ ol¤ 4aql ql'J q¤ gE itg +4u+. q= "J-Eoltrt
    ^lEoll,l.jg
    :B 0.1eel %t^I graS ffi q++= +E "Js.e.1g +stri.
    o}^l %I6J qE .fl.+= qee+qg 44 rt E= zldql^J
    dzl¤ Sd.J + 9l= + +Eg 9"ltJ4. 4^l "J"H, ol gL
    + atg +6lz1 94^l= qeE+q 4 44zl rt E= xld
    q¤ "Js [,//(r)]r9 s+'trJ6ll'+qo] 6J+. aiJ6.21
    ql^le] A.fg 6.21 qE "JE
    :er+
    [,/(r)]2et'J^t'Jd += -d+ q ,:fl,l{lf
    e qE zldql^lE q¤ EJE([f(d])e] rtr-^] tr.] qE !]f SIHII.
    HI;I6J 4o14.
    = ol Eg iI"lE + q z}^Jl6l +qE^I. azJ6.nE +i fl
    1s 2s 3s
    x| rs, 2s, rs 9ulB9 g¤ EJE l,b?)l'& rgl 4al] +4U a
    ol+. rH 0.rsql 44u oJ^l rJ.J. q¤ 6}+elb ollol
    =.
    4l zlolTl q+g qt-J + 91trI. I

    fB 6.2rql ++H'J aaH, qes+Elq 7)471 roJ 4


    I

    59 6J6ttr *xlEol roJ Azl gq. r + sHE 4 zld


    I
    I
    l-- D[E.I 0El
    q^l +E 'JE= [U(r)]2olq. ol ++E qE gE &g q6l
    4Cg 4E¤ ¤_se 6Izl"J, ol= ol {oll,r.l .$zlzf ffi ** ,t'* ,t*
    =
    4¤* "t.-14. zl$g 5* Ar}= gultrE. *^I %L6J q¤
    .J+: qE 9s [,](')]',4 +E sE4 aa.l9 E.Jg g f
    el4.
    rrr
    n: 1,1:0 n:2,1:0 n:3,1:0
    7-lel rql^]el ,J^[ %].] gE E]f :+nll,!?)12
    LaH,6.22 t4 fl^lsl 1s,2s,3s 9.ul=o{l,\le]qE "JE [rr(r)]'z
    44^l rB 6.lee.l B;^I gro} ffi Qli=:H 6.229 q
    E "JE t;*foll +nl* +'J ar+ ztQ. arrl? rol *zldoll re 6.reel %I^I %L6J q¤ +++ S xlf;oll.t-lzl.
    =Cql
    "JE ¤9Tl E= Eql^] dzl-3 *dEJ f 9l
    olH, qql^l r
    "lzf : Aol #461 +71617l
    tr{Eql, H}^} u}6} qE ++e+
    q¤ gE *iE: toJol ral ilolTt 914. q= Eq rB +E¤. srlulalzl qEq +4qzl trJq rg++ a!_7[ s+.
    =
    6.22q4:s eEl99 [,r(r)]' :4g= qql^l dd Eqe+ +H g+ +41: 6.s4,6.6s,6.66,6.98

    gHIEJ
    P
    l:1oJ sHlBgp sHlB"Jg 7lq6[+. p +Aeq= 44 -1, 0, le] mr oJzl+ql ^J+
    ^ll
    6l-= zll$ eulg-ol ¤xllt4. 2p e_tslBg dzl "Js +E=:H 6.23(a)gl gl4. ol :H
    ^ll
    q^l E + gl= Hle+ aol, az} "JE= s sulBilH +E qla EoJos $_+a121 g:=r}
    r ql4l, azl "JE= qE "J+q d+qi1, q ++l= ElqE E4g+. olel+ sHlgg +
    6.6 eul=e-lr-d 255

    4 p 9ul'J3 4E gEzl 001 Elb EE?] otrl BE(nodal plane)t Tltlrt. olallE gHIEJ

    zzzz

    yx
    x v x
    I x v

    P, Px Pv

    (a) (b)

    arE 6.23 p gHl=J (a) 2p eulEJ9 t^l "JE Es, (b) Tllslp 9Hl= EdE. 9Hl=sl ofaH ts^f=
    gHlEJol LfElEr[. ^ll
    ="J =E

    zllel Eu(lobe)= 7la olB E"JE sHlBol4r.04. dzl¤ol eul$'Hql^J qBal g


    zlolEzlE ¤86l.zl *61+ aql +s.l6t4. tH e.zz(a)=++q^l 2p eElE .llq^l dz}
    gEE ¤+ +EE +EUtrL
    n:2{ aa+ElE 4r+ ^1t7H4 p _sHlBg r*=+(E 6.2). ?+44 p sElgg 47Jg mr
    aql 6Hr*6IE+ 3tH4 2p -qHlg, 3414 3p -qHlB, E"4'Jol ^Jl 7l]4 84. :4
    =4614
    7\E p sHlBg :zB 0.2:(a)9 2p eHlgr+ ,Jol oI¤ EoJol4. ,J¤. +ogz145
    -n ol
    ^ll
    7l^lY ,]|E p sHlpg rJ+ aTle+ Eo&g 7l^]'7]1eJ, r ts]]6}g+E+. +4: +a _r-
    ^Jl
    B 0.2:(b)pi *ol p sHlBel ErE sBH.qE s*r+ ololg +4utrL olBl6-J sHlBg
    p,, py, p, eulpolap ¤Ed}rll +4UrI. oI4 dzl^b sHlgol Ell6&* +g +4U+.
    qE F sElBg nt]- tol zJxl"J *rJql El]o}g ilolql 4E ry atol += Aatl fl= aol =
    4.*, s-u1g.zle p sHlBg 2p91rl 3p,4pa a++ a7)71+71++.

    A
    l*=
    I sp,ll3pr9 F gHlgoll^1 ^1-tr Ae ilE
    sx143+q?171.?
    LlElLHts $x1a5 +EoJ7l? rE rt='JE LlEl

    d _e.HlEJal f eHlg
    ,9 aol 3 ol^J.J oll= a 9ElB0:2)g r*=rf. ol4l zr olz|1;. -2, -1, 0, 1, 2el s7ll
    9 ,,i"1 7lb6l7l ql+ql 3d.4dEq d sHlgg zJzl stll4 gCd 44+.9e
    =zl]+4.
    4= a sElgr- fg 6.24i.1H
    ^JE
    EIE EoF+ tsl]6}g ,*=tr}. d eulgg1 441+'47lle1Z
    Etsl g^I+l' Eolol4= aql +el6t4. 4 eElBg gzlzletr ¤Eql +q 9lq. xy, xz,
    yz -4441+oJ d*y, d,,, dy, -sHlBg zJ e.atl + EH6F"J+. ds-y ealgs- xy -4H
    ^tolE
    ql 9]il6tzltrJ, -r. e.H= xe|ffi$q ul$al uptgX4. d* sHlgg += ql ,Ie+{]+ trt

    ,*=+. ds ealr{,$ +=Zl HolxlEI, 4E q 7fle-l eHlB4 ?9 {lrizl$ r*=+. rH


    6.248 E^lHe +"JzI+eI +4l$,ol E= d sElBql .JHI4eE ol+g+.
    n z"lol + ol^Jg 4l= 22119/s_HlB0:3)g r*=tr}./e_ElB EoJg d sHlgE EoJH+
    -*4Ep sHlgE 4 azKx. y, z)4 mt oJzl+¤ B+6trll ¤a6J +: S+. olael ol+= ¤B6l+ ag ol aqql^l ++
    .ll¤¤'J q 4se
    = ^8+6[7]e +E].
    256 68 g^tE !^l+^

    dxy 9HlBg 2xl-floe LtEl'g trfi sE Ee.zl00l Elts Dtrl= tr+ 9-7ll7l ?,1=71?

    z z z
    >"---

    v v v
    x x x

    dv, d,, dry

    z z

    x x

    di_y, d12

    afB 6.24 sill d .g.Hl=el E-rE EE

    ¤d q +4-dlq, ol Aq^l= ++zl *4tr1. rfl+ trl-¤. ¤ql^l izl$e "J ++ql ilE
    9zI9 d^I +6= ilqolelB/sHlE.¤. "JoI"t .+4.
    gxt sHlBg +e+ E.Jql ++ xl^lg *etr += qq 7I^l 4e+ +zI +=E elqg
    olollalzl 96ll +s-6I+. lfltrB aA 6.20,6.23, 6.24q1+ElU 444 s, p, d sElg E
    o#9 zlq6}= aol f+6r+.

    6.7 I trltal gJzl


    ol tlel +E= fl49 d^I +a= add+ aol4r ¤96|fltrI. E+ oJ^I qqg +A
    flz}9 dzl sBg ,ll+ g ¤B.J+= ag "J9t+. relq +^ 94+ $4 a[u[$ {z}
    E zlrl 7ta-t+6J flzlol4. r++E F zH olt}9 dzl¤ zl+l flzK4{z} $z})z} !l$
    rll flzl9 az] +a HE]E qBrll ¤¤6llot 6l-=7]? olBl* s4:=g sElgE 544 olgl
    t}-&q+ qulzl+"J olqq ol8 zl-L"d stslgel d^I lrJi;zfzlE lelollo;961.
    s.Hlgzl r qlLlzl
    +e-l= 4dx} 9z|9 dzt +a= +i g4q^le] ulalzlzlE sElBg
    "l+6}q ¤Eg
    + 9l+(E 6.2). trI4^l ts,2p, Eo e-E rll+6il^J sTlB
    a"l+(s 0.2). s.+ olfl eul$$
    +i gzlE eHlBr+ ag +^|* EoJag r*b+.
    4dz| gzlE s_ulB E"Jg +4e+ +^t6[zlEJ, 6J 7l] old-E 4^l7l eHlB ql
    qxl= =z]16]H
    =.rll H++. +4E
    sEIg qlLlzl= +"JzI+ ngl"J 9¤oJ4(zB o.rs). 915 E
    ol 3s, :p, za *44? ?3 qH4E ,*=+. rel+ 4dx} gzlE ?9, dz}_dr} Hlg
    qlEq +-e +Adg +s "llHxlE r*=El. ol4ol el :arl't7l¤ oldl6}eltr d
    ^JE ^JE
    ?JE aJ4, 6Jol sElBql qq.J g+g +ts71-= 6J+. olaql q+ E4g
    ^l "l ^J4ollo}
    zzJ"llrJ ++5e+ 6laEl.
    6.7 | rfE^f 3^f 257

    +s+ sd: zJg i"Jxlf(n) ag *= 4dxl gzloll^lE sHl


    g qlq4=, ttol ;t71tlq trlq ral 6.2sql^JzlH ?zI*4. 9lE
    n=4oJ szHlgP 0l :1aql q+ LfEll|ixl ?j?trl. olE
    Eol n::"J 4l gHlB .llHzlzl 3s<3p<3dE io e rttlxf,Q. z;
    +,dtro1 ga+F.lol ?1*71?
    e +aeg r*= sHlg(s119 td -sHlg4 ag)e +a gzlql^lil
    H ee {HzlE ,*=4: aq ++6I?+. ol+zl ag qlqzl$ ,*
    : gulgg qfr|.
    =qqgcl(degenerate)I
    rA 6.zsb 4C4"J 9l'Jzl 691 EEoltrl. sElgel Aq.J qlq
    zle+ r ,J4+ flz}9l trI+ 7l.ol719l+.
    +aEql^l eHlES
    q'drt JS
    +trlE(a3 qLl^l=
    A Bxlotl^1 4s eulEiel otlqxlTt sd e,l=Et'tse^,, '* 1
    7l'Tltrl'.)
    qE-J + o^)=7r? qt
    I =^,= EB6E| Ll

    ^l
    ,Jal a"J3t p6uli uflef flal

    4dz} 94-3 ¤B6I= ql flq^l gzle+ gg sHlBg ol-a-o 6J


    +i +aEg ollLl^l=
    + gl+= ag .J9t+. re+E dzl-=ol {:
    e_u1gg ztzl6l+.7[ trt8 +^1= nf=trt.
    ns<np<nd<nf
    E 446I= 13 FL"Jzt? +^l "J6ll, +dzi g^IE 4zltl sHlB
    q qBZl ifl.?lzl=zt? ol {Eql B6tElH d4ql SaJ izt4.J C arH 6.25 rtE^[ fl^le]eHl= 01lL]^le.l gHJ4oJ +^l
    d9 .l.ela1ot.J+.
    Itqlzl-5g 4dzl gz}9 d ;-qea-o- zJol ¤+aI4zI o}]* ceql +lL_6iB
    rI. E4 t zl]4l 5o1 {zllE ,}]+ F zl]9 =ol+
    dolfl7l trllEol+. olae +
    ^J41RH =d.J
    +6tr gl'J aH4 F tsl]L} rl Bg 9lHzl 69lE 7l^la- ll-E¤ 9"laJ4. le2sHql ql'J
    *99 gEqtz} George Uhlenbeck(I900-1983)9+ Samuel Goudsmit(l9o2-1978)= ol 1+
    4lE 6llElg xll.<lalfQ. rEg d^l¤ol zltE +ql 'll6H 4Le +Bq ¤EIe +Eq
    ^E
    N S
    ol= dz} "Jzlqlqq 9l+r ul] ? = s=, d-d 5B.zl 9*9 4o14. "l ++ql q
    ^flol
    4, ol"l *q^J ¤E6J n, t, ml olelq .g-tr$ "J4+7!EEqal qfl+.
    .^EJ rPl ?F]#(spin magnetic quantum number)t: m,qa Jl,tlqlr|(ol.
    I
    ^|lgr? "Jzh+oJ
    4 ?zI si spinel .Jzlolq). m,* F zlzlsl zl-=.ofl 11, I ++ *= -*g z*Eull, ol=
    eE6l= d4E ^lE += + TIzl HI4 %r-+3 golt4. .E -gE6I= d6l+ zITl
    ^¤
    tlg :.9
    + 7171 Elql %r.}el gf,e-tr czli zlzl*2,rle HI4 graSolr|(:H
    ^Jc6J+. S N
    6.26).* olElt + 7l7l zlzl*?,ll+ + aq d r-E e g o tr e4qr]l "J=+.
    =d'J a rB 6.26 drl ,\EJ E^f=
    dzl lgg flzl.9 dz| +a= 016l]6}= rll f,calr_|. le2sLdql srezlo| E?]o+ +=
    ed-e.e +g= 3E
    z| wolfgang Pauli(1e00-tsss)E 4dz[ flz]9 {z'} ullzl$ ¤86}= g?-l= =t ga4fl+. dl= axlal ^E
    ZE-.Jtl. 0l d^t.\
    Pauli uffel flal(Pauli exclusion principle)|: oJ gxt qlq +"JtJ 4i}9l n, l, ffi1, m, olTl E EEA ^1716l= g8^l7lr,
    TfTl^lol Hl6F-q ,r.IIl -9.E HlE]
    + S,qr ¤H6I9trI. g4.J sul$(rs, 2p"E) 44 n, t, ollgE-sltl.
    ,.t. _L so
    +E 4= dz}= + 7i4
    to-t ooL oo

    + 7f^l ,\E 3E ur
    mt7*glt4g {tg r*=+. =48 tri+^J 6J sElgq * zl] oltl- dzl-= BeElH, pauli ul]4 fl -BfP^E Srl#(rn")9 7|=-uf
    =
    EE "J+6I71 9lol] rr, <tol +E A4¤ Cqdio} 6Jq. rrl6J atg + zlzl$olug, t -q 7[Il ,Joll 6H.J-dtl. E^laJ. 1f7l
    8= g8^l7l= e", eJ
    Elge slqs + zlE dzl-= *,J + glr, fEig HI4 +4. olel'* z]'{}g +el il= 7|.T]=E9
    I^l7f HJrHe]
    ^¤ololot
    flz}"ll 9l= dzl-= oJ.xlf.E.E^l+ + glE+ 6lir., dzl-=-zl^J e*ol ga6l+ +rJ sq E^[Erl "Je e+
    g +d6}?ll +q. rag E+ gig +7lgsE +eE ol;Noli rll+,*r+. ^El=,*=
    0lrl.
    "]]Bg

    -dzl-b oJ4el l']¤lE + 7l'q ceg L+ 7l^la- llE+. tr14^l d6t= 7lzlr. 4s ¤Eo 6l= +¤ s.JE d4 rB9 94
    6l EJ6il dzlTt d+e. + ?lE zITltE F 7I4 *.'J¤ 01616l= Ell E*.ol q= +4"J +o14.
    258 68 ?^tE E^t+^

    6{aTlalzPl+B odt

    aBg 4+= tr= aol +s-t 4


    d+6I71 +16]l^l= "J4lE B 4o14. zlzl*91 *4tI %I6Jee HI]SB tI4= HI4(E
    zllol+. Azt\zl olag +s xd zl¤g 0l+61+ aes + 863) HJdJSE tsllgg AE "J+ '+g qLlzlE 7l{
    ^J4B+
    qElfl4. rel+ xdg Ai4 9l: qol Aqolrll AEe+ zJ$ ollL{zl$ z}zl
    ^Jillo,L4 +6= 4(=a
    itB6ll 6.27).
    "JE
    bog ¤tlE6}zl *6JtrI. :r-{a_71-#? {Bq AErl+ + *z}e+ +5"JqE, qq 48 ^JEil='fld"J+'. 471*
    a4g +.tLH= rll !$alzlE 6J+. E6J xCg jlqlq =
    q Bq.J EJ.JE = g
    ^J¤ ^¤
    d-Ellql^l HI4
    ^g ^Jqtr Es4l
    zlE %L^ldolss, 49.Jel +Solria 4. olqal + tlEllel Eq¤ azldiq NMR r-Elegg
    "l]E ^JE]4.J +tL ^fl
    9 zI49 + ilEl. fflEJl le8oLJ.}q 4BE zlTl *B B^J E:tr}. NMR deq ol+q: +^ldg r00-e00 uHzgl ol]
    (magnetic resonance imaging, MRt)o145 7l+g olTlaJ E r*d+ elqs+ ¤qs.E. xdql ol+q= "Jztg qlHzlE
    dE¤ T|zlr :lzl e+4. EI +l{ *4.
    MRI= 1e40Hql +Hlql gag 4zlzl *B(nuclear ++c ill._44 zlEJ 44g olfi fepl 7¤ cBol i
    magnetic resonance, NMR) ¤tl-g ol+6J+. 9E"ts NUn iolTl EllEql, +i qg
    MRr= +l6J Tlti ¤4.J *Hol ¤
    e s+ol +otq^1 z|{ fe'* E"}qt ,}HE a}42} 9fl4. 4. MRr= +A617l +l"]] i+4+ +i;J 471* oJstr EqrJ
    olag B:g flzl9 4ol {z}e} uftz}xle l*9 1tr9 ,* 4. ilzl.9 +q 4qe+ gqE +^tdel ffi(purse)g a^i
    aql 7la,*4. dx} uffizlzlE, 49 :fle. "JzI 6Ir, +A-aJ A= r+¤g azl$, E+ 54 ,Jolql q= azl
    =
    slElq il+. ql= ^S4
    Eq 'H9 43 ++4 -iE i zlzl zlt]| g gt}e+g f 914(:=;6.20. += zJolollr.l
    "ll+ aa4rll
    q.{ o}zh= rte + fl+. I +A E6J zl+.6tE-s, d-zlg4 e-e oJill Ll]+ ¤t}g E
    4g ¤so6l+ +A qg ulxl a}t}el qg 7t4^lH aE"* g + 91tri.
    tri. el+E g.Jol s+H ol +
    ^JEH= ag
    qlulzl$ zi MRI= ¤.I e]qq gat g6}.9 +flzl ql$ql, plolzl
    T1+. :aal+ qol ^¤
    q+ zlzl* 491 r +5! t Paul Lauterbur9[ E4o]a[tJ Peter MansfieldT] MRI=
    =4++E ^g ufl$
    e.l oJ6}ql q4 47ltr-ql *146}zl, E= HI4 graJ=ee zll$o;! gEg "Ja H.oI 2003Eql r.H
    ^JE.lelq4r-g +tI
    6tgtrl. ol zl¤9 7l* +de El+eE, ¤4 q+4e
    =
    -s ol+9= E=4t MRr C-Hl= rsg ol,golc1. 2000LJql
    MRI)+= zl$ol zll$rls.ErJl, olE
    oll PMRl(prepolarized
    S
    MRrq Hl6]l E{ xlH6.J tl-ElE ol-a-o6J + 9lg g olq4, ol
    +-e-QI d* 71714 q +Hg ¤-8-ol 7l+.6i+.
    I

    1/+\
    +¤ s+E4l:6.100
    ,f
    N
    c4 El 6H
    AE cl+
    oll NS
    Ll

    ^l tt
    (r) (-,
    l N

    t
    ^1718

    il
    SN
    Y
    +

    S
    \
    G. a
    t\
    \
    \--
    E{aH
    oo l
    g8 /&,.
    (a) elF rfzlB fiS (b) ej+
    ^t7t8
    LaA6.27 -"j 0l&7f^|e, 6]sl 4E IE-sf +3
    ^El d^le] ^rlr[
    g8/.l7l?, F THsl ,J=,*tsrL (a) el+ gl= ttll
    ^I.718=
    0ll= + ee qlLlrl= 7l'T]tL (b) el+ ^l7l5r0l ggdl- -:I''
    E el+ ^EldEHTI a3 EJ-Btg '\E sEil= EJLH .J-dq^1.71801
    ,^.8 afEllErl
    .J3 0llLlrl= 7l{]+. r 0llLl^l^f(AE)= lxfzl r.E=ael alllg
    ^l,7l8frl
    a.r.B 6.28 MRr gd g8= 0lt6|q E3 oJrJsl clal
    4 Eqoll 6ll'J-Lftl. 0ll r|l-d BdP ^l7l3E
    Ll, 7lE, gfE 44g Eq @MriMan/shuttersrock
    =+.
    6.8 E^lHll^l 259

    6.8 I tzl Hllil


    _sulB9 qlLJzle} pauli Hll4 grl"il *d zl49 ,*11 gzlE {z} uflzloll +6l] ++
    6ll trzi. flz}9 ¤+l zlzl sulg{ d{-E Hllg6}= %LHg gzlel Er] ullil(electron
    E-n d'J+.
    confi guration)
    Hlq tlql+r al-b szl9 TItr-.Jd+
    ^JEIg dzl.
    tsllil=d4¤ol ,ItI *g.llHzl t
    EIql gl+. dzt9 zl*.J oJzl+ {Iol 4l6J*4 seE, E= dz}: ,}t} *e "ilHzl tr4
    oJ ls sHlBql"J
    9lg 1ol4(:H 6.2s). aq4 Pauli EH4 g4= 6J eHlBql E9zlE d
    zt= 44 + 7]]alj1 96l] trI+^l 4 etslBe dxl F zlE ar+6}xl ?*sBd "ll9zl
    =+.
    zl*zlt*+ +^ls 4?]tl+. ql= Eq dzlzl ^Jl Tl]ql qE flzl-= ^84"11 -H.z(i.tJ flz|
    9 dz} += gz} HEe+ A+g Tlqq-+). rs eHl99 d^I F 7IlE +-s"ql+. 4l H"I d
    xlf Q$-q--e qlLlzlTt *g eElg, 4 2soll EqrJ+.
    {z} ullzli 4zlzl il= +ae zln= a-r., ¤7l]6}= a4E 7H+= +l ax}tr +EtL}]q
    .qa+6r + 91trt. qlE 4Eg ts22srol+. dzl E]]il= rl+zlH +E|E + 91trI.
    =q
    Li 1l 1

    1s%
    ol+l+ 3oF9 E^lHg eulg ss(srbitaldiagram)41 .Jtt. 4 sulBg qlr. tlzlE
    +4.llr, 4 dzlE HI+ sl¤e-e +4Ur+. g+eE oJeL Elgs(1)= "J+9 o},r
    i(*,: +1)= +4lllr, oI4E aJ* rl¤E(|, )= g+el oJzl.+( *, :.g ^g
    -i)Z ++U
    +. trI4^l olEl+ :t_4 6.26E zlzl* %16&9 ol-ooaJ dzl4g E¤Hg ql+61 s46I+.
    ol i zlzJ$ +4 +^Jsq %I6Jql q?+'^g-E(spin-up)'$',.-{-r}-$(spin-
    ^JEH=
    ^E
    down)'og +4gtrt.
    EI'I B|.J dzl-=ol ag eElgql *eE 4zlflr|(paired)4L "J6J+(1t). gdzt
    ^99
    (unpaired electron)E: Hlql \11-6Jq dzlc+ 4Az) 9+g Azlolq, qE g^I6 ts s-ul
    lS
    E9 dz} F zl]E 4+xl9r, zs eHlB9 d4+ gdzlol4.

    Hund 3zl
    olzll fla9 {z} ullzlzi +7lgsq^J q¤41 H6l+^l gElHzl..

    +a +4= Htq ^Jqlql^l ls eElBg d+61+ dz}'* 4lE zltl4.

    H 1
    1s1

    1s

    {zlgld dx}9 d99 .J94o14. rs eHlE9 tstq ^}4 d4-= ,\g-Q$e_tr


    E +48 ^E-g+ glzl"J, "JHlzlsE Edzl-E +Elur+.
    ^g-BsE
    srE ++ fliql eE+ dzt F ,l]E *=+. +E}] %1-.J9 dz} F 7ll= oJ sHlBg d+
    6iE--tr, gEg dz} F zl]E ts sHlBql 9r+.

    He 1l : 1.s2

    1s

    g$el dz} F 4= a H4l AAg Sd6l ifl+trI. olaloJ {x} ullzl},]|+ .J46}q, ,g
    Eol ElqI4 Hlgdg ++LIl= *421Yl4.
    260 63 g^19 d^[ +^

    x.6.3 E Ttrt 7tHl8. eJAot t^t Btl^l

    flA E dI}+ 9HIEJ ss crlHllil


    ls 2s )h 3s

    Li 3 1l 1 7s22sl

    Be 4 1t 1t ls22s2

    B 5 1l 1t 1 ls2zs2zpt

    C 6 1t 1t 1 1 ls2zsz2p2

    N 7 1t 1l I 1 1 ls22s22p3

    Ne l0 1t 1L lL 1t lt ls22s2zp6

    Na ll 1t 1t 1l lt 1t 1
    ls22s22p63sl

    EtE +Tlgsql^l quE +¤.ql 9lil6t= 4E q 4 zv\ g^E {z} ullzli E 6.3q1 9l+.
    Hrll gi 4Eq d4¤gqtrE, +J4+7l2oJ ^Jl H4l dzlE +*^l+711?l ilg
    ^Jl
    + dzlql Hldl qLlzlTl a7)l +7l6la-, e49 B+ 4?-lE rTll 6ztaJ4. olag 4E+
    Aeq 4zlzl i]|+lzl7l ^]+6JEI= ag +El$trl. +7lgs= BE "J i flFol, ?-lfi$
    +TlgEq ^l]Eg +719 rl40l4. ?-lEe "Je4 ++(r+)E a Hal flaol4.
    qlgErtE 4E +gq gA= ullHEol4, r dzt El]xl= 1s22s2olr+(E a.:). flz[ fls
    soJ +^E {z} uflil} rszzszzpto1q. +d Hall d4-= zs eHlBol u.f ill$lflzl ClEql
    2p e-HlBql illgltltrL 7H9 2p e_Hlgg 9lHzlzI -E+ esEs. 4Hzp stslBg e+
    ^ll
    oflr gx1z19xl tlE4.
    EJA +^= {e.* ^}+ql zlEE}t}. qd Hxl dxl-b 2p e-ElBql tsqo} +t}E ag g
    + 9t+. 4Ee d4+ olul {z} 6J 471iHgltl 2p eul$E E"lz}ot Bz}z olqE Bot
    9l= + ,llE +E e-HlgE $olzlo| rJzlz
    Hund #zl(Hund's rule)$ +q¤ 9-HIE$ AxlEol 4qrt ag /.gog flg q
    zP* *e
    quJxlE 4dEl+ ag
    "J++.
    ol49 dzl¤ol 7l+.d + gdzlE gleEJ:a oJq= 9olol4, ae +eaql 9l= gdzl
    5e ee ^g "Jzh= 7la4= 4g g"lel4. ol46J,JBss ul]gg dzl-= ¤q
    (parallel spin)olap ++. rqIr e 7l* *3 9lHzl= ,*= +i flx}el 2p 4zl F ^g zllE
    ag r*=r}. olp* zJol slElH azF=g s.6.37.1H rt= 2p e-ElBg d+6l]ot
    ^gg ^lE
    oJ+. HIE+ t4 Et gzl+ + ,ll9 r*=+.
    =idzl-=
    EI^, tlA, E=+gE! u[4[z[x]tr, H]E] tr-qlel eA= Hund *zloll E6]E Tl]el zp 4zlzl
    ^ll
    7ll9 42 zp sHlB¤- A++q. ola* 4E 4zlzl rL+ ae ,*: +.J.J ,J
    Hol4. 4}^e+ g+efle 44 +211e4 szl dxl-=.^ll ,ll9 2p e_Hlgq^gg
    ^ll ^ll
    al+lot aJq. olB7ll
    alB zp sHlBql 4d dzl¤ol gtr]l Elq, olag qzJl a.zollr.l E + glg 4014.
    Hund #49 d4¤ol stslgg a+6IE
    ^1tr
    Hlg6J+=
    ^Idql z4= E+. ^ls +E
    d4s=e 7P" 6J 6J B ,14= +zl6[q]r. 6]E_-tr dz[-dz] E]gol 44e+g+.
    ^J-tr
    6.8 I E^lHl1^l 261

    qFJl 6.7
    sHlB' tr nst tz,l Hllll

    fl^l'UE 8?]tA9 Cxf HH^l= 9.BlEf tr++ LIEILH^|9.. {t^el THoJl?


    =E^f= =
    TtlH
    1t 1t 1t
    gz} HEzl. solzl qlEd azl]E ]jz,E_ z*
    1 1

    E^lrl filq 4Ii=


    rB 6.2s= eHlgE {}=llE +4ur+. {z(qif 0}$ 1sk 2p
    =4.
    se sB)E ?l* *z rs .e_HIg(qlE. {}zle e¤)
    qlLlzlTl trI+^] dxt E\^l+ 1.2zs22pnol4. ol flxlL F ,|]g gdzt
    +El ^146[q 4+]T14. 4 sHlgg =14 dx] 2llvl^l +8. 7td4.
    B f 914(p"uli u1]4
    gelql tIL+). 2p eHlBg +99fr.21 =
    >EEqF{1
    qlEq 4tl $zlzl $z\z\ &nlzlb zJ eulpoll dzfT}6I+
    +7l8s.ql^l 2+71(Li+E Nezlzl)$ gA=+aJzfl ol{r
    4 (4S-B) EolzJ4(Hund +zl). 9 edzl¤ zlzli $r| H zl]tzl?
    Eol ?+4 zlzy zzll8l lsei 2s gHIBE 4zlol 5"lzJ4. ol (a) 3 (b) a (c) s (d) 6 (e) 7
    43 dzf 47n71
    ^)l
    49 2p p-ulBgl ?lE+ 6J+. Hund #
    > E=qm2
    4ql El+ rll zH9 sBlBql {z}zi u.f zlflAE{flzvl4 zp (a) Hlq *EIE +i(gz[ EE 14)e] dx] ullzl$ 4^le.
    -sElgql {zf$ rzflal B=+. trFe-- e_-tr LJI H4ll {z}i olul
    o) Hlq tr-qlE +r7I zlzl| ${xi} H zll.Jz].?
    2p 9-HlBg A++
    ^ll
    49 dz} + + ,l]e.l {x}e} $zlo u
    E q+n+ e4.

    +"+E {zf ufl:,1

    '-lleq A+, d{+ zp *44* Sd6l {g+(s 6.3).


    trI;+^l
    87HE dzr(+4(octe0)zt
    4lE4ql fl= ql4+ {z} ullzl$ r*Etr}. q+9 g^= gz} Hs llql o_tr, +
    '-lle ^E
    zlgsq^l AEg ?lA+ !lS9 dxl. ul]zl-E-r} :s dzl.
    ^llE+ ?zl= ^1416l+ fleol4.
    E tz11 11 ,*=+. AEs-l {xi ullzli q-e.ilH ,Jcf."}rtl +48 + 91tr}.
    Na: INe]3sr

    [Ne]9 zlgE ullgg rozl] {z} ullzl, l rszzs2zp6E ++U+. {z} ullzl$ fNe]zslz]g z1
    +6tts flz}9 4e.14 dxl9l +dg i*= aql E-g¤ 4e]4 dztE +E g^E sI
    =+. 1

    E4 ,lfql ¤6}.9 J
    =trI.
    *ql^J 4E:9 {z} ullzlg +E}d aq +e HJH9E EE dzl. tsHzlE ++E + 91tr}. Li
    gig +e+¤ {z} ulil(condensed electron configuration)q^l= *g flz} HE= ?*+ 7l lHel2sl
    11

    * tltl* ElgC 7li]9 {zl- u}lzlg ::}.o} zla.9l gEE ^l-&6}q +4U+. el= Eq ?.1
    Na
    [Ne]3s1

    E9 dzt H]]il= rI+4 zJol 44H + 9l't. 19


    K
    Li: IHe]2s1 [Ar]4s1
    3/
    gnE sBg ++g tlzlE EISC zl4l qd(noble gas core)olrJl ++. + q tr¤ Rb

    498 ol oJ+ 4aql 9I= AzlE 64fl$ flrt(core electron)4l '*trL tslgd zliIE q IKr]5s1
    55
    d+ dz} HI?ql ^]]+lzlq, flrlzl Er(valence electron)ql 6l= alel4 {x}(outer-shell Cs

    electron)E: Elql aq+ql +q*q. 7lq+ flzt(fl2| BA 30 E= r ola|)oll,tJ E= 3lel4


    [Xe]6si
    87
    d4* fl7171dzlolrl. ?-]EE +EB {x} ullzls} 4Ee-] +E¤ {z} ullrl$ Elr.H-ee Fr
    lRnlTsi
    r^1, ell + fl^zl Hli'* slo}4 deg 444EzlE .J + 91trI. r=g 5.J+ ¤Eilg
    =lq otTt=l f4
    4 44 {z} ullzl$ r*=+. .E-E.Jaq+(la gi= Elgc TlzI {x} ullrl 49q s e
    E-
    =PLl

    ElBq d4-3 1rll q ,+=+(ral 6.2e). are 6.29 ge4


    =+(+7tE
    Eel 1+)e.l+qe E^lHll^l
    262 63 3^19 E^l+4

    tol ++
    HlgC(189 7l4l ?l^oJ ol=+(1s22s22p63s23p\e AEq^J +719 Eql fl+.
    ^1416l+
    +7lgE 6 Ar 4*9 gi= fl4 Ha lroJ ee16.1K)ol+. E.= Elq4 Ca_s s_o}, E
    El-+e e$6l "JrJ;.] ++ glolEl. it+Ael Ceql +.J dqizl so1, gffi fl
    ^I¤-e.
    4zlzl s -qul99 4+61+ aol 5B$,a, 3d sHIBql ill+lzlzl ?++g "J +
    31e14
    ^E
    ?14. ¤zl9lrJ qlqzl +^l= +s eulBol 3dilr+ q *El(re 6.zs). 44rl E++E
    =+l
    +EE dzt ts;|zl= trls=4 rJ+.
    K: IAr]4st
    as eulBg Sd6l il]+ E|¤-(ol a++ zJ¤: flzl."llrl g^J.Jtrl) 3d sElBg 4g+(ol

    49 *exl ql+.il 9i= +7lgEE +16rB E+ol g aol$. r.lzla|$ o[$


    ^+Eq^J
    vl^l+ s/l zd sHlgg sd6l ill$ ullzlzl &zltl Ezl¤4. ol+r,ll 6l]^J +7lgEE r-ll H
    4 AzlY *E + zll9 izl.H-4 flizl l04l q *4. ol lo7llE fl48 EolflA(transition
    element) E= E0!fr,{(transitionmetal)ol4.I..J4. ?zl¤E + ol g^=el +lzlql ++
    6[+.
    Hund 74oll ui4, dol giE {z} ullrli szflel -EE sHlBq 4zlzl4?f * 414 il]
    914 rllzlzl la gulBql dzig4. rq-¤- +7IEl= dzlq $ofl :-go1 4zl9zl4, :a _e_

    ulBol ill+lTltrI. + Tl,.l dol fli9 +EB dzl. El]TleI sHlB Es s^lBg ++r+
    *L+.
    4s 3d

    Mn: [Ar]+s23ds E= [Ar] lt 1 1 1 1 1

    zn: fAfl+s2zdro E= IArl lt 1l 1l 1t 1t 1l

    3d eHlBol A}zlg dzl-=tr r.f


    rfl$lxlp gz} dE 36oJ rBE(Kr)el q+ dzl¤ol
    $d6l *4^l@s24pu)E "J+g flnlzl 4p sulBol il]glzlTl ^lzI6J+. zBEg HlgC 7l
    illel E EIE giolE|. Tulg(nb)g;21$*q4 s+7) fliE ol 49 *_*21
    ^lzlolr+.
    .J+ql il* izlgeE +^l '*H +a6I+. +d d4l +7lY n fiol 1ol rl ag 4le_16[
    E, gel ?zl4 E= Aol El+6I4.
    =

    t
    aJEl.Js_rl
    +TlBEsl -"g= Eqe -=t tttl, 6s 9'ul=nl5d 9.HIEJ 6 q! A0l Erl iflq^E7l'?

    EElt-+
    +7lgE9 qd, H4l ?zly [x.]6r,9 {z} ullzl$ z;3 ,rllf,(cs)4 txelalg dzl. tsl]il=
    z1-- uls(Ba)oE afzluJ +TlgEql #qa 5 Eol gln, r ol+.el gi(s7-70
    ^l+oJ+.
    H)E sg.l +7J o}4ql 9l= a"il +q6r4. olag 4/e-tslgol Eq7l7l *ol+.
    ^1416l=
    4/s-HlBql* 3q^J -3zlxl 6l+q= mr*77lall6llB6l+ +trlg 77l]e-l e-Hlgol 9l+.
    trI4^J 4/e-ElBg E+ 4+EJE 147HE 4zlzl gs6}4. 4/e-ulgg iH+= 147H g^E
    E= EIEE flA(rare earth elemenO+r .J+. zl+a +
    a-lElLJ= flA(lanthanide element)

    zlg$E qtlg ,1617l +16ll +4H+ gd$g +E g^5 Eql EEs ts}]il6J4. *4uJ
    + g^E d{.$ E+ Hl*6tr, zf$4ql Er4l ¤xl|.J4. +ElH+ fl^Eg dzllE s*5
    .J ts46lzl *61*.9+.
    6.e I t^l HH^le| +7lEs 263

    sulBE qlqzl= fll$ zl$zl Eil+ql +4'J+E dz| Hlizl= sd A^lE E+oJ
    4fe+ sd
    q. qE Eq +4H(ra), .tllE(ce), g+^leqE(Pr) gaE {z[ uflr]].]4e] e+.
    [xe]6s25dt lxelos2sdt+1t 1xe1os2+1:J
    aJEFJ sal^llgtrlE
    ^1lE
    LaE rzllel sd ga4¤ tlzlu tr, rEq clqt4 ce qlEql 4lxll dol g^ 4lgE
    ^lzl
    sE^l oleE(v) olEllql f-r1, ce= +4H+s.l
    ^lzlql
    ++. rq+ rEq p+qt4 cd trl]
    E9l LaE +4H+E z"i¤. gte ,J+qI+. olBl'* HJEeE Ejlgg +4'J+el g^Ee
    4E qlE s.l 9q]4t,JHstr 4/s-Hlgg iHg+.
    +4'J+ q+q dlxll dol g^ 4lgg gd6l sd sHlgg il+j1, 6p s-HlBg il]+l +
    zlq 4E(Rn)q^l g+rl, 4E+ 7l* +4& Hlgc Tlill g^ol+.
    +7lgsE trIzlE at)Y zs julBg ill+E^l .(l$a|.$ull, olag EEIE= fa
    (actinide element)efi1 i;la, 7l* * geJtl ?]i= *etb(u, Sz] Ha e2)r+ g+trE
    (pu, flzI HE 0a)o1r., s/eHlgg iHeE|. qqts+ gi= %L^rd giolil, rEE q+
    Ee z}¤Alql^l gaqzl ?+=+.

    6.e ltzlHl|ilsf ryEf, 86.4 2+rt 13+ flael trt


    +7lgsE 54q g^E {z} ul;l$ ++61 ++9+. +7lgEE *? + g^E 4q4 Hfltl

    (flztzD dzl. HllTleI +Hol gl+. ql= 5q E o.a4 ?ol z4 fl^53 tf rs2el 4q4 )-4.

    dzlHllzl= z*t,r34 flcE=e linsznpt944lq4{z}ullzl$r*E+. ol4l zr 4k+4 Be [He]zs2


    +ql^J o}4.E. LllelrJql ui4 6zI.J4. Mg [Ne]:-'r
    s. o.zgl! E i qlFol, ,+ 44ql9I= sHlgE + ,ll+: n2(r, +, e, 16)r+ ztfi. z] e Ca [er]+s2
    ulBql= d471F zl]4
    ^1]+14
    i 9lo ,,e., 4 44ql il]+ld + 9l= dxl+ zn2(2,8, 18, Sr [xr]-;r'
    32)4olr+.+TlgE9 4?zlzl2,8, 18, 327ilE gi=EE|d+agE61l+rlgsE + Ba [xe]os2
    as" ol4t dz}9 zllfE Eq +g g + glrf. f.a 6.30r+ aol +7lgE= eElgg il] Ra [Rn]z-'r
    +E+^Jql qu+ ql zflsl fgeE +hqTl+. g+ql +¤4o-+ e6l]Tl + 7nq +ol 9l l3=
    q. .JaEl ++(l+)4 "Jaq tr++(za)olap .JEJtl o]5 ga= gz}Tl s sHlBg il] B [He]2s22p'

    ? gdEol4. ol F +ol izlgs9 s 7.9s +c.Jtrt. A1 [Ne]3.s23p1


    =
    s-E+ql= $$-.':,-!og I6zl] +9 +qol 94. olES 4E49 p sH]gg i]]+= fl Ga lAr)3dto4s24pl

    ?zl¤g 6 s 794 p +qg # f.^(representative element, main-group In [Kr]4d105-rr5pr


    ^EoltrI.
    element)4-l oJ4. Tt lxe)4yta5d1o6s26pt

    ++ 34
    1 1"s 1s
    a- 2p
    2
    rln I -a
    J 3s 3p

    4 4s 3A 4p
    r fc4 =4
    5 5s 4d 5p

    6 6s 4f 5d 6p

    7 7s sf 6d 7p

    Is eul=J n,f ootg ffid sal? Ep eulg

    arg 6.30 +7|EEE qal gq E^P[ eHl=CIl +7lEl= +^]= fl+ 910il^l g+0il^l s-_o.E ?]ts*.
    ^l+6lq
    264 68 3^l-sl E^I. +I

    rH 6.30q1^J efllzla! og
    a4{ +qg Eole+g s6J6}= l0zl +9 +qolr. ol5
    g gzIT| d sHlBg 4++ giEolrl..
    ?zlsE9 +rJoHql *rJ4"+ eqTl l44lE ++7171il4. ol gase zwf 7
    q ffi(fblock metal)olzlL ++. /+qe +rJg ¤ol7l fl4 q++9 +TlgEql^l +71
    ¤s ot49l 971.J+.

    rI 1 18

    tr
    2
    J
    4
    5 )
    6
    7

    4 +qq + += 4 +44+ 4qE i]]++ dzlfc+ "Jilqi+. 2, 6, t0, 14 +^1+ 4


    z) s, p, d, f +449=_ Cq4rll xllf-= dzti4E 49 zl9o[4. q4^J s 799 249 +
    $ zlzlr., p +qg ezll, d +qe rozfl,17qg 14219 4+=2144. rqil rB 6.30q1
    44H,Fol, rs p?dg d4l s f{{olr, 2pE 4rl p +AAolr, 3dy AA d +A4ol
    a-, 4fr {r't f +4401+= {s. z1qop1. olEl+ ol+6t8, +Tlggql^lE fl
    ^}ds$
    iq gil"ll ul4 dx} tsl]^l= 7l+g + gltrl. +7lgs= sulgq 4l+lxl= +^-l= g +
    glE zlz! +e qlql^l"Jg zlgtl4.
    ¤4li=(se,flzI Ea :+)9 dz} EH^l= +7lgE= ol+6l.q 7l+6ll BZt. E^l seE sgl
    9lzl^l7lr., segl *^Ji ulgc zl^ll"1l Egg fllzlzl fttl$trE tr14 gzl Hs 34,33,
    32 Eo e-e, 4¤qrJ+. ol A+ql= flxI Ha 18oJ ota+(Ar)ol Segl *^l= ul$rJ zlxlloll
    EI+^l se9 Elgd 7liil qdg [er]o14. q+ +zl= 494(flzlz]) dx]91 4
    "llB,*+.
    ,* zl¤o14. olag Ar ul-$gl 9z16l= erl6{rc, flzl trE leH)ql^l ull Hall
    ^lz+6lq
    ?zl$ trI4 sez1x1 olt+q 7l+++.
    1 1B

    1
    tr 2 T
    2
    H lan,\l
    J A;
    Tlill -"ic
    4 Se
    5
    'u
    6
    7

    I
    I

    K= 4Hxil +719 s 7991 +lil6l.!-e, zl+ + ,liel 4e.14 dzl+ +s dzt*q


    ^1416[q
    +s24.::. zl+6J + gl+. rr-lr d TE " + Holzl-r.J 3d 4^l7l il]glzlzl rlzl*4(zB o.:o
    qlde+ ztol, d +q9 iolz145 *d s f$e-l +oJzr-+B+ aJ;xi rol 44). a 799 zI
    -+uleq 4^171162fl rJallzll, olE 3dr0os 7l+g+. ulzluJg-e., s 79rI +J^l+71
    6.e I I^lH|]^lef +7lEr 265

    ,J2 p +qg zl¤*4. +7lgsE dJ rJg d7.I 17}]-E


    ^J46IE segl EB6J ullzfzl rll zll

    4 4zltl g.q-6}r., ol= 4p4E zl¤d4. trI4^J se$ {zi Hl]iIE ltr)+s2tdt0+pnol4. ol
    dz} tsIzl= +i4+71?zlal* +^1tr Arltdt0+s2qpa-+ z16qz1E' a3r1.
    {z} ulf zl$ +oJ6}71 +lul] [A'] edE 4x1 rszfle] 4s, 3d, 4p +44E {z}el zllf$ rJ
    t4. ol dz} 4f9 6J(1s+2+ l0+4 : 34)g seE gzl Hn 34e+ oJil6llo} il+.
    \l qFll 6.8
    /Z ,J +E {xl uilil
    1 7+ gEEl g^el g^[7[ d^l Ht|^lol +1?]71?
    =¤g
    6ll'J uftlzlzlE, + {rll 6Jstl gioJ gAq +"+¤ {z} uflil
    E4zt 4lq Hxl ?zl&sq1,t1 ;3e4lel fl18 qt* 4-9, qq=r+ 44.
    zl+ F flrs-l {zl ullzl$:aJ + g} .JH}4"J + =
    ^tolel Cl: [Ne]3f3ps

    ^I^dg
    +ol¤ + 9l+. + zlzl {e.+Q gE{lE flz}z} {1} tsllzl qCe
    olelql
    Eot ele4i+E a E4l g^= ¤+sfloltrI(F, sz} Ha ns2nps*i ag g + gl4. ¤zl"1l,r'l r3 5FefloJ 4.+9
    s). pqlrl 4¤4 g4zlH ElgC Tlxl qdol [se]4E 4g 2+q o}^4ts.J A+E 6vl7l9 ftg r*=+.
    *g + 114. He9 49 Szl Hgql 6ll'J6I= +l^= gzl- > .H.6 qFtl
    Hs 3ql EIE(Lilol+. elEe + d4l fzl9 s *991 ?lil
    1

    al94 dzlg dz} u]]^l7l ns2np6ol gr= El-e-5t +i..J


    op-E 2s +U eq + 7l]E dzl¤ +lil^la+. olts 2s2-E -*
    7l?
    B¤+. +Tlgsq s=-e*e 5a-z{91 r$al ullz}zl zJ
    g (a) Be (b) Si (c) I (d) Kr (e) Rb
    e42ps7l g+. trI+^l +E¤ dzt El],.l
    ^Iq =+eflq > H.Eqffi2
    +g-r} eq.
    = qE +9 gaEol ns2npz 494 dzlg dxt ts]|il +Cg
    k lHe)Zszzps
    7*Y7l?

    qEl 6.e
    ffi +71ttr¤ ol{.i! flzf uflil
    (a)fzlE.E'oll,\lg Plil0ll=715[q, grl-flE 83oJ ul.r+=g +qtB dxfu1r6 u119.
    (b) Hl^+E ol )lloJ7 l?
    =d^l-= =
    rtlS
    (a) Hzl ulgC zl^ll edg +=+. gz} Ha 83$ ull.+e gzl Hn 7rE +l^= d +qE H4l 6ql +lzl{I+.
    ^ll
    +Tlgsql +lil^144. a- ir- 71^t zlz|$ ul$rJ zl d +qE a Hal 6e 3dq o[c]a[E-e.. + H4ll ¤? qa,
    = *oI 4¤4 94ztH gzt HE s+9 zll|(xe)oll E H4ll sdql ql'J6J+. trl+^l d *gg zl44 flzt
    ^ll=
    gaJtrI. tr|4^l Elg.c zlzll 4d3 [x"1o14.
    ^ll =e
    BE zrglrl 80e-tr ol+6[E sd +44qlroz]l$ z$z]z[

    ++gtr xeoll.! Bivl^l +7]t&-*= tr}4 gzl HE= r119qXq1sa,).

    +71^l7JLl. xe9 rl-s gz} Hsql gx} Hn ss9 csE flzl Hsssoll.! 81-tr olF6|q p +qg ap *44
    6+7le) s 7991 flilEltrl. ol +7le+ 7q$ uleje-e * 9l dzlzl tzfl 21191111-1, +qE +oJ4++ s *99 f
    o}^l+e+ a4= ag 7lq6I4). Bi4zl oltr6l4 :zH9
    4tl 444 d^l-= ts]]ilal +eae osol4. s +qg 4+
    4 zzIg {z}z} zllfl{l'1101). 4zlzl ^]j?1414(op3). zlfrtlzt! 4Ag +ql+$, +
    s *99 zlq gzt Hs. s7-e. ol5l6tH izl$+ oplg
    qt¤ dzt u]lzli [xe]6s'47'nsd'06p3o14. olE +444
    /+qql +lil++./+qE A H4l ¤*sf +Baql 6ll'J +"t^l+71+7I6tE +^.lE aB6hq s¤Ei +E gl+
    ali, ol *gg 444 1444 4471iHgltl4(4/'). (lxel+yt 4 s dto e s2 a p3) .
    266 63 fl^lel E^l+^

    dz} tsl]ilql^.ig 4zlizl Biel $z|


    Elzlrl+e_tr, +"+6c E z1z1ue. {z} 211i5 s4+2+14+r0+3:a:(uJqr t+
    Hs arr+ rJ9zl $qlaJ4. xeE s+zll(9z} HE)9 dz} zll! 1j.tlzl ++o}+E/+qg ^J+6lqg aol+).
    1. a
    1
    2
    2
    J

    4
    -d Hlgd
    5 Xe zlill -"jC
    6 Bi
    7

    4fc14 -

    (b) +E¤ dzl EHTI= ¤qtrE ep *44"J ++4etr iH9] > sr* qld 1

    4 gltrl. ol +eag sBlE tr+++ L+E+48 ++n+ aq. tulgd z\\l) sszadt0sp'9 dzt uflzlg zlzli gA= +g
    6 *q.JzI?
    1 1 1
    (a) Cd (b) Te (c) Sm (d) Hg (e) C-E-zt +-=-6Iq oJ
    +
    cHo
    Hund 7zl9l ul4, :zl]9 op dzlE ^ll ,lE 6p eHlBg E E

    17H4 ztzl6l-4, r=E dzt ¤46I+. trl+^l Hl > H.5 qFit2


    ^Bg
    ^+E +lztqlts:211E gdzlz} ?i4. +71+E=
    ^l-9.o
    6lq q-g flaE +e+¤ dzl. ullzl$ &^le.
    (a) Co(flzlF]E27) (b) In(Szl dE +s)

    :Is E= g^ql qlql 4q4 dzlg Blq ^J4 dz} Hllzl= Hq


    6.319 ol EE d
    =q.
    z| uflzl$ g+E rI dlElg q.J6[= u]l lf +$ 6tz[. q7l^]= dz] tsllil= +]4+71+
    7[6]= +^JE sBlBg ,t{,1^l 7l+6}94. gxll 6.eql^li.lH, sElBg +TlgEql^l gl-dzl
    +^.lE E¤6J +E 9l+.
    = :H 0.:tglr] {z} ullzl-} ga}7} {z}(valence electron)9 ,HHg zll$qla}E$ +q. ql
    E Eq cl([Ne]3s'z3ps)oll.! Br([Ar)zdt0+s2+ps)o]l oleTlvlTl Ar9 ed+ dzl¤ 4+r 4l
    E+ 444 3d 4^l7l +Aee gd6l 4]g+. 3d 4471 494 Aeql qgzl4E :14
    Eg +o+ a6Jql +q6I4 *=E|. :a+loe. lE=g ?xtz\ dzlE ?J+q4 g+=+. rqE
    -tr Br9 asel +p dz}"Jol szlzl dzlE ,J+g+. +^[6]rll Ag(sz] HE az)4 Au(fl2f fl
    a zs)g dz} ts]]zl= Elj1.6I] -H-E, eu Elgc 7lz]l ed Flql sd6l q * 4frn *44+= zl
    zl= HlHql, ol +/dz1-e=3 A6Jql +q4zl ?+=+. 'JHi4eE ++ flael dol **oll^l
    sa6}4 4+l{ d eulgq-TsElBE dz}+ gx}7} dz}E ++6}zl ?}=+.
    ,J44oJ {7,1-Hllil
    :H e.:rg zi.$lal ¤qBE, qE flaE {z} ullzli,J+ ¤H'J +zlql^J H.q+= ag
    E+ gz}
    914. qlE HiL24oJ rtr-Eg dzl tsl]il= l/Ir)zt+s2zl olrJl, l{rlzds+sl
    =q
    olr|. uftzlzlE, gx} HE 2eoJ 749 dx} tsllil= lxrlzde+s2zl olqn, [Ar]:d10+slo1r4.
    ol4,* qlel4.J et}e 3d* as _sHlg qqzl 4ezl1dAl uH99zl trIEq +Ei
    =+l7l
    ++. rs#^lH +qg sElBg Aq6r4l Hlg ^llg dzl¤ 7le ql+, +qxlH d +44
    g E+ illg tril 7l# ol+i+ ¤ttol 44t4. ol9+ ee Btr-e +4+ dol ++ol 4d eBl
    9ol4 sd e-ElBg ++4e-e alg ull+, /+qq ++ql^JE zl+ ts^J.J+. qltlql^J Hq
    += olqoJ zlol= +ul glTl= 6lzl"J, p+E4 "E.z7ll +s_6lzl= *+.
    6.e I tr^lHH^lef +7ltE 267

    el rl?7i g6ie,
    ^[dol
    7lg e0f6lk.g^b [Hlg¤ 7l^11]6s24f145#E Exi HflxlE lb.qr -dq. ol flab +g?l7l?

    1A
    1
    8A
    18
    1
    H 2
    1s1 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A He
    2 13 L4 15 1.6 17 1s2

    -"-4C
    J 4 5 6 8 9
    Li Be B C N o F
    lHel '2s1 2s2 2t'2p' 2t'2p' 2s\p3 2s22p4 2t'2pu

    11 12 8B 13 1.4 15 17 18
    Na Mg 38 48 58 68 7B 8 9 10 1B 2B AI Si P S CI Ar
    lNel 3s1 3sz 34567 11 12 zs23p1 3s2ip2 3s2gp3 3s23p4 3s23ps zs23p6

    19 20 21. 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 3/. JJ 34 35 36
    K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
    4s\d1 4s4d7 4s2zdlo 4s23d1o 4s23d1o 4s23d1o 4s23d1o 4s23d1o 4s23dlo
    lA.l 4s1 4s2 4s4d2 4s2zd3 4s13ds 4s23ds 4s23d6 4s23d8 4s13d1o
    4p' +p' 4t3 4pa 4ps 4pu

    J/ 38 39 40 41. 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
    Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
    tKrl 5s1 5s' 5s2M1 5s24d2 5s24d3 5s14d5 5s24d.5 5s14d7 5s14d8 5s14d1o ss24d1o 5s24d1o 5s?4dro ss24d1a 5s24d1o 5s24d1o ss24dto
    5p' 5p' 5p3 5p6

    55 56 71 72 /3 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
    Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta w Re Os Ir Pt Au He TI Pb Bi Po At Rn
    lxel 6s1 6sz 6s24f14 6s24ft4 6s'4f'n 6s24f1a 6s24714 6s247,1a 6s24f1a 6s14714 6s14f1a (rs2474 6s24f1a 6s24f1a 6s24f14 6s24f14 0,1*f'^" gli{.':,
    s;1 sa2 sa3 saa 5d\ 5dh sd7 5d' 5d10 slo 5d|%pt 5dt66p2 5dtt6p1 5d\%p4
    87 88 103 1.04 105 106 r07 108 109 110 111 L12 113 t't4 115 716 117 118
    Fr Ra Lr Rf Db Bh Hs Mt Ds Cn Nh FI Mc Lv Ts Qg.
    tRnl 7s1 7sz 7s25fta zszsfla 7s25114 ,i#,^ 7s25y1a zs2sfla 7s2511a 7s25f1a ,rtF,,
    .;e
    7s25f14 7sz\f1a 7s2sf14 7s25f1a 7s25fra 7s25fta
    6d1 tu12 od3 oia 6d> oi! od7 aag ou 6d10 6d1d7p1 6d1d7p2 6d107p3 6d1n7p4 6d1t7p5 6d1d706

    57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
    EIEt'J+ La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb
    6s25d1 6s241 6s2473 6s2474 6s2475 6s2476 6s2477 6s24f7 6s241e 6s241to 6s24711 6s24712 6s24713 6s24714
    lxel 5ilt si'
    89 90 91. 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102
    e+Elts+ Ac Th Pa U No Pu Am Cm BK Cf Es Fm Md No
    7s2d1 7s26d2 7s25f2 2s2573 zs26fa 7szsf6 7t'V' zs2sf7 7s257e 7s2s710 7s25711 zs2s712 zs2sf13 7s25y1a
    tRnl 6d1 6dt odl odl

    f4 x-^
    EE= Ble+
    O-

    afeJ 6.31 flA9 6lcl4 E^l Ht|^l

    Ni. pd, pt= -E+ ee +orrr. ral 6.3ror^r or ?^=, E^r-H,,^r= s*?.r-ers-+ur, or +
    H0ll^l ndel + 1)s eHlEJol 0llLl^l= oltr rJzlTl9lq.n
    (n + ?l=71-?
    I =ExlE

    8GJ qHI
    ENUH
    119=
    z]z] 19.9o/oe1 80.1%oltl. (a) F Tlrl EPI flA=
    fl^l flE soJ EA= + 7l^1591 fl^+ '0Bl[
    ^l.E01l =rt|clzl
    =^H-dt[.
    olEzl Ll=71? 10Bzl.11Bsl d^l-HH^l= o]E-Ell rl-=71.? b) fl^tel erlg E^l.utl^l EE'= ral^19. olu aol fl^1.71-E
    118
    ^l.P
    (c)Ei q 1se[2s E^l=01 rfE 6-9.-d 0l+ Tlxl= (d) EA E4= uJ8olG BF3 7l^]l= trJ=tf.
    ^loJ7l? ^'tl ^l4dlll9. =+9aJ4
    rillE^e[=+gal 7l^11 EJ8e.l EE "J='J84E ^ 119. (e) BFgG)"| AHr'g -1135.6 kJ/mololE[. E ei=+galol U30ll^1
    EC fl!=tr| Eal.= Z1116l-^19. (0 10sr.e[11er.0]1.^j FE traJ H-qEE3 ,J?)l? +e+8, r ol+= +%.oJ7l?
    268 SB| 3^lel 8^[+4

    Bilff oldol gl+. 4.41, r, _sElBg zs eulBB4 glHzlzl *


    (a) Bi9 + E+l gA= qql 9l= +CzI+z} QEr[ re tr}. 841, qss+El zs dz}9 ¤+ rlr-l= rs dzlBrl rl
    (2.24. z.+4). + E+l fliE szHg "J¤zl-= 7*=+. =rr + ts
    gHlgg zs 9ulBE4 zI+. Call, zs 9tslBg
    'oB
    E sz19 +4^1, "n= 02119 +d4-=,*=+. +iE + 6J rl]E
    "lq= r*jr, ls eElBS ulrlzf fQ(zH 0.rs).
    E+l gr= Fg+ rs22s22pt4 {z} ull;l$ ,*=+. ell+ (d) +¤ ElqI HI¤:^13 ++n+ rJ+.

    + E+l fli= 5Tl]E d4-= z*zl ullEol4.


    6IH 2B(s) + 3Fz(g) 2BF3(s)

    (b) SCg e-HlgE dzl HHxl= Els-r+ AEl. (e) AIf :2(-ll3s.6)-[o+o]: --2271.2 klola, H]¤+ ,J
    q+ gg q}*o14.
    1t lt 1 (0 al :.ro(:.:¤)9lrl 'J i gl=ol, qH Eeg 7C fla
    1s 2s 2p $e] A+ EEgg clql^l=Jq "+4 g4{+. + Eg g
    glxleu+oluiEgl(,0s: to.ot294 amu, 11B:
    4gzl
    flzlz| {zlg 4E+ aag dz}olr}. rs2 dzt
    zs2e} zpt ^$
    11.00931amu), 10BF39| "BFrE plg}4=Jg +e+. 44
    E [He]44 s¤q= qd dz]s +qi¤ dz] tsl]7l= +
    3.loql^l +^I= E6[zl gJ:zlrrJ +E7[ E+zlgtr
    44H Lselzs2zpr o1 4as grf. ^'l ^l
    (c) lse}2s eElES E+ +eol+. rq+ +s'J.{l z}zl zf
    {r.t 4E9s B+TlEl.
    =+9flg

    eE "i es Eq
    "!ol El8al IIE+(^1E, 6.1E) g^IE drl 7=(electronic tl-. ol E¤9 +i fl^l qlqzl=
    #Sri#(principal quantum
    structure)t qlq^le} g^fE dal El]il¤-¤B6J+. ql+Eg qr+ number)4t n,,191 93dll. n4k9..J9 ti(t,2, 3, ...)olo|
    E,Jel ^Js +¤¤ +A4q Ee g^I9 dzl +eE "J + 9lEl. o1_r., rg ,+ ,,*+
    ^ls +E 5d+
    qlqzl E,ql 6]l'J*El. gz} ql
    7f^l+dr+ 94 zlzl +^I qlq^lrln "JBjd trtzt +ri,U Llzl= nol 67t6J++ 6zLaJ4. ,l* *! qlq^l= n:r4 4*
    (electromagnetic radiation)$ c:2.998x t08 m/s9 qq +EE oln, olag +f gzl9 upJ fEll(ground state)4r 6JEI. E rl
    tl+g F6ll olE"6J4. dz}Tl +^I.tJg sISilH +7l4oE H6I E " ?,IZ gz}9 # dEfi(excited state)91 61lBBJtr]. d^l-=ol +g
    d7l4 ctsa} zlzl4 cE¤ ,*=+. +^L qlq^lel irl.tL 5^J qLl^l dr-ele 4Bjg ql qg HJ=-JLI. *
    = "llHzl t4"llrl *g
    g uJfJ(wavelengrh, n)rl tlE#(frequency, u)-E ¤HaJ + gln, 3 9lHzl ^JEUql^l +g qlLJxl *4e dzl¤ol # ql Hg g+
    i,u: c9 +AlrI 9l+. tL+. ,J+ E= ¤-++ q9 dE++ hv Ttol g^lE + Tlzl -d+
    grlitE ollLlxlel Brt(6.2tr) PlanckE olrlal $zllzf gZ+ g tL4 ,JE qlLlzl il-e+ eg "I qg %r-=6I4Ll ¤+6JEI.
    g + 9l= 4^E +^I9luJxlb +^IdE 41F+e+ E:hvg sAl EEelEl.Ei8(0.aE) De Broglie= dxl-s+?9 g4o1 ffi$ zJ$
    7f glEln all.J6l-flE1. o1q+ :z,la$g qlLlzlE Btr](quantum) CeS +r}Ur+n 8loJ6f9+. EEiil(matterwave)9 ,Hg ¤E
    +.7 6J4. *+ h¤ Planck S(Planckconstant)4tr 6|-L, /,: 4 oe d^l sl¤g +e4q +8619+. EiI= r Ez]E ee
    6.626x to-34 1-solu1. (momentum), a \: hlmv4l 9l=61= 54 i+1rg ,*=tl.

    "J,++qj1, olag qE
    oJ^I olEql^l 9lHzlE -"1¤: Zt"J zL¤ Heisenberg9 EEltl¤ Elzl (uncertainty principle)$ +E 6J d^I
    + glrl= 19 9"1{14. EinsteinS ++ EEql^l qoe dzl-E e,l u+*
    ^JaE
    gde oJzte.l gile} ¤+=6tg E^lql ga6l+ a
    qlq Lil: EJd Eat(photoelectric effect)9 ¤¤ql "Jzl olEg elsE ts¤a_sg zllaJaJrlr al4"J+.
    ^l-S
    6l-9+. r= qol ufil tfil(photon)4L .J^t qlq^l +tstr +C
    g^t q-47t 9Hl=J(6.5tr) +i flzlE "J^l- qq} esoll.! {z}el
    g ailH zlE"+E}7 4 "J^IE E:huq qlLJzl= 3
    H}6k}
    ^ll"J6fgEl. Zl# q= #(wave tunction)4E +CI4 6J+E ¤E6Ii1, rr-l
    4 E^l0tr E7l6Jrt. 4 6l+ E+¤ Ct+= aq6l4l .Jzlt1 qlq^l
    +4 flxtotl^lsl Bohr -E'E(6.3$) +^l-dg ¤B :lltleE E4I6I dx}gzlE e+4r]l + H-2. s_alq +49 q
    =,*zl"J, =Ag
    s +nl=El(spectrum)g ^Jc++. ^uleflol EE rltg g6J6f A.J Aql q¤, f ffi density, ,1,')a
    "JE(probability 4
    H e!+ r4EgJ(continuous spectrum)olz|-tr 6Jr+. qB 5+6J ,l- ={g
    484. trt=JE(electrondensity) eE= *+E E= dql^l dz}
    a-EJ I '^EEHg fl +a:l=aJ(line spectrum)olz|:z oJ Ed9 4sol4.
    =4l6lE,
    trf. EE +i: g^fql^l ,J¤'J +^idg d
    ^JC+E+. +^ g^IE -"1+ r++ ++= eHt=J(orbital)ol3ln 6J+. 6J sHl
    BohrE d ^EEH$
    ¤g6f: +i fl^}g EBg zlloJd}H Be ^-ll TIzl oJzI+ ilql dl'J6I= a+el +alE 46Jq_E ¤H+
    ^EEBS
    *+ 5a 269

    trl-. +olz}+ ne r,2,3, ...E a+tr +4u+. ol olzl+= sEl + gz}


    "e +4f+. Pauli rllElS4(Pauliexclusionprinciple)i
    gE a7l "t 9lHzlel zt* 4d4 "e *4lz| :14. 4eEEIerrl+ ql q:F ,llE dzlzl E'J{} n, I, m; m,1i9_ 714 + S.+7 ¤
    (angular momentum quantum number, /)i- s, p, d, f +^le Ll BsL4. ol g4ql^J= qE flzl sElgol= d+g+ 9l: dzl+
    44r 3,...E #q 6llB6J4. I olz145 eHlB Eo&g A
    o, 1,2. + 7lle 4lei*+. olqoJ F {zlf r.ltr u}E m, r,}g r*EEl.
    A"Jq. "JA+ n LLA tZ oglrl (n - t) H99 CfE z*E4. rtzt Erl ullilgt +7lEE(6.8tr, 6.9tr) el flzl-9 dd ullil(electron
    ?Irl#(magnetic quantum number, mi)E 09 E6J6lol -/ql^l I
    configuration)= fl^I9-Hlgql 9Bzll dul-=ol $salizf$ ¤
    H+lE C+E r*=+. ol4 azl= eHlB ul]aj$ E.rlp ul
    q. qE Eq tllg 3p e-ElBg -sBlgol ullaj$ f$ +44E ^F&qI B'J+. Hlq tr4 dzl. Ee= gE]4e_e 4 eHlBql F zl ol^J
    ^ll du|E zI¤ + S+b zlloJ$ ol$a|{ ,|t} *.$ qlLl^]g gz} s_
    oI4 azle+ dJ4l tp.,3py, 3pz4- Lt4U+.
    Hlgql da|= -aE4. su;g es(orbital diagram)g ol+6lq d
    dz} dd3 3s,3p.3d44 rJZ n r,l3 ol+61-q sE gHlBg zf ul]zlg rflq. dzl¤ol zp +444H +qg 9HIBE +A¤
    +4U+. +^ g^Hl^l 4^1449 -EE eElBg zJe 9lHxlE
    ,*=+. +4fl(subshell)$ 7JZ n4 I ,tg ,*Y 6.J zll ol{rel 9ul
    4lqle q= A+{n sr14 ffi(Hund'srule)3 ¤EaJ+. ql= E
    Btr +C¤+. ql= 5q 3s,3p,3dY n:z 449 Pddol4. s q E^g Hlq ^JEll 6 F zll9 zp 4zly ee .{g 7izlq. F
    +aee vIl. p *44? 34, d +44? s?1, f +44e zzll4 e 4el +e 2P eHlBg d+aJE+.
    Elgol gl+.
    +7lgs + qE +9 g^Eg alq4 eaq e3 B4E d^l
    eHlejo; EE(6.6tr) FnE _*¤Hg sHIBE +rJ qd(E..Dg +EE r*=+. qE Eq 6JeAIoJ g+sflr} S4$ {x} ullxlS
    bql Eol4l +4.J f+6I+. ol olBotr *4U s sElBg
    trll /? 7l7J lHe)zs22pse| [Ne]3s23psol4. 4lq4 aaE dzl-E=+ Hlgc
    9 6z19l ul4 zzltl +z16I= +Bse +Elttri. cJ^l Efg += zlzll$ {zf ul]^l Hle ++sE H}?ql +.J4. +q} ei}ql +q6}
    *J4(radial probability tunction)E q-s-s+El el 4 4 9l 31e-]4 Aeq dzl# Srlz] Eri(valence electron)4tr oJ4.
    "i4 du} =
    7l Bag +=ql 4qL A-H.= 4p s-u]g91 i,+* !++E e g^I BE 30 01619 fl^ql^l EE 4lel4 {zp flzl-zf dz].o14.
    =4.
    el Hl4¤ql + ,llE .?trE ,*i+. rEg x, y, 2F.4) 44 gzltl lzlzl ol{ d^lE= g 4C# dl(core electron) 4l 6J4.
    ^1tr
    ullo"ts"J+. Hl zll9 d eElBg q +gql Hl zll eu Eolg r*84. +7lgs= dz| ulilql Hf'Jg +n ^1tr +E ++9 giE
    qC.all sHlg dti z?41+t F zll e.-E_4x7 ¤89'EH.'E.* 9 tsulaJ4. s E= p +Aeel 4)e)4 +449 ,*= giE +
    oltrl-. 09 ulti B+ iiol 0ol q= otct(node)4.a,tI4. 4 fA(representative(g$ main-group) element)4I 6J+. d +
    ^ldg "f
    qql^J dal-= B{$ ffi$ 6o111. Aag 4++ fliE tot E= Eol
    fl.A(transition element)
    =+
    ElEr[ flr(6.7tr) +44 flztq]^J eg dz] 44 +
    (transition 4/+Aeg al+= gd= e-!El'J=
    metal)ol4r {L+.
    ^"1tr
    4 (lanthanide EE EIEF(rare earth)) 8A(element)r-[:1 {}4. s/ +
    +aee ^1tr +E qlq^l= r*ir}. +q4l +oJzli ngl 4
    =
    6Iq +aaE qq^l= 4gFrJ oJxI+ lol +rlB++ 44lE+ Aeg al+= g4= elElE= fl.4,(actinide element)olQ. {efg
    (ns < < nd < nf). Ag +A eel gHlBg ftflElol(degenerate) +ri Eqb+ g4'E qI4 / +q e+(rblock metal)olep aJQ.
    olE g^= izl&e9 +"J+ Eq 2EE r44, giE
    np

    9l]]., rael 9olE,J¤ qlqzl= r*:r+= aolq. '+Elur}.


    dzls=¤ "JzlclB ErJ AE(electron spin)olefg it+6J Ceg
    ;z1g*.elrl9 +lilE F6Iq ?lre-l dzl- Hllzl=i oJolLll.= Ell, r
    ,*EE+. A"J ?frl#(spin magnetic quantum number, mJE +*4 H a.rrql e.-F6J ?zl¤sq +aE E¤¤
    =+.
    -ie + <k¤ tl! i :lr, q +g= qd ++6ly + TIzl HJ6J

    6F4
    iH Z{Pl
    o-l 0t 8E E+El +oil qajEe q¤¤ g + ?lolot Ettrt
    . 4zlzl +^IdE ultlol +qAg ql dE+E al4I6IA+, 415 . *4"l= Eale] r}1lg 7{}4(0.a¤).
    fzl-i{d$ ql sltl¤ 4l.tI6JEl(6.rp). +¤ s+E4l:6.47- 6.so
    +H g++41:6.re- 6.2r . dzlel ag olgzl .JzI9 9lzl4 +Fp6}g 7l+6J trll E+cc
    , 44zl +^Idel ++E ++4 "llulxl"ll qr+ +g gr.lq Edl jr C+dol 9ul{f xlltg E=71-= ¤Hd4(e.+
    ^EEHql^l
    tlEI(6. 1e). +H g+ E4l : 6.rs-6.r8 ¤). +¤ g+ E4: 6.st,s.s2
    .*utE rlE++ ul+q el"Iq ollulxlE 4l4i6lr. r *aql ql . grx65 _sHlgg ,ll+ "t a"+e+ ¤+an, sElB -EoJe_l ifol
    6l ¤B¤I+(6.24. +¤ ¤+S4l: 6.2s,6.26,6.2e,6.31 q qldl galq}r|(e.sd). +E g+ +-41: 6.ss, 6.s7,6.61,6.62
    . flzt 4 dzlE oJ^I+g t4l4 flzt9 d +fl^lq . g^t eHlgE o}^l-oJ6J qE Q}+= 6114ajr[(0.e¤).
    ^EEHS
    ¤BaJ4(0.rd). +H S+ +.41 : 6.36, 6.41, 6.42, 6.44 +B ¤+ ¤.41: 6.s3, s.s4,6.66
    270 63 fl^tE E^t+^

    .4dz} flxl.$ eulp$ qq^le+ +^ fl^l-E sHlgE qlq^l7f sHlBql q Bal !l+lzlk^lE ¤H+trI(6.8¤).
    qB7ll. E eI +E^l ¤BeL4(6.7¤). +¤ g+ E4l: 6.67,6.68 +¤ g+E4:6.11,6.6e
    .4dzl- +lzl9 sHlgq q6J qq^l EEg f.el-a, pauli .+7lgEE ol+6}q +EE d^l ullxl$ zltrofa. g^Iq fl=
    =91
    ull4 galel Hund #49 ol+6lq fl^lel ulEI tr-Elql^l d^t7| gd^tq ,ll+E ea6J+(6.ea). +H g+ #^\: 6.7s-6.78

    -=.o HFe-Al
    OJJ- E o -i
    ')w:c [e.t] u[*eg^J9 H: l,:v]t(m), u:41#G-'), ,:Hgl +E
    Q.ssaxlo8 m/s)
    'E--hv La.zl E^t(rJ^l)q^19 H: s:*zI9
    qlq40), h:planck tf
    (e.ezezx to-34 l-s), u: Tlt+G-t)
    . s: (-hcR11)f+)
    \n'/
    : Gz.r8 x ro-,'ll(4)
    \n'/
    [0.s] +4 gz]E 6l+¤ {}qlql^]9 .ll.lzl: h:planck tf, ':H
    el +E, Rs :Rydberg *i!.ogazzax 107 m-1), n: t, 2, 3,
    ... eJg A+)
    ' )t: hlmv [0.e] oJz]$ ir]FC: r:ir]^], h:Planck *i, *:g4q A*
    v:549 *s.(m/s)
    (tg),

    ' Ax'A(ml = !- +7f


    [0.s] Heisenberg EqA{ 94. EillT} r*E +lil(A,)q E+AC
    4 ¤¤tltl(rar)19 E4CC3 ool I + S'|. +E 4+<ie
    hlanol4.

    'J+ +41
    .=o+ l{= TllLl
    6.1 20"C. a4t *7lql^19 s43 ra: m/sol-r., elrJ9 +lz|
    ,JzlE i llE ztzJ *g +uls.l a{f5 44 zo Hzol4.
    t6.1¤l
    (a) ol ++9 irfttg 4l&6}^1s..
    (b) +le+ Ag irl+s z|{ {xizlu}el +u}+b gE}oJ7}?
    (c) ol5 q¤ +BEdzlzlul9l+61+zp (a) (b)

    6.2 gHl4ql +%I 7l7lq^15 t5iz} 2450 MHzoJ dz} 6.4 g9 gE= E+ +e+. Eol HB ql 4ee j13ql^l HJ¤
    'la+
    zlvlzf *=¤4. rB 6.48 +aq.q q-g eEq B'6f^le-. qb qel 5tq1 E"ll +4f4. Efg+ zlzl psq u3'94
    ^ll
    [6.1e] (i) L+^q EE E+q= 4"J, (ii) n++4 Etr E
    ^l-d"l+.
    (a) oldzfTlvlgl
    "++g 4l&6}^le_. +q= sr]gzl?]E r.la, (iii) +e4g q= E + s?-le^f
    (b) +,3; 717lq 9oI
    ^JC¤ dzlzlulE +oJ_s_E +eg + 4E 4ezl+^
    ol L 7LO gEzi +7161-= +^J4E Eg +g6f^le.
    )i-t:/ l: (a)
    ^ll
    (c) *d!xl *=+H, ol {x}zlu}el $zli z}.tl$rj9 *u} (b) (a)9 Bg dqdJ,ll q-$q^l qH gflql
    =7]dI9=7I?
    B+ trl E*g qlqxl= 7*Y71, EJ 4e qq4$ z*Yzl? EqAd gEl, r*d Er+, +ill +^l-, d -'-olefl [6.2¤1
    (d) ol d¤+q dzlTlE¤ Bl=6lE +* 7l7lY +i9l7p
    (t)e-95,'-q, (iil z$zlqloJzl, (iii) d7l*gqlolE
    6.3 +¤. rHg azvl dxlTlul¤ ?* 4ee "tEl,+fl+.
    16.241
    (a) Ela s++g += iil.¤iq-?
    q
    G) +g dF+E r*= EI+e-? (i) Etls (ii) ate (iii) Eilgxt+^
    (c) 9L ffiol rl qq4E *Yzl? c l] erchenl'Shutterstock O Tragoolchitr Jittasaiyapan/ O Cristian Cestaro/
    = Shutterstock Shutterstock
    E+ E^ll 271

    6.5 4H"l gl%Lgql el"ll qaElE +zlzl c^Jol LiElutrl. t6.3¤l olElt dol + q¤ lol z|.<l${$ tt}=ol B^J6l+7}? EJ
    (a) fxlzllsl
    "J+ql^l Ele+otr a++ +^l7H
    qq +tlg E r++E q¤ l.Jzl?
    rt7ft;litl. *t:i;lY7p (b) $zlzflel Hla+otr a++ q 6.8 6J 7ll9 d^l¤ 7l^lr.9l* zlt9 gzlfl 4lzl9i4. oI4 :
    9 1lt+E +716],E-71. +^61+7p Hq +q\i dz}"il 4aJ r+.Ei EI+: x:091^.1 x:2rvl^loll
    .r.J r/(x) :sin(x)o1r|. [0. s¤1
    (a) r=o*E x:2vttlzllltJ dzl-= BA6J q¤ I'JE ,1"@)¤
    f.El^19.
    o) qL x9 {lEqlrl dxl-E ga6J ffiol z}1t;iz}r
    (c) $zlzl x:zoll^l dzlzt SdB ffi$ $ufolzl? irlt +
    foil! r=la3 ^ldg +Eol4n aiEzl?

    @ Pushish lmages/Shutterstock

    6.6 6I+E olxf 944 4lzl fH+ A 0 2n


    g qqzl E9E zl+14. olql ql n:4 0

    qzl +9lE A+'J +'J "*zli n


    ql e_l6lls^lE+. t6.3¤l
    (a):89 q¤
    .llulzl 69191^l 1
    oJ^I+Eol
    TI1L gg olulzlz| oll
    Ll n:3 6.e +^ g^IE n:t 44414+ eHl z
    gs,* Aol ${ oll eo'f,rliz}z ^l B 6 6f+E +il?lzl Eolol rH
    (b) ole+ t}4e, zlAt 4e qlqzl It rJ4. to.oel
    7l-ge6J dol 4{"ll eilsl n:2 (a) ol eHlBq 4+ olzl-+ tg g
    olzl-+Eg
    "]tr a"JzI?
    n:l trIoJ7I?
    (c)
    =
    rBq qq^l z4e, dol6}= E.J %I=6Irl+ x
    =+l= (b) ol eHlBg qB4l s^l6t=7p v
    g+q: qq i'Itlol +71{-= + o tr +g6l^ls. (c) zlzl "txli mtq alol B4zlH
    (i) m= l9lr.l n:2, (ii) n:z{il{ n:3, (iii) n=241^l ol Eolg qerll +A6]]ot 6l+
    n:4, (iv) n:1oll.rl n:3 7l? (t) Ll zzll :zJof +trl. (ii) _+H el +71- E6Jr+. (iii)
    6.7 +a g^lel ^ll zl^l d^I dol A, B, CE nq6f^le. gHlgq eH %I6Jol +8,,J6J:3 7|r.le aol4. (iv) L
    (a) 3zH9 dal.7lu|= E-+ F"J 4++ raJ! ileq, 44
    'Jq HEirI fl$ 4.14.
    9 dolE E+ +BE dolq 6l"Jgr+. {z} {ol ce} $ 6.10 9E+ EE.Z dy,gHlBql 46J z
    alTl glE dzlzluli (i), (ii), (iii) + q- aql 4'Jq= EadEE -E^l6.J+. ol lulp
    7l? 16341 q sl*q= olzl45 r.q6l^le.
    (a) zlg"oJ 7l* qe ile] +"JzI
    0 -------- il - w
    f(n)E 9"loJz[?
    n:4 v
    C n:3 6) 4e++ "Jzh+(/) alg 9"I x
    E (i) oJTl?
    o B
    (6
    (c) 7l.b6J 7l* il9 xl-zl oJ do,
    n=2
    O
    N
    zli@) <13=guloJzt?
    (d) xy, xz, yz + qv BEg tr++^l q¤i EJETI. 0ol q=71?
    X
    K (ii) 6.u ei sz}.il 4ql ul| zlzl$ zl-uoal {x} HllilT} ol4ql +q

    \A
    5 A
    6 eq. rflql ol + 6i+EJol e4 g^l-9 Blq {}4.= +4r]
    E gHie d^l- Ellilol+. qL aol gHlE dz} ullxlolz|?
    pauli u1]4 fl491 gull9E d^l Ellil= q- aqlTl? qL
    -218 n:1,
    (iii) d^I EllilTI Hund fzlgl g]u11q5z|! l0.s3J
    (b) 4 dolql qldl ,J=qE rutzlel ollulul$ 4lt}6l^le-. ETIUll^IA lt 1l 1t
    (c) 4 dol9l .l"i ,J=q: irltlg 4l&61^le-. 1

    "Jz}e] 1s 2s zp
    272 6¤| 3^lel !^l+^

    dxlH|]^l B lt lt 1 1 1
    6.18 +g dz}Tl +^I.del +B# ulA-ol +716I= +^.ls Llg
    6I^19.
    1s2: 2p
    (a) gE gd-+ glql q6lq gdq= rJ"Id
    BL^|d
    d^f (b) e3.1 tvtHzgl ?lb ru 4qsg A+
    EH^l C
    1t lt 11 1
    (c) 6s0 kHzoll 9lE au +qsE d+
    1s 2s 2p
    (d) iE e-e.+qE g^Jq= rL+ H
    TleEo
    8^l H|]il D (e) 4l4}zl s.^l$r+ ae g+ 4oleEq EA H
    1t 1t 1 1 I
    1s 2s 2p 61, (") El*ol ^ll+9 qiq4ql uzltl ro pmE 7*b +^IdE
    6.12 Elg grEol +Tlgsql^J qqql +lil6f=zl B:61-^ls
    Tl5+E gu}.Jzl?
    (b) s.s0x l0r4 s-rg 4l#E r*= +^Idg EIA-g gEloJTp
    [o.s¤]
    (a) flzfz| dzf9 dzl- ullil7l,1s2,?p5oJ gi
    (c) *9 (a)e+ (b) Ezllql^lel +^ldg be-e E + ?lE7P
    (b) A'll ,l|9 p gdzl¤ A= fl^
    (d) {z}zlu}5 50. 0 ps F.J.ll 9"}"J=.9 7l r]= 11461+7}?
    (c) gxlz| {x}z} +s2ap'oJ g} 6.20 (a) ++ol 0.86 nm"J 4rld9 Tl# guloJzl? (b) 6.4
    (d) d +q fl^ x 10rt s4!¤+E
    'e.l
    r+E (c) $
    +^rdE 4^J* g"t"Jzl?
    E E4lql fl: +^Idg
    (a)e+ (b) xd A¤7lq 94^l A^l
    9=zt? (d) {x}zlu}y 0.38 ps Fq}ql g'}el 4?.lE {86}
    Y7l?
    ,Jgql^l qlolxl soJEl= 650 nmg qg g^d-Jr+.
    ^l-SqE
    ol+^l-dE tlt+Y EoloJzI? a4 6.4= ola"al.{ ol ++
    -o:rql E+¤ 49 ql+6l.^le.
    6.22 a*4^lz ol+6}q +^I qqzlE {zl ollr;lxle d+6}E a
    ol zp'"olr|. d++ Egol F"6IEta ztCal ql, 4Edr| zI
    Ed qL aol *af t 4q 47lloilulzl= EJ tr*ol ^JtI6l
    ='
    Y7l?
    gelEt&l(6.1E)
    gxt6[E ollLlxlet Br(6.2tr)
    6.13 (a) Hel EltL, 6) HE {#, (c) qg {s.91 4oJ zl$ st 6.23 qflolg 7171 r-!)e de-e gx1-;19+8. dt}4+
    E+]E +TOJ7P q qq r qilolE =:7161+
    ,lY qB4
    9iz}?
    6.ra (a) +^l qqzlE ultlr+ d++ ^plqlE qB +Alri 9l: (il qfl"lE 7lb dqi Safzl fj$ {olr}.
    7l? $) qlTle.l tL¤=q *b s=g 210-z3o nm ule} Hfl9 (iil
    "lflol9 7l: Zl+dl^l ^lB aolEl.
    HqlqzlE g+'J+. ol EI+E +^tdg dz|71 r.EEHg (iii) olgolE 7lE tl {q rEE4 z}B aolq.
    q! ++ql oilt+9}z}? (,v)
    "lflol9 7l:6J Hql6ulE4 zlB a"l+.
    6.ts rl-g 4 tl¤"il 46Iq 'ql'E='olqe's s7l6l^ls. 6.24 Einstein9 l9OsLJ tld Er+ql ql.J ¤+ E+3 Planck9 oJ
    (a) z|,rlgt.$s- d^I7l +^HJg ¤4o14. 7I¤g alae.;-g'al 68-aJ ¤4o14. planck$ zl./jg
    ^f
    (b) zfe]dg 7|^l+dtrE+ a qttg ?*Yr+. Einsteinol zl,tle.l olE"J *d arg ¤Bg q q
    ^'l¤6}n,
    (c) xdg ufolrEu]-H4 rJ uule.z.ll t4+E+. +41 olzl7I¤g
    ^l-8-6I9E^l =E6I^le.
    (d) dzlzl +^fd4 ¤.ul= ee +E.e d.J++. ('rs (^) 4#7l2.e4xtot4 s-roJ dz}Tl +^IdE qlqzl
    "J4
    6.15 El-s d¤+ q! aolEH=zl aa6tn, raE¤.nil^le-. E 4l&6}^le.
    (a) 4rld9 4lt+= EI^Jol 671'Jql rI4?zld4. (b) +^Jol 413 nmoJ +^ldel qlLl^l= Al&6f^le-.
    *^l
    (b) dzlzl +^Ldg irltlr+ +zlsol d+ +q^J g46J + l.J +^|cE irla-g gEfoJTp
    (c) *zI qlLJalTl 6.06x l0-re
    E= 7}dtrl.
    6.26 (a) qlol^J soJqql^l BL¤E +^q H9 ul^J* s:znmol4.
    (c) 49d* 7l^l*-,UBq q
    +e dt'+E r*E+. ol HE Tj¤+= g"loJz}?
    (d) quEql^lE g*, d4ql.J^l 489 9lulzl. e]414 c (b) S-^I6J ZIE qlLlzl= go}glzi?
    zlg E+ d^l7l +^HJg ¤4o14. (c) 4lolzJ sqlq= Ee .JE {z}z} {xloll Ed H}q t}Ell
    6r rlg {z}zl $,<}.rjel ao$59 ir}a-ol +7}6}E +^Js qg
    'IEq qol *=gE|. dzl¤
    ql^J E= tqls dolqTl
    6I^19.. g Hlq qE:oIrJ rll s:z nm9
    ^J4e 4^l "*zI9 BqlE
    zle]d, +4*, 4^4%I, 4qsu| xd, ^Ield r+*E qlq^l= SE+. ol qlolzl Eeg Hlq t}4e+ E
    =*
    3rl 273

    E ^J=ll ^tolE
    qlqzl +49 gEloJTt? 0) ol q9 q-Alg Alt6.l^ls.
    6r? (c) z|.t1r34 gqg qg ol+6}q rfolel$ ++ee+El d
    (")e]-zg-ol 3.3pmglr*^l-e+, +a-ol 0.1s4nmt*xlE qlLl
    zlE EII6}jr Al&61^le_. BL¤^lrJ 7lbc"l ?l=71?
    ^l-=
    (b) rg 6.4E +361q, 4 sltr-ol +6J d^f7l EEHE (d) rfoleft:o1 233 nm9 q¤. ++*48, %IeB dz}g 5l
    gqg E+oJ6l^le-.
    ql ¤¤ ollulxlE 9"1-"JzI?

    6.28 AM ?+qeb 1010 kHzoll^l *+g+. ESI FM **¤ ss.: Bohr eE, EEEt(6.3tr, 6.4tr)
    MHzql^l *+g+. + 4qs,J+ql e-l6ll EJ=q= *zI9l 6.3s +A $zls-l {z}zf m: r .r}r}lol.r-1 r=3 t4E EHg Ell +
    ul zl g ullaf{ Al4}6}^le. g^I:'S+61+7I?.'++'d+71?
    ^
    6.2e 32s nm +rJ +=9 uv qg q+= arl 4++. 6.36 +ge] 5-1tol '$ olzl, '7lll'.J^lg EF6l^19-
    (a) ol rllLel $zl. ollulxli golq,lzl-? (a) n--3 tL4"J +4 flzl+ szl F zll9 +a irltql^l"J q
    (b) ol r.+zls-lgqlLl^lE 9ol"Jz\? g *='J + 9t+.
    (c) ol +^l-dol I!l=g trll 1.00 -t "J9l *zli= (b) n=2 tEll?_l +^ 9zl* r:1 tlql"J ullBq *g qq^l
    =46lb r*=EI.
    9olq-lzf?
    (d) ol uv *^lE q+ql 9l= El+4 a'Jg #q vl =
    (c) %rxlz| uJ=+ qlqzl= g*ql +flE F tqlq qlLlzl
    ^l*E
    + ^-llEql +tLg +q AZI EHgtrI. 325 nm9 +rldol il.lel a+.
    'l+ql 9lE +q eEtg #g + gluJxlb
    9l= ¤+ olluJzl$ xll 67 ;-a Sz1glrl +g. d^I dolzt .JgB rll glHzlzt EJ¤q=
    *rJqE, r +cL e$59 Et "l$zll l}zl z|. gfslizfz
    kllmol Et9ls +^l-4 e-tr 4l^l6l^ls. @) n--a414 n:2a
    6.30 +^ldo ++El +g qlq^l= 3rlq a.Jg #g + 9l+. cl, tlzl-$o] 2.12 AoJ sElBql^] HI^lE"l a.ao AoJ eul9
    (b)
    q^l g^-gi a.Jg #= ql gs6J 4^ qlq^l= 242ktl E dol¤ ql
    molol4. ol A.Jg #g + 9lE 44 qq^lE 7i1l +^Id (c) dz}t-J /171H* olgql trj6ll4^l m:: 44q1 gl9 4

    I ir}1}e ts"]-oJzl? ol q4-g d^l-71 +^f-dE qL ++ql 6.38 +^ flz}qlrl rl-* tzl dolzf .J"lB 41 9lHzlzl %I=EIE
    qlBq=71? 71, ++5iY71?

    o-3r +olg- qlolziE ++E qg HJ=6JE|.


    e87 nm (a) n--2414 n:69e-
    (a) ol +^PJe dzlzlul 6 q! gqql ql%}El=7p (b) tfzlsol q.za AoJ _sBlBql^l tlxlEol 0.s2e AoJ eHl
    ^EEH
    (b) ol +^t.SE EE qlq^lzl 4Zzl4l32a Fq] g+q* BE dol¤ trll
    g ul +Cg 9lHzlb 0.s2 lolE+. ol qlol^l7} oJ=6I= (c) n=6oflrl r:9-+.
    rjz|-;-- a$ $ulolzlr 63' (")+4' gz} 49 n:2* n:ogl g.lg 4l zl a.sE
    dzlzl-
    6.32 6I+E Hol 3.ss mmq $,<f-gg BL¤EJtrI. ol dzlE 9l,,lzlE 44 4lt6}^le_. ol {z}z}
    ^l-.g."dlq
    (a) ol +^l-dql qlBq= dztzlul =oft +EoJ r:aoll,tl n:2tr dolg EI %l=q= +^Idq ul1}g 4l
    ^EEHE
    712 &5I^le.
    b) Aezlzl +lel qtql^J Zq 3.2x to8zll9 *tzl¤ g*i* (b) ol +^I,9+ {z}zl :-EeH9 z}rl*d gE .Jq fl=
    +8, t ^l+5"J A=E *^lE + qlqzlE g"]-oJz}? ?i? rBqE qts
    ^loJ?I?
    o^re C4"qlH ++e %rd a4g F"ll r -s.Hql^l dxl¤ Fl9 6.40 +^ g^l- qel
    flzltl n:t4l^l n=etr d"19flg 41,
    r*= +^t
    '*Y71, +4 *3
    LI9-41 6f7l dql ?*Y7l?
    =lA l.oexlors s 'el 1i54= (a) AEE "JE <lg

    dg ¤-+6l]ot 6JtI (b) +lE dolel *fl¤ qE El+s AC6I^le-. ol a+ He


    (a) ol d^l¤ 9qqs_4 6171 916ll gs:al 4^ qlLJzl= I *¤q=7I, ++q=7P
    6ll$6l+ H9 dzlzlul
    (c) (b)"il =.s5 +EoJ
    "foJ7I?
    (b) ol ollulzl$ rJxl-= xlloog + 9t= +^Idq irltlg Ahl 7l? ^EEHE
    6l^l9.. Bul*..q1 ga1 ++g 7I^l"J rJ=dg Ef n6:zel ollulxl
    (c)54HrJlH9l tzo nm9 EI1}E qol ¤-+qfltrlB, %le e"J44.
    ¤ *dz}9 4ql¤+ qlqzl= g"loJzl? -6.41=?15
    (a) 4* + 7l^l* gqel ns:39 de tsAB
    ^EtrBoll.rl
    6.34 4olq+ ++ql^l "Jdxlzf %L=q7l qa;{ttl9 "}4 ql + S= z|+.sg ^rBg 7=^ls.
    Hzl= O.SaxlO-1e 1o1r1. (i) nr::-tr9 dol= -d89zl SE4.
    (a) *dz} g.rl¤-F6ll Elol+tsgtr+A 4zlzl r"L¤q= ql (ii) nr=3og91 tlol= -\dlEerE 4qd B9ge. r.+zf
    gs+ qq 3l4' Tl# grloJz}? 7I HJ=gtrI.
    274 68 ?^lst 5^t+^

    (iiil,?f :3oEE dolE ¤q_s_-+ * 6.sl El+ E^llql^l Heisenberg E+C¤ g4E ol+61-q 9zlE
    HJ¤94. ^trlEHg ^fe.ld Eqadg al4}6}^le-.
    ^l7f
    (iv) nr:3oE9 doli rr:2oJ trIe+ aq4zl eg irl.* (a) +o.ot m/s9 t+C¤ 7l^1jt- 1.40 m/s9 44 e-e. *zl
    o e *ulz| BI=g+ olE t.so mgel e.zl
    (b) Balmer 4ltsql^l ry:3, 4, sg ql gq^l= zl¤-^ll ZIE (b) (s.0010.01)xr04 m/sE szlolb %FczI("Jc4q a=J
    de-l ul+s 4l&6fii. rH 6.tlel B-= r-EEHql^J r e 4 s^l .J+ql 7lE {}+sql xll^lqq il+.)
    ,J= dE¤ +t6f^ls. 6.52 (a) (:.oo+o.ot)x los m/s9 4s.e gz1o15 d^1, O) eg
    6.42 Lyman 4lgq +4 g^IE EE 9lulxl 6
    %I= dg nt:r9 4s.e .$4o1' +^Jzlql ql+ +lxlel E+{dg Z1416l
    E^l oJ+ 7le t+sql xil^lq
    9l= sEt+trt. ^le(+d^IE d*3 4
    (a) Lyrnan Zlgel %l= dol ++q= gqg dz|Tl /-EIE q9lEl).
    Hql^l q! ++ql dlrJqbTt? (c) (a)4 6)E utg ufe.retr, "1tr 4ol dzf E= +^Jztg
    (b) Lyman Zlgql^l \:2,3,4'J EI ?q^l= a d4 d 9lzlE BEI Cq6lrll .J i 9lEzt?
    ^ll
    4E r}+g 4l.t}6}^le_.
    srl q+4 flrl eHl=J(6.5tr, 6.6tr)
    +^ g^le1 %L¤ d +ql irl1ol +^ldol glEl.
    e3.07 nmoJ 6.s3 trIgE +tlol '+'9lzl, '4zl'.Jzl z
    +^Ide dzlTl -\EEHE qB gqq qlBq=7|?
    (a) ol
    E EI6l^19.
    -6'a3(b) ol +^Id4 +¤E qlq^l 691(,)9 4r)1k+ 4+Atg
    (a) q7l^l 44t zp 9EIEE F
    AA6i^le-. r.tr *.¤ql^1, 2p 9-HIBE d
    6.44 +i g^l+ l0e4 nm uI*9 Hgg+'J+ 9t+. zli E¤q HIA EEqIEJ +
    (a) $zlzl.trlEHE qL gEq^J ol ++¤ +g + 9lE .Juil^l g{q,lE+
    7l? (b) 5+E "JE [,/(r)]'9 q-g.tr.+El
    (b) olg4gSfl¤ ,19 ir)*a+ 4+rtg eA6l^le. dzl-= BaB
    =Aql4Elq^l
    6.4s trF_q_4 ?ol 49¤ +4 g^l-E ollulzl {ol5 ¤+9= qel ++3'Jq
    =E+.
    d+fz} shoJ aql^l alqlql ael +e-e +g6}^ls. 6.s4 rBg 2s eHlB9l qle %r-^t B-6J e+E EL+¤ ++u aolq.
    r:391^.1 n:6, n:a414 n:e, n:2414 n:3, n--r9rl4
    n:2
    6.46 ++4'Jol 4EB +^ gz}9 qlHzl d"l= ++q= H9
    ul^Jol zllt 5}g aql^l 7l* 4 ael +se +g6f^le-. 9l

    n:soll^l n:3, n:a41\ n:2, n:7ql\ n:4,n:3oil^l Lb


    n:2
    r"4? D" nroglie *41^19 ol.eoo|{ trl-* EllE t}+g AC6}^19-. r\
    (a) s0 km/hr-E r'7lE EI= 8s kgE 012345678910
    ^IH' -qo_E+E1et Zat r (A)
    (b) 2s0 m/se. ErlE t0.0 99 ¤:oJ
    (c) 2.5x 105 m/sE g4ol= 4E g^f Q*9 E^Jol '#tzl. '41l',"JzlE B'-61^le_

    (d) 4." El]Tlflql^l 550 m/sE *zl"lE 9g(Or) $x|


    (a) ol e+q^l F ++Bl= trol= ol]9+ + dzl+ 4e
    ,1]E
    +#q o.s Aoll, += dxl= 3 Aql +e qlEol4.
    6.48 Eq+ql^l EE, o|fl2| oJz| +qlb B^Jqn +^l + +Ei qTlql q¤ =4lal7l
    q¤-
    olqlql al.b s&muon)ol gl+. #¤+ d4-aEJg
    o) +ElB %I^t,J.J CL+e+ "JE [*(,)],*
    ^lg E4E E+ q oE+q "J r A 9= oJa6J 44ql^l 0olr+.
    206.8EH+ q= e=*g zlxlL !|Q. +e.ol 8.8sx tOs cm/s
    (c) s 9.ulpoll,<J trfqg ++ +"Jzl+ n9 r,k+?J+.
    I +tr+ +z1g ,ll, ol{el de Broglie y}t}g Al&6f^le.
    6.55 (a) r: a9 4 zl-=o * I ,rke-_? (b) t:2oJ ull zhbal mr 1k9-?
    6.ae V-^Szy 4¤¤ tszI +4= AC47l g+ ?ef, zlgol4. (c) m1:2oS oll 7IL"d I llg?
    1.2sAE ul^J9 ?zl 9+ +CzlE +E= 4l&al^le(+d
    zlE a=Jg szl ?I+ql t+qq 9l+). 6.s6 (a) n:3, (b) r:aoJ 4l 14 zr9 7]g"t (lg?
    ++ 4 _qulgql 6]|'J6|= lE <ig +61^ls.
    6.s0 dxt ¤,1?3 ^JEqL4 Eeolzq +g a"+9 Eeql qle 6.57 11rl

    qql¤ gtlg ts71 916ll Hrl fl4. dzlzl q (a) ap 0) 2s @) af @) sd


    ^FSqi1 =A
    Hl¤ gEql^l 7l+qflg rq|.g.+zxr06 m/s9 +qg 9fl4. 6.58 +g A+q 4aI{ n, t, mA rdk+ +6f^le-.
    ol {zfz} 7}zl= gul.Jzt? ol u}tt+ fl^} rTle} Hl (a) zp ?444,9l= 4 sElg
    "}e}g
    *6J71? G) sd +aaql fl= 4 eHlB
    u* 275
    =r1t
    6.se +4 9xI9 "1ts
    _eulBol n:a, t:2=a7*y4. ue flz}ql dz} t
    4E H=+H B3? (c) HE]gEzI?
    6.68 (a) g^ g^IE 3s d^le+ e+E ¤+ 44y tp dzls4 4
    (a) ol 9ulPoll^J 7l.!.o* rutrIZ?
    olgHlBql^l Tleo+ m,ahe?
    (b) E+. 9l rqsJ Ell olr= s_u1gE qulzlz| 4 ss-z}?
    ^lgg
    6.60 +A flu}9 "lB gElBol n:5. mt: -2=r,l=r+. (b) gd flz|el 3s dzl-3 zll4olzl 94 .llHzlz} trl gs+
    (a) ol 9ulPoll^J 7IL"+ l lle-? zl, H gsaJzl 2p dale+ ulaa[{ ql^J-6}^le.
    (b) olsHlgql^l 7l+,6J m,119-? o"os Li A4el TPot F zlzl lf;xl dHilol+. d^t Hl^tA
    t* sHlg +ql^l ng /g aa3E +dql^l B7ls"+ ag? (a) ol 44q dz} Hllil= pauli ull4 Bzlgl
    (a) lp (b) as k) sf (d) zd 9*4EzI? 1l 1

    -* (b) ol 44el {z} ullil} Hund fzl9l 9* 1s


    6.62 4+ Eql^.1 oJzl+e] ailql *E sElBg,{d^ls. x, y, z9 %

    ol4 EztE +^l6}^le_. oJ^l+7I d49zl ?*eE'61+qzl tlLzL)


    r L r;
    E4 Hllil B
    9* zITlTol S9 rll, t dxf uNzlz[ Q
    t*¤.'ol4.z r^^ls. (c)

    I mt 9BIB E dzl- uflzlE_r| qLlxlTI *g+ "^)v-71? 1l I


    f++H qe dx} ullilz| Q *g qlq4 Ls
    n
    %
    2 I -l zp(40
    I 0 0 E Tlzla.9lEzt?
    J -3 2 6.70 stern-Gerlach Foll dzl aS9 *zllzi +.Jq*+.
    d¤9
    J 2 -2 ol dqlql^l g g^|el nE¤ q+ zlrtzlz)l il9
    ^171*g
    2 0 -1 ql. eHle a3 g-ioe-e. Lt"l^l= Elqt Bla*es +lqAEt. E
    0 0 0
    + ^I7l+el rzlE +99 trI + E-egl +r]E= q 4AEI.
    4 I
    (a) g g4q d^l HlliIE?
    2
    5 3 0
    (b) TIEE-(cd) gxlE a+3 ol ¤eql +s"6tH qtr Arl
    6.63 trl-g 9EIBE Eop| ullaJg r.El^le-. E eg i il¤tl?
    (a) s (b) p" G) d,y (c) flz}9 s-e¤ ol ¤Eql ¤+6tE qtr 44
    =Fg-il(r)
    6.64 trI.geHlBq qoj$ ullaj$ r?-l^ls_. E eg i il&tt?
    (a) p, (b) dt k) dt-t q* 4 +A4g 4lg + 9l= alql {xy ig E"f?tz}?
    (a) 3p (b) sd (c) 2s (d\ 4f
    6.6s (") +4 gxlE rs eHlB4 zs eElBg +Ed4 ^loldg -on c++ oJal-+5g r*= gzl Lll
    Ft.Jzf? 6.72 d^lgl 4lql += zl4l6l^le.
    (b)zp eulgol %16J4 5d9 zlrl4E 43 **9 9ula} (a) n:3, ms: -2 (b) n:a,l:3

    +71? pr 9.HlB+ ds-r, tulqq '%I6J4'5"'39 u1:lo| (c) n:5, l:3, ru:2 (d) n:a,l:0, w:0

    ^ls(+
    qg grrjee E*+rJt qL gqql^-l d^l "J 6?3 (^) 'flxlzl-dxf+ +9.oJ7I?
    E7l d6qq flEzP). O)'qC+ dzl'*+'l.JzI?
    (c) 2s eul$$ 3s sHlBql^l Eqql^l d^PfzlE B+ rlqql (c) eulg E-E oJq 449 +zl= +Eg qEl6l=7|?
    48ll^J Eljil EE6I^le_. (d) g-ulg E_s.ql^J HI+ E+gs7l +4ql= .Jg +E"J7I?
    (d) +^ sulBE¤ qlHzlz} +7161+ +^]ql
    gzlql^J trl-g-
    +gsE EJ"J$ +Eg 444bzl-?
    E +g6}^ls(7lr+.Ja+ ag a H4lE 6}^ls-). 6.74 L+* 4 g^ql ql4 Htq t'-qlql^lel gxPr d^1, 4C+ d
    4f,6s,3d, ts,2p gdzlE +E LlElLli^le-.
    ^L
    6.66 (a) rB 6.leE +r6}q, s eElB9l 9lE "t49 +e+ +"J (a) da (b) +4
    E^ (c)

    ^I.+
    Ael +Zl= +tqlrt? u1g5 ,l!l qd+ +elq dxl Ellil= rl-* flzI
    (b) 2p,9ul$$ rs sulBgl^l {x} ujsz} ooJ E}q +¤ + ^l-&6I¤,
    q .16I +.J¤ dx} ullzlp irr.l9-.
    oJ6I^19_. -o-25(a) Cs (b) N (c) Se (d) Cd (e) U (0 Pb
    (c) :B 6.1eq flE %r-^I %L6J +E.J+e+El gg + 9t= 6.76 t++ gzlql ql'6J +EB dat El]ile+ 449 g{x}s.l z}1ffi
    atrE +fioJ7l? , ,(lg.
    (d) +^ szlglrl El-g- i!HIBE¤ qlulzlz| +7i6I= +^lE
    Llg6I^19.
    (a) Mg (b) Ge (c) Br (d) v (e) Y (0 Lu
    trl+ 44q 4^l Ellilql 6ilEJ6I* g4= AC6Iz. gd^rg
    3s, 2s,2p, 5s, 4d
    zllffiql9.
    Eldxl fl^lel drt uHxl(6.7E-6.9E) -677(a) ts22s2 (b) ts22s2zp4 (c) [ar]+s1:d5 (d) [Kr]ss2+dt0sp4
    6s? (") ne* olgglrl 2s*2pY rJg qlq^lE 7*i7l? O) "JE
    276 68 g^tE E^t?4

    6.78q¤. {z} uflzloll El'}61+ g^q +¤. aa6}a, 9dz}9 +^1tr d7.l7l-eHlBol il]+lzlzl ?*ltzl ullE"ll flzI
    zllffi a.rle. =
    q ql+ Hlq ^J4 {zf u}lzl$ 4e}4zl ?*=E+. 4 qql^l
    (a) [Hl$C tl{l) nsznps + ¤21? q! aol 9u1l99bzl +4lil^ls.
    (b) tulgd zl4ll ns2(n-t)* (a) 1s22s23sr (b) [xe]6s25d4 (c) [Ne]3s23ds
    (c) [H]9{ zl4ll ns2(n - t)dtonpl 6.80 trlgg d^f tsllilE Eg tlEilE +4u+. 44ql 6iBF.lE
    (d) tElgC tplll nsz(n - 2)f6 gAE a46lr.. HLq {r.qlE +"JB dz} ullile r.r1e.
    czg ++e uI¤4 uil4 gelE 9lts1li{2]4 glHxlz} +7}6t (a) ts22s22p43st (b) [er]astld'o4p'5p' @) lKr)ss2t*spt

    ql "J+ t4l
    ggql
    4* + 4e-l dzlzlul9l ^ul=89 7I^l gqq^J +ridol BI=qE gAE eC
    Annnn
    o.sr .]]6Iq B-6I^le. (a)
    6I^19_.

    A G) qtsfl|zl zlz* .k9 "llulxl9 'J^l-= %L=+=71? E+


    7I8 *g "llulxl9 "J^l¤ *+4E flai Fitz}?
    (c) ulzlE ,,.lgzf SC$ rll s.z: x 1st+ ,-tq dt+E ,*=
    qg %L¤6Ifl+. +qd E .JE g^E 6 oJql
    B ^le =
    zHol.b fl48 Pi"JzI?
    1.5 X 10-7m 6.84 20uH 89, +^Jel TllE 1lE9 +s.E ^l+ql^l g^IqflH
    (a) o15 esi u15 BE El+g g"Itzl?
    yuno $?d3 r.e+El 49 suJ flql zorouJ Tgql +^Jql
    (b) EIE Ael t+*L BE tlt+5 g"I"JzI?
    E46Ifl+.
    ^l+e| +{ ^lol9 Ar)b 449
    6}^Jol x}71

    gqg +JE + qqq flE^lql EI+ 94414. rEl+ F dd + rI


    (c) u15 Ael ErF B7l +61+ dz}Tl r''slEzrE AC ,* zlnl& 44= :q srooE} Et"Joltrl. JunoEPH zlaTlzl
    6.I^le-.
    diz| o15a1g 4a ^lrJg goloJz}?
    6.82 sol E=-q l20E:-E9 d.Jg 7I6IH, q=g szlz[ r+J. f, gqg
    e.es 4oJ *Cg dzlzl
    +^qE Hg Lilzl ol Hg q= "JE iE olg trll. ^Ie]d.JeTlZl-E*6Er. 9l7l
    ^lzl+El. qlEql +4LI AZI ^EtrHq
    fgr-lE ¤tlg Er+. ol3l+
    q ol ol$o1 EE tqlql^J +^l Hlq tr-
    ^J7lb LoJrll, 4E. ql.J *de u}+g 7l+"tr E+g+. ol=EI uv-A +^Id
    rlle 5o1z1g,r1 Hol gr=¤4.
    (a) B¤¤ HE 4*e s8e nmol4. ol HE d5+E 4l4I
    I sltl Hgb:zo-rao nmoli, UV-B +^IdE ir}l} Bg
    6I^ls. + 290-320 nmol4.
    (a) 320 zld qel Affi al4}6f^le-.
    nm9 Elat9
    (b) ol grz| 1.00 mole] 9l.lxl* tsuloJz}?
    $zlel Eqq^lE Zl&61^le.
    (b) 320 nm
    (c) iE olgel EE t}4el Elq tlql
    ^Iole]
    9luJzl zJ49
    (c) uv-Ad9 ,*zle+ uv-ndg +zI + qL lol 4 ,Jt
    al4l6f^le. qlLlxlE ?*Y7l?
    (d) trIE ddle +"le gF+ +.lql e{5.J B7} ql"Joe+q +e uv-Bde uv-Adql El6ll
    (d) r]
    E + Ag d"Jg zlrll
    ^EEE
    58e nmel qol *¤q= ^IBE
    =tr|H, +q +tlg E6la+ 44 a4g o3oz3 zl;.^Jol
    =u|.
    ag ++EI + 9l}^l= ¤E6f^le. olelt ++g +41 G)E Br+ oJil6I=7I?
    6.s3 +C fldzf ¤48 q ulat9 4ol %'-=¤trI. e4 d+
    qlq^lE +
    =A o.so elE(watoE dqE sr +-E +91e. ++l
    el slqlzl-e=$ 5C fliz} AC6l= ^lrJ'J
    ^lE "Jql =ufl6l-=^l= 4U4(t w: I I/s). cD "J9 *s,tl 4lol^l= ++
    E] ole+ ee g%l ++g ^l-*6IgEI. E+g E= qEl fl49 ol 780 nmol-L, dqol e+=.Elolq
    o.ro mwol4. co= osEt zll^J
    n+ uleloltrl.
    6l+ F"J cD sEql +P6l= *zlE += 9Etq_lzl?
    Ag 328.1 nm Fe 372.0 nm 6.s7 vlPq\olc(carotenoid)b O
    6},<:lFl u e)^ll z.El^}l
    ^lEE+El
    uu}Tl-^ll aol
    Au 267.6 nm K 404.7 rm H OU +U-t I Ot. e ^ll Y
    Ba 455.4 nm Mg 285.2 nm +. qe Ei{ql^J +eg 9g eE+
    qEI+ 9t= axle. raol
    Ca 422.7 nm Na 589.6 nm ^ltl¤-ql olr-]4
    s*fql Hol rael trloltrl.
    Cu 324.8 nm Ni 341.5 nm (a) ol 4^J+I3 +r6}q 4EE 4ol + B

    *4ol4E, ol 7lt Flol ¤+aI:49 F{.JzL?


    ^lEol
    +7f gA E^]t 217

    0) +A ThEqLolET| assnm9lrl "Jzl-= g++48, : B9 naytelgt{olS.r+. r= Ez}e+ eg rfl+ z}g Ez}


    *zi9 ollHzl= g"IQlzl? ql E.J
    &+ ^ll7l= +ltE 4^l$ql HlHlqlllg trH+.
    t6.88lr6}d ErlE g+6171 9ls| dBql^], ;4 +E9l 4^I6f= '+¤4' d4'+4' dgl ¤+qq 6IBq= ++q^Jg
    +^Idq TIE+E ++tr^l BL=q= dz}9 ¤E 9lHzlzl- 4i+ Egq ul$$ ll.ilaf.rle.
    (c) dx] 4"JH9 ulatol 4zl9l E6i &+q:Ell, cll 6l+9
    +Aqflr, r+g=r+ Ag ¤E A+= Bfl+. olEll 'uo'E E
    +E149 ++qlb4E ¤B6f^le.
    ^lg dg
    542nm +ttE Hqlql'JE+.
    (a) yo9 7i9 s-'e1 ++itr E^l6l-^ls. 6.er ny:33 ECI6I= +4 gzIE EJ¤dg Paschen 4lgol+n
    (b) ,J¤g dxl-91 4qt ++el 'J"J+ r*9 kllmot9 rl9le. ++.
    zl&6I^l!_. (a) paschen alg"l +eq= dxlzl4.^EEH9 ¤qg a
    (c) ar.|a|} H9 +lfizf uoE4 3 ql 0ol ol{ 7l&714 A6f^le.
    4dg Bt+. r ol+= +E"J7f? (b) n1:a,5, 6oJ Paschen 4lgel A+ ^ll ,ll del +tlg 41
    l 416I^l9-.
    I

    T]
    6.e2 rB 6.eql^le+ +^I+ dEeE, ql"J*el ,\ulefl$ lr.ts
    6it-s-tr a=6IE "JqdEol +E6}rll +ElklEl. olfl d
    ^l
    E
    5 5g, le^ll7l a ol dl}g d+4_9-.tr. ¤+d +qiztg olE
    oil g trl^l Fraunhofer{ol+l EB6}fl4. zgsoA4 ro,oooA
    Ll

    ^tolel
    ElloJ 44 zs,ooozHq dol +4l.Jrl.
    ^l
    0
    ^EEHql^l
    Fraunhofer{ol+ q"J 4zlgl lli zl;ll $z}oll Eql ql"J9
    'g^l'x}ql^lel .Jc6J El+ol g+qq
    ug ^Ja aol+.
    T!# -------> (a) 4oJ 5C6.J El+g qg g+61+ r+Cg
    ^4EBql^J
    ¤B6l-^le.
    [6.8e] +4 g^Pt n:191^l n:aa # rll El-g E-q-ql B:.I^le. (b) qL Fraunhofer{ol qtr fl^(ql= EE qlg)ql qlBq
    (a) ol {ol$ 4l+ ai+= Fflq_lzl-?
    6Jnz|al$, zlTtgl^l= qB ¤eg +q.il+ 6l
    (b) {olzf ol-flolzlzl $laN 5611op 6l+ qg u}*9 9"} =^l 7l¤61-^ls.
    oJTl?
    =^l
    (c)fa g^l-= EE{
    fl6i ^l-$-E 6)ql^'lE HtrtrI
    6l-71 6.e3 +A flztql 'H{L q+ oJ^}+ aE-ol 44 -.1+q=4
    ^J¤
    dl-^le_. -ol+q^l ?+= olzl+ a6Jql ql6ll^lE +Eol +*
    #e ++E qg ^Fc.6J A+ qBZl 4Ytl?
    qflbxl¤ zl!a]-.rle.
    (d) (b)e+ G)ql^-19 a+= e+ +4 6.8sql^l
    't4B ss : 4,1 : l,ffir : 2,m, : -L
    e+ qB4 *fl219 i "JEzI?
    (a) n
    (Ir) n : 4,1 : 3,mr: -3,*,: +L
    6.90 (c) n : 3,1 : 2,t?tr: _1,m, : +;
    ^144 +^l,l$e 44 q= ulet9 zlrl+ril Hl¤¤,*+. (d) tn : 5,/ : 0,ffir: O,ffi, : O
    rBq^lq d 4{r-e tzl d9 +ts6}zl +l6-J aolq. (e) n: 2,1 : z,mr: 1,m,: +L

    [6.e4] Bohr EBg +4e+ Ag olg, ? He*4 Li2+e+ Aol, .d^]


    E t r*j1 9l= olgql +89 + 9l+.
    zll"J
    (a) Bohr L$ol He+ olgql ¤+qa, +^J'J ne Sz}9lb
    ¤+Elzl gh= ol.%= +EoJrI?
    (b) H, He+, u2+s-1 u;q tr4 glHulzl rl+ Eql il4. ol
    Zt# +4e| Ae g4Eq a+q Hlq+
    ^JEI
    =r1tr,
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    flrt
    Ets OIE H He+ Li2+

    4oo 5oo 600 7oo Elq


    ^Jql
    qzl(nm) 9lulul -2.18 x l0-r8 J -8.72 x 10-18 J -1.96 x t0-r7 J

    (a) ol reql^J 4 =oF9 q Azlillql 46lq 4ql ++"-lql (c) (b)91.! ,ll.J+ +4lE cs* ol¤9 Elq ttql ql
    ^l-*6}q
    4+ *zl qlLl al= 4l&61-^ls. qzl= ql+61-^ls.
    (b) 6lE4g 4zl EzI9l Ee 4.JH9 4}+se AAE+. t6.esldz}6J 7H7I +4 47l* +ql^l 7l+qq 2.lsx 10-rs Je.l
    ole+ ag H4l+ e.Lr-g
    =l=e
    g7a3 r+qzl +,EL
    ^l ¤E gluJzl= gH+. oltrll Eqzl: uI^Jg 9"l"J7l? (d
    278 65l g^tet !^l+^
    E: gz]ol= 5!19 e+ ollulxlE B : lmfolt-, ol4l ,,1 +¤ol gl= ol+b +E.J7I?
    e E4E e=*olJ., uE 5419 +Eol+.) (b) 4s0 MHz9 Affi ,*b *^ld r.+z|$ gfe] olzlaf
    6.e6 gqlHld ¤tlE"J Star rrekollrl olE +trql 'B rH 6.27q1^l AEE Ag Zl&6}^le.
    ^l-&61+ =
    (c) a50 MHz9 olxfzf $:199, +i gzl-E dzl E= oJ
    ++dg.?+
    4$(beam down)'3 Starship Enterprise
    q ecel EH4 ee q= +liltr +rJ ol+g ol C^Ig Hslzl9ld=zt?
    ^Fs
    /-g ^g
    6IE ++ol+. ol '4Ele] 4l+zfE'Heisenberg -H-{71 [6.10r] "]zh(zJ] i tlzltl o]q+ ^'ll 7l^l *g 714 +
    (compensator)'+= elil= ol5 Hq gr1ql
    ^I*61fl+. 914r. zl-aalB. olelt z|{ol izl$89 ag+E] Lll fl
    olE cl+4'J zfluJol;<lrJ Heisenberg9 E+CC tlr-lE B\ +7lvl^14 gz} Hsql qB g6J-9 ulzliz|!
    ul6}7l 9.l6lq olBl.J gEE,tf$al {olrll. *dq +7lgE= ^h&6}q +EB dal ullzl$.r,t;r. HlqI
    "lrl+ 6.102 tqlql
    4"J71? r olf¤ ¤B6I^le_. *E gdz}9 +=. AA6I^le.
    ^J ^l-s"g
    l6.e7l 416.44q1 9l= "+A+ E+AC gzl"ql^J ¤BE qle, (a) Br (b) Ga (c) Hf (d) Sb (e) Bi (f) Sg
    gqCdE Bee +C +A6Ijr^I q+ alq ,r+ S,ol 6,103 44zF=9 r26H g^= lICg + 9lfi 5ds+g + 9lg
    ^l
    E +Col g7l+6}+= aolq. cs,e 44rj "Jccg 7txlr. 9lg 4ol+n ++6ll strI.
    (a) ;tEl tiol olg^l 9zl-59 9lzlE +cg + s.= ol+ ol g4= +qIB dzl ullils r+4lll^lll.
    L"

    16.104ltrI* rBg +C gzl-^Jol .Ei.r+61+ d4l s4E


    CI
    (b) +l ,l]H4 6.s¤el "^Ia dtlr+ Schr<idingerel noJol" ^l7l*&
    ql^l EgE q¤g qB4 +Halq ¤Eg+
    olr+. gd4E zl^l= +l4¤g qlq^J d^I
    ^Izl+
    .¤
    "AY7l?
    "JzI+g ilql 961 4tl 4A uSajeE 9q{4. rge.l
    [6.ss] x116.63q1^l bgg %]^t t*6] += E]+ql q6]q q-g E
    dilql^] f4
    flzlgo1 F zll9 lJ.e +r]qE ag {}*6l]
    gq E:61^ls. E^1.
    (a) r9 6Jf-tr,<Jel ffi E.eel, r9 QI+E^IE *^I B6J (a) ¤tol + 4gl &E +6JqE Etlql 9lq^l 6s6J s
    +E ++E itolde +g.oJ7i? .J9 Fiqlz}?
    (b) s eulpol 46J ILI-^I *"J +E g-;q] glol,rl +2.19 (b) ztrzlftzlf a+, .ttr.Jol .J9+izt?
    ^l4E
    9"lE Fq.elzt? (c) f^' sxlgol gE g^l-^Js 4i{B a+, qB .Jol .J
    (c) rH 6.ree+ 6.22q1=rl4q, +4 gzlE as sulBgl q4EzI? r ol+b F*.Jzt?
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    E E^l6}^ls. d¤ dBol i.lg"E ¤+qfl+. ol59 Ae szrJg
    td.eel 4A4olzlEJ +Eol oltj eul$oll ql6lq rH 6.?3e+ dElql ^F&6Ifl4. e SzI9 dx| ullxlg rfla|fl$
    6.24q1^l^.1H, .FnE _s.EB.g gETIooJ trI ql, gtol + 7llE d.E Eqq= ol+= ¤B6l^le.
    "iqql az}
    4 ¤Bol 9l=^l= +Elu+. qE Eq p, eul$$ a:s
    oJ 9lilq^J al,!. ,t4E ,*=tr}. olBl+ yz {lH +l g^l+l
    ^14+.
    I !.= dql ql"Jg4. l=lo.e ol BEgp, eul$e] ui
    q BEol+n 6JEl.
    (a)p, eulp$
    "tq BHg a{6}^le-.
    (b) dry sHlBel F zll9 olq ¤Hg +EoJ7l? c +d'J =
    (c) ds-t eHlBg F zll9
    "Iq BBg F{elzP
    [6.too1 x16.73q]^1 NMR+ MRIq q6J 7l+g ¤86]H+.
    (a) MRI AEE E7l +l+ trlulb oJ+4ss 600 MHzel
    TL I

    ae {E+E +}s"6J+. 6oo MHzg d5izt dE4

    tEHr-oJ+ E_a1!

    6.10s A^IqloJzl= *zl¤ 4l*zl j{6ll E}ol=.-e.El¤ ^Fa-o6Jtr}. 6J*zlE f E g"I.JzI?


    ulol="E$9 qlqzl= g^l +E +¤ql 96ll ¤-+qi g (b) Elol=++9 dEol e00w4r zlC6fl .H.xI(l Watt: I
    += dBEE olE¤+. joul-second). (a)il,tJ4 ¤3 ad o + ,lq= ql+EJE
    ^lE
    (a) 4tol ll.2 cmoJ ulol=eulz[ 9lElir. 7]44 !.2]. $"tLt E4bzI?
    200 mL9 44== zt.6oll.rl 60.c-+ ql+71 g.il 9e 6.106 c+flE s+(oJ+e +4'* zlqdss+q *4E ea
    a* no,=r1l 279

    +tr}. _s=g g+6}q &4 Ezle+ 414 gz}tr *. 6.108 (a) flAEq {z} uflrlel +dq^J +¤. 4}cl¤-,==r+ 2.749
    ^Iqdg
    E6llg4. olg a.J slql$el BCg ¤¤6}^ls. K2o, cao, Sc2o3,
    os(g) .-----oz(s) +o(s) Tio2, v2os, cror 0) ol &!+E¤q ol$$ *^19. (c) 4
    ++ cE ^l-s"6}9 ol HI+ql ql+ qlB l HEI^= 41416l^l g E+q= ++ 4I+Eq td flEEl(kl mol-') 61o1 91i;-.
    s. ol ^Iel.Sol %[e"l]= 9]t +E+ qqzl= z[z]n llQ tlElE KzO(s) CaO(s) TiOz(s) V2O5(s)
    H, rle4E glal "Jzl9 3l.I +a-e g"|oJzl? LHi -363.2 -63s.1 -938.7 -lssO.6
    qL +Eol olEI*ql ^trlEHE
    dl$ElEzt? trl-ge.l
    'JHI4"J Hl+q^l 4 A+ql 4+ qlB4 Hcl¤ 4l
    6.107 sz} HA 72ol alsfi{hafnium)S Elqq^l "*g E+g g 416I^ls.
    el"JgA4. s%l-^E plolzl c. urbainS lellLJql q.e.+ MnO.(s) +Hz@) .+zM(s) +mH2O(g)
    (ss-zrB gd)+6JEEel g^l HE 7294 flzl ?+ 4+= fl.J +B *+ ++ HI*!g zl+61-= aol gs
    ^lE-E+q
    +q6}9+a +tt6}Htrl. r44 Niels BohrE 6IEEol "J 1o14. -felr. +^l AIfE 4l&61^le.) (d) +q{
    = qE+sB+E EnE (zirconium)4 EI4l cJ A ga ql 7la6lq Sczo:(s)9 LHi 4Ig +6}^le.
    ^l-E'
    +g ^l
    g aol+n 894. Copenhagenel Bohr9 d¤dq^J g+ 6.109 20417]| z7l 2sLJq= EeE C eql 4aJ 4qlzl¤9 "ldl"ll
    ;I3 o. Coster9} G. von Hevesy} l922Liql glE ql+ nlE +E7I +s_alq+.
    ^lea$
    ol :.e911o1e1 xlep rlEql g^I Hn 72el g^l7f gl+E (a) #ul9 ., 9zl¤9 t}+ql flq^l Rutherford dEol q
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    (b) 4+oll^l
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    6.1 10 +?,]-bE ,LeL F9l fldE23sus}238uo14.
    ol HI+{l rlt.J +B *+ ++ HI*^lg ll,rle. ol HI*
    (a) ol F E9l g^e.l "JC^l+, d^l+, 6C^l+E Hli6I
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    E. +Eol +I+lElr +E"l tlslq=7|? ^lg.
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    (c) n4l ol4}El
    ^l=?E(Zroz)?
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    "*+ ol L
    *=, zlo
    t:
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    E ¤C"Jg ¤B6I^le-.

    !6-r ¤41 E4l


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    ^J4E}
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    a+ H44.J dz} +Col +el6IEI: 19 u.91r1. 6I'+ E= ol $ea[{, :aag +46}71 9]6ll qtr tr}Bl7} gs+zl 4
    =
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    r olt9 d^lE ^11716}=
    q g-s-+
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    =
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    = =ce
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    Hl]gg 611 9l-L dzl sleq A+Elql +s Hlu1o161.
    ^l=&q=
    +4e 13 "c ol^Jel Ar@-+ri E= ¤4 +4)q^lE ++4 eg
    deg r*jz 9lzl"J, r: "c ol6}(a-+4 E= sl4 +4)ql^l= +E4l
    e 4L+++.
    ol tlql^l= g^q {4 ztxl ceg ¤q:aJz} 6Jq. relr ol
    el6J CeEg Hp+rt +7lgs9 +7le+ +ql q4 q$4l E6l+zl
    E- oJo|$eE*l fllq E?-14, s+o.14 dag ololall q+6lr.z}
    ".J+.

    < 14+ 7l.3rll 7Ei 7He flA?] E!4= rtg:.J EElie r 7[3r]l
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    7.1 l+?ltE.E'Jt
    g^q gae e4d+q dBqs+(fB 7.0. #(Au)4 ag gAEe flie.l
    elql
    ^llE+
    Bqe zl${lrJ A]¤Elr, olrl Pd,J dgl gd$ BqlE gA!fltrI. ole| Qla!otr
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    E g^E¤ "J4l q9q.
    rJ^I^"i
    g^Es dal sI6J+q B¤6171 clEql, zl¤4lqld g^ {-ql-E BdqzlE ?*
    'il+89
    rell^] +^ll7l 5'.J 44215* olE 949 +4]= "Jxl *at94. rs^llzl a e+q}g
    =q.
    tsdg-+ oJ6H F+6JEE+E] tr+ drll gA$$ EflB + glrll qflq. t Aal,.Jejd g
    AE += raooH"ll :rzH, rsosH9l o:zl].g + Hl] ol^J ?71-6|S.+.
    gAg fl^q +71 +7F}ql q+, 442l.53 g^q E+ 7l+.^J s g+6171
    ^lzl6}f,
    11. taol{gl Bl^lo}e-l Dmitri Mendeleev(l4:+-tsoz)$ +'Jel Lothar ueyer(ts:o-tsss)
    4 el Egt ++s= Sea1gq . F 4olzl-b grE
    flzl.*ol +7161+ t o e ul] 96[
    =
    gg tril, Hl+¤l ploi4, E?-14 d¤Sol ?z14oe Hi+q= ag g9I+. r %l^lq rlq
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    67t6}q, Mendeleeve| Meyer|-+g6t/l 4B+ +^Js flzl# ts]]go}flEl.
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    *.xl"J. Mendeleevt B+ 4+4eE rE ^J4g gd^14 p+Eq ^fltrS ¤+= +4161
    E49 Baq. MendereevE Hliql 5cg 7Id glEol ae +q E^lqqo} oJ+
    =
    r ^J46Iq +Tlgsql P zll9 Hl +Ag Ba +*+. ql= EE ,JE(ca)4 xluffi(Ge)
    3 r B^lql} Bdlzl *9ttrt. MendeleevE Gael GeE 44 eka-aluminum('under'
    aluminum)4 eka-silicon('under'silicon)ol4l all, ol$$ t{g r+4614 ql+ =zfle+

    +el, 3, --3 arflzlxl gald E+flE uE, rll+.=ej rfE Eld +rt^l EalElxl ?J9trt. :1 0l+= ¤B-g + 9l=71?
    =+9 =+P
    H He

    Li Be B C N o F Ne

    Na Mg AI Si P S CI Ar
    K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
    Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe

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    Fr Ra Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut FI uuP Lv Uus Uuo

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    282
    7.2 +E -"-II6f 283

    E7 .1 rl0lEsl {llt MendeleevQl el6ll 9l*EJ Eta-S't'conol {t ul-a.

    Eka-silicon0l tll=d ssfl rlo[.Ee.|.8tr


    .Aix
    6= I
    Mendeleev9 qE{l87tLJ) (resoLlotlBJd)

    flzI."t 7) 72.59
    trlE(g/cm3) 5.5 5.35

    Hl¤0/e-r) 0.305 0.309


    u uL zlE\ /on\
    v/
    r-o 947
    - EE

    -
    ^T
    ae sl4 6l Hu,(ll
    ---
    &ol¤E El-- Xoz GeO2

    4I+gE pr(g/cm3) 4.7 4.70

    g4¤9 Ei+^l xc14 GeCla

    g+EE #=d("c) 100.c ol6t 84

    6r99.q, gaE¤ +7lgEq .+EI']]fl+. q-+q "l gaE¤ ga6ll Hq r ^dee


    r
    E 7.12'lH MendeleevTt ql+'J 44 4E'Jzl6lfl+.
    Rutherfordzt flz}4 -E$ .u.o (z.z9)* 4l"JoJ 2LJ il"J tel3L3ql, g+9 E4elz|
    Henry Moseley(r887-ters)Y grl HEq ,llHg E}Htl. MoseleyE 94 zlzl gAEol
    nqlqzl AzIe+ +-==.I*.g rI %l=q= xdq 1lffi +A6lq, zJ flLzl Tl5;-
    ,*= 6Jeg =-E-6J
    trl+ gHI
    +E xCg *=6J+= ag "Jgi+. cl 4otz} flzI d'Jol 6ztaJ9l
    4gE tlFf-sr +7t*+= ag.J9t+. :aY 7J ?lAql flzl HE(atomic number)4: +
    5'J C+= xd d++ql q+ ¤e6l.flr|. Moseley= gzt Hazl grlqE *c4fq rJ
    += ag Aq6l +flo}qq,,,==, (2.3d).
    gzt HsE ,HHe flzlej9l 7l=+ E zz1 +TlgE9 9. zlzl E^llE EBotrll 6Ha6I
    fl+. ql= EE erlgzi Hs ta)9 flzl=Jg r(flzl HE ts)9 flz}=Jtr4 I:l r+. rqLl
    gA# gzlelol +7tat= +^lE+= s6lq flzl HEzt ?zlali +^ls tsllgal 41, e.
    4 K7l ?zl¤e9 +l^lq "*rll qE*+. Ed Moseley9 97E lflE8 gA# gag
    + 9lE+ +7lgE9 'ElrJ'g q+6}{ 6l*.+.

    E^l ?.f+'il 9l= +7lg*'il^i Arzl-K elollE, flxl traJol +^le ¤=61.fi=
    A g+et+^17[ Hlfl qE *olE +o)=)l? =7161-=
    rrH

    7.2 I +E 64t6l.
    {x} ullzl$uJ otqe} 4lel4 dzl-5ol 491 9"}"J* rJ6}7ll A.Jqq flEz}91 u}4 flxt
    9 ^deg Hsl++. coulomb Bzlg + dd} ,J ^JE 4L+9 \lzlzl d6IE +Eel r7l,
    r=i
    ^lol9 4Eqga}9=6J+= ag ¤H6ll fr{ ar-.-" (2.3¤). tr}+^J Ar}e+ q ^}ols.l .Jq
    3 dz}9l "lzlE 4dat4, 44 dxl ^iolE ¤+ 4r]q E=6Jtri. "Jqe qa6}7i
    aTlElql q?++7I6I_z,4zlzl qee+El g4 Eq4 +zl"J++ Ai+r+.
    +:| gzlql^J 44 dz}9 eqg o16116}= 43, dzle+ oJCzlzI 7+7+ 6J zllolzl ull$oll
    ++61+. 4dz} flzt9lrJ9 tr-g-g +t+ql, 4zlzl olql qleg LA S"J olrl4 dzt
    284 73 ?]-"e]47141 5S

    +9 HlgqE y4El. dzl zJ9 El*qg 44 dz} qlqel "J+= ^J4l^14 dzt
    m Eol sg trllB+ eqg 441 :=7lAl6J+. + 4dx} flz}qlrl 4 dxl-b +E d
    zt9l 9ulld qel d6l-= zl44 99 $xI "J{ol ¤95rll g+.
    Sd dzt9 q eq4 dzt9 tlBqe qBAl reJa[{op atEz}? zl-1i z3ga3
    ,JHe dzl rJel qlgqql el6ll^J qel .Jqol zJiB rll dxtzl yvl+ gat elq
    g ^J1I6I H: aol+. +E^loE ztfld qd6|= BE alEat(effectivenuclear
    Y (E!d+Ext) charge, Z"r)+it- 6Jtrt. d^I Hlgql q"I eE "Jqol ¤q=9.21 rllEql, +E q

    3Eeqd6lelHt+ s^[q=d d6]= d4l qA6]E+']t] 44(Z"n<Z). qd6l-= 7]?-l= AEE 4H d[+
    ^aa1.z
    +, -4C+ E^F= l+al E5?^t, B^l7l d (screening constant, S, SE "J+)E
    trg^lalrl
    Tl-8611 E^L se^PlEts ^l-&6}q AeJ4gE Celei + 9l+.
    ^lE g= rJ+al |Er,.toll sldH Htol Z*: Z - S 17'11
    ";sl
    5 lsql sd eltl.
    ^lEEl qd+
    flzlzl d^Iel 4*, zl* ztHg 491 zlzl¤ dzl"ll zloJ6]q, s *g
    =
    gzrs] Ed+ dzrel +eL H]*614(E"J+ flzlzt Aeql 9l= dzl¤/fl= ^lE AA zl
    44 ?+eq, s {}ql ErJE ¤6&9 "+E qA4" +a).
    =tr}.
    +E qA6I ZlHg olflalzl 9lal9 o14.9 ,J+EE "J¤qa d+ql Hl+6ll E + 9ltt
    (ae,l7.2). d+= gzlEnol+r z|{ap, +44-= flx}z} Az}ql Hl+6J ql, +Aq= qE
    oJg ol 4^l7l yvl+ gal. qdalll ul-T?Et + glrl. gxlE += dz|, qd+ dzl-=
    d+9 rJ+flzlfl *$2|9lr| EB6l+ qq olg¤.J+. ?J+471ag=qql, d*z} H Et
    olzl$(zzl4zl0 q *g Hol s3¤ 4.o14. u|4lzlzlB ,J+471+49lzlH(s714^l
    E) q zle o"iel Hol +AE lol4. ol;l+ Hlf+ +e qdolel a.Jg E96l= ql ES
    ol g aol+.
    gzlE Z"szl $ult4 qEzl tsllxl= 7]11q. qd
    ^J4oll EzI. 4Ee. [Ne]3slg d^]
    ^Ez:
    6l+ 11aoltr, ts &zltl qd6F= Le q 107H9 ed+ 4^los22s22p9= a+q ,J
    +?]i.lH z+e"oJ+. ,JE6J d3 %IHg.E, s= l0olr zs ]J,zlzl yvly sa 4dolE z.r
    :11-10:11olQ(=H z.a). :zgr1 :s d4-ts er+ ql+ ed+ dxl¤gl Tlvl+ *q^l ts
    dg ggol elzJ ilzl trll+ql, olel+ ^J+g qq +t6l-4 -. (o.o¤). E|4^l :s dzl*
    ++ EB"J S:10eE ^ll^lg atr+ q .Jqg vvlAl g+. 3s dz}9 441 Z"r
    =
    <13 z.s+ol+. +^l "J6IH, zs 4zlzl4o1l zlzlo1 9$ q5o1 ^EE
    zfolzlTl ql$q 4 z.rel
    s ilg u1fl4.
    10ql^J s.sE
    E6J +s qd6}ql q6J zl'dg 0.2¤glrJ 6s6J aflg ¤H6Jtrl. +a
    =g6l9E
    > r.H 7.3 +E E{E6l. 4E grlE!8
    ^E9
    3s drlzl!7E ?E -"]Ial=
    117119
    oJdrl(l l +)= TfTlcf
    +
    "19 1i Io[e[ LH+s] 10_d
    6loll "l=ej+.
    flrtzf dxt(3s)
    I

    #
    I
    -dd+ E^t 1otllfi s2 2 t2 2 oa)
    E E^t7l E^H10-)e+El
    3^f=s!= TfaJ+.
    7.2 ?.E +Edf 285

    ExiTl gAB *B0l 53 ae 2s gulBoil ?lb ztgzh o|-LlE ?p eHlg


    qqsj 0.s A ollfl0il^j

    fl fl* A"Jzl? tidxtS^loll^i ollLJrPi HA ri8 2s 9ul$li2p eHlg= q1L-zlpnft

    1s Exlzl o4oll Eul


    d^t= TPJrt

    1s
    TluLl-a^l7l

    i +-
    tI
    I

    -F

    t- -t-
    I
    I

    9l 2s 1^l7l 2p ErlEtrl -4 ?.lal3 q I

    L'lLl.
    -t-
    2J6,1711
    i
    I
    l -l--
    l i
    .z_5 I
    4*

    l .2P
    I \
    ,t l
    l

    0123456 78910
    -4ee+qq za(A)
    :18 7.4 1s, 2s, 2pol 'J^l'*g +E -Et+ol HIE

    zI flx}9 4*, " <lol ?3 sulgg 9lHxli t zolol rtllz;]ql trl?+ ?zlxJ4. ql=
    =E
    rs22s22p29 {x} ullxl$ ,*=+A gzt= + e-Hlgol 7J2 n:z 44ql fl41 6l]E, 2p s
    HIB(I:r)9 glHzlzt zs e-u1917:0)E+ rq(rH 6.2s). ole+ ag qlqzlej ilol= sHl
    BE gl^l rJ.J r+5',EI+ql TloJ++eal 7.4). H4l.E, rs 4zlzl flz}49l e zltAl il.
    "l zre+ 2p
    ,J^lq 1116ll^l HEg
    ';+ ++ a45^ ld-q F H4le, 2s sE E}fz[ "]
    =+.
    4l zlt4* *ql^J +e ++EE 7l7l= HlEql, zp $$ EI+= qql 714+ *ql^l ++?,1
    g zlzlz) *=trI. olq+ a4e ola|{ zs da+ zp 4zl4 Lll+ sHlgq q6J 7}HtrJ+

    94. "tt}ztzl ol+E, 4dz} gz}ql^J sulg qlulzl(rs < np < nd)9 .JH}
    rJ {o}zlzll
    4.J +^J= ¤H.J + 9ltrl-.
    ulzluJe-E, flzlzl dzt9 z*9 46Jdg a^l6l] Ezt.

    ?zl¤*9 zJe izl"ll,H g+q^j 9-=.4__e_-tr,J++ +s qd+= +zt++.


    +7)= "l+^J 4d+ dz}9 f= E.J6Izl"J, "JCzI9 iE ?zi*4. +Bg "*+zl ?lal
    ¤ EzIqE Sxlz} dzl* +716l= +E qa6F= s44 "-a 7}r-lzl *6JEl. nl4^J Z"f=
    +=6}111 67I6-J+. ql= EH rlEi(1s22s1)e.l qd+ dzt F zl= 3+E q-qE+q 2s9 fl
    zlzl $1lE q]+ E44!-E- 71ilq. ar+4-s.E i)zlzl dzl= 44 z-z: r +9 ss 4d
    6E -vlAl g+. tsllBE(1s22s2)E 4+, 4 Hzltl dziql ql4ol !z= #s 4da}= rJ
    rq. ol 4* r' qd+ dzl F z]L ++ 49 z}4l, ,+44 2s Azt= += dzlql ql6ll^J
    ++4oEtrJ oI9 z\4zl qlEol+. A44ee, ,+r+4 zs dzl-L * q-2:2+E +E q
    A6l-= !-vJq.
    +E otrllE qqa++, Hzltl &zltl yvlz +s qd6}el Hq+ ,Je +71"\ Eil+ a
    EEI gd El z+4. qlE 5E 4E,4 H4714^l7l yvlY +E "ld6l+ ql+ 4E
    ^Eel
    ql qldl^l= 3-2:1+, iEq ql6ll^J= 11-10:1+-tr, z9 Eg6l+a qlqgzls t.E
    +. r*l+ dx]tr *e +g ul4 otrtre a++ ed+ dz} +Eol q4iqq qa6}s+q
    flzltl dzl-= 7lq= nr+4 4zl qE"ll +-E qad+ a+ +4++. "Ja4 ++ql 4.J
    296 7xr ?r4o_l +71"1 3t

    z.tr= r-lEg 1.3+ql^J iEq 2.s+vl^\ rtz$l:1, Eq-Aql rll"H^l= 3.s+vl7l +716}+

    6 Ne flxl9 2p d^l7l,z* ?6 -"ldd'e,., Na fl^lel 3s E^p[ .-77* ff6 -"-qdd[a ol


    ao+ ql+q=7l-?
    | ' aot cl E

    -*a E{6i

    "ld6le} dz}9 izl


    ?7]6]tr +E qd6]71-qBrll H6l+ rll g^(Na) ;-46J rJiol+. ol= pld+ 4,.lzl 4
    ^Io]9
    7l-= ol6H6}7l +16]l^l rg 2.5= Bzl. rqsql il= 94 d4e4 q Eri4 "s qdq-= ,IfltrI= ^Idg Hlg
    ^J4611
    Z"r rolol qBril 4]4IElflEzI9l r.ll6J zl^]l6J 'l]¤+ +q B +E+.
    +lql^l Hq+4q1, r a6J¤- 0161]6}= ae +q4q. Z"r ak? E44eE ql= 7l-bq} oJg 016116}= tll
    ^I+
    Ll]+ d^lz\ zffl-jr' flzl trIEql, 4)E?+ 4471Lzl= + i
    ¤ glzl trlEql, olag z1416}= ,J+,* uJ.{$ olala3
    E qd6f= Lll+ dztTl :=t4Y AH4 4L+. E6J alel4 d 9e_21 gq-. al z.rq z a|ol Eq6lrll +e+ ?l7l qlEql, s
    zi= 7le ^J+ sql +g g+g +71 ullEql, #4al-zll flzI ilg +c6I= 401 4dol4. EEql^1, 44E qd+ d
    z[= 1.00EJ+ sq) Tlqaln, 94 dztE 7]q6[^] g:=+
    +71617l *=+. 4le.l4 dzl$ Z,r4k4 fl+6}q -n. 7lA4oJ s= +A+*.+. q Aq6J EJHS lohn srater
    =;461 r+zl9 a B (tsoo'tszo)e+El gdg 4olzl"J, dr+ f +44q1 4zlzl
    ++g "J+ ag, 2+7]|4 ulzlu-| fla.(Ne)s+
    r
    $.= grE 4++48 HlHg ^l-&B + 9i+.
    E!d6t +"J^I+ n9 <iol +d dzlq n rok[4 V 4
    zlE=g s r,iql o}+fl TlqE *++. +d dz}
    + IltlEt HlHiO= rt,/\tEl
    -"lCF ts drlo]l rll-d Zetr e+Ag n 4}.i= 7I4l dzl=g s ,*ql 0.3s= 7l
    s:trId+ Ext+E 7tE6l? 7.1e q++. +d dzlE ri *tr4 1ol z+g dzl-=
    ^l
    +Ej ZltlE g^pl.E^lo{ tllil Z"r
    I o.ss5 zlSafa, ratr+ ** r zJS t.oo
    T]EEJ HJEOE 4I+TE
    20
    fl^t7t d^foll cl].il Z"n r I zl¤oJ4. ql=
    =q
    *+sflg ^J46U
    E
    18
    -4* Slater 7z1oe 4;5=.1
    E, .lael HlgI {}Ell dzt EHzl= Ls22s22p5o1r4.
    )
    gA-e-fl9 ?lz}.z} dzlql^-], slater 743 s:
    t6

    t4
    flrt7t Erloll cfla-j Z"n
    ,l
    r
    (0.:s x o)+(0.85 x z) :3.so14=
    (slater9 +4ql^-l
    ag "J611
    j146I= dz} zitl9 71=+=+ 7)
    q= +^1,*+. Irl+^l s4 0zll9 n--z 4zl==
    t2
    nEl.J+). qq^l zeff: z-s:e -3.8 :s.2 + ol
    t10
    N
    +. ++.J 4l&t s-z:7+-H-+ E+ ++.

    v,/-t Z,rlk9= Slater f! o e +8+ arl uffilz[zJ

    #4
    8
    e. EE9 A++ %}Hg
    ^l-&4q
    :B z.sollr-l
    eg r{=E rslB?IEL ol %lHE
    I
    6 tr= HleI
    g, + q ++ +g 4&ctr i2 Z*
    4 Li ',Ig Sq
    6l .ll^llg += SrlEI, z"A +714 HEI CE=
    2 trq Slater$ !L'-Hg q d+.J HlHql, E
    =+.
    +ql fl= ,JBg *+ElqlE E+6[ir z,E +
    0
    24681012t4161820 trq trl+^l +471+461= ut, rl z.r9l
    fl^tfla(z) =+.
    ?lE zlH t}f s= "ld+ drtE +e+ Hl*6}tr].
    .r.H 7.5 2+7lsl3+71 fl^E +E -"jd6t9 EEI +TlEEoll^l 6J fl4011^] tf8
    g E tttl 7|8 oJ+(1s)ol l^|(#g^q flEol Lzl= Z"tr9
    n TIAB + iltr}.
    'Jq,J
    ZPJ?4 d)E 671-= "Jtr6lXl qa|.zJtf. 0la3 E^l=o1^lEEl^lLr7l=zlts
    ttHEolr.f El
    "]tr61
    +¤ g+ E4l: 7.rs, 7.16, 7.31, 7.i2, 7.80,
    el4 tr^lsl z"E v,l$6l7l ?lA q4 7l^l grEe] tl= LlElLllfltL 7.8L,7.110
    =E= ^qo+
    7.3 I fl^lel0l3o1 f7l 287

    7.3 I eJalsl ols,_ o.l 171 EX[9I


    Hlea flrt
    T1^I EE HJIIE

    Eal flzl-= ++dJ + EoJs-+. ^J4++. :44 oJzI EqI4 E¤ql E6IH, dz[9 Ee
    z[ ool gE flz]9 a4lE Hq4rll a6l-rl qH+" .- (o.s¤). :Hgls H6[r, {4 z}
    zl to}9l rI4 flxI + A?lql Tlaal-q flxlel zzl$ 4d+.
    zlill t49l 915 o|-e* flzl¤ ^J46ll !_z|. flzlfol 9E 4Aql^J +Ee+ ql fl
    ^le
    4+'.}++ilB qHq. +5 grtE dzl. +Eol .,.Je zz)l eFEl f s,zl ul+ql qFle d
    Brt
    ol 99t4. rqe eEol "JqB ql q
    aHTt =:cr
    zl$ zlTlfl z1?.1= flxI tlzlE9 + Hllol )1tl u^r=(|a)
    ^Fle-l
    +. ol +^l+g ulAs flxl glzlE(nonbonding atomic radius) E|-van der Waals tlzlE oli
    (van der Waals radius)ol4.Z dJ+(rH 7.6). flrCIl ?l= o{c+ drtz
    HJgal EllEoll Eqg ,l.le trl Tlzt

    tszlglrJ gz} +el s+ql4 a.Jg olE ull, tsxl 49 .Jdql + flxI rJs oJqol 0l d=:d + 9.tr1.
    ^Iolql
    418, erlql^1 olBlo} eqlg ¤H.J+. olqoJ rls oJHol F flzl_= Ela6J +E A rg7.6 Er|' Lt|el Hle:ct 3
    =4+trI.
    g trllH+ q 7YJ4l "J=4= ag "J^lg gszi 914. flzlEol sl4 A6Jg g trll, U^l=z[ e:ct flIt HJxl= Al
    ^l-+. ^l
    0lsl+E
    flxl4 ,J 44== gzt +zl# CEB + 9l+. rH 7.6q1^J 44 ae_ 44H+. .J
    +zlql^l gzlel
    =4rflr] uJxlE(bonding atomic radius)g az'J 44 dE rlz4 rJ4. .r.H
    ?!E
    t.e* 46J flzt tlxl$(E= *+ qlzl$(covalent radius))ol HIA.J gz} HlzlE-H-4 rJ S
    +g +Qt]li1 9lEl. EEe-l t?ol S.eE, flz}9 'a7l'Y 4,* flzl tlzl$¤ 9oloJ4.
    gz|el HIA6J flxI *xl$¤ +A617l= ,l]*
    "lBzl"J, 4qrx|==$ +zlql^J +4Elq 9l
    qrJ 4r-1= +A6E ¤4 zlxl %LBg ¤+61fl+. 94 ztxl E^IE flxlzJ 44= +
    =
    aEIeEAl 4 fltg A6J gzt tlzlEg ecg + gl4. qE r, +zlql^l ololeH
    el erJ 44y z.ae Lge_ +AEl$=ql, ol4e olole_E gzt9=olEaJ flxI HlzlEiol (2.66
    L)lz:r.:: AoJg g"lt4.. u[!z]zlE, +] ?lz[g +i[g -a^]l r.E.+a.J +olo]EE
    ql^J ol* +^q AzJ 44E r.s+Aol4, tr|4^l 4010l.$E9l^J ts^g e'* gz} +alE

    7 w gx tEg +7 EEot I I^-l q u 5.5($l /o El|. ga_ /9-_ )0t I 9l=7 t?


    =
    1

    13
    L4 17
    15
    16
    He
    B
    C N
    S'q
    x 0.84 o
    o.ze
    I 0.h 0.66 F
    Ne
    ,70 L 1.60 r.b3
    f ,1l,h Fs AI
    0.57
    0.58
    132 lco irvi
    Y
    si
    Zr 11.26 1.21 P HJ^l= 57t
    Mo h.z+ Crr 1.11
    .07
    S
    cl AI
    1.:r 1.05
    Ru
    Rh Po I.?, lf,1 Ge
    As
    1.02
    1.06
    .20 Se
    1.19 Br
    QO
    In 1.20 KI
    Sn .20
    sb 1.16
    Te
    Xe
    1

    u^t=(A)
    Lael7.7 1-5#zloll rH-.J g^l.HJIl=el 3Er
    =-Br

    *7lq6J a: so4E-=i(1 A:10 r0


    m)g flalE zlol$ 4{alf ¤el.J Elq +flol+. +^Ee-e- sr ++17} o}LlE}. g1}E
    aole+ ag +AilC +EI.ll= ql 7I* -H-¤4 e-e sl t|+lE sln.ElEl(l pm=10
    12
    m. t A=100 p-)o]4.
    ^l-*61+
    288 73 E+el +71^l dE

    ?o.zt Aol4. ufilz]zltr Ee aBe+q += gAE H}4EE "Jo}H f


    3uJ zfl ol{rel
    9l+(r=J 7.7).71q& ulgC zl4l9 a+= ol g^Eg 3r+tlEol "Jel4 914 g:_egtr A
    tJ flxI qlzlEg +d.J +Htql S+.
    a4 7.74 flzl *zlE¤ ol+6IH BzI Ll]E AqI ,JolE +Ag + 9l+. q]= Eq ce+
    cls.l {og flz} e}{$¤ 7J4 o.ze A, t.oz Aol4. ccl4 E+6JEql^1, +A¤ c-cl AE} e
    o\Y r.zz Ao +, Szt c4 clel pa3 flzI *zlE9 6J(0.76+1.02 A)4 uN$ f^|rlr|.
    qFll 7.1
    Saloll^1sl eg ?ol
    UgE4+HJE9E
    7l'8011^l tsE7l^= LJ^HTIglE[. tsE7l^9 +=e +grt E^]
    ^l'861.=
    0lqE + ?lr[. 0lalEl ?lE nllEoll 7f4 +- ,Jr16[7] Pl6[q, ,-J^HLIts trl-g:d EtrE 8 @
    ^|.E S
    E7l-^q1 E7l-drt. rel-d Etr e 5Ll7lcH3sHoln, r +4= g.Ea+oll LfElLxrl. aal7.7e
    0lE^le.]C-S, C-H, S-Hsl Z0l= qEd[^le. o
    ^l'E6[q =-'J L'- , C

    rflt H
    0ll=J ol,JEJ
    E.1"t 4lg *ll zll9 aElol +q4 !ia, fB 7.79 4* fl (methyl mercaptan)
    zr +4Eg ol9."oJ + 914. 4 ¤El ?oli + grlel aql g .J aq+ zlole|ulfola 6}zl+ c+61 gil6}4= ?*=4.
    ,I HlzlEE qlol4n 7ta6J+.
    4{} zJolE 414}B trI= ¤q} flz} *zlE¤ +E6}q ^FS6ll
    Eol c-s aoJ aol:c9 aql gz| q}rlE of *4.
    +sg ai+ sz} qlzl=
    :0.76 A+ >E5qF{1
    A:1.81 A
    1.05
    gi
    TJol:o.764+o.ar
    zltlg xe} yzl-$zl. xyzE ¤C6J trll, x flzl o}+oll
    C-H A+ A:1.07A y gzlTl a6J,*+. gi tEilE xoll,<.] x-x9 dEI ?ol
    S-u 4r3- aol:1.0s A+o.at A=1.36 A
    2.04[o]1, fl4. ^]q yg y-y A6J ,JolE r.es Aol
    #E dEe-E +Ag A6J ?olE c-s:t.az A, C-H: =
    4. xY, E4ql^] x-Y A* zloli $ulolzP
    r.ro A, S-H:r.33 Aol4(9EI4es +a gzlT} s{lg a (a) 0.8a A O) r.oz A 1c; r.ao A @) z.to A. (e) t.zz A
    El zJol:, trl += gz}E¤- Es6.J pr3 gz} Hlzl=._e_-E > E*qF{2
    =
    +El ql+fl <inl il.lE +4u+). a4 7.7* ol++q, pBr:9 p-Br aq+ aole+ Ascrg9
    =
    +q AaJ flzl *4+g ^l*8-6}q altsJ aE+ ?olE dE4 As-cl AqI aol + qe 4,ol ul
    =71¤.q+6}^le_.

    flal UaIEE +7l4rdtJ


    a4 7.7e + 7vl gul-tre a6&g Hq
    =E+.
    r. zJg +ql4 ¤B rlzlfii$ flq^l o|?]|s qlqA++ A46l+ a6}ol ll4. ol4
    flzL
    '* a.Jg +d4es, 3le-14 dzl9 ?.Jzl4(r)9 ?zf9l TloJ6t+. +g uI4 ol4tr
    .Ieaql q+ alel4 dzl¤e 4etr+q q E?.1 ffio1 44a, ul4rl flzl
    =zl]5J
    ! zzlzy ?zlalz]l 94.
    2.+2 +7lql^l $xl tlzl$P g+ql^l e-E=--q-e A++ Aid+ AElol 9l+(clr+
    Ar Ei Asel Se ,JP 9l9zi llzl"D. olq6J A.Jdql g6.19 += +s "J4-= +71
    9 g+q^l epf og aq qE +s. qa4¤.d9 6ztol4. +E qd6lzl rtzlt;l
    H flxtzl d{-= eql q ,11$4t¤{lfzlzl ql$ql $lz| qlzlfiiol ,J^6tfl g+.

    rll7.2tro1lll ola[|+o.-tr LHale++ EHJ4o+ ZenTl


    +7lEEq 68oll^i= +g
    =7ldla,
    nol ¤i7l-g+E eHl$o; a7l7l l1x-]]ta HH?+. r=+E ?rl HJ^lEel e?qE olal 3-d
    ^l#
    0l ,\lE -E.E40+ LfE[LH=71? 0l"LlE, ,\1.E. HJLH Erl-= LtEtLl]=7|? qL Er[7l. L1=71?
    7.3 I fl^lelOlPs] f7l 289

    q147.2
    lf flzl ttzltE trtl4loJ {71 HlaEPl
    +7|EEE daag, B, c, At, si g^l-= a7l7pE-l -d)=71-6lE +^lE HllE6l.119.

    6tlt
    E4rt 4lg fld ull ,1]9 ++ 7le7l +ala+. ol gi=.g 4= ql+6}71 +l6}q, *^l ¤E+ * zlzl 46}-9
    ^l-&g
    +
    +Tlgsql^lE tlql4e gie+ flzI +4=.9 tEil4.J + el4.
    Eot Bel c= +71¤sql^l ae +7lq flr., c= BE e_E+
    ql fl+. trI{^l gz} *zl$$ +zlgs g+ql^l e.={_e.E
    a++ a^471 qlEq cel $zl;.o1 s9 H}4EB4 +g a
    ol+l. ql+g + 9l+. cHIzlE<BHlzlE
    Arn+si= +Tlgsql^'l a3 +7lql 9lr, sits Ar9 e-=4nll 9l+. Si Hlzl* < Ar HlxlE

    Ar4 B= e3 +q +q+q 9lq^l ot4s z|fl,rJ qlxlSol B H}ZIE < AI H}Z]=


    +7Ftq, ce+ siE uffizlzlr.|. C H}Z]E < Si H}Z]E

    of elf, ull$ A'J6IH, c7I Hlzl='ol 7l* 4iL, Alol 7I+


    rq}. a$ql Eg6J+. rfl+ olq6J Fzlz'l +7lzl A6JC
    trJe_s= BeI si + qL aol trl gz} *zl+9 r*a gl:zl
    .JotE + fl+. = c +zlE < B HlzlE -si Hlzl+ < At HlzlE
    Atr f.B 7.7r+q 4 flzl tlxlE Aig eg + 9lErJl, ol > H*qF{1
    -e+q siel qlzlEol BE HlzlEts-+ ag g + 91trI. +7lgs= +a4q(:1H 7.701 olu), g4 N, o, p, Ge
    = gz} Hlzl+ol +7161+ +^1tr +g.J ag?
    c (0.26 A)<s (0.84 A)<sr (r.rr A)<Al (r.21 A)
    =
    (a) N<O<PcGe
    tA z.z* z|,<llal $$-H-8, s 4 p +q d4E=g +E oI4 (b) P<N<O<Ge
    e 4eJA++ SxI tizlE9 +7171q 4zl= A.Jg r*=+ (c) O<NcGe<P
    ag gAtr aol4. rfl+ olfl AaJqlE qle.l= 9l+. (d) O<N<PcGe
    = olel6J
    +e.t 45J3 s "t p 79 g^Egg ++6l.el. f.H (e) N<P<Ge<O

    7.7q14 dol #4 gi: +7lql^J g+ql^l s$a- e_E Aql > .H.6 flr{ 2
    trhq +44qe. Ai6}zl *=+. glz| Be, c, K, ca= gzt HlzlEol +71d+ +^Js +g
    6.I^le-.

    o l¤. HJzl¤.sl ftz l4 z3t3=

    +zl9 flzlzJ ,l4E+q ¤d- flzI tlzl#


    9olB + 9i= 1al rJol, olg +zlE+ ol
    g + gl+. gzlel sTlqlrJe| ?ol, ol$$ rzl
    a6J p+6J89 flztzJ 4?_]tr+q .JotLg
    olgE qd6l, dztf, ?)zlzl4zlzl Sq 9l= sElBql el++E|. oJolgol ?c flxI
    =
    E+El ¤¤E oll, dxl-==g qeE+q *zJ4 o e El4 9l= ill+ltl flz| eul$e$rl zll
    4¤rI. Efl oJol$ol CCqE dzt-dz} Hlgol ?d.J+. qet^l ololgg fl4 flzle
    4 44(:e 7.8). golgq a+= ole+ Hlqlol+. *ol9¤ Bc6l7l +16ll^l +c flzloll d
    zlzl $tlg- rll, dzt-dzt Hlgel +7lY dzl-=ol rl He +rJg zt^l6}7ll t4. : ¤4,
    *ol8¤ S4 9xle4 4 =4.
    E.J+ d6l-= *E ol89 4*, ?zl¤sE +ql^-l ot4E 4qa++ ol$ qlxlfiiol i
    716J4(rH 7.8). +^l "J6l], olg9 4E4 gEIBE +t^Y+71?zl!I9l ul4 ol3 tlzlE
    E +716}+.
    290 7J ?^" r7l^1 5!

    +7ErqN olatlE LHde++ eg Edl= TtIl "Jol8Eel HJrEe olEXl Etrt6,lts7l?


    1+ 2+ 13+ 16+ 1.74

    Li+
    0.90 I 'r:?ae
    83+
    0.41
    \| 92*
    1.26
    F-
    1,.L9

    Li Be B o F
    7.28 0.96 0.84 0.66 0.57

    Na+
    L.1.5
    N,rg2-
    0.ti6
    Alr*,
    0.68 o 92-
    1.70
    cl-
    1..67

    Na
    1.66
    Mg
    7.4L
    AI
    1.21
    S
    1.05 I CI
    1.02

    ^a
    6+ Cal- Cla3' 5e' Br-
    7.52 1.11 0.76 1.84 1.82

    K Ca Ga Se Br
    2.03 7.76 L.22 1.20 1.20

    Rb
    2.20
    Rb+
    1.66

    Sr
    t.95
    gtola
    s12+
    1.32
    irr3
    0.9+

    In
    t.42
    =.nta
    r
    i

    Te
    1.38
    Te2-
    2.07
    o
    I
    1.39

    $:no'= fl:=0,= *&:adB*


    A:lH 7.8 gol8ut30lEEa7l vt^l +4 E^=E fl^lu^lErl ole HJ^I=(A)

    qFll
    F eJxfs.l
    7.3
    ol* tl:,lEsl ttrH4"J q7l HliaPl
    r[3 Mg2*, Ca2*, Ca= HJxlEsl aTlTl rJL6l= +,(]e H|]g6f/.l9.

    6}l'J (a) F<52-<cl<Se2- (b) F<cl<s2-<se2-


    oJoleg+¤ gzltrtrl 4_s.l-q ca2* < caol4. ca flzl-b (c) F<52-<Se2-<Cl (d) Cl<F<Se2 <52-
    +7lgsq^l zt9 Mg o}4oll gloe+ Ca2* ol¤* Mg2* (e) S'- <F<se2- <cl
    ol.$BEI q r+. ul4,tl Ca>Ca2* >l,tg2*o14. > lr= o{lr{ 2
    > jil* qF{ 1 s2*, s, 02- + elzlgol 7l* ae qe 4"J71?
    zlolf +^JqlE +g6J ae? =
    F, S2-, Cl, se2-E *zlEol =o
    7.3 ?^lef 0lEol f 7l 291

    EExl z{lE(isoelectronic series)ol1} t"J6J dz}+= ,*= EE olg d+g "J++. el=
    EE FdzI 4lgql 02-, F-, Na+, Ms2+, AP*ql^J 4 0199 107lle-l dzl.= r*=+. qtr
    Ed4 4lgq a+, 4 olSS flzI Bszt ?zlalE +^'le +g'J + 9lsq, rq qq q
    d6l-E ?ziEI4. dzlfE oJC6IE-+, olg qlzlE3 qd6l.zl +zlg++ ,Ja6l:il., dzt
    5e q ,Ji;lAl qql
    =flE|.
    qlEal -+
    =zl
    gdrlsTll g8rleT]l Sdx[ ttzil B¤xltzzfi S¤xl trzfl
    drl l07ll Erl l07ll Er[ lo7]l drf l07ll drl l07ll

    02- F- Na+ Mg'* Al3*

    t.ze A r.rsA r.roA o.so A O.68 A


    018 HJ^IE
    "J4+
    +7]¤sql^l ol g^Es] +lile+ flzI Bsql 75ala]. Hl++ golgg +7lgsg El
    9C zl4lt Ne *q 9lir., ++g Ne Floll 9l+. ol Ed^I 4gql^J 7l* olgql &4*
    =
    flzt BE(s)zl zl* 4a-, 7l* 4z olgoJ "J+"ltsg gz} Hs(I3)tl zl$ ar].

    \\ qH 7.4
    Z tlzl 4PJqFie.l ol8 Hl.zlB

    rl.3 018 K+, ct-, ca2*, s2-E aTvl rJLdlE +,\le LtEdl,\lg..

    6[l'J
    ^lE +g6J Ag?
    +.d l-= ol$ol l8zfl$ dzl-= ,*= Ed4 Alg"Jg ++ (a) Sr2* < Rb* < Br- < se2- <Te2-
    6t4. olEldJ 4lgql^l ol$el azli qdoKgzl HE)216' (b) Br <Sl+ <se2- <Te2- <Rb*
    7t'Jql q4 rJ^++. olgE gz} Hs= s 16, cl17, K le, (c) Rb+ <sr2* <se2- <Te2- <Br-
    Ca 20014. tr|.4^] .lgEg 52- > CI- > K* > Ca2* +^1tr (d) Rb+ <Br- < sl* < se2- <Te2-
    azlzl z${rJ. (e) Sr2* <Rb+ <Br- <Te2- < se2-

    > H6 qlr1l1 > .H.a qH 2


    Br-, Rb*, Se2-, Sr2*, Te2-E olg uJzlgol ?7I6t= + Edzl Alg Ca2*, Cs*, y3*q18, ol= o1go1 7l* ?71?

    olg 37lslal.E ol*.{xl


    ol$
    =.zlE "lgel "l$ql E=61+ 1til9 Sdql +sfl E
    ol .E.r+g + gls+, dzF=¤ E" r+E + s.= rxll E.¤e q
    .Jg
    "J+.
    'zlE olg' dzl= flEe, oplql-, +'H+ a+ q flq.
    Ele| Ag 447]17]19 fe olluJzlflol El$.eq, {zl zl^soi} dzlzl9F ++gql B tril. elfi ol¤g Ed
    E6ll d6l-=
    I tr-+EiE ++4 o_tr 4E olge-l zlg rTlql Eej 9l+r flzl-e 99 gl= ^Iolql
    r*oJqq 7H&Eql^l oflrLrE
    B + 91tri. olE,tl+. r.illql^l"E
    olgol ol5i6}.= b93 ole.9 rTle+ d
    sd6l +dg dzl= ztgzl oE d+= ^J4I6Ij1, (_)+ rJioJ++ 6zlaJ4. 4E ol93 olgll
    6t7I
    'll++9 +=
    4 (+)*ol ,971 ElEql^l ¤Ag ql dgol +#94. (+)A q +sq +r dal-E rlzl ullE.ll 4E olg.u-+ flzll olEaJ
    $ ollLE (anode)4 ;E, (- )+g zfl 4 E (cathod.)42 eI4. 4. Al4zl El# 7|61 Tlqg gi zf$!l alulolTl qEql
    4E olg dzlE d+eE aol= EeEg Bol gd6tj1 9l d7l zl+zlql
    ^l-+6l'zlql "l]44o14.
    dzlzl *d98. dlE
    4. ¤z1] (+)* E49 Ele o15qt +¤oln, (-)+e 4 ol$$ oll:cEql^l 7]]&EE ol56l7lE da+q. d6t +B
    ++ 4I3rI i.g-EZlE(Licoor)olrf(:al 7.9). (-)*4 (+)* g +zl6t7l +16ll^-1, dxl-Eg E^lql el+ EIE= E6l] ollL
    44*(separator)ol .axllalq, 44+g 4E olg Eql^l 7H&E + ol5l6lq dzlzl 4c94.
    ^Iolql=
    292 76t 34E +7t^1 5tr

    4laEql^l r]E oleg +3tl¤q ,JEg+. olqlqE EE ol +B+ ¤{ ++6}71 trIEq ?lE olg ql^ll$s iE olgg
    gE zlg ztltl $fiol+. 4E ?t*E .tlgl¤ 4l4E oJql s+6}a ?14. *ge gaq ++ ol$oll zlaaf, 4zl zl#
    lJ..J¤ E= 4E ol39l rlall. coa* olgg el+ qe= ¤i6]l E gdol zl+g aol4.
    StlE dzigl 96llco3*-tr e+ggtri. +H {++xll:7.8e
    4E ol9ol d+ Eetr EqTIr ++str .Joil rJzlts ol
    s +aq H+= +d-6I+. qqol zr*6[= Il=
    olEo4 Hl] e-

    Elq= gg B^J^l7l7l ulEql Egcol $$alzl ?*4. ri e-

    olg dzlel +*g +7t^l7l71 916il ullqq= rrll "JEH 4


    E]+(.JHI4eE n+zDE *9ol Ez,ll
    719+. Pq a+ql ri olg dxlel r+
    g.E .J+q olxllz[ $$a[flQ.
    d ^JlzlE "*e ¤+B=e qq H CoO2El ,\lol Li+ qgol .r.p; ri+
    z|l,rf$rllE +d flol 4E: olg9 d
    41 po[go]z %r-=d+ ollr.E
    ^H_e.+
    e| zfl&E EeF9 ga47l +l4l r.q
    611 9l+. E6J 99 g g.rj.rlzl-2. rl r}ll = LirCoOz
    zlE ole--$.$$,tla oiltE LirCo
    nDt-e4 + il=
    4E+g /l$afl 914. .J+
    ,rl].tsg HJEE trfl, Li*ol3ol ofl+Ee+E1 7flr EP 4alEJ 4alEJ Li+ol- E4-g + ?lrl'J,
    otll.Egf rflr Ee Eal6l= ?i
    olgel zzlzl t \o\ 3 546G 015-drl. Urll HJ-dfel 0l50lrt
    ¤+tlEe =t3
    ^E
    +71 4^llolzl"J, l+ ol$ol e-ls ol arH 7.9 alE 013 E^lelE^.lE

    7.4 I ol*El qlLlzl


    flxt+ olge-+Fq d^l-= 9oI4 drll zllatr + 9lL+ 6I= ag E++4 ,lEql Eil+ 6
    9fl xl+olQ. gz}+ olgq ol-ett{Llrl(ionizationenergy)i rlill ^Jqlel flz}{ olgE
    Hlq tr"4e+q dzl + 4E EJI gs+ 449 qlqzloltrI. Bohr9 +4 gzt l_
    ^1146l+
    Bg ¤B6J ql ol8sl qlqzlE z]gE e--tr E96I*.+,.u,-, (6.3¤). +i g^I9 4^l7l n:
    1(Hlq t}4)ql.r.J 7:mE E¤ tril, dzl-b gzlE+q sd6l 414qq olgs+gtr}.
    oJHlzlg.tr. tx[ olgq- ollt{zl(first ionization energy, Ir)b 6C flzl.ollr] a B4l dzl¤

    41461-= ql ge* qlqzlol+. ql= EH gz|el tz[ o1gol .lltlzlE E]-* H]*ql g
    s6J qqzlolrl. ^E
    Na(g) + Na+(g) + e- [7.2)

    2i[ o1g4 {lt{z](second ionization energy, rJE + Hrll dzl-= 71146l+ Ell g-e.e} ql
    !zlolr., olqzl= dzl¤9 zll4= 3^1, 471olgnl-qlqzloltrI. q+^J aE g4E rr=
    trl+ Hlso 4 +dol gE .llulxlol4.
    Na*(g) Na2*(g) + e- t7.31
    -
    +ilI ole-Ef qlLlzle.l HJE|.

    olggl pg-d qlLlzlTI g"IoJzlE


    + atol
    "ilHzlg a71+ dxl-E 41461= ull
    =+. "JEl
    dzl-= \l/alzlzl trJ qBq. n7.2ql g^E olggl "llHzlE 'I+H=ql, +i}4_9-
    =++
    tr_ 4^l7l zllrlEql 44 flaE olgsl ollulzl fiol 11 <-12 < Is Fos 6zle}9 .J + 9l

    4. olfl a.Jg AAI 016]]7l El=ql, dzlE xllzloJffi "Jd6tz} +7l6la- oJ'olge-trPel
    dzl¤ qlqLIqE q Be glHzlz| gs-6[7] ul]Eol4.
    7.4 | olg+ ollrl^l 293

    87.2 AEq^1 olE_r.rt^l eJAsl +^14 otg+ qlLlrt r il (kllmol)


    fl4 Il I2 h I4 Is I6 li
    Na 496 4562

    Mg 738 1451 7733 (4P ?{ dz})


    AI 578 l8l7 2745 tt,577
    Si 786 1577 3232 4356 16,091

    P r0L2 t907 2914 4964 6274 21,267

    S 1000 2252 JJ)/ 4556 7004 8496 27,107

    CI 1251 2298 3822 5159 6s42 9362 I1,018


    Ar t52t 2666 3931 577t 7238 8781 11 ,995

    flxtLt ot== oIEEI^le + fl+. 47.2sl z.so,^',, F rt¤ a *l


    HJE aol t1
    A trt8el+^td=
    ^lE6hE rJee
    I O=
    51ts7l.?

    s 7.2q1^J + Hxil +soJSae'H+ AeE d4-= zllag ql "JqLl= olgpl qlqzl


    g zlylE +7lolrl. ql= +iE rs22s22p63s23prE ^J46l] ez}. 3se}:p F?d9 ull
    zH dzl¤ gqBlHql ri4
    =q
    olgplqlHzl= 786 kllmoloil^l 4356 kllmol-tr +=61 +71I&
    4. zp *449 trt{ Hall dzl-E ^ll46tqH 16,0e1kt/mol9 ¤t rl qlLlzlTi gsdt
    =
    +. qlqzl +7ly Hl zll9 n:3 gzlrg zp 4zlzl qq trl zlt|fl\. fl471d4oJ :s
    e|:p= dzlH+ g{ rJ +E qdd-= LzTl trll+olr+.
    =

    A E^ g^l.oll rt|Ei /rr[ EJ axol r[|-d /z 6 olE a0l L1=Dn

    rllzg trll E= gd: olgq+ q',lzl7| zzll 6zit4.


    'll+ ee dzlg a H4l 4zlzl
    olqtJ ¤tlg qBa6I= ae alel4 {z}uJol ir}4 A6J4 H}+ol .Jqg 4l dz}9 ="#
    4 olt'.il +q6J+= 4o14. 4P dxls=g q4 q+ ++61 a6Jqq ilzl ol+.ll, sz}
    E+q 4P d4¤ ^ll46la+ q= flzte+ ++g + s+.
    qHl 7.s
    F oBEt qlLlllel t6J

    0la|]ol+7lEEoll^j
    ^ll
    7He.l B4= Llls rJoil rl.= LIEIL^ItrI. +7lEEolllle]
    ^qo+ql+61^le.
    tr
    Pl-l= 6[q. 2^t 0l8el ollLlrl7l. 7EI fl^=
    =ZE =
    atl?
    E{3[ 4lei +7l¤.+ql^] g^el +lzl= "JH dzl tsl]zl= ql
    +E + ?14. olgpl ql',lzl7t 7l* e ql= ed+ dzl¤ 4l
    7lB trllol+. trI+^l 4e.l49l t zll9 d{-= r*b gA= +
    d4o+^J4"J+914. AE Ef,ql^1, 4 gaql 4t zz1 olepl qlq^l IzE 4.tE
    Eot *e*4 oe +4U LJIE +E 14 Si(Na)E flztzt d E +g=r+ a+.
    4-= + rl] ,*=+. tr14^] olfl gig 2it ol$o| ollulzli
    ca (r14s kllmol), s (22s2 kllmol), Na (4s62 kllmol)
    qC+ dzlg xll4e+ +A¤+. s(+^!)e+ ca(+*4).ts 44 >s=qlfl1
    U 4= gr=s F zll olt9 flziz| {zfgi ,*=+. E}+^l E_+EJE 3xI olgs+ qq4= q+ + qtr 44q 6ll'&6.I

    NaE zlti 2zl olge+ qlql= r*=4. z a"J7l?


    =
    294 73 g^e]+714 5E

    (a) Br(g) _- Brn(8) + e- (b) Br+(g) .----- Br2*(g) + e- > .Ed* qF{ 2
    (c) Br(g) Br2*(g) + 2e- (d) Br(g) .----- Br3*(g) + 3 e- Cael S 6 :zp o1951 ollHzlzl q Ag q= atzi?
    (e) fr2-(g;- ------- Br3*(it) + e- =

    1il olgsf qlLlalsl +7|1 eEJ


    r.al 7.109 s+z11giq ql6}q, +7lg*.ql^J + glql^l
    A* += gAE olE"E rll rx1
    olgEl.llHzlg a6.lg trq +e-6J a6}g rl-gr+ a'1.
    =+.
    l. ag +7lql^1 rrg oJHI4-qE g+q^l 9-E.4--qE olE"B9l ul4 ?zt+4. .JrJ4
    ++e 4 azl4l4 TI\L *g olgs+ qlHzl= 444r, ul$rj zl;lli TrtI +g olg
    slqlHzlE +Elu+. rtgql ,J+61 ti'a[4z1uj, ole+ ae a.]dql= Eag qlel
    ,r 9l+.
    2.rJ* +q^l rrg 9HI4oe flql^l otqe olE"*{ q4A4++. ql==E Hlgd
    zlillel olgql qqzl= He > Ne ) Ar ) Kr ) Xe +ol+.
    s. s4p+q g^Ee dol *4 gi9 r, l}E4 q H+lE rr a}9 Lt4U+. "JHI4
    otr dol ++ g^q olgel qLJzl= ?zl¤st9l^l = g+q^J s_=+o.g ?J++ Z
    #4 6zl*4. a4 7.10q1^J '|4421 *9/+q ++E r, aL9 Hc+z[ql+ 4]+r
    "Je4 *r+.
    .JHlzJetr a7l7llig grloJ++ trJ olgp+ qlHxlE r*b+. fl4.9 77lql g6J.9
    += oJzlT| "lgs+ qlLlzlqE g6&3 = 3le]4 eaql fl= dzl-= zllTi6}= ql gs-6J
    =+.
    :lHoll,tJ 0lAElE!(A0sl ilo1 uulx{ ?ltstll, Ate-l 1^t0lSElqqx|E 100 xJ/rotol 9.xlH?10{l^l ++6f^19..

    N
    !u

    J
    K
    5
    ,V F
    1681
    6
    65t B
    C o ,10{

    1314 olr
    801
    -&
    /a? o
    -Co
    /60
    s
    'A 1000

    1
    2 Au
    t9; 4;
    8e(i s6
    ot &4 h
    869
    _n
    589 /,2 B; ^-
    t(o
    zos -tln
    L- t ).12
    (

    13
    oilqxi 14
    57 15
    t6
    17
    18
    fH 7.10 flA9 1il olEEl0llL-lxl(kUmol)
    7.4 ol8+ ollLl^l 295

    qlq4= +a qd6re+ qeE+El $zlztfzl! ¤+ 4El E.+ql q=*4. +s qA6l.el \


    vzl uY qeE+q 44 zlL:_ dzlc+ q ^Iolel qlqg Qzlt'lz1r4. ol oJ4ol +7lt;l
    E4 BxlErl &A g^te+
    E dxt zllAzl q qEl+lzls-e olgpl qlqzl= 67i.Jrl. ?3 ?zlglr] g+_e_tr+El e- El 2p ExlE aol
    7tB^l +E 4d6P| +7I6|n gzl. qlzlEol aa6}!-tr. olgs+ qlqzl= +71q& tl +lt ol+E ^1l7l6t=
    =4o-e ¤B6t^le.
    4. :44 ,Jg +ql^J ol4E 44ztE flz| $zl5ol 67I6I7ltrJ +-tr qd6l+ Aa6l +
    zld4. e+ Hlzl+E +7171+-tr zl+6171 qlEq 44 dz} oJqol ,J^6tal Elq 2p 1 1 1

    ^Iol9 1t1
    ol ge+ E rJ 4^l7Jr+.
    9l H zl
    zJ* ?214l4 +zldg H.q+= 4* ,J^lt;l7l ElEzltI dr,ll ¤Eg+. qE EH r
    2p
    B z. rogl LI4U ule+ ,Jol, ullgE ([He]2rr)ql^l $r([ue]zs2zp1)e_ z;;4 olge+ ollulzl
    1t 1 1

    tla
    z| zf,id4. : olf* BE Hxll gr[7[ dztE, Be9 4* H]q 9lH zp P?dg
    ^ll ^ll* a:18 7.11 E^ettl^oll^lE
    7l trll+ol+. *ql^l +rlE tsre+ +ol, 2pY 2sHQ q ke {Hxl rJ4"ll 91tr}= 43 *zl 2p 9ulEJ rllt
    6tEXrH 6.2s). e^[Hd2s22p\qlr] &]([He]2s2zp4)e. ?J++ olge+ qlLlzlzl 446[=
    19 &a9 pn 4zl uflzloll.! 4I1l dzlE H}ts ullEol4(:e z.tt). Hund f49l q4 ei
    4 p' 4-zl ul]ilg 4 dxl^E ^ll zlE zp 4zl= zJgl dzl-dzl HlBg 4aE 6l+ ^1tr r+
    Ep .sulBgl gl+= A& zlE6t4 ,",",(0.s11).
    ql4l
    F 7.6
    olg:i+ ollLlxlel +714 dqf

    +7ltE= efa6[q, 1^l 0lgsl 0llL1^l7l.67l,6lE +^1LHE Ne, Na, p, Ar, K g^f= LlE6l,'.l9.

    6[l'J (il rvrg9 +E qa47} Be9 *o qd4B+ r7l qlEql,


    E{r}7flq ol szll fl49 g4 7lE= "Ja 914. lz} olgp} rvrg9 rzl olg4 qlqzlzl Be9 aB+ a+.
    gcel fz15 oI= aol
    ollulzl9 ?7r +^1= +TlgEql^l (iil o9 rr} olg+ qq4z} N9 4tr4 4e Ag oq 2p
    gs6t+. olgol qlqzl +^19 q+e g^$E ^J4zlt +l sHlBql dxlzl ttg ol+a glTl u1lEol4.
    zle+A.JCS ol+,*+. (iiil ar9 1zI olggl qlqzlTt Ne9 X-ts-4 zl3 43 ar9
    zp 4zlzl Ne$ zp dzle4 q-s-E E?] 894 9lzl
    Eol lil olgg| qq4= ee +7lql^l g+ql^l s=+s
    ullEol4.
    e a++ fizlz;l:1, ag +ql^l= flq^l olql.e qlqA++
    ?4t4. Na, P, Ar3 +7lgsq^l ,Je +7Hl ll+. rq +19 (il. (0. (iiil9 ¤H + +.J ae?
    oE ,rll g^q
    olgg+ glHzl 1, li3 Na < p < Ar9 f,9 (a)'* 7l]E ¤H"Jol *4.
    (b) (ilr+ (iil
    s q^JBJ + 91tr1. Ne= 18+ql^J ,tr HIE 9l9l ?lzl EllEql,
    (c) (i)r+ (iiil
    NeTI Ar-E_4 = olgp+ oll'JzlE ++B ae.E. 4l+¤4.
    "I (d) (iile+ (iiil
    {z}zl.e, K= t+q^.lNa ot4oll flq^l K < NaE q+¤+.
    oleltJ E4e+El olg+ 9lHzl9 +^l= q-e.r+ 44. (e) 919 E= ¤Hol *4.
    K<Na<P<Ar<Ne > .E'= dl4l2
    Atr ol effiilefH 7.toql^]qfl.J+ 91tr|.
    B, Al, c, si + ril olgg+ qlqzlTl Tl* 49 ae q!
    E* qlrll't 4ola, 7l* ae q! aoJ{ ql+6t^le.
    > =
    1zI ol*pl9lHzl9l ql6J +¤= ¤Hg BzI.
    ^J46ll

    ol¤-el{:,f utl:,1

    flzloilrl 4zlzl z{aqq o}olgg ¤cB rllb, z}z} +o}zl+(")* z*= sHlBe+E.l
    =
    +c 4l4g+. qE EH Li gz}(1s22s1).e.+El dz} oJ 7i7l ^lAa 4=
    zr' 4zlzl xllrlg4.
    Li(1s22s1) =+ Li+(1s2) + e-
    296 73 g^sl+714 dE

    uftzlzle, Fe(lAr)4s23du)E+El + ,llE 4zlzl rllzlE ollb +r' 4zlzl rJlTlg+.


    Fe([Ar]+s23d6) + Fe2+([Ar]3d6) + z e

    Fe'*= BC6l7l gla}¤ dz} t z]]E H xll4a[4H, n:49 -ErS eul$ol u]q 91o ug,
    3d e-Hlgql^J ull4g+.

    Fez+([Ar]3d6) + re3{fAr]tds; + e-
    dol #4 *olgg ¤dg ql, 3d dxl-E-4 ss 4^l7l Bzl xllzlgE 4o1 olt}afzll -H-oJ
    xol4. 4+ 4^l EI]TI= + trI= 3d aql +s dzl-= Hzl *4. flz}g {z} uflzlfi + trll +
    TlgEE aJ fl^-EPq += fl+E olEodlE r+49 ^J^J"ll -H_z|. o1 4Cq^1, dzl¤ s
    HlBql tr16[7]+ oJd4-= qql q+serJ 949 aiilcg HE+^laq. olgs]g ql* q
    rl$ o}^JzlE 4l4Elzl *zl oll+91 ol 4aol +ldgzlzl ?*=+. qlE cae| ri2+E
    E+ 207Hel dzl-E 41 9l7l"J, Ti2* ol¤-9 ca flzlE4 rJ g:g =E
    oJd4-E ?*jr- glr+(22
    4 zo). olfl ^Idg F E+q}+ol trI= dzl. ulrl(ca([Ar]+s2)e] ri2+([erBa2))3 g "J+ 9.
    ulp9 9lHzl Hs+^lA+.
    =91= qH 4+la +AAB+ fH, d+E=g 7l* t z"I3 zl4 -sulB+
    "JE +qd n rob"l
    el Ezl glzg+. q=Eq i4 g4* ss d4-= szl d"ll sp &z]F= = g=trt.
    Sn([Kr]5s24d'o sp') - sn2+([Kr]5s24 dlo1 + ze- = sn4+([Kr1+d1o1 + + e-
    eCB rll} zlzJ *Z n 4Ig ?*a 9t= Hl sHlB
    {tr $x}"ll 4^l7l dzlul9 *ol&9
    ol+ +84 eE {+lA sBlgql dz}¤4. ql= 5H s=+sflql $zltl ?2199 F- olg
    g Bdg q,2p +44"il Bot 9l=,* ,ll9 Hlriqq 4^l7l EqrJ+.
    F(7s22s22ps) + e- - F-(7s22s22p6)

    E Ia' ] "]lHlriL=r;-4 *n
    qH 7.7
    olgE tzl Htlil

    (a) ca2+. (b) co3+, (c) S2-0ll rHEl E^i HH^IE l ,l.l9.

    *HtrF
    -ll kt 4qqot,*+. r ¤4 co3*9 dzt Hl],,lE +g=+ e+.
    g*rl Xlel olgq 4tJ dz} ullzlg a| 5z1olr[. :el Co3+: [Ar]3d6
    ^Jl
    zl $all.<l Hzl +c gzlE dzl Hl]il=.4 Etrl. f- ++ d (c) *(SzI HE ro)9 dzt Ellzl= [Ne]:s2:pao1u}. 2- olg
    zl$ x]lzlalzl* Ezlal{ olgg "J=+. 7}zJ ke n ak+E g ¤C6I7l +l6lq + \l! $zlzl dz}!"lot ++. 3p
    ,*E s.u1g9El 4^l7l 7l* *e n <l9 r*E, ul
    ^ll4E+. sHlBql= F zl]9 447147lH + 9l= Hl c-u1go1 91
    q il4+ ++4 o + iH+l1l sulp+rl dzl-E q6J+. trI. tr++^l s,-9 dz} El]il= trl-eEn} e+.
    &CI1
    52-: [Ne]3s23Po :
    (a) ,Jf(fl2[ Ha zo)9 {z} ul]zli [er]as2o1r1. z+ olg¤ [Ar]

    BC6lzl 9l+q + 7l]E 3lel4 dzITI zllTlElqot 6lq, 49 sPlp+q gi, q==:q cu'*4s'?-e+?g ols-Eg
    : ¤4Ar.{f,{z} olgol gtr}. zlz] zltl$ ulgd zl4ls+ Eg.* i9 dzl-E r*=+= ag
    Ca2+:
    7lE6I+ ",=- (z.zH).
    [Ar]
    (b) ?gE(gz} Hs zz)9 dz} ullil= l*fqs2zd7ol4. z+ > H.¤ qF{ 1
    olgg Ed6l-71 +l4q rll zl]9 {z}z} xllzlrlqot f,+. rc flx}9 Hlq ^JEllE {z} uflzli [r<r]ss2+dsol4. Tc3"
    olgel dzl HHzl= q- 4"J71?
    *gl^] ?l-"d u}q rJol, +s dzl-b 3d 4^lilc+ trxl xll
    7.5 Tl^f TltrfE 297

    (a) lxrl+da (b) [rr]ss'z+d2 (c) [rr]sst+d3 > !r.6 qF{ 2


    (d) [Kr]ss24d8 (e) [rr]+dlo (a) Ga3+, (b) cr3+, (c) Br-9 {x} uflrl$'tr'r.lg.

    7.5 I tal tlElE


    qE flz}9 rz[ o1961 9lHzlE flzte+e] dzl¤ 4146]q oJolgg ccg trll +H]q=
    9lHxl Esl9 "Jol+. qlE Eq clk)E rz| o1gql qqzl 12sr kl/molg +g +gql +
    Hlq= 9lHzl Hslol4.
    e- : kJlmol
    "lg+ ollHzl: Cl(s) ------ Cl+(s) + A,E t251. [7.4)

    [Ne]3s23ps INe]3s23p1
    olgsl9lHzl <iol .JE Tlg r*=r}= ag qlqzl= flz}9l TI"lolEI a4-= zllT) g + gl
    ¤¤ g"lsi4. flz}9 E.= ol¤'El.ilHzl ag "*el <t"14. + a4-= 4146[7] g4^l=
    .llHxlE ¤+4oI6Jq.
    ql+Sel SzlE AzL= gq^l *olgg
    ^JCg + 9l+.
    714
    ^JqlE flzt9l &zl= 4zl
    6J trli g^J6l+ qlHzl Egl¤ ErtrlitE(electronaffinity)eln ++. qlLJzl HEIrI EzlaJ

    dzl9l 4aJ 9zl9 .Jq g.= {E}E(affinity)E 44421 ollEol4. ql++e] flzl.E 4zlzl
    4zl9- ql qlLlzlE EJ=++. ql= EE gi gzlql dz} * 4= aTIB'x +Hlq= qlq
    zl Eelb -34e kllmololq, olTl^l g9 +s= HI*ol dq6l= FqI 9lrlxlzl rJ=Eg
    +Elutrl. q?+^l clel {z} Tls}E= -34ekllmololt}.*
    AxI a+E: cl(s) + e -+ cl (s) EA : -34e \|/mol [7.s]
    INe]3s23ps INe]3s23p6
    olge+ 9l'jzlq dzt +lsls ^tolE zlol= olallali ag +s6l.trt.
    .olgql9lulzlE flzlz} dxl¤ gg rllE qlLJrl E+Elol+.
    .dz} {sls= gzlT} d!-= Eg trll$ 9lHxl EpI*oI4.
    14+ fl^sl lxl flslE7f 15+ AAg E^i tjtrl.
    EzI¤ dzle+ flx[ ;.p1q1 q]flol f;z]$ffi gx]E dx] rl trHq q E a9'J?l 0tf;E +1?l7l'?
    slE= q +E Atol I 1o14. Elgrd 7l^lle+ ?e P 7l^l fl.
    =
    Azl AE+E= "JE {lg ,*yLL olag *o189 4121,
    1 18

    ^9 gzle+ dzlE4 qlLlzlTt q ++= 49 9"1*4.


    Er.lg
    H
    -73 13 L4 15 16 17 >0
    He

    Ar(g)+e--+Ar-(g) EA>O 17.61


    Li Be B C N o F Ne
    -60 >0 -27 -122 >0 -1.41 -328 >0
    lNel3s23p6 [Ne]3s23p64s1
    Na Mg AI si P S CI Ar
    {z} {o}Ez} "Jg A"l4= a+ 4471x}$l-9.tr er flz}oll *43 * 134 na *200
    -53 >0 -349 >0
    Ezl ?+=+= 4o14. 4 Ar- olgg EqI¤6IEE rCCEzl ?* K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
    -30 *1t9 -78 -195 -325 >0
    -48 -2
    =rl-. Rb Sr In Sn Sb Te I Xe
    -47 -5 *30 -107 -103 -190 -295 >0
    zort;
    t7,l' T]EfEo I az l4
    a?J7.12Y ?zl¤s9 1+7lql\ s+7)vl^1splp 79 giql ql L a4 7.12 dEiE
    kUmol)
    sel. p 79 fl^EE E^t tlEtE(E9-l
    * a4 as+EE +4U 4o14. dzt +lsls HsI9 3a}^d3 ol
    .da} ae+E= +Ellll= *Hql= + 7l^19 +E +Eol ol irllS sd-6J ql+EE r4lql^l= gq+4 +E +
    ^l-SEq.
    s+¤
    ^l-&6JEl. =
    g^E d4 a+E ilol 34e k)/moloj rll, gq +E= d1-= A716]-= 4¤"1 gg 4AgC +4.J+.
    rel+ dE4 oE d4 {s}Eq ¤9= 7l4lt flzI+ ol¤.ql .J 49 dzl-= a7}6J rI HJ=6}= qlq4olE}. dzl= cl(c)
    ql aTIB'llE:+s kllmols HJ=6I71 q+ql, ol ¤E.ll qsE dz} aplE= +34e kllmolol 84.
    298 7Il ?'f q +/l^l 5!

    -gs+ qlq44H +Bil 4ol olH9l +E6t?+. p +44¤ i]]g trll oJ Tl]el 4zlzl +-a_6J g.
    Eal g^= 7l* z gg dz} aElE= 2144. dx} d zllE g9 gE4l flzl-E ulgc zl
    ill9 dz} El]zl= r*='Jcql +olgg ^J^d+trI(^l z.s). :zel+ Hlg^J zlxll"ll &,.]¤ &tl
    6rrlB rJ E3 H]]ZIB gs^Jol
    ^Ja+(^l 7.6). +e
    q
    ^llE+.ll'Jzl Badq dzl-E
    ql
    uJzl9 P?491 dzl-E ullzla}= 43 9lHxl4otr E46IEE, dz} aslE= oJsl &ol
    E4. se4 Mg9 dzl AclE 6}.E rJ+ ol+E "JE <Ig ,*YLl. dzl-= dzlalH 9lH
    zl {Iol q Hlq 9l}p P44ql +ol7l qlEol4. =
    =,
    rs4 S4E9 dzl dpls 9rl *ulE4. ol gaEg ¤qlol il]glrl p a44g= r*71 ql
    E9l EzI¤ dzl+ 44-4zl elg4ol rJ f, olul 4zltl d+g -sulBq +qot"J *
    r+. q4^J olel+ g^Ee "JE dzl. a4E a(NE 4+)g ?*Aq, g+ql qld.J gzlE
    H+ q 49 gq dzl alplra A(p, As, sbel A9g ,*:tr}. eg ol+E lzl olgE} qlLJ
    xlel {o}rjol E¤+4.J9 z.adglrJ Hgt+.
    421{0}ri +ql^J ot4E .llqa++ rTll H6}zl *=+(rH z.rz). qlE 5q Fe-l a
    ** 3zl9 4zlzl2p sHlBq Folr, ctE a ? = 3p e_HlBq, Br9 z*E 4p e-HlBql
    44 +.Jtrt. tr14^J poll.<J rE ,J++ dxiq q ^Flg ¤+ Z4zldtl +716}ol dxl-q
    ,J "Jqg ,Ji+rl. rEILI Fql^l r_tr a+e 3lel4 d4-= ,*= sElBg dd q H4 rl
    xi dz}-dz} zJ t}ts4ol ,Jig+. A44sE dz}-q +el qlqe_] +i= flzl-flzl z]
    Hlgqsl z]4tr 11-4lgtrI.

    A Cl (s)e] 1^l018+ 0llLl^l ,JrlCl(s)el E^l TJe[e,rp;o;=tzl= ¤Bdl^le.

    7.6 r++,Hl;+,ftE+
    flzI qlzl$, ol$s}9luJzl, dzl dE]s z}|HS z-] flzl9 C4ol4. r4+ u]$.tJ zlill$
    4le]oJ q:
    fle-E zltsql fluI tr4e ?+=+. giE dag trl+ +H4l ololla|
    =416lzl
    4H, +"J* flz|Sol 4= Cae-l ?zl4 A6Jg a^I6llot 6JEf.
    gi= ++, Hl++, rZl ¤+g + 9l+(r.g 7.13) .:o.c., (z.s¤). ++4 Hl+
    =++sE
    0 |eEI 0llLl^le] +7 14 ea]E Hlir6l^19.
    =+¤zl
    1A 8A
    =+d =7t 18

    H
    1
    2.4 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 2
    2 13 1-4 15 16 17 He
    3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
    Li Be B C N o F Ne
    -4. 11
    Na
    L2
    Mg
    3848586878
    .i+5t,/ 8910
    8B
    18
    11
    2B
    12
    13
    AI
    1_4

    Si
    15
    P
    16
    S
    17
    CI
    18
    Ar
    "t9 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 ?7 28 29 30 31 3? 33 u 35 Jb
    4 K Ca Sc Ti v Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
    7l 3/ 38 39 40 41_ 42 43 +5 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
    Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru RT Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
    55 56 77 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
    Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta w Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg TI Pb Bi Po At Rn
    87 88 103 104 105 106 L07 108 109 110 111 772 113 774 115 7).6 1.17 118
    Fr Ra Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cp Nh FI Mc Lv Ts Og

    f--l -x
    L---l E= 57 58 59 60 6-L 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
    l--l Eo= La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb
    L___l ^-o 89 90 9L 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 1.02
    E ot=+ Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm BK Cf Es Fm Md No

    a.LH 7.13 Hl=+


    =+, ==+,
    7.6 l=+, Bl=+. 299
    ==+
    87.3 ;.+rt Ht++stE.8
    =.4.
    E- Hl=+
    q+= *qol 9l+. 4++e ${olzlu.l +'}* 49 ts+. *49 ulzl *=+. +=+.
    {olEJ
    ^!g
    jlill= d^"ir+ ¤Col ll4. Ial= trE t\zlzl d4. ++,* aE 9ln +E aE fl+.
    dzle+ ¤9 ¤3 r41o1c1. dzls+ ¤9 dE^dol +lctrI.
    q++9 ++ t+=e Ezlcg ts olgd nxllolq-. q++q ul!!tr {}ffi$ t^d +"_4.e ^J¤6t= +zl. ESol+
    ++"lql^.1 ololgg ¤c6l+ a6}ol 9l+. ++"-4ql^l golg E= 4Ir golgg ¤Cal+ a5&ol 91trt.

    +g +g6l+ 4. zlzl cag E 7.3q1 ,qE6|9r+.


    ++ aEql^J= +71¤s diilql aa^J +4Ll-= +*c9 +F4"J a6}ql ql6H^l oJoI
    eE|. E* ol+ tql^J= Hl++g q}+cr+ ++E HI+cq ql6l]^l dE. flal etrts a
    olr+.

    9E fliz} ++E EE4, E+ol4 Ceg f*ol *4Ei* B+-¤(metallic character)ol


    ?zlaJ4. rA 7.13q1^l B + 9t= HIe+ Aol, ++Ce +7lgsE Ag +ql^l= ol.4s
    a++ zJe izl.ll,<l= 9-E+e_s a++ ac++. olzll *4, Hl++,
    I Ce4=!716Ir., =++
    {z} uflzl ^}olql "Jd+ +{= +EHzt.
    =x]]6}=
    _f_,.\
    El -r
    ,il+EE ++ g^= ++ +g q+= *4ol g+(f=J 7.14). ++g ¤4 dzlg dEc
    ol 9leq, "JHl4etr dc(+EEld 6ole+ zJol szll Ejzl= ca)r+ flc(zl¤l ,JAl E
    q ddr+ zJol "JE + gl= rd¤)ol gl+. ¤gql^l E^llE +g(+Ed: _3e"c)
    =z116l.=
    9 xil9al E= ++g dgql^J r.zllo1rl. ++E + 7l^l ++e dge+ .JzJ k3 9s
    ql^l +,=ql, 2s.4'cql^1, ,J#
    2e.8'cql^l +=+. ole+ Hlqltr Bg ++e'l+
    ^]+g
    +e gEql^J +=+. qlE EE e*5E g+BEql 401: B^flg 3400"cq1^J +=trI.
    ++e *g ol34 qlH4(=H z.ro)E *= a6}ol 9o-l^l Elr.4 d4 .Jolgg Ec
    t}L Cdol gI4. : A+, ++e Elql t}Sol .Jqg 4l &o}(dzl¤ S$¤trI. 7lE4"J arH 7.14 =+e lol L[q, d
    8rl-Edol ?lrl..
    flz}9 dd(HlxlE, {x} ullrl, dzt als}s E") zi+cll rz} o1go1- qlqzl= giz} ++ E O ninanaina/Shutterstock

    Hl++_q-E qE6J X.JzlE 7l+g + 9l= 7It =a3 zlEol+.


    =
    ++4 Hl++el qlEzlt g. zlzl olgel 4Ic+ tlEI= fH 7.15q1 +EI,]lstrt. zll2.7aql
    ^J
    t+q} ailfl, s+*E + "JrJfl #+E d6l-= 6J{l r+olI, "JA4 E++el d6l=
    6Jt)2+014. olqoJ+Eql +61+ flzl-E HtAs sElg9 dzlE drll Sr ul$rJ zlxll
    g dzl Hllzl= r*=+. p 9.ulpol 5-94 oe"J B}ep eEl
    ^l]+l{ +(13-17+)el ++g
    99 dzl-3 grl+(qlE E9 S','*9 4*) ' sulB4p sElgE dzl-= El4l Sq(ql=
    q s.,4*E a+) oJolgol g+. dol !.4 olgE d6l+ "J4+ %I!g rlE|zl *E4. = d
    ol ++E 5A + 6I+: + 7l^l ol^Jg .Jolgg ¤cg + 9ltrI* 4014. 9lE EE pe2*
    el Fe3* pl6JEg E+ El]+ goJ slE"Eol+.

    A r't.JrtzHt^= cr "J Mset otdE *-*EE c¤-strt. otE F itsEott^1 Ht^= tE'+7t ea I
    i
    ++4 e ol+q{ E}i}Ee olg ai} Eaol qts a6}ol 914. qlE Eq ql
    El*4-o
    ++E ++ &El¤r+ aJedpi¤* ol$rJ rx]o]+. qI qtr, qa ++r+ 4hz1 HI86IE
    300 78 g40t+714 dE

    Ee^4el XIEE de -E+al Hl=+E +Elpttl. 0l doll el6ll Ll+ol^|ts 884 tlEl.SEll= 01tr18t7t?

    1 17 18

    H+ H
    2 13 14 15 16

    Li+ N3- d- F_
    Hl
    xln I f_a
    Na+ M'8* Al3+ P3- s2- C1
    ¤l
    ,\l

    vs+ Mn2+ Fe2+ Co2+ Cu+ ^5e-)- Br- )l


    K+ CaZ* Sc3* Ti4+ Cr3+ Ni2+ Zn2* ill
    v4+ Mn4* Fe3+ Co3+ Cu2+
    Sn2+ sb3+
    Rb+ Sr2+ Y3+ Zr4+ Pdz+ Ag* cd2+ Te2- I_
    Sn4+ sbs+
    Au+ Hel* Pbz+ Bi3+
    Cs+ Ba2+ Lu3+ H(+ P(+
    Au3+ Hg'* Pb4+ Bi5+

    ArB 7.15 fl^ol tl|E.4?] uE| 8Et| +^E "Jol lto+(+1)el-oo1 $aff(-l)= -"F LfEll.ltf

    tEI qAg ^Jd+tr}. olE=g Ni2*el o2-= siI6I= ol$,! lxllolr{.


    2Ni(s) + oz(g) + 2Nio(s) t7.7)

    +q ++lq= &tz1,l]+ ++6171 Ell+q +I4¤e 561 +s6}trI.


    {+EE ++ &q¤e $zlC"l4. q-g qlel zJol #4 &sl¤g Eql +of ++ +4IEl
    gg dC.J4.
    --44}qg+E .+-4';41ffi
    Na2o(s) + Hzo(/) .---- zNaoH(aq) [7.8]
    Cao(s) + H2o(,) Ca(oH)2@fi [7.9]
    -
    ++ &q¤E ¤zlCe Eq Hlg" 6l+ 4Ie+ olgq TloJoJ 4.o14.
    oz-(oq) + H2o(/) zOH-(aq) t7.ro)
    -
    r.H 7.16q^li]H, Eql +zl ?+E ++ t}+gailE &4 Hls" 4q gr+ Eg ,gdaf,e-E
    4 EzlC9 +E}U+.
    *44}rl¤+4I g+E
    Nio(s) + 2HNo3(a4) -
    .+ Ni(tloiz@q) + H2o(l) l7.1Ll

    N|OTl NaNO, +t.-4011=¤ a0latn qHotbTt?

    Nio
    =Ed

    tl+ qe(Nio), Ett(HNo3), E NiO= Eoll +^l HJ36G


    "JIloJ, HNO3el
    N|(NO3)2 gq +^q E.-!E oJEtrl.

    arB 7.16 {tzl U8-dtl. Nio= L]^|trJ, E&HNod+ BJ36U H^4sl Ni(Noe)z Ea{ol EJrl.
    =+ ^i+=e =0ll =^l
    7.6 t=+, Ht=+, 301
    ==+
    qBl 7.8
    f-4-
    E- ,\l-E[gol
    f,-a- Alal
    6E

    (a)t161
    ^ilEP dAqE aiJl. o4i1l,Tlill= clE 8Efle GEa[,t lg.
    =^t|grl
    nlig ilE e[-qt fJ$^l$ u11e.
    (b) tlEl'^rJEol E{Irl-BJ8--J

    6[|'J Sc2O3(s) + 6HNO3(a4) + 2Sc(NOs)z@d + 3H2O(/)


    E{rt Ilef &E} /-+Ee.l EEl4 Ce(dgql^lel tr-4)4 E >H=qr{1
    q4 ce(e+r}g Els")ql 4d d+ol4. qts ++ +q¤g slE|^lol M2o3ol-r., Eq e"dlg+a
    E0l TICaIzL r+* EeEol .$q +qlqflg EilE +s ^JCE
    (a) tlEl.^rJEg ?4 &r+golee o1g4 r.;ll$ {og E= ^JCEEol *q.oJzl L^ls.
    ql+g + 914. dzlle rel4q, 24ss"c9,]]+ +e + (a) MH3(a4)+O2@) 0) MG)+H2k)+Or(g)
    914. (c) M3*(aq) +Hzoz@q) (d) M(oH)z(aq)
    (b)
    =dg,*n
    EHlEql^i, lrJEel dol-ts r+(sc'*)o14, tlEI olgg (e) M(oH):(aq)
    o2-ol+. tr|4^l 4IpI Eq^lg Sczoaol4. # > HE qlrll2
    ^rJEE
    q=
    + 4}sl$e EzlCol a6}ol 9l o EE, 4}rl HI*6I 4I+ +el(II)eI +4IE HI*q ql.J +¤ *+ +ul HI+^l
    q gr+ Eg ^JC'J+. ol A+ 4^dq= ge et}lrJ g^ l.l o
    E(sc(wor;r;o111.

    ulfr$
    Hl++g r.ill, eqzll, zlt:)\E +7l]g + glEl. ul!=$$
    *4ol s9-q, "JHI4SE EJe Ed= 7ltrny?
    94 dzl9 dEcol +zl .F6.ItrI. Hl++g +Ede g+4sE ++B+ *rI
    (4"J, Br-e +C¤ rlololf,EE qlq4sE 3s70 "cq^J +=E+). "JHI4"J aa I
    6|q^J 77HE El++ol olflx| +zts olE ¤i 571^ly zl;ll(Hz, Nz, oz,
    =z]l*+.
    F2, ct),6J TtzlE o-{ill(Br), E}E t 7l7l3 +lgC r^ll(IJolr}. ul$.tJ zlrll$
    zllelap., 4"lzl ulf,f$ +olo}s-Ei.lH ++6[a+:%]ilH +Eqg r.zllol+
    (=alt.tz).
    ulfr{$ ^}449e *E dx} Ai+E= z}a il71q+q, ++4 H}s"6}9 L a"A 7.17 elll /.lrt|oll ffi(brimstone)'
    =
    ¤ 4 dzl-E gzzl rly 4*ol g+. ql= Eq EetrJ4 .J$oltsol HI*61H, oe sald gie Hl=+0lrl..
    olg e+ sldJEql H-EEls+.J+olt¤ O wasanajai/Shutterstock
    ^JC6J+.
    2Al(s) + 3Br2(/) --------,2AIBr3(s) [7.t2]

    +++ d4¤ Bol¤9 ala p +4eg sd6l ill+n, ul$rj zlxlle_l dz} Hll
    ul:zo{$
    il= +=+. qE EE -rr--EEJ g4t dzl. * 4= eq +p *44g= gd6l 4eq.
    Br( [Ar]4s23d10 +pt )+ e- + Br-( [Ar )4s23 dro 4p6)

    ul!-$u.le-E +Cg 4BEe dB4ql +ziC Eeolr, dgq^J 7lill, olitl, *e +E


    d9 zlzl= nillE +4oJ+. olel+ Eaq qltr, ¤-B-E ^F*q= +q+4(qlqloJ(cH+),
    EtrElloJ(C3HJ. qE+e
    +qlqI(CsH,J)4 HCl, NH3, H2s Tlill Eol 9l+. "*e. C, H, N,
    o "l += ulf,$e-tr. +Cg Ez]¤oltt. qlE 5q elE+fl gqlual^(celebrex@)9 ts
    zlzl g C17H1aF3N3OzSol 4.
    .I++E ul++ &Col4. ol= olSol Egl +.oI4Ig ^J¤+trIb 49 9ulaJ4.
    ^Iq+e tsl++tEtE + E + 4}
    Cozk) + Hzo(/) + H2Co3@q) [7.13]
    PaOls(s) + 6HzO(l) {H3POa(aq) l7.l4l
    -
    302 73 g^sl+714 dE

    >:]H 7.18 HeEEIE


    =+
    (bromothymol blue) rl,l;gg
    +E COz9 HJB +
    E-
    =rt
    =,l.H -QOHq
    o-L
    gnl
    =vl
    otTlol^7lel
    -e -
    cqTl/\l
    E'lO

    ttl= ?iE LtEtLJtt _r^11 sEtl ¤D 7


    t
    ry]
    , ttl
    =
    el 0lltel EJA( E a[010f01,\.

    t?t
    COz(s)) -JoE -raJ^!e
    ^rf=ol= ttd a"-49=
    e Ed|-tst]|,
    L[EILJ+. E7l= EJ8 tr e+6[
    +
    ts Co2 7l^llo1l e-l6tl 871
    ^1713
    e+El3+E E.JEoltl.

    Er+ ol&s+ +^9 EI*(fH 7.18)g Etlfz} &dg +El.ll= 44, ElEol ErJE &c
    g q= ol+= ¤E"ll 6Je 4+e+ 4+ql q+ql, ole+ eg ¤e.21 ga6t
    =+. =z]]6lzl
    E oltl3rl ++ .s.4IEl +g ^JcaJtrL "lqoJ EAe Eql +or ^il41 Ez-lql^J +g ++a e
    gg.J 4|-rJul(acid rain)E "JE+. tF+ Aol tsl++ &al.Ee ¤zlc 89{l 5o}
    'il++q
    gr+ Eg
    ^8d,*+.
    El++&q¤ + g7l + B+E
    COz(S) + 2NaOH(a4) -+ NazCOt@d + H2O(/) [7.15]

    E! trlgEql-=t^le-
    ACI3(A= seel fl^)el -112.C01r|.. 0l E^t¤ E=?l^l, 0l8d
    ==E= =trol
    q
    azJE(sc)zl elg rl.E1l otL a01fl^Aoil 4-d-d7l?
    | =eexe
    qH
    F 7.e
    Hl*-+,urtBe] tr.*

    :ax1l 0l{tq|.¤a]1ts{Seoz)ll"(a) E, (b) +tEl-ag ffio-{ol HJ8-g tt}|, 44011 t}|6|.q Ee "J= sl-E U34= /"\119.

    6tl*
    = ^l"goltrL)
    Eqq 4*l +C ¤elHse)ol ul;4o14= aq +rE-6J+. (b) +.tlEIAEr+q HI¤+
    ^l
    7.1sq ar+ El+6lEI.
    q4^J E EE NaoHe| Ag grlel ul!-f {lffiol H}g"E SeO2(s) + 2NaOH(a4) + Na2SeO3@fl + H2O(l)
    qlE EIEI qlA4g +EI. El++ &+Ee 41.,3o19+, E4 > leE qlfl 1

    Hlqo 6tq 4h9 zls+ Hlgo 6tq gr+ Eg trl-S&+E Soz, Yzor, Mgo, clro, Nros +ql^l Eql^]
    ^Jc?'Ia, B ^8c6J+.
    *01 .tlC 89ol q= ag q 7V1oJ7l?
    (a) ol4IE* ¤qlt:r+ E9 +8e ol4}El +4e+ Ee-l Hlsorl (a) t (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) a (e) s
    ul*a}4(al z.r:).
    > EE qlrll2
    SeO2(s) t H2O(l)
    Er+ rill +&+ Hlg"6J trll +B "*+ slq qI
    ("JHI4s.e SeozE r.illoll, -H2SeO3(aq) ^roJ(ul)ol
    corT} 7144=
    ^l-tle.
    + " lg ,^,rlg.
    e-6[zl ?j:+. +s6J ae E E] ++C ulfr$ 4lffiolef

    z,-r/\
    llE-r

    ++4 Hl++E 6rJ teg r*=+. EJel ++cg r*n 9le+ LI"l
    =++e =++e
    zl= r*r flxl g*4. q= Eq +A= ++z]H solxluJ(:H 7.1e), {roro1 Sr. ealel z}l
    7.7 l1= E+rl2+ B+el 3-BF 303

    zlzl ?l*4, ¤4 dzlE + dgo}{E SEr+.


    qq "+"J#
    5q +e= dzl Hlszll-s, d4 qtre+ a+q eel 4laql ^FS
    =++,
    qE +s+ flaol4. 421 01e91
    ^l-SB
    + q= 6J Trzl ol-,q+ d7l
    =#+ol
    $v+tl #+r+ Hl++$ GlJ $Eol7l ollEol4. Ell+ ++6J +4= dzl Bs
    illolzlEJ EgE(dopant)ol+r q+ 5a.J E+Eg aT}E}e_trr^l {qqz} u11

    + 6}tlg + 91trI. p+o+ a{g e¤ef_s_er^l d7l dtrtrel a¤ol zl+6}r}.


    ol3l+=++E Ceg = l2tlql^J EI^l tEg 4o14.
    A:fB 7.19 + flA @Bjoern Wylezich/Shutterstock

    7 .7 I 1 4 *4zl
    2+ fl+-, e; e'J
    xlfi+llzl grlE aaH, ?J* +9 ga5g "JHI4"J +^tdg ,*+L+. rflql
    ,Je + qlql^JE d.Jol ¤4]t4. ol ¤ql^l= +rlgse+ dzi Ellzlql qoJ zl
    49 ol*alol geq E4(alkali metal)4 ggal e;4(alkaline earth metal)9 p]
    q-g go[tr-r.zt q]q. Lelw-s.
    r-r' E e-l f_4_
    1_a_.olrFFl
    E -r
    grJ?.] ++e +Eq+ -_4 _Li1o14pa z.zo). EE "JrJ4 ++g eH, ++
    +q, * Edr.g, dzl dss.c+ Ae ++¤g ,*=+. 9*4(alkali)+= B
    arB 7.20 rtE g,Jal otrj
    4g'xll(ash)'E 9"lal* ol$qql^J +*+. a7l s+ol{-e=g .JrJ4 ++.J 7[^|E. e-e ^Ee rrE + ?]= trtr+=+rt+Egrl.
    E4 Eq^AE *g sl6JH 4* xllg+rl Balo}flEt. oAndraicerar/shuterstock

    87.4q^l tr= EteI zJol, 9zJ4 ++g gEe+ \i{o1 *eq, olq+ cee flz} H
    Ez| f;zlslq qq ^J'J6l +!4se HHI+. ee +ql^J= ot4E .IEla++, flzI tlxl
    E9 Gzl, rz| olgpl qlLJzlg ?a E"4 Ag .JH}4.J a6}.g _H-"J+. oJrJrl ++g z[r]
    zI +e +71 4q^l 7I+ *g r, atg z*=41(:t- H 7.10), ol!. uI? s eulBq dzt= tlqi
    4sE drll zll!¤ ?lzl rllE"l4. a44ee, .Jafl ++g {]* t}*tol +or dzr
    f
    oJ {= ¤r)l gj1 1+ Afl¤-r*= olgol grlo ,'(z.z$).

    "JA4 ++g ^ISq^l e4 slqlE BEHtr"J 484 sq+" t44ge zl


    =zll6J+.
    s., EIRE, ^JEill '_]]q ++6[q, olg a6J 3r]q]Eq^l %rolggE E= "Ja?]
    El++r+ zld qlE =4l++.
    ++e 4++el AE+++. 5q "JrJ4 +++ +^eI Hls"6[q +^s+
    +g +E7, +r+ HI86lq +++g "J=+.
    2M(s) +Hz@).-zMH(s) 17.16l
    2M(s)+S(s).-----M2S(s) [7.t7)

    9E ^lq^l Me "Jelg .JA?-l ++g +4U+. .JrJ4 ++el +i!l¤(LiH, NaH F)oll

    87.4 oJAat
    ;+st El 7t^t
    dE
    fl^ drt uflil +=E(.c) "JE(s/cm3) flrt B$l=.(A) rr(kJlmol)

    4E [He]zst l8l 0.53 r.28 520

    :rlE [Ne]:s' 98 0.97 1.66 496

    EEI+. [Ar]+st 63 0.86 2.03 419

    +HIE [t<r]ssr 39 1.53 2.20 403

    lxelost 28 1.88 2.44 376


    ^ll+
    304 78 340t+714 dE

    EE|A Hl-aE fl|, +H|E A+e-l Eal-sl HJBdol q ¤g aolalr. 8r-t61=7t, Llg lola[.r. ¤,f61.=71?
    =+7f

    I )

    Li Na K
    Lail7.21 geal E7+,1=J6[1] HJ8-dtl.
    =+g

    ,<l fAE
    H-(#*a] ol$(hydride ion))-tr
    =4++.
    +i flzl7t d4 6J ,l]= Eq ^JCg
    +4e+ olge, +Cg +4 tlzlql^l dzlE oJ 7l] gq ^JCg +i olg"J H*e+ +Egr+.
    grJil ++e E4 4g6}rll HI+6Iq +a zli]e+ +&EI grJfl ++ +.-qg ^j{+trI.
    2M(s) + zHzo(l) .--- 2MoH(aq) + H2@) [7.18]

    olq+ HI¤+ ql+ E*e gg qt= ts¤ t}+ol4(:e 2.20. "*e a+, H,= dE+^l7l7l
    ql +B.J 9.1 ts^J94, E*ol qlE= K7l E + HI86I= 44 ?ol +g:ol.7lE.
    ^dzl44
    .J4. ol HI+g KtrEI olgglqlHzlz}A}e grJ4 ++.J RbE Ed Gg A+ qq 4g6ltrI.
    7[+ goJ &d ol¤¤ 4}s+ olg(or-)o14. .Ja?-] ++4 &dg H]*se +4 tfqgg
    qlt}6J + gl+. dzllE Li ++!+ &4E Hlso eE qEol
    ^JCg AeE ^Jcg+.
    4li(s) + ozk) r"?3,9,^IEI [7.1e]
    -
    Lizo I,l 714 +6ilc ?4 tE+g-s- Eql +48 *ll O'-zI HzOel Hls"dlq +^Isl olgg
    ^Jdt4(4 z.ro).
    HlEql, += "JA4 ++r+ 4}}el HI¤¤ trl +d-6I+. qE 5q 4Eol t}^e+ EI*
    =:
    6J ql, +^8CE.3 or2- olgg E*6.J 4&4{peroxide) ag'o1r-1.
    2Na(s) + oz(g) t7.2ol
    Ii,flr)
    Ee16,, +ElE, !l+e- 4I4e+ +¤:6lq er- ol$(a${lE} ol$(superoxide ion)olr-p
    6ILJ$ gaJ6J cl*Eg ^JCer+.
    q= Eq .Er16.o q*4 zJol a4+IEl sq+{Kor)
    g
    ^dc6J+.
    K(s) + o,,r, -;ff#?.,* t7.2rl

    4zll9 a+, ++r+ 4i^9 HI*e ++ &+59 ,,J57l trllEql 4 zlo4 7.218 EIS9
    drll qltlg + 9l= 4ol otr-14.
    HI+^l z.tB-72ti= 86il +E6l "J+ 9l=ol, gar-l ++eErl4l^ql 46Iq E]]+HI
    *Col =_+. olal+ ol+ trll+q, "JA?.] ++3 trE E+ E= $+sl ag "lill +Ef+i
    ql tr++El.
    7.7 1 1+ 2+ eEF 305
    =+4 =+9

    L L
    Li Na K
    La7A7.22 ggal 0lgg +oil geE. trl.gel gE L.Irt
    =+el =* =g,Ej

    .JAq ++ olgg *r4olzl"J, 449 qg rJ=+trI(=.J2.n1. ";zg


    B*q '+eE EA
    r_l ;.+ ol¤+ E* +q^l Tlzll tlEfle_l ++ flzlE +lggE|. E*E t9 8sE .Jql g
    zlzl $zlzl Htq
    ^Jqlql^J
    gol flzlzt
    nqqzl d-Ell-tr. ¤4. .l+gl
    -qHlgE
    =Eril =E
    4471*e qlqzl s-HIBE. BqzlH^l 7t^l"jdE BqE qlqxlE %I¤6}4l g+. 4 g
    zlot4 5a+ irltlel qg %I=61+Ell, olae *E 6}q^l gqe +^e+ aEg d
    fl$ zjr|,r," (6.3i1). AEql^J EJ=q= 58e nm9 L+ 4ol iE T|^EE 7lE ^dlE fl4ol
    El(rH 7.23).

    $¤-d g=el e 7EI HJ3¤01 e-dol 9l+(saJ6(Fr))e gt^ld B^+, 0l


    I

    ^1Ee =+ =
    E+El^l gre flAoltl). 0l=lzltse,JBd= ¤E-=t + ?lE Csol fl^l-^1 dtr
    ^lrl'^lgH9l6lzl
    P +??l7l-?

    BJe+ sEl6 7[aE0l ?tttE, olE ttl1{=7f?


    ^q'#g

    C^lE 3s 9HlEJollll
    3p.?ulEJE Eqzll
    6f: rll ollLl^l
    ^I'E:EJ

    3p

    3s

    dr[7f 3p 9Hl=Joll4
    3s9HlEJP Eol^lE,(l
    .!ua o/\t= Hl=8trL
    LZI/\H ?tTl"E o=uLl

    LaeJ7.23 4E eJEoll^l Ll'g= EaJ^q '!e -r.0llLlrl 3p 9Hl=e.l X^l=o1 rl0llLlrl 3s 9Hl=
    =+ql
    -e'Jol Tl erl=o tl".
    I O Dolce vita/shutterstock
    306 73 Erol+/l^t dtr

    ql4l 7.10
    seq *+E $8
    B+ri (a) orG), (b) Hro(/), (c) H2k)71. EJ8:EI ntl, ,l 3+0ll rH--J EE a[-qt uJSLlE urlg.
    ^ll+
    8tlU > -H.= qlfl 1

    E^1 P filEl
    ^ll+g $aq ++ol=e
    .q6,e1 44¤ cs .JrJ?-l ++ Mr+ 4}} ,lalE HI+Cql ql6J trl*- ^ll
    -E%L

    z| Cs+ ol$e-tr Als+61+ aq gEl E+,rll+ig izl


    9lEl. ql q6}q Bo,I^le.
    ¤se.l o14aql fl=ql, ol: E= ++ 6q^l H}+col 7I (i) +Tlgsql^jg 9lile E tril, qltlqE tvtro
    ^J^"rEe
    * = 4 +E 6I+"Jg $ulolg.E, Ee sfe.} H}9"6J a ol4.
    ^J]
    ol+. (ii) PH gaE ++e &^e+ HI*6iq ++ r|&q¤ E
    Eol csel clr;.[o1E H]¤+ ++r+ Hl;'+ ,J+q] a *+ a44IF+Eg ^Jd6Jtr}.
    ^]olE =
    (iii) .JrJr.l
    !l Hl*g-e, olg a6J EHIE csclg ^Jc6J+. ++ &+Ee Eq +qlqq ¤zlC *e49 "J
    2Cs(s) + Clz(S) -+ 2CsCl(s) =+.
    HI+^l 7.l8rl7.16o-E+q, tri-94 e
    (il, (iil, (iiil9l 4* ¤B + Se ag 9= d qlzl?
    ^ll+g E, +ie+ (a) il E^.t"Jol #o14.
    ol *go B astr q+g + 914.
    (b) (ilr+ (lil"J 4.o14.
    2 Cs(s) + zHz0(l) 2 CsOH( aq) + H2@)
    (c) (il4 (iii)q} +o1trt.
    -
    2Cs(s) +Hz(g) ------2CsH(s)
    (d) (iile+ (iiil"J +olEI.
    ^Jl
    HI¤+ E + ^ll+ol cs* olgg EIe= &+-+!+l HI+ (e) s.F *o14.
    olr|. cl , oH , H-=s+ 1- olgolE+,
    ^JcE4cs* > H*ql&2
    .lgg slqelEg l: lolEl.
    -s.E+t -E+r| sa {r(s1s);ol H}-q"6J ql, qtqE E}¤.E
    +¤ EIE Hl+^lg r^^ls.

    EEls alE EBslT|its

    "Jazl #+ olgS ql+Eq slEl q}¤:ql^] q6Jol Es r g"l A+lB'J 4.9t(bipolar disorder)il Hqt zle sr+71-
    +e-6t4= g'+. 414.2¤q^.1 BoJ azlH, E= "Jaq ++
    r
    el ge Eql +n, olee ql++el ++qt}q HI*q^l
    a'a
    -I

    +a+olq(qlel= "Ja4 ++ol 7.16-7.211+ zJol fl^'


    ^l t a

    BEIE 9lg ollol4). sIzlIrJ olc]ql olg=e .JrJE dEl 4


    $cvra.U,
    U $rdcr t*r

    +q^-l= El]+ +sal qgg 6Ii1 fl+. q= E9 nE ols- o iomrcI


    a fn Hdplr.l
    rl er16, olgg trt}r+ qls4E +sEJ a +olq, r t' a
    ^{E a
    l;.7144 ¤t o.r lrql olq4. olq6J d6l]eEg .JHI4?l a

    Tlbql qq ,l]+ +s* olgE dpztoltrl. ole+= g a LITHIATED


    ^llE
    zl, 4E olg+ BEq "JA
    ^J4 A}+ql^]
    oJ4{ zl:."l fl LEMON SODA
    +. 6Izl"J 18l7Hql ^l+ 4Eg ga¤l ol+tr, ^t*=g r-l Tlt oddcd citratc nestrNlirc frir rcid.
    Tha cuSdr kinvatcd.,. bote <ican
    7-Up ir nort thon o mi'cr , . lt H:ods
    E ++9 ¤ol zl9 tltslzl.J zlE arlzt 9l+a "Jq S+. ot thc hach lcaturcr. Dirptb hanr-
    tll
    :a+q= qE olgol i14 'd*9 C'E +C ¤+ol+j1+ ovcrr. Ioler "ouch" out ol grguch.

    *oJ aE 91r|. rezzuJll C. L. GriggE 4Eol 5"1 9l= I


    gffi $zl r ¤.E+E 4+6IqH 4+71 ol='
    ^lz}6l9tri.
    9 "sib-tabel Lithiated Lemon-Lime soda"9Ecll. + +qql /^aH7.24 alEe olSl:U 8aJ 3e?1 7Up@3 fleH alEg=
    --r+6tHtl. 0la0l 'E+-Lr ollLl^|, gE, za:ah ?l^!, "!Ll= qa!=,
    ,ll tl+6J 7up@ol+= ole=eE u1flflr|(:al 2.24).
    EJqf6l: ts'= 7;=61.41 -Lr+ 6G arJoll +q-d ao+ qzfitl.
    "l+ ^l*.Jde-lEaE AIE, resoHql aHI 4Eg alEe 1950LJrl] EEJoll gE+011^l ,\fafdxl?J. ,JE Li*71
    7up@ql^J z17lqflq. 4E E^lql, 4.tlr+ E^;==g 4E ol 8^lB ^leoll^lEE + ?tl'ts zio1 gzElfltl.
    ^l7l0ll
    7.7 l1+ Z-BF 307
    =+42+ =+9
    il¤¤ ga4fl+. sEqI Bol H* ul4tEol ol e
    ,HrJ E^J9 t"J9zl *4q+. etsB ri*k -H-¤: Li2co3
    ^l=8+
    ++e-E oJ6H fi5tsn 9l=EJl, ,Jg +g ^JE]]e+q +EE E B4e A+ Fqq=ql, ¤xll ii%lEl: ffiol Eskalith(i!)
    4+Aql ol== +4+ rJC9 zl¤¤ 41 9l+. 4E ol3 E ¤+^d CEoltrL qE .+Eg * zoyog a¤+ zlrLr- +zlql
    .g olq"J zlE9 HIIE dA^lrJ age +lzl¤ol .J^J^JS a.47|91= aotr'JBJA*.
    g srl4 otr B + 9lE+ En 9l+. ¤z]]zlH aa+ elE ¤Al "t ulolezlfol gdg
    ^lqlql
    ol4oJ u*9 Cd e++ ilE E6Jg rs+o'J4 n+E Ctl E, zJtil 4E olgS qd6l 6fle$ At e++ql TI1L Er+
    r+ g^l"J Iohn Cade(tetz-tsao)91 96ll +¤61 gaqfl= 4oJ zlexllol+. 5BizlE, +*e ¤+qlE Efap o1z;
    ql, 'J^l r= AEq dtsolflH e{l$ ol$a}q =g+g 4ol4¤3 qSol zl_E ar+= +H:ol+ {s}+4 r+ag s
    xlE6l= ¤+¤ +e +olfi+. -r.| 4$f;ol 9l= SEql d6l ol6ll6}xl *6la gl+. Li*:.Na+e+ +^f6t7l qlEq, e
    s4i9 +q49=ql, ,ttt.J46IE^] +611 7l+"J g.J s qql saJqq 9ln 4la+
    ^JlsE BEql ¤6}-9
    eL trl

    4I r,lE'3 ol3-o6J ei+, Bg a+ql a¤.+"1 sqzlE 1¤. a+. 6fxl"J =+


    Li+= Na+-B+ Arzl rllEgl(:B z.e), Li+7I oJ
    ga+94. Ll-+ql e& 7ti]= a-d ilE nr+7l. s+E a t ^llsql^l +zl¤r+ tlg
    zI+61+ *H9 N"*e15 +e+.
    ol p|-{zla ti* olgol s44.14= 1.1 E}-dd4. qEq E += E+ql^J= Li+7I Cd a+ zlEz]lE^.1 .trr+=- oJo
    ++ ,JA= ^IEISqlTil d46J +41¤¤ a46J + ?lzl rll+ vl+ 4o s ^J4q=, StdJ da dg 849 zl# HE]
    q1, rro'J491 olezlTl\ 4Ege .J+E Ct1 n+ il_E4l
    ^l7l= aol Eldd+.

    2$: ojzja; E;+


    ger-l ++zlfl E= E;-+g ¤gql^l Lxllolr, d¤4.J *+Cg ,*=+(E
    "JAE-I
    7.s). "JrJ4 ++q Hl.il.dl BE, ga?.] E;-+g q B+6tr, 4 Brzl tr, q * e
    Eql^l +E+.
    "JJ4 e.++g rz| o1g5l qq47} *zl"J, "JA?l ++q 1z[ o1951 qlL]zlEJ=! *71
    ?+4. 444 oe, .JrJ?] tr++g ol*+ .Je4 ++84 eISCol 4r4. x1lz.e¤9lrl
    =
    ¤E* tsIe+ eol, g^Eol a4-= szl ds cE= ?zlgsg g+q^l sE-4_-qe a+
    + aa6}r., eg +q^l olz}]E a++ +7t++. trl-+^l zlar zlHS .Ja?-l E++ gA
    .J EIIBE+ u|:ullf,$ zt^J t}*col 4|4.
    2+ql^l E}¤:dol +7161+ a.Je "JrJ?] E+++ Eq Hlsoss +4t+. HllBE¤ E
    ol+, dzlq ol+ EAAI 7lg¤ +Gl!e+E HI¤-6Izl S=rI. trtrql+g Er+ Hlg"6[zl ?*
    zluJ, ffizleli # trl d7il Hls"++.
    Mg(s) + Hzo(S) ------ Mgo(s) + Hz(s) 17.221

    ++!} r olqlE += giEe ¤gql^l Er+ drll Hlqo6J+(6l4"J izlge9 ol*ql


    9l= "JrJ4 ++tr+= L4rI Ei*++). qlE a+r+ EE Hi¤+ trIs_r} A+(f=J
    7.2s).
    =q
    Ca(s) + zHzo(l) ------ Ca(oH)2@d + ur(s1 17.231

    87.5 t;+q !{ u1x| 6x


    oJrJat

    fl^ dxl H|lil +E("c) pE(g/cm3) flrturlE(A) rr(ktlmol)

    tsIgE [rte]zs2 1287 1.85 0.96 899

    u|:ullf, [Ne]:s2 650 t.74 l.4l 738


    7V4
    atl [,q.r]+s2 842 1.55 t.76 590
    ,r-eEE [Kr]5s2 777 2.63 t.95 549
    ille
    "tE [xe]os2 727 3.51 2.t5 503
    308 78 g^q+/14 dt

    7lE= 8¤^l7l= fl?la q-qg.!zfl xll 4 t.zzs47.z:ql +4U ql8e'Ja4 tr++ fliEg H}+^dql +El
    gg olE4l er-oJ.=t{ E + 9its71.? +E +s qlHg Bq +q. ;lE49 s dzl + ,llE gl-r., 2+ oleg
    ^l"J = Eq trlrql+g dgql^l ¤^e+ HI*6I
    ql=
    ^JC6t= a6&g +4u+.
    -'q q Mscl2= ^Jc6Ir, *71(+s 4}A) 6q1,r] St qg rllH^J ga6l.
    i t 4 vrgo= ^JCttrL
    MgCl2(s)
    Mg(s) + Clz(g) ------ [7.24)
    zMg(s) + oz@) .+ 2M8O(s) l7.2sl
    o2z| f4loJ u1l, u|:LJlf, ++g -Bs.6I: ag Eql Hzl e*= Mgo9
    s3 zgo1r1. q+^l ul$ Mgz| H}+^dol rq4E .i (+.+ilt, zl-Fx}.
    g;- zfl-EE "JE= g6J
    ^F&q: 4* Az
    Ht+l Eql

    #
    ^ll-B-tr ^l-Sg+.
    "Ja4 E++ + +4e fld(ca, Sr, Ba)E El*+q qA q1g'gol u[:-
    -g LJI+B+ q
    =.+.
    +4+ .JA=l E++ ol¤+ zlal ${oll.r-l ^Igg u+. }EE
    =+6J
    tF-*. Ege E*Eolollrl {4olE Be4g, H}¤:gg +^qg u+.
    ol* +q aEol+ EEI-+zlB, zlE+ EI*Eq d-
    "trql+n+ e+e
    ql4eE ++6iq. ol9 a6J s+BEq oJolgoE ¤f4ol
    ^JBill 4"ll
    r 4. a+e E4r+ zlo}9 g+ 4 +zlql 561 +s_6rtrt.

    EJt'J#(CaCosE ¤¤ tqg ZA= ?dU ^l0l eA #go+


    ^l
    q.1). Ca2+(aq) ol8g .=44le
    EEJII-. CaCos(s)=
    Hzo =oll =¤dol^l"J(E
    E=6[71 fl6[Q 37e--e-e 5qz1zffirotct. olaj-d 0l+ts +1E7i? (-de:
    H2
    4 3troll4 tselE EJtj HJ- 7lq6|.a|..)
    a"a 7.25 fl^= E+ U8-drl. =+9
    ^ =+

    7.8 I "J+ Hl;6-r e1 7o{6J


    /\A
    t+

    El4"l Elt 444ns' dzlE $-l oSolgol q-L. aol zltsl]


    ^l+4 +?-l= "Ja?-l ++el
    4"14= 4.9:not S+. +i= rs' dzl HllilE z*zl qlE"ll gaq ++r+ +^Ic"l 9l=
    aae tr.J+. r4+ +i9 itlqe 'Ia4 ++E+ q +4-6}l trloJ*Ell, ol= +iel
    olg3rl- ollHzlzt t3t2 kllmotE, .Ja?.] ++el ol¤.e+
    "llHzl9 + Hl]ql Eolzl
    ullEoltrI.
    r 4a+ +4= "Ja;l -.+r+= BEI Hl++olq, q4E a+ +4el olgzl zlal(uzk)) /J.
    Elltr
    =zll6J+.
    +^e+ Hl++g HI+¤g trH, +^7I d4¤ E+ A6Jol gAE ++tr+ q +g "J
    + 9l+. +4='JrJr.l ++r+= 84, Ell+EE Hl++r+ Hlso¤ oI +4E 4zlzl Hls"6I
    --. ulfr$e_+. $d6l ol5.6}7l_H_+= Eo+61+ +4 e+qlBg ¤c6JtrL qlE Eq
    ^le
    E ++g gi 7li,ile+ 4g+ EI¤¤ 6lq, iEE Z3.zlzl sd6l g^ gz[-e o]rEo6[q ^ ol
    g Aq+ +,*Eq ^JC++(:r.B 2.2r).
    Na(s) + I ctr(g .----- NaCl(s) A'H" : -410.9 kJ 17.261

    HlHql, +^ EzITl ¤4 zli]]s+ d+6}E g+ +A(HCI) zl4lE st.J+.


    tHr(g) +Lctr(g .----- HCI(g) Ar{o: -92.3k1
    2 _=^lE
    17.271
    7.8 I oJ+ Hl=+q e-Br 309

    +4: E(Hzo(l)), g:EqoKNH,(g)), 4l4l.J(cHnk))4 zJol 4E Hl++4 ++4q e


    zt qlqlEg
    ^JdEl'I. i^zl
    ts^e+ a6Jg Bd6l= 13 frzl slqql^l= zlat 6st ¤
    t zl$rjl a}4olE, qtlql^l ++6141 B 1o14.
    +i= Er+ H}+dlq ¤rll dzl-E $l un ol8g Bdel4,,'. (4.3i1). ql= 5q
    HCI(s)g Eq +ol gsl +^^I *9(Hct(aq))g HI=E|. olull iiq 4zlzl g4 gztE
    dolr]9, H*(aq)$ Ct-(aq) olgg ^JC6II, olE=$ E +r}]ql el6}] "JCsl$eer,Al +=+
    9 H*(aq)e} ct-(aq) olgg q++6J gE+ +4& 89ol gE|.. d4le +4e+ ul*4 tszt
    s].JEol ++"_4tr-ql^l &ol 9E ae ++.1 EIEE +dql^J g ql q]+ 6s6l+. &4
    Ezl qle}gl ql4^l= t6trg EEIqL Atlql^J z|,tJlol q-= aol+.
    ulzluJe-E, +A= El++4 u}{zizltr *9 olgs} qlHxlE ,*= ++se+q dzl¤
    e=+. qlE Eq zl z.rooilrlzle +^= q}*Col ++4 Ei*6Iq +^s+ olg(H )g
    e'++ r.^ll +^El ++g ^J^d.J+. +A9 dzlE =e= bqg g ull, +^71 ++B+=
    ul++q 7l*Llv +^l '*H qoJ6J + 9l+.
    ^l-dg
    16*:tA4
    ro49 glql^l o[4s q]Eja++ Hl++ql^l ++strg d¤ Hp]z] 9lE](rH z.r:).4]
    A, %I, gqltse de4t Hl++ol+. g+E¤ %r-^I^J EeolH^l ql+ q+l
    =++olq,
    oJ ++ol+. &A= dgql^-l +4E zlzllolzluJ, 4E r0+ gASe r;llo1r1.
    =trtsg
    t04 fl49 4.zlzl E?-14 Cdg sz.eoil +4r]]9tr}.
    4l2.6aql^J .J + 9lFol, 4I4: + 7l^l EzI Bq &^(orel o,)e ¤zHoJ4. oz B4
    z[ rJ go[zl qlEq], ol4h(dioxygen)z] n"f= E¤ol^I"J, ol= trE'4}}'+I
    ^]*E=g
    +E L os ¤4* eE(ozone)ol4r.J+. 4liE olq+ + 714 BEI= E44l(allotrope)
    9 'J qol+. E^^ll= zt! flazl r+= BEIE ?*y 4g "Jd+. aa6J *71 + * zryo
    E ozol4. s=g C;:flr+ egg +7lql ule5teE +{l+r+. sf$ soJ Hzllc+ ,JZ 4
    7l *dq 9dl or-e+rl
    ^Jcg+.
    3ozk) : 284.6kJ
    '------- zoz$) Af/"
    17.28)

    ol HI¤+ rJoJ gg t}*o14, orzl or-a4 EqlC6I+= ae +4U+.


    HIE oz9+ o37I l-+ +^4olq^J 7l^l+;d-e- ?+zl"J, o:E oz4 E4 zt9d9
    =+6lzl
    Ed 'ttlg g+'J+. olBl* ilolE ql6l C+flE s¤+ all-trS ^lqdg Aq+str +
    q6}q. s=r+ c4= E+
    ^.]tr
    +E slEzl ^deg 7l4Ll. zH4"J H^ll7I gl: s=g
    ,11+ ,Jqql &s|r1lol+. olsl'* 5d trll$q, s=g 7}+ Eql dztgg
    ^ll+3 +ol4+
    i+_s-E +719 Co+ql :244 s=q olBloJ HI+de zls +=e.l sg¤ +71
    ^F+94.
    87.6 16+ eJ*e.l E 7l'rl {¤
    fla drl Bflil +=Efc) "Js. flrt HJrIE{A) I,(kJlmol)

    lHel2szzp4 -218 r.$ glL 0.66 13r4


    ^li
    eJ" [Ne]3s23p4 ll5 1.96 glcm3 l .05 1000

    gEilts lArl3dto4s24p4 221 4.82 glcm3 1.20 941


    ill==
    e-rE lKr)4d'05s25p4 450 6.24 glcm3 1 .38 869

    +Ets lxel4l'n5dto6s26p4 2s4 9.20 glcm3 1.40 812

    -.H.+ q
    ^Id4.J
    *.B-q-e= 6I+E H* ol$ol Hcltr*4 HzoE {olqg C]-e+ H3O+= Bc61+ a.l+. .lelt} E}qql
    +6ll^-l= r0z}9lrl ^J^ll6[rll 4.g aol+.
    310 73 Pr^g +/t^1gE

    ql 9lg a+, .Jae-l 4rlg 6lrl+.


    B= leEg +Uol 'J
    &i= tI= g^E+el d4-E E9'.tzlb(4}s[^171LJ 4.]ol rE]. &47[ ++r+ .J4l
    EI= rlE 6}tr-&sI ol$(62-)os {}s] ol¤9 ulgC zlllg {z}
    "JtrtlE ullzl
    S*e ol* =46J =rll++.
    E 6Ir. 9lq +61 .JC6I+. rH s.t4ql^l tr9t*ol, HI++ 4I+Eq ^JC HI¤+ s6l g
    E! Eoll-H3J6tlE
    +10J71-?
    = g H}¤:olr, qLlzl +Eql^l +r-16[E].
    "JrJ?-l ++ql
    q.J ¤Eql^], s6}zl ?+g tA golg.J r+&s+ olg(oz2-)4 i4t}e+
    ol9(oz-)91 46ll ol$e_+ ol+q{ s}q}Ee H}+g 56ll ++ &E}84
    =619+. "lel+
    ozE
    ^JC*4.
    2H2O2@fi : -196.1kJ
    ZHzO(l) + Oz(S) LH" [7.29]
    -
    ol46J ol+E, 44I3rI +A +"-qol Eq fl= Bg ql+ .Jqol HF *olzlTl d"ll orzl-,r11
    q+a + flE+ 5+ol Tl-boJ B+Aee EoI *b4(:a7.6).
    16+ g^ + ta ++eE +s,* gA= *o14. +e P TvlE Eoi4lTI ilq. a+ 7l
    ti H-¤4oll .JA* 49 s, tsxlrlg zl,.lt- 91= L+4e-l rillol+e.al 7.2). Hlq r.ill
    E}9 s, r4.e 9"1 9lzl"J, +oI'*Eg "*+zl 9lal] trF 3rlql^lql^l ,J+61 s(s)41*4.
    afB 7.26 nl^t+ +A EE
    3 $frol +U oe EJ
    71ts-.J +3 4}iel u[{z}zle qE gAs+E] dx}-= Bo} s' olgg 7l^1jr- flb +a]-E¤ ^J
    d !ltl. rltel+ $lel,J c6l+ 4a3.o1 =4. ¤zlltr q++E E"g xl.¤9lrl *4 galgg *3 ?zlse
    ot EFEet Eoil _E3g= 6f= =4laJ+. olgg
    q^J 4Ia otrll+q +lzl6}E__+, *:* ol89 cc"I
    Lll, olriP ?oil tr=ElE H2o ^Jd6IE= a6}ol &azl4IEl
    el- o2_+ E6HE|7 | nllEolrl. q= a6}trtrl4q. ar}4etr, +q E+ql HI¤+ 4I^9 slq Hls"E+ trJ +d-6I4.
    ^ld
    O Prosvetova Anastasiia/Shutterst0ck
    +4 + qId.E(4+4 4+ql 'J+g +g E,*6ll^J)g tI^ +ql^J ¤^g + 9lEI. olq +
    4CEe +soJ +71 sg EA"J ol^Ie+ alol4.
    S(s) + o2(s) -+ Soz(8) [7'30]

    l6+q^l + oHql fl= flA= Bzllt:(se)o14. ^Jql4sE e6}zl ?*9 ol gi= r+*
    o-e.= +Col 9lzl"J, ullg ulgos5 $Eiflql q+61 +sdt+. se9l* Y*3 rEoei15o1
    ?l=rll, ¤zl9lts *9 s* j1?]e+ Hl+ql se9 gflz} aul +a F"l 9l+.
    trl* fli= gFE{r.;o1q-. olaE +a= Se-H-r} trJ +d-6Jql, alll :l.q 9lE te-te
    a+es ol+q4 fl4. s"c} reE 04 s7-lH -2 4}e+ tlqE ca++.
    oq^l+El s, Se, regl olezlllzl, fliEg da q gzl-= ¤t6}q azl -,+cg
    trlril g+. 16+ +a elqlEE gzl "J4EE +E ol4e =
    'ilea++ dd a^++. +
    HzO ) HzS > H2Se ) H2Teol{, H2O(E)7} 7it} "JC6}+.

    SB-LelE Eg6t1l oJEts aol 7lB 17$:aje{!


    6lqr 7186[^t trlTi ralb olE s.
    gF= 7t¤ AolaE qHb|.=Tt? IlEE!(halogen)ol4l 6l+ 17+ gdel * zlzl E 7.7ql +44fltrI. 4+ q
    =Ag
    +l6}q, %I^|C EeqI or^$Hg olzl y+e Cdol $4zlxl g*?lzl rll+ql ^J+6I
    B.trt. E+ 4l=q
    .JEl4l EI'-lltlE a+ql= trl 49 4ol
    "J44 :14.
    16+ fli=r+ +ezl, EE gEdl+ g^= d¤4.J tsl++oltrl. tse4]3 flz]
    Hazl ,le++ +Ed4 #=dol ?z['*4. dgql^] g5e-fl4 g^= 7li]lolr,
    H-EEJe oilzll, otolgHS -Li1014. 4 gi: olgzl ExI(Fz, ct2, Br2, rr)tr
    6J+EEJ 7.28). =^]]

    S
    u+u9 "JE= g40ll Hl6Hll 1000utl)l aLl. qB 6 clr-- 90J01 olal-d ifol
    Lad7.27 BflA=SsExltrEil =
    0ll 7lE-dqa 8z-tali7l? (a) Etr'J fl^|.9 EaJ, (b) u+oJP sqillolq E^'= 7lrll?.1
    -drl. ol= agoll^l eJE 7l-g E =
    4ill0lrl. =Pl tr. (c) H+oJ9 Br[HJ^l=
    =
    7.8 I g+ El3+el e-BF 3'11

    87.7 tJtrtlel !l Ttrl {E


    fl4 I^l.ullil +EEfc) "Js. flrt HJrl={A) Ir(kllmol)

    lHe)zs2zps -220 r.69 glL 0.57 l68l


    =+sa
    cd -/-
    d! INe]3s23ps -t02 3.12 glL 1.02 t25l
    H 3.12 glcm3
    -trql lAr)4s23dto4p5 -7.3 1.20 1 140

    ofol9H lxelss24dtosps tt4 4.94 glcm3 1.39 1008

    E^t4 Stroll^1, eH Clz E^loll Hl6H^l 12 EriT!q EJolH0l=71.?

    I
    a

    t
    I IT rf
    t

    Br,

    12

    La"a7.28 gB{l fl^= 01fl^|. Exltr


    =rt|-drf

    gEdl+g ¤-?9 dz} rlsls <ig r*=+(t4 t.tz). trl+^l Btrtl+ g^E slq
    =
    g zlu1l6l+ ae, +E gie+El dzl-= Eq ge.dsl olg(x )g ^J^d6I= a6}ol4=
    ae E++ "Jol olq+(Be H}*^]ql^l x= gE4l g^= Ll+utrt). ga=
    HEtrJol+ olole_Htr+ Hl+col trJ rE|. =+eflr+
    g+silE d+6.1+ Eil+Eg Ee(Eg
    ^I¤,
    EEI)s+El dzl-= xllzla[_2, l-F3 +*E ql4H gg4sE E]8*+.
    zHzo(t) + 2F2@) + HF(aq) + o2(8) A1/: -758.9kJ [7.31]
    Sio2(s) + 2F2$) + SiFa$) + oz(s) AH:-704.0kJ 17.32)

    arl4eE, g+sfl Tlzll= dEdql^l 4Fzl "lBr, 9l¤61+. olql SE6J tzlzl 9e
    6I'1.
    g^: BEd g^ + +84str 7l-t| ++6I+. gi= dzl Eal] 4cge "Jsqzl=
    ql, ol= d+E olo-" o|{ gi +olgg Ez} ga(clr)e. 4}:z}rlzlril gtr}. g4= ¤+sfl
    ,+= B?], Er+ Adq Hl+6Iq ^J44sE qltEl HClr+ Hocl(6l.olsgi4})g ++"_q
    g "J=trI-.
    312 73 fl^g +71^1 dE

    Ct2@) + H2o(/) ttCl(aq) +HoCt(aq) [7.33]


    -
    g E tr5 +¤+e+ +gfr-q 4lq B=q. ololl ^JCg 4lso ql+. Hocl(aq)9 g+4lE
    gede 4++E ++r+ zld Hls" 4q, olgC trtrtl 3tl'*+g "J=+. E6J gE4lg
    +4e+ HI+6lq zlzll9 BEaIE+ +4 El6JEg "J84.
    Hz(s) + Xz zHx(g) 17.341
    -
    gedEl+A&g
    olrl6J s+*E-E=e E+ Eql q]+ + +-7 ^JC*+.
    zll+.:¤ollr.l ¤E+
    Hrel aol HCI(aq), HBr (aq), Hr(aq)i z$lol n, HF (aq)Y q}&ol 4.

    A E7 .7= 0l$dlq 0[r1go; flxl- HJrlErf 1 il- 0l$a[ qlLl^l= q|$g + ",J=71?

    18S: ul$'$ z;:,1;

    ulg¤ zli{l(noblegas)zp "JqA 18+ ?li= E-i ulf,Solq, dgq^l Tlrllol+. HlgC
    Tlill= l.+ +gz}(monatomic)E qq il+(+ oJ 7]]E gzlE +Cqq 9l+). Hlg^J 7l
    i] g^E 4. zlzl Er-lzJ ceg E 7.8q1 q4.Ifltr}. 4E(Rn, gz} HE s6)E EJ^tt
    g Rng P+q| Hls.$ CAE E+= 4lql6}fi+. =
    tsl+fc Tlill= sd6l il]9lll r4p9 +aeg 7l4L+.ls+el E= g+= rz| olgq q
    Llzl {tol il, +E o}4E qlqe++ rz} olgsl ollulzl= rJA++. ul*}c zl4lE.Jc
    6J d4 u]lil= 6t7l trIEq HI+Col ql+61 4+. ¤4l.e re60Hql ztlzl ol g^=g q
    rJ4q$,zl qlEq tslgC zlzfl(inert sarqr EH+.
    II]6J +6JEE
    "J= + S,g as.E
    1e62LJql ¤*9 Columbia 449 Neil Bartlett(tgzz-zo0s)ol Xe9 olgE} qlLlzlTI ?+
    6l *ol s+.JE-g "JE + flg Aol4r +E6IH+. olBl'* HI¤_ol "Jq+ElH, xeE EF
    sflr+ ?ol 4E EeE+El dzl¤ ,ll4.J + 9l= *qol q+61 Ea4 H}*4ot g
    =
    4o14. Bartlettt:5+eflg ql+.J el*E.J ptF6e} xeE q}*rl4 4lael ul${ zlill o}
    *Eg 6JC5lfl+. E6J 4l* Fzk)el 4d H]+6Iq XeF2, XeFa, XeF6 $z| pl*Eg ^J
    C*+. rBEe ,llEB+= /rol trJ rzl ql$ql HI*Col trl 4+. ^}d, rBEg +"J6I
    ,ll .JA.J El.JEe KrF27l.JEl4 9lE|. 2000$ql fltgel $q{-e=g ols=g s*61+
    a Hail 613 gzlEE 3la+ nRrF Exl¤ E-r.6lH+. olag *g gEql^J"J "Jd6l-r|
    +4++.

    E 7.8 HtgJ,8 7t{tet !l 7t^t {E


    fla trl Hflil +EE(K) "Js(g/r) flrl HJxlElA) r,(k/mol)

    BE ls2 4.2 0.18 0.28 2372

    qtg lHe)2s2zp6 27.1 0.90 0.58 2081

    ol-e-r.
    l-L [Ne]:s2:p6 87.3 r.78 1.06 t521

    .f=alrl- E
    lAr)+s23dto4p6 120 77\ 1. 16 1351

    lKr)5s24d105p6 165 s.90 1.40 tt70


    ^llb
    4E lxe)6s2 4yt4sdto6p6 2tt 9.73 1.50 t037
    .7l*+4+ dlg^J 7lill fliu.lo] o1-;3gg¤c6J+.:1qEsTIqsBlgd zlill fliel gz}Hlzl=¤+a#olq
    7.8 I g+ El=+g eBt 313

    \\ EEJ qFlI
    .4-t}1
    o tl'llE
    7IL{

    Hl.t$= flA(Bi.3^l UE 83)E t5+0ll^1 718 Fz1? fl+0111. Hl^+E gA9 E?l ol¤altt HIAPE(bismuth
    subsalicylate)= ?l E5 ilEqBoJ Pepto-Bismol@el dEo tt. I

    =l¤
    (a) :=J 7.7, 8 7.5.7.6s1 'JE 0lE6|.q. Hla+E fl4e] flxl" HJIIE= q|46lr ¤E6t^19.
    =--J
    qaf LHala+= "JHl4oe fl^l HJxl=o| 57t61.= ol+ts +1oJ7l.?
    (b) 15+ fl^el
    =E
    (c) ul^+E! '*a +tsE= 7l^l= -sr'= dEe.E ,\l-EElol, tr|"It| l g+ ,\l^fl lEts grt4Et Eoil 6i9dtzl Hl^+E xf
    ^fEErt.
    qgzl ¤B-g
    i1lts ,|l^l7l fla E^4 afllolrf. Hll+Eol E+dE r4-g ntl, HIB+?.! tr^ "f ?14 e3 +olal=
    + ?l=71?
    =8d ^tdE
    (d)Bi2o3E ETld uElEoltl. ul^+E7f EP tr.|trl.HJS-g ttll EE 6[+ EJS^.I= u'\|s.. Bizoo 6.77 g3 Ee +q ae4
    0.500 L= ?JEflrl.. Bi3+ olg Eo4e.lEE-Ets g0loJ7l.? ^!oll
    20eAi= 78 oJE-d ol 5-4011 g¤^lel'6811.= 9 )lloyl?
    1e; +'Aa E?l fllo1r1.
    =^|15lE
    (f) Hl^+Eol "JEts 25'Coll,\l 9.808 g/cm3olr[. -d e.,!alzl 5.00 cm?.! 88Eill oJ0ll Bi fl^l'= H 7t| Hl

    ,\EEL E EOI7I,? =^tl61.=7p =rll6lE


    -t-Lxdu-t:

    TllU Bq 44 Hl+4g'^H. +gr+ a+.


    (a) ul^fEi ls+ql^l .JqEq(sb) EIsi ot4ql 9lil6J+. EzI HI*^l:
    +E +lq^l oI4E ql4rJ++ flzi qlzl$ol +7161+ Bi2O3(s) + 6HNO3(a4) 2Bi(NO:)t@il + 3HzO(l)
    Biel HlzlEol sbe-l +zl=(1.3e A)-H_4 a $eI ol9 Hlg"^l: -
    ^I¤E+EI, =
    es + gl4. E*
    ql{'-6J
    "JH}49E gx} H}xl# +71 Bi2O3(s) + 6H+(aq) 2Bi3+ (aq) + 3H,O(I)
    -
    g g+ql^l s¤5_ e_s 7iE^.1 s 7.se+ 7.69 "JaI olg H}*^lq^l a+g rJ^loln, Bi(No3)3= 7l-9.
    zJe +71E =q=q.
    SaoJ Bacl po S}.oll ql6J AE= +a 9i c ¤olo+ E4 ni3*(aq) olgg ^8d61+ n4le+ +a
    4. 4 niE qlzlES sa(z.rs A).E.rl= zt!. po(r.+o A) ol$$ $e" uJee +$r{ot 6J+. +qE +E= 41416I

    -H.rl-:. =- age ql^Jtr + 9l+. += +7lql^l= ol* qE q-g=4 aol {q6J+(a.s¤).


    6J ts+r+ 16+ gA=9 +zl+ ztolT}
    ^Jq4eE 4q. 6.77 gBi2O j
    "
    1 mol Bi2O.1
    "
    2 mol Bi3+
    tr14^J Big HlzlEol Ba9 HlzlE!_Et= poE HlalEql o.sool*o-! 466.0gBi2o3 1 mol Bi2O3
    Ll Tlvl+$\ po9 Hl{$!_+ "+rJ q a9-e ql^J¤ 0.0581 mol Bi3+
    : 0.0581M
    q+g = r
    LO--Q-oil
    +. tr+El^l sE tles+El + gl= Big Hl^l=+
    1.48 Aol4.
    (e) fli9 gz} Hs= oJCzl+e+, flAzt *d flz}g rI zt
    oE ls+ gAts gzl HETI +71-g++ gr} zl= dzh+E .Jr+ a+= 4g zlgal4 oo:: (2.3!). Hl
    (b) .JHlzl Hl
    gx} HE= 83ol+. tr14^l qql oJd4 837H7I
    zl.Bol+7I*4. ol4* qd6}7l +z16[= a4 B4l, d ^+EE
    qd+ dzlE 4e 9l+. gz} e=t+= 20eolEs, qql 20e-83:12649
    ^l 44"1+zlq= aa+ +Alrl9l+.
    E+q 4q4 dzl-= 7Iq +E qad+ sz} HE 6zI +cz}7l-91tr1.
    (0 "JEe+ flz}*¤ ol+6lq Biel E+= Ezl da6-J *,
    ql q+ H6lzl ?+=+. rq+ 3le]4 aatE +"J^I
    =.al Avogadro +E ol+6}q $z| zflfE Hgl.J+ ,:z:n:' (1.4
    f(,2)E 4l+6ll^l ?71-6[q sHlg H]484 *zlZ zl4
    e+. 1j. 3.411). a+Eillg p.4ts (s.oo)3 cm3:t25.-.o14.
    ui4^l
    (c) ul;.-7ee1dar+ al:, .JE cag HliEl BH, +q^l
    ot4s ol$oJ+-a *4Col ?zlatE a.Jq "JHl4 +4 e'8o8sBi
    12scm-3Bi , 1 cnt'
    , rl##: 5.87molBi
    g ¤86il Gr|. ul;.+e= dzlls ++ol+. olq+ ++
    6.022 x 102371] Bi flzI
    ce olgsl qlLlxlTI *oI aal ^lq 3lel4 $zlzl .jzl 5.87molBi
    - x
    l-nlol Bi
    dzl S"lul4zl ql+ql ^JA+. : 3.53 x rO24zll ri flz|
    =
    (d) El4.2eql^l tszl HIA44 ga} ol9 HI¤.^lg ¤B* rt}
    314 73 3+ot+7t4 5tr

    so+ g 6e tq
    +TlEEel "JE(^IE,7.1E) +7lgs= qH g^5ol 'IF+.Its cl Ert t!ElE(7.str) Erl tltlE(electron affinity)E Tlill {'-qlE +
    qI4 Cer+ E44 CAE +^Hdql Mendeleeve] Meyer flz}9l dz} oJ zll= qdl^l ¤.ol3g slE trI "Jq+= qlHzl9 H
    =Z4q
    ql 9.ll 3lae EJEqAT]. MoseleyE 4 945"1 n++ flzt d sl¤ "J+trI. ¤+E d^f AelEb +olgol Ezl tlE]]g flz}q d
    sE zlzljl 9l+= ^Idg +B6I*,eq, 7zl$e9l ,JoJ +4^J Hl6Iq Eqla+ 19 9'l{}4. .JH}49E dzl a+E: +
    ^Hl
    g +q6lqq. Tlgsql^l Btrdi+g 6J6l g+ql^l eg{os a+q q +
    =
    +71 gEql
    ^l ag +E
    fl 4E= s tlxtzl 9ul=J(valence orbital) ql + {tol gr1. geal4* 7l* ? S+el A4 A+E rtg 7}Aq.
    gg +9 d^l-= r*= ag "Jn fl4. flzlz} d^t +39 olElq} Hlgc Tlalel d^I aslE= E+ "J+9 #g L+Elur+. ell+-"IE
    +^l-Col. ,JZ 4 fliE ^IolE +^ICg L++.ll= ol#zl S4. eTIq= d^l7l -H-tf qq,qel +AAg 4+lo} 617l EIEolEl.
    =
    ++ 4 fl+5.'.1o19 zloldg g^I7l-eBlE aaol 4e7l qlE Hl=+, g^Eg ++, Hl++, +++oe E
    q =+,
    ^Ja+. +g + 9l+. 'il+EE +l^E #+o14. ++ gi= +7lgE9
    ==+(7.6$
    8a -4Ed(7.29 4eE+q 4l9l4 4^lvl^lE BJ 4rle+, 4l g+4 +.Jql 9l+. Hl++e +7lgsE e=+ fl+Eql fl+.
    912; ]jzltl lzlE *i 4Eo=](effective nuclear charge)oll E6il g
    =
    --+g *+4 Hl:aE+ ^tolg +g H9lql 9lil.J+. ++q Ceg
    xlel "*e
    ^JA.l aAg+. eC+ {zl+ fl{a}e+q
    alel4 d +44E fliel 46.E3 El*8(metallic character)ol4n 6}=ql,
    zl= 7l-?.1= EJI
    'll+ s44ol4. HlEq, ee aeql ilE d^l¤ ag +ql^l= oI4E Luqa+q +7}5ljr., ag +7lq^l= g+
    g ^Jc' tql c.n+4eE- 714^\ EaJq. a 4+ g1l7l dxlql e-l ql^l sE4oE e++ ad6JtrI.
    sll L4= +E qd6l+,Jg +7lql^lb g+q^.] eE+oE 2 ++e 5+E B-qg 7}zlr. 9leq, gr+ dzl9 ¤3 E;lloli1.
    ffi f;zlaf,$. ++ol El++4 H}¤:6IE *4 gzli oJ=ol_e.tr &slqr., oJHI
    4 os olgd Eeg ^JC,¤l+. Eil+EE ++ Ezldol
    flrtel 0l8el 371(7.3E) g^l-el r7l= eA flrl Elrlt(bondins trI. ++ AI+ES 4lrl Hls" dlq g4 +g 4c.J+. ^l+Ee
    atomic radius)¤ ol+6lq 4+q=Ell, ol= tr+ql$ +ql^J g^I
    Hl++g ++^Jel ,JHol S.e4. 94 dzl= A 56l.zl *EEI.
    A Bq4 9l= ar_lolEl. "JHlzlg-E flzl tlxl+g +7lgsE +
    ql^Jol4tr,.llBle++ <.7161a., +7lql^]= g+ql^J e$.{_og 9. zlzl gi= ¤gql^J zl4le 3x1r3r1. ulf,feEuJ +^dg El
    z3;5. z$aJ4.
    qlEe trE ++.rl Els"6lq golgg ^JC++. Hl;!+ 4IEl¤g
    4lColEI. ul!:f ,l!ffi$ Ezlq uJs. aI¤ gI+ +g dC*+. e
    soleg raE Eg,(IE+ q +r, +"1¤e raE Eg^l-!-
    4 q r+. Eg d6l-= ,*= olgE aTlz +71&Eel $oll,r.l o| ++3 ++4 Hl?+E +rJ Ceg zt4lEt.
    4e 4qA++ 671-6J+. Edrl z{lE(isoelectronic series)e FoJ 1+ 24 4-*V.7d) g4'E9] +?14 44e # g
    6J +E d4-= ,*= olgE 4lgoltri. re+ Ag Zlgql^l olgq 49 Ceg =4"1
    =4_7.[ olollafi ql E¤¤ EilztEl*(alkali metal. l=J
    qd6}ql ,}6}ril galTl trll+ql o}d6}7} 37}"J+ g +=d+ "JE7l- *g ? E =,4014. =E|.
    =.zli {z.lfol "JrJ?] ++g flAE +
    q z$+4. TI1L +g olgcl qlq^l$ ,l4Ll.4+4eE "JAq ++g ul+

    0l8il gzlE lit oler} qlu1rl(ionization energy)E


    ollLlxl(7.4¤)
    +ql 46Iq EI+ HI+^Jol fq, dTll Bl? 4^lZ $r r+ olgg
    *olgg ^J^J6I7I gat¤ zl4l *Ellg gzlE+q dzl6J 7l]¤. xll ^Jdt+.
    zlg Ell Bs+ 4t+9 qlq4ol+. 2xI olg+ 9lulzlE + Hxll 2eg trr+ +B6tjr., -E-El
    gzlal EE*(alkaline earth metal.
    EJ ilEJ6Iq, oJe?-l =.+tstrI El +g +=dg TIdE|. "JrJ?] E
    dzlE 814'J oll gsoJ qlLJzlol+. E$ flzlz| dzl-= zll46J +
    olg+ qLJzl= +4ql +71-= _E_olEEll. ol= qd+ {zl-$ol L ;:{$ l!${o1 .J"Jr.l ++tr+E zlzl"J, Hl++q uloll uN-} =
    r+. "Jarl E++g dzl + zll9 Bl?s d4¤ $l z+ olg-g C
    Z= +E qd6I7I Ell+ +71 r{Eoltrl. 949 lit olgs} qqzl
    d+trI. 'JAr] ++r+ "JrJq -tr++e E+ +^e+ HI*aIq ++
    E gzl EI^I+E AaJr+ Hlqlg azl4 42,** +4UEI. gxl-E r
    rlop(hydrideion, H )g EEI6J olgd Eeg {d++.
    7171qei+e rzf o1961qq^l= 67I+trI. .JHI49E lif olg
    + qqzl= Ag 4q^J= olelle 4qe++ e^6|q, te +71 g+ Hle+el 3:8v.8tr) +^= +7lgEE r qts ++ +Eq
    ql^1g g+ql^l e¤E__q_e rJ++ +7I6J+. deg 7ld Hl++oltrI. +^= t}^e+ tse4l ag El--+r+ E
    olgE d,+ ullilE.{a7l 916ll^l=. Bzl +^J g^tq d^} EIiIE =
    ^i +q}+g ^Jd++.
    zl+ Flql dzL= q6lz'I unllE gtrl. oJolggl a+, dzl+ 7I* tlie+ +g l6+ql^l z|1t fea;| flaol4. {lai trf, olflxf
    Z n (k¤ r*Y +C gz}9 sHlgqlrl.$-E Hzl xll|EQ. "JE e $x|(e)olr|. eE(ozone, os)8 4Ii9 6s-dJ Eiillol4. 4IA
    2 n9 r*y eHlBol F z\zl ?lElE(qlE 5q +sel ap), {zli rl E+E gle+E] dz}= EeEl= A6Jol ,J611^l rE¤ +Icl^l
    z*ieu1g1o1 z*i+p;q1,r-1+4 Hzl golg =
    ,J+. &^E rl+ r+41+ olg(ol-)r} a4+s} ol.g(oz )E gg
    =tax+ ^{zlg+.
    ol9-(or-)ss Bdg+.
    ^JC6lzl"J, ++rl A6Jalq BE &sI
    E U+q= dxlzl t]49 +^Je eHlgq q"llaEl.
    315
    =* =r1l
    g^ +e 7|1t g6}al s8 BzlE gag+. ++4 A.J6t= A+, ulfl¤ zli{l(noble gas. 184)E oJtlz} TlillE +z116l+ tsl++ol
    +g ++ olg(s2 ) oe 7lT 96l gaE+. trI. olEg Sd6l ill+lll relp P?d9 rizl rllE"il HI*Col oI
    EtEt!(halogen, 174)+ olgzl +zI-+ +{61= ulg+ol+. 6J + zlEl. 7l* +7)& ulgc zl4l"J plBEg Bd6l+ aeE "JBl
    e{le g^E + 7l* ¤+9 dz} ri+E= z}d+. II}4^l r 4 91trI. + ol.=g E+sflnl rJol gc"l ,l]+ Hl++r+"J E+
    Ee] plqg
    =
    ae 5B6l +++E H}+ql^l r- olgg .JBg ¤C+trI. =
    ^lHll6l+ ^J
    ^d6IEJE A6}ol+.

    :s
    ql'+ tal ot BE E+-d +ol qalEg q3= + ?lotop
    :dEr

    .+E' qd6}(2"d9 zll'Jg olaI6f.r, qd6} q d^I ul^le+ qE 714 A.Jg #4dol {z} ufile} 9ts *2lz} 9l=^lE ol6fl
    *4lz| 9lixl= olofl t4(z.z¤). ajr11z.s9. +{ ¤+ .E4l : 7.s3, 7.s4, 7.92, 7.95
    +{ ¤+ +^\: 7.13-7.1s, 7.17 .++ ++EE 9zlC4 tsl;!+ 4}n+Eel {lCg EEl6Iq, ++
    .7zl$.s.9 ol+4q flzI tlzlE, olg +^lE, olgE| qlLlzl, rI Hl++g pl+4 C34 E?-14 deq iplE ol6tl6J+(7.6
    dxl tlpls q++E+(2.24, z.t4. t.+4. z.s4). ¤). sfl s+ E^ll : 7.s6,7.se,7.60,7.62
    =¤
    +H E+ E^l; 7.26, 7.42, 7.M, 7.s3 . olgslqlHxl "f {zf ullzlo} ee 949 Ec"l qBzl "Ja?.]
    . d^l-= ?lq "Joleol 944, dzlE 9"l¤.ol9ol g Ell g^]-9 ++4 "J+q E?+E p+q}4 HI+d "t Ed.lzl SCiI +4lEl
    elzlEol qg7]l H6l+^l¤ ¤E+tr|(7.3e). ¤B6J+0.24). +¤ S+ E4:7.67,7.68
    =xlE
    +{ s+ +^l: 7.28,7.33-7.3s - r4,219 ++ol g, t}i, +i, ElEtlr+ Hlso6J trllel +B
    "*
    . +7lgs.= ol+6}q olgq dzl- Ellil= + + 9lE+ +4(7.3 A +q HI*^1g ¤ + 9lE+ *r+(z l4, 7.84).
    ¤). +¤ ¤+ +41: 7.2e,7.3o,7.4s,7.46 +H ¤+ +4|:7.6e,7.20
    ql ol$E| ollulzlzt qB4 H6l-=zl .+4e] EE_e +^dg +g6tn ¤B6J+(7.7a.
    "-a zlag
    . dzl-E trl-4
    46}.9 ql+61.=q, 561 qd+ dzl-= allTl6lq olgEI.'J Ell ol +H g+ +4: 2.7r,7.72, 7.99
    3p] 9lH zlzl Eg+4e.e H+61+ 49 .Jrlt4(2.a9. .olgEl qlq4 "t {z} ullzls},J?. rc. t7. tB+ giel Eaol
    +fl S+ +4i 7.37-7.3e,7.42 clElzl Hi+d "t EE4
    ^Je4
    qB4 s*ol glEul ¤BqI+
    . dz} tlslsel ol$o] oiltJzlzl ¤sol g a4, dzf tlslg9 i 1z.s¤). +B g+ +4:7.73,7.74,7.76

    Orl Hlql
    -=.o u o .i
    'Z*=Z-S lz.t) +s qd6}9 ql+

    91f E;41
    ts9.8 E.ts 7]lE +g. qd6l= +461-b rJ+'J %IH(^l z.r)$ ^;-3'a1q e
    7.1 EEq^l EE.J EIe]. zJol, :Hrt aol, dxle+ eel "Jqrl, EL Egd+g zls sl/s.i HIFB +?-lel F4zl4e_4 zJ

    HIFE +4 F6il d+ql^l qg Bb ael +^fdg 4


    g A+ql qB4l H6l+71? (a) Bioilr]Eie olEo? 0) +
    46ll g "tg
    + 914. roll,{ oJ$ulE g E olF? 17.241
    7.2 of49 +E 6 F, Br, sr-E 444E ++ ?+7J q! a"J
    zll lz.z4)

    \ rJd^t Coo
    7.3 trl-g ql 4q qE 37lE +b Mg2*, c1-, K*, se2- ol¤¤
    uHcqlll HTEEH O]I
    erd fLt L|4U4. t7.3¤l
    -=J I
    316 75i fl^o-t+7t4 dE

    (a) :H 7.8¤ araalzl "Ja, 449 olgrl += 4zl o ^19-. (d)^E Tldl EE(rH z.zz)Y dzl9l 9oll ollLl^l7l7lrt
    o) r7l= nrjslHg 41, (i) c",* olgg qE F + 4+l4l dzlzl rq-gg f;gle olSa|olluJzl
    ^plql = =9lql
    B^l zlF¤+. ol4l olEoEl

    ogg9
    34614:7I? (ii) s2- o1s-e1 A+-e-? 4zltl*Z qlqzl E
    =9lE
    olsE^J Hol g^J+4. Na flz}9l^l qts + qqzl
    9zI ol 4C"ll+q6}.=^l B-6i^le_.
    =
    7.7 oFilql7l¤qq fl= ++ g^E daE aslcg +4Lll=
    7.4 trl-g Hi*ql^l ;f+, El++¤.+Elltl= +y 44 q! a.J rBg re^le(tr. aEltql^J =# B.q+E ag +^16}^l
    zi?:r o1fiE ¤B6t^lj_. [7.4¤] g).lz.z-t.a9l
    HJ- gdE a* gzl. HI^IE (z) rzl olgq- qlqzl
    (1) +E qd6}

    oo
    (3)

    oo
    7.s trl^g
    *

    rHr+ ?J? e.rx" Ezl-= ^J46ll szKac+ x= giol


    (i)
    H

    Li Be B C
    o,
    =,1

    ++ fl^
    l

    N o F
    He

    Ne
    4). ol Ez}9ld e_e eEl aol= d,olr, ull zllg A_x ¤
    -4 Na Mg AI Si P S CI Ar
    E aol: 44 a,ol4.lz.t9l )l
    (a) flzI Ae+ x9 e6J gz} tlzlE¤ dr4 dz4 ++lE K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
    ^l-s
    6Iq +{Lll^ls.
    Rb Sr In Sn Sb Te I Xe
    (b)x, .+4-q x-x a+ eolE d,rl dz9 tglE
    ^l-Sqq

    o
    Cs Ba
    +4'-ll^ls.

    N
    ^lL

    ".ro (ii)
    gl\
    H =-4. He

    6-"-@
    rBgNa flz}9 flxf eul$ qlLJ^l Esoltrf . 4 +4
    Li Be B C N o F Ne
    7.6 olEl
    = Na Mg AI Si P s CI Ar
    7l
    eq ll! eEIEE += L}EI{zl ?*it4. tz.z¤l
    K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
    Rb Sr In Sn Sb Te I Xe
    -3p
    Ba
    E
    -3s Cs

    2p
    _2s
    (iii)
    -1s H =-=
    gJ/\
    He
    (a) n:1, n:2, n:34 E.E +Aeol E+ E^lqflE7p nJ

    E "Iq+E, +lol uB}AETI? Li Be B C N o F Ne


    (b) 2sc+ 2pel ollulzl e9l7} +e4l rrl4 9+. r ol+E =
    )l Na Mg AI Si P S CI Ar
    7l*S ¤$fl+E+g ne^le_.
    K Ca Ga Ge As Br Kr
    (i) +i flzt9 zrel2p ollulzl +E*ol, dE g
    Se
    =917I
    r|.E
    zfe.l 2se} zp {lHzl #glzl aolq. Rb Sr In Sn Sb Te I Xe
    (i0 sE +dz} g4ql^JY zpq qlq^l7I2s9 glulzle Cs Ba
    + ++.
    (iiil NaE 2soll! {z}z} illgl4 gler+, zpgli {z}z} 4l
    94
    +14 ?*+.
    (c) ollHzlzl 7l* {x}z} as gz}9 "l¤ qlq4 +9lql
    il]9l4 9liz}?=
    Ee E^il 317

    flaE #l.JzI?
    (iv) o) l8+q += gi=r+ 4E ol g^E ceg F TLzl xll^l
    6I^19.
    H +4 EA He
    ,.13 1-13$el g4E +q^l q¤ g^+ glEol7l* zle +
    Li Be B C N o F Ne E qdd-= 7|^ln 9l=^lE al z.rg ol+6}q Z.ft-= tsI=*s
    E *-e_^le. 9H flr+ g^Eol 714 a +E qdq¤.7[
    rL
    Na Mg AI Si P S CI Ar
    ,I zlr.9l=7|?
    K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br Kr g4E alel4 gz}Tl dxlel +E qdd}ql ++ q+ ¤H
    7.14
    Rb Sr In Sn Sb Te I Xe 6 Efl ¤4-¤. rE^ls.
    (0 +E qd6l+ flzI4 +E dzlq eloll z|fl215 4-39
    Cs Ba
    xllzl6l] + .!zll fl{a}e
    ^J4.J + 9l+.
    (ii) +E. qdsl+ +7lgsq 6J iTlql^l g+q^l e-=3--e.
    7.8 g^ Xb Fr(g)el Hls" d}q trl-.q-r+ ag B^l¤- Bc6JtrL F.6el e a++ rl1l4.
    (a) ol HI*g +B *+ HI+4g
    ^^^ls(El, xel ^J^JEE ^J
    (iii) gzfT} dxl^E
    "ld+ dz}tr+ Bt ar+4_e_E qd6}
    g +^I'JED. E 2ffl4.
    (b) x= ++q_17]-, El++.Jzl? r ol+E ¤E6f^le. (iv) *.s. qd6l+ +7lgsE aJ fzl9 ¤ql^l q-g- +7lel
    xigss a ql +4di A^+q.
    lt (v) +Tlgsq oJ +ql^l o}4tr olti6J elg +.o. qa6}3

    E zl HElb See o15g EIE EplB+zl+.


    zrs r.r"e+K gzlql dzlg Z,r4k37+4 2.st+,
    ! 3.49+olq.
    =46I= =]94
    (a) 4CP {z}e} flz}z} dxl-9 z}B *+E r+?:1.00, 0.00
    +7 lEE, ff E -48610.1 tr. 7.2tr) olair z|{o}-1., Nae} Kql fl= 4)e)4 4^l7l:=vly
    7.e (a) rl-* alol 9H elul$ zlzl.ixl B^l6l^le. Z"n4l& ql+6f^l!-.
    2xt, 2x (t+r), zx (t +l+s), zx(t+z+s+z) (b) slater +zlg ^l-*6tqg a+ ql+q= z"r 7i9 4l4}at
    (b) Hlgc 7l4lE g^t HE= (a)E +eI q¤ s¤ol glyz}?
    ^lg.
    (c) 461r"ql^l Hl]g qH 4+ol (a)ql^l +4u +xl'2'e+ +41 (c) oltr %r-Bol BEI c4,* z"r *g q+6lE7p
    q-^l (d) q! *Eol oJ + .Iql^l oI4E a+E ts^J6I= di}4
    ^J¤6I^ls.
    7.10 d+^]. eka-E '61+'4E Sanskritolql^J +46}qq. {2"tr9 ¤86}+7P
    +71-=
    MendeleevE:94d ¤ae+El + + Eq4 fl= "JEJzlzl (e) Naq Kel al&.g ulr]eE, Rb g^Iql^J alg4 dzlg

    *e g^E zl{o}zl gql ol d+^l= ^l-*6}9+. ql= E Z"n= ql+6l.^19-.


    zlES zju|!=(germanium)o + PEE eka-silicon* fC
    "l 7.16 siel cl gzlql +z116l+ al94 dz}9 Z"rlI*47+ 4.2e+.
    "JE g4ol+. Mendeleevt: E+ %L^|b Eeolq^l ^I¤ql 6. 12 + olr+.

    ¤xllo1xl ?*zl olle.il, t%7$vl^ji dE4s.+ A+q4 ?+ (a) 4Cp {z}e} flz}z} dxfg z}H *+E 441.00, 0.oo
    I eka-manganesee.l 3,x115 q+6I9+. :B z.t9l 44U olrlr z|{o}-L, sip} Clql flb 4)E4 4471 vvly
    +7lg.s'-++q, MendeleevTl eka-manganese+J. += g4 Z,rAk* ql=6}^ls.
    . zl rl?g qB4 E4Ezl B-61-^le-. +4g ^Fs6Iq q+q= Z,r 1I+= al4}5}^ls-.
    (b) Slater
    g^.= o, si, Al, Fe, Ca (c) 9L *Bol E+ C9QI z.r itg ql+61^=7|?
    ?.rt (")
    ^l+
    zl4ql 3461+ 7I^J *g
    ol+. rB gqBH, oI5 + t g^+E r700H old
    7.19 (d) + HIB + + +7lql^l g+ql^'l e¤z- e-E a++ d^l-zl
    qlAg +71= trtrI g ¤B6lb ag q! 4"J71?
    ql
    "Jed flfl=7|? slE r++E q¤ g^t7l? O) nEI "J z$4
    E+q 'JEl4 .llEjeH e7l4 g4 ft zzlzlty ++olEI. s. (e) sic+ clel 4l^Ig u|g-s-E, pql^] 4lsl+ dzlE z.nE ql
    4.sE AqEE, ol7lt ++E9 4++g plqzl gcql^J
    =61^19.
    +le+ oI4 6 qqql 9zl= 6l+7t? z.v lrrq n4"J 444 Krei n:3ol AAql fl= d4 + qL
    7.12 Moseleyt: gxlg=E+El %L¤q= xd dflg F6ll g^I EE aol q +E qdq¤ !=4 4"J71? q- datT} 44 cl
    9 zllf$ ol=q{r+. zl,lSzlz= ¤H6I^19_.
    (a) flzflo1 6z16l+ +^Je +g++8, g^ q-*ql e= 7.18 n:3oJ Ae ..il dxl¤ol -4= +E qd6l7l¤!7161+ +^l
    318 73 Pl+sl+/lrl dA

    4e c1-9. gxl¤+ u]l$a|.<le. aEI ,JolE dB4sE ?g aslrE As-r ¤'* eol(2.ss A)
    K, Mg, P, Rh, Ti e+ HlE6l^19.

    flrl HJxlEzt 0lg HJrlg7.3tr) 7.24 4d49e 93 BiI:9 Bi-I AEJ Aolb z.at Aol4. ol 4
    7.re gzle+q C++ Szl9 tlxlEg 44]l.71+l6li^l q] aole+ tH z.z4 EIEJe-e Biel flz| tlzlEg {l
    "ltrlE} ^lEE
    o}=ol ddzlse aCqqot 6l-b7l?
    =_6I^19_.
    (a) dul-= Bd$$go1 0e-E q= qq^lel z;l g^tE¤ flz1. qlxlgol
    a71gsu.!g ,r.]-.ga|9, trl¤- 4rolxl
    (b) F zlzl g^l-71a6Jg g EIel qrJ 7lE ull$alrle.
    (c) g^I9 +E qd6t -2.t5=+^-lE
    (a) K, Li, Cs
    7.20 eEg ^lle.l6J ulgrd TlillE=$ +E6l *g gEql^-l ¤+611 (b) Pb, Sn, Si
    .<l lxlltr HdJtrf. ole.=g 83 K ol4 gEql^l El-g fB4 (c) F, o, N
    ae "Jd +aE El5+. 7.26 +71&*-"Jg q-S g^l¤¤ g^l-H}^l+ol 4zlE
    ^h&4q,
    (a) rHr+ zJol $lxlfol
    ^lE
    Bq 9148, l^tl ole+ql^J +^ls ullg6l^le.
    ole+el tlzlB3
    "l¤z]l 9bz}? (a) Ba, Ca, Na
    0) A+ol olE39 Hlzl# rH 7.7q^l 4l*¤ flzt tlzl (b) In, Sn, As
    Ets-+ +e7P (c) Al, Be, Si
    (c) olq+ =71-,
    HliE Ht*-s__tr, r.zll ole+ql^l 4 gzl+
    ^lE 7.27 c++ 4 t¤ol *.Jzl. zlloJzl= +H6l-^le_.
    +Ei4 Aq}eE ¤eqq glqr gf ?iiz}? (a) ololgs=g tl.+61.= +^J g4-==B+ 3+.
    5.26 o) Li+E Lits-+ 44.
    I (c) Cl-E I--tr+ r+.
    m3- 7.2s il1 *zlE Eb ol+ HlzlEE Els-n+ ag ailg ¤B6l^l

    x 9.

    r
    (a) I->I>I+

    1'?z,ffi n (b) caz* > Mg2+ >


    (c) Fe > Fe2* >
    Be2+

    Fe3*

    I -rtn
    ,4* 4 ol84 Fd4 +alq fl= +d sxlb Fgtzt?
    Ga3* , zr4*, Mn7*, I-, Pb2*

    7.21 B^HIg +7lgs .I9 qtr ++tr+E +=e(3422 "C)ol 7.30 qtr olg=ig Ag d^l ullrl$ zizlzluJ tso6l.B +^J g^I
    ++. BlHl ++ Lll B".Hl flzf ^folE 7lr.l= 2.74 Aolq. 7I S.E a*zt ?14. o}49l 4 olgql ql4 Ae +el d^l-=
    (a) ol4t 4aq^l ¤^HI flzlel g^I EI^l=e guI.JzI? Tlxl= +c $zl-$ *-r., ol $xlz| ag d^r ullzl= TIzl=
    (ol3l,t HlxlEe;!+ HlzlEol+r. ++.) zl eA6l^le. u,le| ole]t';| gztT} ?tb+H, ql r
    =xll6}zl
    (b) "JE B^Hl ++g +g "Jq6lql +=ElE, B.Hl gxl flzl .S$af.<le.
    ,r.[o]g zla]z[ qg4l Eg 4o]41ql+61+zl? (a) cl- (b) sc3* (c) Fe2+ (d) zn2+ (e) sna*

    7.22 a4 7.7E 46J gx} tlzlE"ll ++ El-S ¤B + EA ++g 44 olgt F-e+ Na+E ^J46]] tr^L
    .:="

    ;r ell9. (a) ol$ol$$zp


    (i) + +71 qlql^1, ++ fllel $zl5g g+q^J e.E5--e-
    -731(b) "]tr7.rg qd+ A^le+ gxtTt d^tE 4H ^"l
    ^.1 ^h+6}n,
    e. a+E zlold4. +(s)E 44 r.00r+ 0.000141 7146l-r., F olg 49
    (ii) n:3oJ +7lql +6t= ffi g^E Hl^lEg n:zoJ Azl zp 4zl$4 A¤- 41&6|^le-.
    ql tls.6l+ g^E HI^IE-H_EI 6JtL rq. (c) olHq= Shter f4g ,IH t'-+(s)E ql+61n,
    ^F8-6lq
    (ii0 rI?E9 ++ g4'ql 41fl, n:roll,$ n:3eE EIE trll + olg 49 zp dxl¤9 ze¤ ZltI6I^le.
    r:4E Ht¤ tr} ts^J (d) FdzI olgEql^J, +E. qa6[e] olg H]zlE rJql= q
    9{61.= H}zlEE Hel+
    ":3ql^l r]t'J
    {ggzllz} ilEz}?
    6I= Hlzl+E HE+tr+
    =tr]..
    (rv) dol fl^9 tlxlEg t'J +71ql s+ql^l ep$os o1 7.32 E&^l ol*ql O e+ K*E ^J45ll Ezl-.
    :a.g+q 4114. (a) ol¤ ol_a-ol zlgTl?
    (v) 14 HI^IE¤ 7l-^lE olff r=ol .:Lql4 e-tr
    fl^zf (b) rl z.r9,\].$ap, qd+ dzlq gz}Tt dztel 7IB
    ^J
    =
    zlg +-d 4d6l= 7l^l7l EllEoltrl.= +(s)E 44 t.oo4 0.00o1+n z|{a}r., + olgq z.n
    t4 7.79 zlE-EPel es-I A+ aolE ql+6}r, ql++ E Al4I6I^le_.

    -zet
    319
    =* =r1l
    (c)oldql= Slater 749 ,lB ^J+(s)E ql+6}n, 7.a2 @) r7+ql^l oI4E a+q lil ol¤+ qlHxl Hsl9 4"J
    ^l-*4q
    + olgelze¤ al^I6l^le_. * 9rl,tz}? ol {u}/jol flx} t}xlEg H+e+ qBal +41
    (d)Fd^I olSEq^J +s qd6}e+ olg HI^IE +qlE q qE^l ¤E6}/le. (b) 4+71qr,\1Ktr+El Kre ol¤rg+E
    r]aJ gggzJlzl9lEzI? tz| o1g5lqlulxl Hsl9 a6}e oll[l+7t? ol a6JCol gzl
    z:l s, cr, Kel olEE "JHlzJ"J olgE¤ ^J46ll BzL *zlE9 Hple+ q$4l+Alqb4 ¤E6I^1s..
    @) azlzl +z16l+ +^]tr gz]# ullga|,rle. a71gsq^l.el gl^lE ule"le-E dlq. r++ 4 ai + rzp o1
    (b\ ztlzl +7I6IE +^ls olg-E¤ ull$a|.rle. g.lqlLJzlTI El 4Ig ag qe gzfoJzl ql+6}^le-.
    (c) gxl-=E olgEq r7l +^lql^lE itoldg ¤E -7.a3(a) Cl, Ar (b) Be, Ca (c) K, Co (d) S, Ge (e) Sn, Te
    =zlo]
    6I^ls. 7.44 :cl+ 4 rdlql^l 9H S4z[ ri[ o1g4 ol]ulzlz[ c] 49zl?
    7.34 c+* flz}4 ol89 4 rdlg a7l7l zo7l6]E. +^le HIg6t^ls. (a) Ti, Ba (b) Ag, Cu (c) Ge, Cl (d) Pb, Sb
    (a) se2-, Te2-, se ?A5 q+ olgEE dz} H]]iIE .r'.rle. ul$.! zlille| ag d^t
    (b) Co3+, Fe2*, Fe3* Hllil= TIzl= ae q¤ +==joJ7l?
    (c) Ca, Ti4+, Sc3+ (a) co2* (b) Sn2* (c) zra* (d) ag* (e) s2-
    (d) Be2+, Na*, Ne
    7.46 q+ olgE"el d^l Ellil= 4r^ls. ol 6ql^l Elgc TliJle+
    o*O Ag olf¤ aqdl ¤B6l^ls. ,J+ 4^l Hl]iIE TIzl= 19 ;rarl9.
    (a) o2-tl o-H-+ 0) s2-z} 02 e+. y'*
    -7:s(c) 52-zI K+-u+ =.q. (d) pd2" (e) pb2* (g Au'*
    -E-r+ (a) Ru3* (b) As3- (c)
    (c) K+zI ca2*-Er| -ar+.
    =.trI. zaz 4, s, ...)el dz} ullilE 7t^l= olg,rll zll$ zl,rl9.
    7.36 0lg a6J +qlE LiF, NaCl, rSr, nbrgl,q "a'@:t,
    "Jolg-g 7.4s nff(n:3, d^I tsllilE 7|zl.= ole-,r'll zfle.v'119.
    olg 4i,lb A(Li-F),
    2.01 2.82 A(Na-cl),
    =48
    3.30 A(K-Br).
    4, s, ...)E
    gaE + Hatl dzl tl*s9l ++ 49 rA^ls. ol 4cql^l
    3.67 A(Rb-Dol4.
    olol+ g + qL 9lHrlz} LI.g ae.e. ql+6}=7p ol F
    (a):H +qTI olg HlzlE *.g ol+4q oJolg-
    7.8q1^.1 -zagHr{l d^I Ag}EE zld +CB f glEz}?
    *-o139 7l4E q+6}^le_.
    (b) (a).url Eg zlEe+, de4etr +a¤ ,lelel il-= al& 7.s0 g^q {xf {o}Ez} +q i}ol+H, olaol fl49 *olgol
    6}^le. +aql^l 0.04Ael aqdg 7lfltrla r}46t9g +C gx}tr+.JA6I+= ag EEl6l+zI? ¤B6I^le.
    41, F ztzl EJB9E Eg ololg-golgq ,lEl= a+ z.sr 6,HoJ K gzlcl K* olg 6ql^l qts a"l q ++E dz} tl
    a,J+ 9,.Yzl? EIE= 7I7,1=7p
    (c) dl} flzI ql4Eg ol+6}q eg olE ql 4E +6JEel 7.s2 F-+ eol l-E ddl-= r*+ *ol¤9 olg+ qlq4e+. +
    ololg_*olg ,J 44+ g"Itzf? Eg Hl^lE aig ol
    c"J F gzlel dzl {s}sg {L++4lE ggzll gbz}?
    g HlzlBe-E+q 9e {FJ+ Aq.Yt? .1gE 1zI olge+ qlq4e+ dzl aE+EE ^J46u
    0l8=t ollLlrl, drl tlatE(7.4tr, 7.5tr) tr^f. =+silE
    z.3z oifult:el lil
    2iL 3^I ol8e+ .llHzl= L+4tll= 49 ir -zsr(a) dz} ullzl$ sglaf$ 4 44ql 6l*6l= alg ,rr.le-.
    I}A* qH a.JzL?
    TI\L zl"g qlLJzlTl-ge+ (b) +l F il+ Hlqlq= +g= 7Id+. q- aol olol
    ^le. ^l.+
    7.3s (a) BE lz| 2zl olg+ qlq4, G) zlEats9 ax| o1951- n, qe 4ol ¤-.JzI?
    qluJzl= +4qlE 49 xr.ls-. (c) 9l F rtg 3q<iol z;$ \ea qtl6}=71? olq
    "JE
    ?3s u, r, se ?glrl ol¤ fl4z} F Hr,llE olgsl qlq^l= etH, qe ae.l ¤H{iol q
    zlzlizll = 7.s4 ot4 3rlEl
    =71?
    HI+!g C46ll tr^I.
    7.40 E"J"l ?qlzl, zl4.JzlE ufolrl9.
    I:l-qE Ca+(g) +e-.+Ca(g)
    (a) ol¤s+ ollulzl= 6JAL gE <iol4. El-S ¤E + *e ag qL 4oJ7l?
    (b) 4}}=¤+sfltrE} li} olg+qlLJzlTr q ?q. (i) ol ++E qq^l E+b ca* ol99 d^l rlElEolEI.
    (c) g^fel zz| olgsl qlqzlE 6y* ril olgE} qlq^l!_+ (ii) ol tls-el qlqzl H+= ca fl^I9 li]. olgpl qlq49
    r+. $i <lol4.
    (d) 3il olg+ qlqxl= +C gzlE+q :zll9 dzl-= olg (iii) o1 tI+' qlHxl Hclb ca g^tE d4-aE+Eq ¤+
    s+fl+ ql Beo.;! oflLJzlolrl. <loltrt.
    ?.4r (") glxlel rz[ olgq- qq4q "JH]4e +4lE ¤Ed[ Hl=+e|ctr0.6tr)
    =zlo] =+ut
    7l* olgs+ qlq^lE r*= ag q! 7.ss (a) +Tlgsq i,J+7]iqlel g4ql^l e-E+oe ollr=oel+E
    ^ls. o) +Tlgsql^.] =
    flroJzp 7It 4g olgE+ qlLlzl= 7*+ 4e q- gioJTI? -o+Col +7li;l$7l, zgalfz[, H+6]zl f*E7]? (b) +71
    320 7A 3a"l t/l^l d!

    gEE + +.llE 9.lql^l ot45i olEo6J+=- ++col ?716I (b) tlc+ a(rr)e} r+Ed,il
    a^4=7L H+617.1 ?+Y7P (c) (a)c}6)ql^'t +EIt (c) *&EI+rlE
    =71,
    +714+ lil olg+ "llH zl 9 HE+el a""tC4 oJil6l+zl? (d) ol& ol B+etr ++oI ++I+
    ^E
    7.sG + g}.x, Y7t+416'J+. ol¤!6I+=+ed7l dE4lolr, 7.66 ++ 4 HI*q 4.J +e HI+4g /^^ls.
    +E ae HlE4lol+. dE4sE EH x.el rz} ol¤El9lH (a) &EI eEl$$ E
    zl= yE + Hll4a 6J+. ol + qE 4,ol rl ?4Cg zlqa (b) +tl+ ol'Jr+ E
    6l L
    ,^\:,
    7LO
    I: (c) rlclatrE(rD45e gt}
    (d) ol4}+
    z.sz ** E6Iq 6J q^J.l "9t14 o e olol$$ BC6l-= g
    q eqlts4 +&+ eq-+ ++"1
    ++olE+"4b "Jg 6ifl+. q4¤+ ol gq E96Ib Hl=+et 4d 0.7tr, 7.88)
    ^:
    TL FE6Ixl ?+=7P =+rt
    ,.u, Ol rJf,ol oJql4 o e u|:uJlf,-Er| Hlgo Col olf+ +
    BC6I= gi= ++ol =
    ,,og.ole_g
    7.s8 ol trg E6Iq 6J E+^Jol 9..JzI? (b) zJf,o1
    "JHlzJse e.El+tr+ Hl+dol zl3 ol
    n, ¤.olgg Bc6l+ El-.+olzl ql+.il, olgg El
    fl^= f.E F9.'Jzt?
    d6}zl *= fl48 "Jg 6t9E|. qriBg 7.68 g.r+ +Hl# E El t+ olgg BC6Lzl"J, ge.l H}*dol
    ol "JqlEE6l=71-, =++oltrt."+=
    EE6}zl ?*E7l? gd q zl4. ol5 g^9 Eiq t.49 dxt uHzls] flz| tl
    '19.4 4lo1go1 olgCoJzl, +zl^Jt^lg ql+6t^le. zlEg g+6rq olp .$$a|.rle.
    SnO2, Al2O3, COz, LizO, Fe2O3, H2O
    -zsl qg 4 HI*ql qi+ +e HI+4g ^
    ^ls.
    7.60 qB ++ t}+E(ql: Sczor)3 ++6J En+= Hlso6}^l ?J:zl (a) sffi
    ++ol gi zlxll $flzloll,tl ¤r6JEI.
    "J, &C E=
    gTld +e{r+* H}¤¤.J+. Sc2orz} 4}C + -r.o (b)
    ^EEE 4lq¤g Eql aTFJ+.
    aos qtI6l+TL olqE ¤zlt *94 qlg.'J
    Er+ Hlg"g (c) 4E;'4el *EB &^ zl,ilql :.¤^la+.
    asE qlt6}=7|? 'J"*g +B ++ HI*4g r ^le. (d) iE ++ol +8 +r+ Hl-&eE+.
    7.61 4}sl EJTIq=(II)(Mno)zl ucl(aq)rl NaoH(aq) + qe a 7.70 trl-S 4 HI*q ql'J +B HI+^l¤. ,^^le.
    + q dril eI*$ tszl ql+6t^le. (a) *llf$
    E"ll ?zloJ4.
    7.62 tr}f &q¤i$ &E7f 67}.6I= +^le Llg6l^le-. (b) dztel4.
    COz, CaO, Al2O3, SO3, SiO2, P2Os
    ^EEE¤Eil
    (c) a$ol 4}^el HI*6J+.

    z"ol ga: &4el Elo6Iq


    Cl2o7g ^Jd+EI. (d) a+ol ololeH4 HI*.J+.

    (a) ol olgol ilQlz}? (s. 2.6 +a) z.zr zllz.zpgl;.] ¤B6.IHFol, grJ?-l ++g +^el EI*6I
    ^JdEg <"1
    (b) g^E+q c1207(t)71Bcq= H]+ql ql'J +B "*+ { i+apg Bc6}i1, Bedl4 H}¤.6}q 6}Edli+E¤ B
    HI*4g'{ ^19.
    c.J+. olE HI+q^lE +^el gtr4lE EEtg Eljildl^l
    (c) cboz9 H*(oq)* oH-(aq) + qL a+ q 4B6Ial Hl e. ^JtEq^l +^e+'Jedlg BEll= EI+6J7I? 0) a+
    ***tl? q- Hls" 4, 3+4 +^e+q HI+E tB +¤-^l
    (d) cl2oTql^.1 $4zl -24 &q+= 7l4l4n 6J ql, clg =+eflei
    g A^ls. ol5 HI+g z.fol$ f,^f{$ F9.qlz}?
    ^JdE-=
    ale145 9Bzll qizl? olel6.J tI++E zI4 utl c19 7.72 sEl+l-e- +^el Elso6Iq olg a'J ElelE"J +^EI sEl+:
    dz} Ellr.lEE qBril q=7p s Bct+.
    f.641 g4 x= 4l4e+ Hlg"6Iq xo2E BC6In, g^e+ Hls"6|q (a) ol H]+E +B HI*^lg il^le_.
    xcl4=-BC6JE}. Xori g4 nxllolq, +g gr:ql^i += O) rB z.t2E
    7.t01+ gao 6t4, oI4 F HlAg ql
    ^IEE
    4(rooo"c ol^J). -EFE aAql^1, xcl4E+4q E^llolq, q Hp+*(kt/mol)$ +61-^ls.
    ^l
    s8 "cql^l #=trL .+ K*(8) + H-(c)
    K(s) + H(s)
    (a) XCInE 5rI HI+6Iq xo2e+ E +E +6J+g
    ^JC6J+.
    -+ K-(8) + H*(g)
    K(3) + H(s)
    olql E 4E Elt}Ee Fl.Jzl? (c) (b)91,q 4l&¤ qlq{ Hs+P+eE+El qtr E}+ol A
    o) ad x= ++, El++, #.+ + q! aol4r ^J46|
    "J
    olB^l n=^19.
    i7l? (d) (c)ql,rlE dqol +is+ ol$$ E!|alf +^El Eq¤,
    (c) olqlai cRC
    ¤Br+ ag +n +46f9 fla. xzl el BCr+ "JEqtlE6l+zI?
    qB g4.oJzl aa6}^le. ^.149
    t7e-* Ag deql r1op u.eulg gi g4= Blr6l^le.
    r+* 4 Hl+ql ql{L +B "*+ H}+^lg /^^le. (a) 7s^I tsllil 0) TIXJ "J+4.J olg d6l-
    (a) t5l El¤r+ E -rrt (c) txl o;gq- qqzl (d) Eql qi6J qI-*C
    -7.6s
    +7lE# E^l 321

    dzt rlF+E (0 g^I *^lE


    (e) 7.76 (a) xJl!-ftenon)g s=+sflr+ HI86fjI., uil$(neon)3 5F
    + g^ql^J +4+: ^FlAg ¤B6I^le. sflr+ E}*6lzl 9*: olfi +Eql7l? (b) zl*{} *r zl
    7.74 0I^4¤(A0g qfld4 *^k qEql ceql ql4^-l=.J EE ol-so6lq, ¤el Ezl-==4g xe-p ad-aolE a l6il
    qTl aol Ael frtr}. alzluJ ollel C# ql+61+ 7<Z7l -Erle. ol5 {tg +l^E gx} q}^lEql^J 414}¤ aq} a.l
    b6I+ c| BlI6t^lg.
    (a) ol gdTf dgql^l 7lill, a4^L a4lg^l= ql+dlr, ¤ q+ 4 HI+q ql"J +B HI+{g x.{e.
    B6I^le_. (a) 9fol or-e. +6llgE}.
    (b) AtTI ++, Hl++, ql+6}r, r olf¤ ¤ -77 (b) zll5o1 ¤+sfl4 Hls",*+(^]l Tlzl += +*^lg r^^ls).
    =++.JzlE (c) ¤ol +d Tlille+ Hls" ++.
    E6l^le-.
    (c)Na4'B4l Bdq= e+'*Eel EIPI^lg FI'JzI? (d) E+ E}++EI.
    =+sflol
    r,aof,A ztltlxl 18+ gi= ulg,g zl{l(inert gas)E g 7.78 q+ 4 HI+q #B HI¤-^lg ,r^^le.
    qi-J
    *trI. (a) E^zI E4 +8++.
    -zls (a) Elgc 7l4l+E +q7I B olf.= F*.JzI? (b) El¤ ++ol +^ Tlill6lql^l TIggEI.
    ^Iz}^l7l
    0) qtr Bdol ol4el olE Eael s.eljol qfl=7p (c) 4Eol +rl Hlg"+.+.
    (c) ¤zl|E q¤ olE:e--t E4bzI? (d) ¤Fsfl ol trirql+ ++rI HI*.J+.

    +rl oJ+ +41


    7.ze i-l*+El "JA+ fl^ *(z:sz)r/lzl tqtrgig Ell, gx}"* ++H *t q+E ¤Bg .?9,91 zlaE +r 9t=7I?
    ol g^I Hnsl 3.rje1HI4.J a+e.l g^E q 4 J7l?
    7.Bs ula fli9 As-As a.J aolE z.as Aol4, Ct2E Cl-Cl
    [7.80] rH 7.48 2s sHlpr+ 2p e-tslgs{ %}^} *'} +E Be q} EEI zJolE r.ss Aol4.
    fE 44{ 1"14. (a) ol rJlolsle u|99_tr, rJl z||9 Cl g^I7I 44 HlA g^l
    (a) 2s4 2p e-ElB + qql^'lE dzf 'rJE7I ag qL a q ABEIq 9lE AsClr(arenic trichloride)oll,{ As-Cl
    =
    oJzl?
    ?El zJolE ql+6i-^le_.
    (b) 2s4 2p 49 dz} F4E zlol= aA6I7l fl
    e-ElBq^l (b) rH 2.7! flzl tlzl+g Asctg9 ¤iI ?olE
    ^l-*6ll^l
    oll.rl Shter +49 qB4 Haqlot al-bzl? qBrl ql+6J + 9l=zP
    7.81 (a) 4CP dzl¤ol flzlz| {zlf$ Sq6}4 7lqn. gx} 7.86 TftlE gi A, Bq qlql cl-99 ctrzt gI4. e-e. s-s
    tl Szl$zt\t)i d-d z}4zl ?t=+8, pel 3se+ zp i)zlzl AEI ,J"l= 44 z.te . r.s+ Aol4. Ae+ B= HI++q ABrE
    dzl_E.ll zlso6l-E +s qd6k g"toJz}? (b) Slater f4
    I ol+afq ol 4l4lg 6}^le. (c) zlr,ll* 4l&oll ul-eH, es =180). ol 4BE zl*e. 6s, al*Eq^l F B q
    ^Iolel
    dzl9 .,?s qd6l= s.6+oln, :p dzf9 +E qA6l.b TlqE ql=6}^ls.
    4.e+ol+. :se-l3p d^iE +E qd6} ilol 4E olf+ + 7.87 rz4 fl^E BE4l-q--e 8fl4. 16+E gib ai{lol4n
    9.tz}? (d) p gxlE.+rl dzl-'J zllE xll46}E, dz}.= g ++.
    ¤ etslge+q 4lA9_7-.J7l? ol+E ¤B6I^le. (a) *adl4 6JEd9 gHizl.J 4igl {}el= +t9l7p
    7.82 +7lgs'E + +7lE uI4 olE"oJ trI, dol fli9 =.zl HEI
    (b) trtg +7lzl ^JeEol g-E4irl aid + qtr lol 3zl
    7l+4 fl49 =zl EplB44e ol+= iq.Jz|? zl$a|.r19.
    7.83 9t}40l MHroJ ls+ +dElEq^l +a¤ 4q 40pl flxl tlzlE, "JHlzl.J +IsI
    /J;El]e.l olg +^lEi, ri}
    p-H es-H 1.sl9A, su-H r.zozAol4.
    1.4194, oi¤s+ qlqzl, 2iI olgs+ qlq7.l
    (a) ol <lE¤ a4 7Jql9lb g^| ElzlE¤ ol+6lq 9g 7.BB +g Eql +EtU EIe+ eol, yql^l LaE olEo* trllb g^f
    {lE-r} Eli6}^le. Hl^lEol 1al Hfe, olE",g EllE Hn}7}
    (b) M-H 4* 7Jo17l A^I4e-E ?7l6IE olffi v $x| r =:7}6f^lq}21o'll.{
    H+. ol+¤- ¤H6I^l!-.
    59 dzl Hl]zl +eq^l ¤B6I^ls. flrt Ejrt=(A)
    7.84 s. 7.8q1 r+e.E LJlgg ¤EI flzl elzlEg o.ss AoJ *H, Sc r.70 Ti 1.60
    4l* r.+o Aoe. E^lqq fl+. 'Jte.l tlfz| xll:- 6fol Y l .90 Zr 1.75
    Hlg-u+ q ¤dzlol+r +*61*.+8, ra.g *e7I? r
    La 2.07 Hf 1.75
    322 75| 3^E +7t4 5tr

    co'"q con* 6 qE olgol 4 4?zl? G) ?.lE olg


    [z.ss] (a) 6h= +e.g ;r e,rl9.
    dzlql^l= Li" olSol d+sE Eqe 4l,I+ d6l +¤g (i) 14+ g^E 13+ol+ ls+ fl^trE|= 99 lil olgE+
    gq1,tl co4* olgg co3* ol¤o e ¤Itlq"lot;Jcf. "ilHzl5 7ld+.
    olslol cnc ¤* E= +E +n Li*, (ii) 14+ g^ql a^lE a7l6IH ¤Hlol ill+11] Hl+ 4
    ^'l4g +}+614
    np3
    olg .Johql^lg. 49 ol¤+Ei zl Hl]ilTf gE|.
    co3*. co4*E Hl^lEg =
    ol$ f,.!tr 4g6}^le. (c) 4E olgol t.JEql q4 4I (iii) ojqfzl og 14+ g4E + gzl qlzlE¤ 7l4ltrI.
    + 4E ?tsE +ltl d+g *+q=z|, ffisliz|! (d) zl (iv) la4 fl^= 13+ol+ ls+ g^tr+ drll ,l+EtrI.
    Eg rEEI+ ++6}zl *+. ?.lE olg dxlAB ztE"6IE r+Cql^l=.J g
    7.93 {z} {ol(electron transfer)4tr
    "|b c}q
    + 4E ol$ {zlzf ,I],,J¤E}E, '&ct iE ?gE'7} qd6l zlu| gzlefEl EIE flxlu| gzle {z}z} o1594(dzh
    d+ EeE ^F*B + 9g aol4 ^J461-=7f? ¤B6t^le. dolb zou}9lrl *H+16I4 q-E aol4. q.ee rJtd d
    (e) ole
    AE d^lql^l 3BE7l + SElil ^J46ffl zI olE rl*9 44t 4.14.
    ^l-S¤
    ElE,
    ^l-Sg + 9t= qlill ++ ol$$ zllrlap, C4 ol# A(g) + A(s) -+ A*(8) + A-(c)
    E ¤E6I^le-.
    gx} A9l ol&pl qlqzlel dzt {s}s +dql^'i. ol tsJ+E
    [z.ro1 o1g,l3 Eee 4]+ ^EEE(Sro)g ++4 4]4 9lHzl H9¤ ¤E6I^le-. g^e+ ag El++ql^l= 9l Hl
    $xle.l
    ^EEE
    $e"eElEl ¤cgE|. r.ill sroql^1g olg tsl]gg
    ¤+ Bg qI-&"J71? 4Er| Ae ++ql^l= 9l EI¤¤ gg
    lxll Nacl9 olg Ellgr+ +^16I+.
    Hl+.J7t?
    7.e4 (a) eulg E*.=
    ^l-8.6}q
    t^ Szlz} F 4el d4¤ gg
    : il
    F] ql .JqLl= Etl-g ¤E6l-^le. (b) o3-z} +xll6f^l ?*: ol
    f*F9q_lzf?
    I
    lz.ts14zy ullzlE ol3-o6lq 4-S ¤ttg ¤B6I^le.
    (a) .J9 ri| olgo| ollul^l= +q li} olg+ qqzl!.4 a4.
    (b) dAg 421 {5}s.3 +4e} 4}4el d^f a!}E-H-tr} *
    (a) fla tr-4ql^J sro(s)z| Bcq= +B "*= Hls"^lg 4 4(q zlegE {0.
    ^19. (c) {}^9 zrf olgsl qlqzl= 97efl9 rit olgE} qlLl
    6) rB 7.89 ole- tlxlEg ol+61q, rH + a+8419 xlBr|
    g.!elel aol= ql+6}^l-e(e,t1a1E aJ Szl-9 ?C
    a3 =r].
    (d) rrJTIq=E 3it olgF+ 9lulzl+ 3eE + ?9 :21 o13
    ql^l g E^lqql flE gzl9 +cvl^14 47)).
    + qqzltr+
    =.+.
    (c) SrO9 "Jeb s.to g/cm3ol4. o)ql^l +qd B4^1,
    z.e6 q^q-+ Ag Elq t}ql {z} uflxl$ 7f^l= ol¤¤ F Zl 4^l
    {zlr.'l -H-91 t+HllE E zll9 sro9 *4al +9lE s
    6J6Ir ?l:7I? 9.
    (a)[Ar] (b) [tu]3d5 (c) [Kr]ss2+dro
    7.et Ele. r4irql^l trq +=ol. +49 ol++.tlHz]9 EEI
    7.e7 trl-g AEq oilB6l+ EI4 Hls" 49'ir =,r19.
    E ¤H6I^le_.
    (a) &49 lii olgr+ qlq^l
    50,000 (b) &^9 2il olgE+ qlLJ^l
    (c),tI^9 dzl tlPls.
    EJ
    40,000 (t) o(s) + e- -+ o-(s) (il) oG) .+ o*(s) + e-
    ol ^
    (rrr) o(s) + 2 e- o2-(g) (rv) O(S) o2*(g) + 2 e-
    ot ! 30,000 (v) -
    o*(s) .-..-- o2*(8) + e- -
    9.:
    9f- 7.e8 El¤-sb l1+r+ 12+ ++ql ql.J {zf flE}E$ k}/mol
    o1t J 20,000 E Llqu aol+.
    Ll

    ^l 1.0,000 Cu Zn
    - 119 >0
    Ag Cd
    1 23456 -t26 >0
    0lt+ +
    Au Hg
    7.e2 14+ g^'= r3+ol+ ls+ g^ql El6ll ¤d gE d^l -223 >0
    =
    a+EE 7I114(rH 7.12). t++ + ol ^l,gg 7I1} + ¤H (a\ tzl gdE d^I A9+E7I0E+ ol]9+ +l9l7l?
    =
    gie.l Axl rlslETI oI4E ol¤:6}+E trl g
    (b) 11+ (v) gzt HI^IEol 4EB4 +tr|.
    =
    ei ag zfxlS o1.,9 F9"JzI? ('fle: +zlg*q^] +=
    ^11f,9

    =
    7.104 (a) 9rJ4 ++ + 6J ++ol &ael Hlssfq g4 n4l E
    4 Saq d^I {+EE +ql q= a6}c9 4^t6}+.) eg Bt++. ol aTql Eeg Eq +olB. +"lql^l r+t}
    7.ee +4i qtr Eq^lb gaE =.+n+ Eli+ ceg, "l¤ EI +i(Hror)7|aeflL+. ol +EE g* dBg 6l-E ¤
    Eql^lE El++r+ Hli+ Cag TIxl= g^ol+. olEl6J .H.4 E+3 .H.q ol$ uf$e-a. il¤.ql g,J
    ce 6 oJ+:. dz} Hllilql el6ll, .Ji= olgsrl =+. ^I8:6J
    "llulzlq E ++ol +toJ^l #6l.^le-. (b) ^Jd¤ 94 Eer+ E
    dx} rlslsg *ee gga3+ 9l+. 4E +B EIEI HI+4g *.rle.
    (a) f4.9 {z} 4lr}sz} E}stlBEt grJq ++ri q El 7.ros znz*y ^JEql +g+ ++ olgol+. Zn *l ^J^ll 4 Hi+
    i"J olf¤ ¤B6f^l_e_. q +q6l+ qBl +qeq A.J¤ BqlE tsdgzl"J. tsrJ
    (b) E+g 6IAIE SHI4"J p+4zl *BsE= Azl6ITl qB+.
    ^]¤'g ^I,goJ7I? "I4
    "+^b +'J+o Bc6l-b EE g^ 6ql^J a6J gzl 4 cd2*zl ${ rl zJzla}71 d7l qiEql. zrr'*E s6}6l-=
    HlalEol TIAI z+4." +Eeg fl+6171 g.lall.! Zn2+E cd2*-+ ^l+d+ a+71-
    +E olqEH, ^l+¤ +A6l^l-q. "J"+ *btrIB, dzl zl-+ 9l+.
    tsl]zlel +dq^J ¤B6I^le. (a) ol [to]l,rl ullg g4 "i ol9E9 c¤4 fzl&erJ9
    (c) fA9 ol$s| oilL{zlz}-
    "JA4 ++BE}.Je.419 o1c- olSE glxlE n7j6lq, zn2+ 7l+i]le^]g cd2+
    E]
    "ilHzl <}!l Hlid olr9¤ ¤B6I^le.
    E+Beg 7l¤6}^le.
    ^l-g-

    (d) +is+ olee H-ol+. +AcI ol$$ tzf olg+ qlLl (b) ++ H!+el +EE +7!^lvlY BEe¤. n++r 6J
    zlq 4%I6l-b 49 ^^r.ls-. q. "*e E^Ee q "J*g ql^L 4+q + ge
    ^J4l
    (e) (d)91.! B"J He] dzl a+EE +4q1= Bl oJ E4ol+. s.Aql^J Zr,r* 4d cd2*=
    ^.lg ^lr+ ^h+g' a+
    J.6I^19. ,.JzlE E4d + 6I+=, cd2* il+gl7} E^E gcg
    [z.roo] 4}} $z[s-l rif olg+ qlq4= E]-g H]¤.ql^-l ge6J ql zla\zl/ul ulgc oe "JEEI= aol+. cd2* olel
    Hzlol4. ql zn2*E ql,ll6J + 9lE +E ++ olg¤. xll.<lalr,
    oz(8)..-o2+(g) +e- ol fi E zltro|.rle.
    ^ll ^l6J
    ol H}*ql^l Be-qL qlulzlS 1175 kf/mololq, ol aLg xe g^ql 48l] 7l+qq fl= re^]l7l dE L
    [z.roe] qr1z1z[,rl]tr"$

    9 ri1 o1gol9lulxlq oll+ Hli6f+. o27I F2e+ Hl+6J c(rszzE)E BA4fl+. ¤zl9l dB ].E 7l+9 g+7f
    aol4 q^J6l+7I? "JE rB+E ol H]+E ^JdE(+e 9l+.

    ^JCEE=)g
    ql+6f^l_e_. "¤cE eE4, ++!H H.J. Btr+ ++. 5ql S6&9
    [z.ror] ol 4q^l ti:"J r]]tr ++Cg Cgg + gleq, g^E Szl t**. +71 6ql^l 'JCt+. +=d3 rs:'c. "Js= z.t
    glcm3. 4zl dEE= =14 4zl dtr.;E 20vo. TtE}- 4
    H}-&drl. grlul dz]l dzl¤ s"]ul4E 3EE zlz,E l ,JEE E lzo. ol Ed +.20 s* +=*el &l!
    +Cg 4elE +E 914. st gul-4
    dzlE dEdl-= t 7l-

    zlel lE.oll zla6lq ++Cg ACg +E ?14. dzl d 800"C olt


    galE s.os cel ¤4 nxllT} E^dgtri. nillE=zH6Iql^J
    ql^l +slEtrl.."
    EEql 7la4q, +TlgEqlb E+e A6J^Jol 9J:

    gg d7l dEETI7l* ++olq, "J7lq=E =xll6}^l


    d (a) ol r{le} olc}4 cnc ¤gq CtrE +}+6}i1, ¤xl] .J
    =4.
    71 4+tr71?l* 4c+. gr+
    = lz} olgEl qlq^l qa1 z|-e549 eal-= aEJ6Iq, ol fliz| +E.Jzl
    "J7tq=e_l
    golLll^ls.
    ¤qEzL "l 4ql^l ul]+ qlE4E. ol F 94 + q¤
    = (b)4}}el9 EI*g +B p+q} +*^lg A^ls.
    S+.2111 ++rdol
    7.102 .l-4el +ElE +q^l =7I?
    KG)r+ H,(s)9 Els"-e-e+q qltr-q
    (c):B 7.rE+q S+61fl9 q1, ol rs.rllzl g+gq
    ^IlE
    ;r=r19. e g^E Bae a H4lelzt?
    = ^Jd+g
    (i) KHG), (ii) K2H(s), (iii) KH2(s), (iv) K2H2(s), (v) KG) 7.t07 20l0LJ 49, .J ¤+dql 9a11,,..1 rrz{ gi7| lJrrqgq.
    4 Hzk)E HI+6Izl ?*E+. ol tsag 20r2Hql iz}4t dess ?6P9ItrI. ol g^
    trl El-s + ol ol+ E Blq *4 dzf ullilg;r7, 1z| olgsi qlqzl, dz} a
    ^ll+g ^E:tr+ 4B6l ¤.4 Hl+6JEl.
    7.r03
    g
    E 7l* ¤E"J ae? +E, gz} azl, .JHI4.J 4}cl-tlqlE +zlgEt}g 9.lil
    ciol E+El ql+6}^le.
    ^]l+E+ 3 *4C9
    (i) cJ z|+14.
    (ii)
    ^Jl+g
    til- olgpl qqzlTl dEtrr+ 4IE+. 7.108 HIE^ll7I Hl++Btrl= Er+4 "tr, ++Er+E 'l s44
    (iii) 4.Eq {z} {r}rzf
    ^ll+BE}
    zI+. o-e,
    dTlE dB6lE Eeol+E 4¤ rz1q1.q
    u119-41

    (iv) +E qr96I7I AEB+ zl+. B aolq. *cs| zluffig HlEi]lE^J. 7l+4 oe f+:
    ^llf9
    324 78 u^sl+714 dtr

    t ?zl&s,.Jq flE szl + 419 g^ol+. stsB e+ +7lgs^JE +lilb qB +4q il=7P
    q atlq dzl sleb +rE 7l=E 6Ii1 9l+. HIE^ll E[ (b) HIE^ll .tlB9 *4lzl-==3 trEI +zl= 'II-VI'
    ^l^&6}q
    aJ-g-e.al d7l ,l}gqlE ql= Eq Hli+ rJEi r+'III-V'Eeol4i1 +=trI. il-vl+ III-V7I q¤
    ^F&gEI.
    (caAs). "JsI aE(cap), +sl 7}E+(cds), Eqlt.E+ 7IE Eq] BJE^lloJzl ++6il -H.^ls.
    E(cdse)Eol 9l+. (c) +7lgs*q g^EE +laq 4d9
    (a) uJEill sl*Eq ol$ flA$ =4atq, ^l]sg
    4drl, Siel Geoll q1u1f, HIEAI Elql+g ull rl a|.rl e.

    EEF "d+ +41


    [z.ros] Moseleyb fl44 el6ll %]=q= xd S+E+EI g^] Ha (a) ol qE *zI qlLJzl.= guf"Jz}? 0 ++1tr)
    zlHg cB6l-flq. qH g^ql 9ql HJ=q: xdg 'lz} (b) ug9 lil olgcl olluJxlE +4.llb 49 r^r.ls-.
    g +g-4 aq. (c) *¤9b dz}g ¤E qlq^l7I t.72xto-t8Itr +aq

    fl^ EEI(A) fl4. sg9 li} olgcl qlq^lb g"I.JzL? (kllmol t


    -al
    Ne 14.610 =.\
    I lL'l'

    (d) rB 7.109 qtr 6Jedl gdq ri| o1gsl


    Ca 3.358 ^l-S6Iq.
    qLlzlTt +gq 1^l-olg+ qlLl^le+ z|1t ulf$zl p
    Zn 1.435
    46.|^le.
    Zr 0.786
    Sn 0.491
    7rn +ee o, +r, +29 4IsI tlEll-e + 9l+. +a p+
    =xllB
    EI S+q +s+ +d^L + 6l+= zI¤ ^J4ql^'lel +e
    (a) 4 fl^91 el6ll %L=q= x.Se.l {Fi(u)= Al+6t^le-
    E 4I+ tqE 4+6}rll aol+. tgol +E tL
    (Hz Egl.P). =A6t=
    4ql^Je+E 4eal, sEql^l= +gqrl+ 4lp+E+=
    "J"*g se:z+g ^l-8-4q. gae] 4154E zll#-+
    (b) ^I
    dol +lel +dg qBrI 'J=+. xd +d^I $:]$(x-ray
    gz} EsE F +9-e 6Iq r4s.= r4^le.
    7.trt *4)
    photoelectron spectroscopy, XPS)¤ PES($xll
    (c) Moseleyzf Baq4 ?*3 9lE +4E qg4 q+B e+ El++ 7l6oltrt. :.elu[ $z[z[ dzl¤ *¤a]71 +ldl
    + 9}fl=zl (b)el r4 rtrE 6ll ¤B6I^ls-.
    Eo
    qg qlt ed+
    dzl-= B-e^l7lzl ?ldl
    (d) (b)el e$$ ol+6}q, eq e.l6ll ,J=!= xdq ElzJ ^lqd ^F&6lE
    xCol eC+ d^Iel qlq4= g^q &+ tlEll
    g ql+6}^le_. ^l^.*Er+.
    ql qq 4E alg ,Itl+. qH ¤eq^1, fl*ztzi g+
    "J
    (e) oltr fl^zl o.sso Ael xdg Bl=6J+. ol g^E +l gel +ge-gg3^l-61fl+. fEg Dfi.6eYA ollulzl=
    ol4il
    ^8461+7I? 4l+6lb xdg +e9 4/9-EIEE+EI BI¤q=
    ^l-&+q,
    lz.ttol(a) Liel {z} u}lil$ Aa, 91}7} dz}7} gzli *a 4d dzlql ollBal-b xps 4ls(t0s ev)E +461fl+. "JE E
    5l¤ +C6l^ls. (b) .Jd^t flzlt-| ol$oll,t.l dz} 9lHzl Eel ,tIdE 4}}9 rs edlBql dl'Ja}=s:r evel {z} ql
    E (-z.rsx ,o "ll(ff)"tEl. q7l^l z-' qdqol.r, ,,g LlzlTI +4qfl4. I ar+e+4, S+zli Hs= +2, o

    d^lE +"Jzl+olr|. Li9 li} olgp+ qlLl^l= ql+6}^l -29 &+tl4E TlALla AE¤' 4HEl.
    =
    (a) ol dEql^l xdq +a-g 4l4l6f^le.
    s. (c) 4l& Arl¤ .s. 7.49 H ]lg &r+ El.il6}r., -r. ilol ^l-8-t
    (b) ol5 zlee.Pq9 f39 al dzte+ tI49 rs d^I9
    E ¤E6I^le. (d) .J"*g ol$c+ ql"lzl 7}g xll="$ + 9{
    ^Iee+ElE +s-r+ t}}$
    ql'lzlel. 7+E ri| o1g
    E +a 4d+ l}e g"I"Jzt? ol iie (c)91^J ¤B.+ 14 E] 9lHzlE HII6I^le.
    oJzl6l+zp
    (c) Hg'*, o'?-E Hlq
    ^J4 dz}
    uflile;u19.449 4
    [z.ttt1o1gq- 9lu]zlE +A6l+ 6'J 7[^l *He %]d affi z] * flzlzt dzl+ dzl-=.Jzl?
    oitr
    a-e, 6l+ zl-9d *dzl tsrJB(ultraviolet photoelectron
    re lz.rrrlul:2u16, ++ol +71 +ql^l ¤46J oil(rH 3.6) + 7l^l
    spectroscopy, UPS E= PES)ol4 (0.2¤). PESqI^1,
    6ILI= ++ ufzrJlf,(Mso)oln, E+E
    dz} *eg olzlalzl +16ll. B^q*o1 rle.9l 3 I¤+. B ^JdEol ^JCg+.
    6lLlE Mca+ e4 Ezte+g HI+ trir.ql
    eq* dzlel gF qlqzlTl +CElflr+. *zl9 9lHxlq ^dCE.J ade+
    6o14. e^+ Elrql+ql +9 dzlalH, ElrLJl+4
    d^Ig +,E! 9lHzl zJ ilolT} d^l-= xllTl6}= Ell gs+ oI ^l+
    qlq^lql 4B+E+(olg+ qlq^lq ql*). pES dBg trI+ "J.erl zl 4l zt,'J C ¤4.
    4dql^l +{6}fl+lt a}z}. ;g +7lE ++ol 58.4 nm
    (a) dAE| olggl d6}ql
    =Z6Iq(E
    2.5), ei+ ElfLll
    +el ++^lg ql+6}^le_.
    "J
    zl9d Hr+ !I4l 4^l6}Htrl.
    a* =xll 325
    =r,
    G) aApI ElfLll+r+ ErlE HI+E +B HI+4g r ^l E +B "*= p+q Hla^lg 4,119. (c) 4lo] u1r-g.e
    e. ol EI+ql rI+ +dqe +E"J7I? (IID= &d *"191 Hrl"J, Nacl(aq)4 +g grld +
    (c) ol deql^-]ts u}.zHl¤' EE 6J a49 s.zlr-l 4ql a!q= +4q4 sE+. .l3l+ c4ql 7la6|q, Hlr-
    4 *z\ +zll6pl^l ¤^^lflq. Si + Mgo$ d^ +=7| ++, Hl++ g^ + qqql 4gzl 9l
    q EfrLll+ gqlEE ¤=J3 o.+zo golr|. $$ rzlul =++,
    3a|.rle. (d) Hl/.+E= ¤.+efl 7l4le+ HI+^l7lH
    .ll ?zlalB ++ Hl+ol 'Jqf+. El]iIE ol!-o 6}q, BiFse+ e
    =16 {dE"J
    Mgo BiFsE
    ^Jd+trf. Biel {z}
    0.486 gol Eqe q4^l ETIq= ,J4i;l7l +l6lq 7I g 4dE +*E ¤Cg ¤B6I^ls-. (e) BiFs9 Bd*
    gd}9+. xlg g^ + EqTI s6JEql^l e4+ Efr 7l+6I^lEJ, +E EIE{]E$$ ul:.+eE s'Jed+

    '-ll+el e* EEge ¤"l.JzI? E(pentahalide, Bdg S4ulzl *9I4. ol+E ¤B


    (d) 3ip+ uf:ullf,$ E+ +g gEql^l #+r+ "JEr.loI 6f^le. xllE(xenon)3 5+efl4= q}+4q si+E-q
    E HI+q E6Iq ^JCB + 9lEt. ol Hl+ql ql6J +B BC6Izl"J, 4E gtr4lE$.3:z$xl ?+g ^l¤4, el
    Hl+4g .,.<r19. 6.3 cel Mc 4++ 2.s7 gg NH:(s) el ul:.aeq qF.J^lg +E^ls^le_.
    sI9 HI*ol $d6l dqq*El$, 6J4l HI¤¤g q! 7.115 ar+^Isl liEl-A(potassium superoxide, KOrg COe+ El*
    4"J71? oltrI ^JCg Hr9 d=Jg g"i.Jzi? 619 OzE ql$ql, tI^ El-^r(4%I+Eol .r.l-$o[
    ^JC6l7l
    (e) -r.ill {tr} uf:ull+E Ee
    ^JC elgrl= -461.08 ++ ^l-*¤E|. d{l Ar+, 2 mol9 Koz(s)b I mol9
    ktlmolol4. ulrullf, ++4.JEqol 7lll9 Hl+ql =)E
    Cor(g)e+ Hls"6J+.
    qloJ E=
    ^JC elBq EEIE 4l&61-^ls. (a) ol HI+q ol
    ^Jd5g Kzcos(s)e+ ozk)ol4. Hl+g
    7.114 (a) E4ol eEJl+ Hlr'+E(bismuth tribromide, BiBrJoll
    H +B EI*^lg.r'-,<19.
    +Cg si-Br E* TJolY 2.63 Aol4. ol A4 :7 (b) (a)9l.tJ HISql +q6I= EE g^tE to14g ,^^le.
    ^l
    H z.sq ^Ie.= g+6}q, Bi9 gxl-*^lE¤ ql+61 "lE S^zf 4}p+qfli1, olE fltz}i]99fliz}?
    ,t19. (b) E+ollreEJal Hlr..+E!- &d +qql += (c) 18.0 sE Cor(s)E }.HldlqE P rHq Ko2(s)71 g-s-
    +. ol Eeg:ilill l}]I+ Hl^+E(rrr)E ee"Jq4o* o'Jz|! ol Hlgo_qE+q
    ^Jdsl= or(g)9 ¤*3
    guloJ
    (hydrobormic acid) f*o-!oll ,I6lH EqAr+. ol q1+ 7l?

    I6J ¤41 +4!


    olttq^lb sEr+ ;!++ 4H=el HI¤.ol +r.l7l e6l 7lql6}^l "lcor(s)e| Hls"dlq, or(s)$ trIE slqlEg "JE + 914
    sb ^gcEe a4&cl e4*.(rozG))g ".!Eq u4= ag E (E.F + +471^l+4 trole HI+dE a".t-g tr14^l). ol
    9l+. olq,6J g6}z1 9+g ^Jdgg ".I5zl +lq} H zlzl ¤qlg Bl+ HI+E E trI= dCEg ql+6}i1 ¤^]lE Ko,(s)7}
    jr.oJ6}q jd_4. Hzo(d 4 co,@str HI¤¤ 6t=zl +'JaJ + 9i= ¤E¤¤
    (a) {489 Bg oJBol Koze} ?3 ar+{}a}Eg EJEoI noJ6I^19.
    4zl gtl bqol " a H4 olgslqlHzlzl *olot d-b ar+ (.) +iql^J u1l.tl$ (b)$ t}¤¤ol d4tr &^ E[^=.
    ^%[+=q
    +Hol gl4.r14l.Jg.J+. qqE+ olEl+ 7I¤g r+ ++ E zl+ql trl +s-oJ qBg +BB + 9lbzlE aAd+ d
    q qlofl^l 4z"617l +l6iq qq6J deg 6la=71? "J7J4 Eg noJ6I^19.
    =.+el 4= olrlof,izl{ ¤eol a+t+ "lgg "JE7l 9l (d) KG)e+ozk)9 *¤¤ ror(s)el Kzo(s)9 gEl+g ^Jd6J
    6Iq dgqb zlfroltljl- EoJ
    ^J4ol
    qEzl? 4. ol ¤+' +4lql^l El.J¤ ololqqE ol+6lq KG)e+ +
    (b) Koz(s)E &^k)g "JE"l 4zl qlEql d%L+Eol ,tl-$6]i *9 orgzl +¤¤ 6199 trI ^JCq= Koz(s)et Kzo(s)9
    qul .*a u[:-=$ .gdg z]xlb Eae g ul{le= ACd+ dEg roJ6}^ls.
    ^]+Elq S'].
    44ee= Koz(s)i 'JrJ ggE + 7l^l +tE'J Hzo(g)
    I
    I

    I
    \
    \

    iI I
    '/
    Ir

    tl i1

    I
    -"*--
    /

    ry i
    8.1 > Lewis TlEet 'JErt+=i atEl A*
    e.l zl^l +¤. + olg At}. *+ A
    ^ll
    EI, ++ Ailql ql4 HI]+EI. a'*g ¤
    B6I= ql 9lol.rl Lewis zlni ilzlz|
    d^l-= +46t= ql +s"6J *HE xll*

    6t=t z6lo
    EE-
    6JtrI. flxfEol 6J,.J gdzt +49 trI

    =+=
    ag tsHg+.
    -1 -1 8.2 > 018 flzlEol Hl4 d6l-= r*=
    7)= 7]lH olg59 =-cr'
    44214 oJ{oll elol,q 443
    qq 9lE olgd EAg gElE+. ol
    ed EeE ^dd4+a¤ qlLlzlq ql
    ol5 EeE 4zI
    "J e4 "i "ilq4 E
    o_IoL-H-El-

    8.3 > a+ E^Id g4ql^l a6JggEl


    F THgl flIlLh ^lE
    0l3or EEdt Eq ?,tE trl, ot=
    ^totol
    EtEr E gE|.=g
    g^l-=g'J zll oltr9 dzlttg
    Elol=^H--Jqr. -drl. trl+ 018 af, Eat, ++6Ia 9i+. "JHI4e_e., gz}ts s
    0l ?ltl. 0l 7l^l
    =-d,
    =--Joll= gfolETl =+ =-Etel^11+E E gzlTl87llE dzl-=- r*E+ AzL=
    AA6l Pl6[q, aEJl?.]al^ +^l=
    ^ll =-Er.+E= rtg ^l.E ++.J+.
    6iq aql 4gE 8r+tl H^f(rH 8.1).
    =01 = == 8.4 > "J I7l g¤E d7l *tE
    i qL=¤
    =-Er
    {z}5
    ^l-d {eE.
    otqlEql^l
    d-olBzl= gzlE t.q"Jg ule+. "J
    4ge 4¤'olg(Na*)4 gE+ ol$(ct )sE +^Jg gal iEol+. Hl4e.a {zl ${ezi +c g^l¤ ^l-
    4g3 HiEil d6l¤ E olSE ^Iolql ++6I= "Jqq e_l6t"l #zl9 olql 9l= dzlar-g E=.6Izl ++Elzl
    olE zJE(ionicbond)S ,*:+. ES uro +zlE +^Jqq 9l+. ?*o Ir-+, +C ++ aE}g olEtrl.
    =
    +4e+ {}a gzl+ gzl dzl-E =L"gaJ9-E*l dglol ol+q 8.5 > Lewis +6 f.al7l E^IE ++ A
    zl= frffi El$(covalentbond)oll E6H
    ^|olql 6J ¤4E ql+6}= EJI 9lq Lewis f
    ^Js A6J!q 914. fxJE B 37I rJ+6IE^lE'll+ rlq.J %lH"J
    ol +CBolq, e gzLE=g E* ?lE(metailicbond)S ;p. llirjl, g uH+q. gdz} #zl9l +7}q-q, q
    ++ a!+ql^lb dzl¤ol Hlj/4 zl.+Eol +zloJ+. Nacl, Hzo, Fe BZI B^l d6l-= ol+6lq 7I* ?s+
    Lewis 7.3E oJotq=^l "JolE4.
    ++7]e, += +BE Eeol qE ^Jeg +4q= ae +c gzl
    8.6 > 88 +a q¤ BzI+ 4fl4. ol9¤
    5E ¤¤ %l^]ol ^lE +E7l ullEol4. ql= EH Naclg Eql drll * zll oltr9 55aJ Lewis +a=:19
    *zl"J, Fe fr{$ Eil 5zl *E+. + 9l+= ag HI++. ole+ ag a+
    qE E4ol qH A6J +¤g z*EzlE Add+ oJzl+ F9."Jzl? F zl] ol*9 +B +48 g6J"J ILI^I
    se- aqlg -s.^lslE|.
    rqa olE a6JE 5^dol qB4l 6H^J ^ls r+= Er.l4, p+q}4 d
    8.7 > =JtIt +:.lel qlq gA^I +zlol+ e
    {$ Holiz}? a Ball eEq +'J E}Hg 6*r+ Ttiql^l ¤H.J g ql4 +zlol4zltr{= elelT} "*e +
    ztel d4 +aq^l *g + il4. ol ttl+ tr|-g +ql^l= 5C flzt9 zl=ol4b ag ql^l++. ol +eq
    $zl ]421, ol flxlz| BC6l+ ole Aql !1= ++ A6J4 qH + qeltr: g+r|el {z}$ z}41 $u},
    4l7l- 9l=zlE ¤EJEtrl. ++ AEle zll2+q^l z}^116l ffi {ol
    {zl $rJs.z} Ll+ 4^l 87llel dzl-=
    i[+^l *61-= E^1. 3+zl ot4ql +lzl
    +. 6Iq s4-B-4 "*3 dzl-= 7IA giE
    s6J4: tsxl¤ol gl4.
    8.8 > E+ e-Er.el^.il71q eol a6JE
    ^]lzle+
    ,Jol= ++ dzltl9 +S"J otq4 E+
    setsq Edt aag+E d9 90I
    =
    E+.
    < 7.lrli r
    BE AIErEol +l= eol q.H + 9l= dE-e 0l gypsum 2j
    !$ CaSor'2H2Otr 0l+ol^l ?ltl. flrl+=0tl}.1 = g*J 0l8ZJ
    0l83l 'Jt
    stot8d eErS+alTiEEESq?l e¤g sesg olFllaql
    C) Simia Attentive/Shutterstock

    327
    ti, 8.1 | Lewis TlEgl "Jtal +zl
    g4 7t+71 dB(crzHzzoll)olalE, raJ 3r+E aaJql+q6E AzI= gzt4 {z}(valence electron)4-ll..Jt}. til++ g
    E olgll Hl+olo[ 6tts7t? zlel glzlz| dxl+ 1j.471ill+lA ale.l4 Aeql
    =q
    il+..- (o.s¤).
    "l+E
    sl4z} G. N. Lewis1azs-Dqe)= gzITI dl¤ E^le-es,t^l Ae. ^8d 4Cql
    E+C rJ dzl# t+61 +461+ ,JHg xll,r.la|flr|. olE Lewis dxld 7lE(Lewis
    g^lEol qI=
    lrtr ?l: =a1
    'E^te.l electron dot symbol), E= ++6IZl Lewis zlc.4l'*4.
    +q
    Httrf oil e]6[^J
    olrL
    "]tr fllel Lewis 7lE(Lewis symbol)= r gAq E]4 zlsel Szlzi dzl-E
    E^]6IE dg-E +^dgtrt. qE Eq s*3 [Ne]:s2zpn4 4zl tsHzl= z[zlq, o1

    49} zJol 67H9 gxlzt dzle E^lg+.


    *-+
    + t+- .H.
    -+
    *: -+
    *: dzldS fll: zlEel {}6I3++E ql xql -s.^l+EI. 4 +lilEtr| dzlE + 44
    lec
    t3=01 ++ + 9lq. ql 9lil= E+ EE"6Iq, "JgE q¤ +lzlql A zfl e* + ,ilE
    8t714 oJalql
    96tl^1+q ?lEt.
    d4¤ 9121.,'.123 + 9l+. d4+ 7l+,* El Hrll 94 -a84. sE dzl HI]ZIE ql
    E EE, rHql 9lE sq dzl Hl],,lT[, dz]6tg *qlE] Fa 4"lzl .J *g
    ^ll
    tsl+l Y ullzlH-r| H}B46I+.

    7 \
    )
    +7lgEE
    =
    flaq Qlfl
    2+7le+ 3+71E
    -
    8.2q1 +4LllgE|. ++gig 2)zlzl dztfbrg^E
    Lewis TlEe+ dx| El]zl¤i faJ
    49 Ezl4 Bg.ela
    ./ +. qlE E9 r0+ gi.J &ie+ %I9 rewis zlEt. EF 0zH9 d o e s^loJ+.

    0laHoll ?l= Cloll tH-d Lewis 7lE7[ q+ *?71?


    :Cj. :Ci: :Ct.

    zo l
    flxl-=ol+rl4 'Jtzl +zl
    =--Joil^l
    8+6lq +q flq. flzl^b dzl¤ erl+ ga'l ++6Je__E,r!, ?zl¤erJql^J zlt4 zl* zl4 r
    arB 8.1 o|E e:'J =-+ e-d, 3-ct
    zl +lxl6J ul$.! zl;lls] ag drl+E r*=+. ul$,! zlzll|ql* .Jc¤ dz}
    r-Joil ?1= 7l^l rI"E E:3 =+ += 6] tsHilE 7l^)il fl=ql,
    olag olge+ qLlzl, *e dzl. a3r+E, *g slql HI
    ^11 ^]e
    -+'J:doll 96lI Eq 9lt[ oTobik/shutterst0ck *csE+El g + 9l+ ==, (7.8¤). = HeE zll9pl sE Hlgc 7l^ll= 87llE fl
    zlzl flzl$ 7l^l:r- 9l: ailfl, s++ EI*q +q6l+'il+Eq gzl.= s7H9 g
    zlzl 1.zlg tl! fillzl +9" ql+. ole+ Ag +?+ql zlaai{, gxl+ szlsl flz}z} dx}E
    zlS flitlzl d4-= E4+, g4+, ++++= g1gx1ffi(octet rule)ole|5 6i+9 zleol
    "JEqAq.
    gdzl-b flzl9 s Pd44 p +44g=- E+ iH++. gdzlg Lewis TlEi .*. s.z9 Ne
    4 Ar9 Lewis 7lo.z.lfl, g4 7lE ++lql flzlzt AxF= ql ,l]E %Lss ++U+. gdzl
    +4e 9lgzl H= ae ot,-.lzl"J, slq a.Jql 4+ q+l TIzl +-e6J Tl]H9 ¤H6l* ql
    a-1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
    Be B C N o F Ne
    d^t H|l^l -Li
    -[He]2s1 IHe]2s2
    Lewls / le ,Be. .8. .c. :9:
    -Li.Na Mg AI Si P S CI Ar
    INe]3s1 INe]3s2
    Na. .Mg. .at. .si. .P: :S: CI: :Ar:

    AfH 8.2 Lewis 7lE


    328
    8.2 I ol8 329
    =-ct
    Eg 4l+6J+. gdzl +4e q++ s +aa4p +4ds ,*= gzlq 48.*4.
    f-e" qL a
    +Aeql flzlzl .j.7l7l9l: dol ++=e z:ltglrJ ¤rlB 4o14.

    8.2 I ol+'JEJ
    olgc Edg "JHI49E +7lgEE g+q +lzl6J ++4 sE+ql 9lil+(18+s] tslg
    C zlxllE zllgt) El++ +el H}*ql^l ^Jd¤+. qE -.4 t5(NaG))4 ¤a zlril
    =q{C8"1 gi}af,Nacl(r)o14.
    (ch@)71d+6|H 4a-1 Ele"oJr(=eJ8.3). o1 gg Hls"e.l

    Lctr(il ------ NaCl(s) LHi : -410.9 kJ


    Na(s)+ t8.11

    gs} iEe d:zlg4_q_E EHgqq llb tva* olg4 61 ol$e-e +cqq ql4(:a a.a).
    Na-tr$Q Na"7[ ^JCE]I. Cl2-tr+El cl 7t ^JCq= Ag, iE
    g^l+ dz] aJ 4= g
    7ll q:a gi
    gzl+ dzt aJ rHE g7ll q:
    aolq. + + rliel 4zlzl Na flxl-E+q cl g
    xle oleog4r ts + ?14. zllz^J"il.<J flet
    flzt9 CA + F zlz)Z ¤EtrE, 9rI4
    +o16}4l dx} olf(electron transfer)ol o19q4 4.JzlE ++g + fl+. gzle+El
    dz} oJ 7l]E ,q4d+ 4ol 9,I4 *oltzl-= +4.11= olgs+ "llHzlq, fl^l7l dxt = *
    zliE 9"t4 dzll tsol¤ol=zl¤ +4q= dz| aslETI BIE raol4 (7.4c. z.s4).
    eI fl4+ dxl-= dzl s7l6lr.(z}3 .lgp] qlHzl), += 94+ dzl¤ dz]l Eol¤.J
    - f
    glg r|](+e d4 {s}s), {z} olf,'ol ¤rll gqL}^J d6}7} H}qlql F olgg g
    ^JC6trll
    +. trl+^l Nacl* olgp+ qlLlzlTi 4e ++4 dzl aEtE7r El++eE ol+q4 il
    =
    7l q+ql dB4.J olg a6J slElEol4. rewis dxld zlEE,r.l*gap., cl2 gz[ 4t] cr
    g^Is +49 rll, ol *¤¤ ot4e} ?ol 448 + 9l+.
    Na.a1r^.Qi: --------) Na+ + t:gj:l- l8.z)

    sl¤s= Na flzlE+q cl g^IE9 dx} ol#


    +4U+. + olge E+ gdzl-= ,*=
    +. Na*g gdztE 2?zp6o1q, ol=g Na flzlel 6.J Tllel :s flzlzl 4,llzl s= a4 a+.
    cr olg ++lq azfl$ z$zle i}]+la+= 42 +z6171 9l6L ¤sI ols9l 49c(t )=
    E.^lo[H+.

    E.Ela e+4 tletrJ ga ?^l-d u3¤ ql8g + o^)?)l?


    ^lol0flE

    \ cNa(s)

    /d"\ a
    ep
    ch(s)
    "+ NaCl(s) Ed

    Na(s)0lAl Ct2@)e AE ol3(Na+)4 gEl ol8(Cl )o+


    d^t7t 01o6tq ?dE OlE ,J:cr ElErEoJ EEI
    Na+ei Cl-= 8¤ 8d6f= oll+ EP'JE HJA ^EE

    afg 8.3 0l8 e:cr'ElB=?.! ggl A# 8d61.= AE E4 Tlill ,Jsl HJB


    =+?-l
    330 8Ar al-.,t 7lE THLI
    =Etol

    olgc Eag H zlzl 5cg zlzl:r- il4. olES .JHlzlee +=dol +r. +
    ,rlzlzl fl$ Eeolq, ol8 44e aaBg EI4^l drll
    ,Jg 0ltel a+= 'll++ ¤¤d E¤o14.
    ^4,388
    ETl6fxl
    v\AL+.:H s.+"llrJ tr= ailfl, olqoJ ol9# aL6E + 4gg Alzl
    gg a+, ol! +7|, Na+oJ^|, =Ce
    ^4gE gzl.J Hl]gg +zl6|E+ al-b cdzl4.J Eql zl.J*r-t.
    q! 4,3s1 ?7[ ct-Erl "J + ?ts
    gH3 qlLlal
    +10J71.? ol¤_ rJEJ St
    o = Na+
    o
    44el Na+ ol:e 449 Ct- ol83
    zl a.tq1 -Erl¤ ,fl+ +E 4^J {Eq(au;:-4t0.e kl): iEr+ g^e+El
    : cr-
    gEI d$el
    ^Jdol
    dc¤s q^l T+ &.Jg Bq
    = gg r+C"Jg Bq
    ,}|+
    = =+.
    ++ cE +E olg¤ EAq
    qH ol+s olgc Ea
    ^Jd ^l =
    gol
    67tlel Cl- 0l3o.e 67Hq Na+ol8oe g^J6l+ 4.9tt? = =+.
    ?lq. 9lr[.
    =zl4q =al,rG al s.zglrl Nacl9 olE6l+ aetr E^16[9+. z]l
    ^8cg Na-EFq cl-tr dxtT}
    z.+dgl,tl flzlzl d4¤ SE r+Ce 6Jtr ¤:g 4C"Jg tsll$,+. Na*(g)E ^JC6I
    = 7l +l6lq Nak)_e,Frl d^I6J zll$ z{zla}eJH +sa kllmolol g.s6}+. E}E9l z.s
    t
    eql^1, Hl++ flzizt dzt ,]]= Eg trll= .J!l4-e-.e tsg r+d, g^E d
    z]. 4lEls.z[ *9 ,Jg Tizl= 19 uHfl.4. ql$ clk)ql dzt oJ=/l$ fiz]a[
    =q
    H r+s kllmolol %I=gtr}. ge-l + &sE+El, d zll9 Na flz}9l^l zl]9 ct g t
    \ ztEg d^I olrE-og BE 44ol olLl+. d4l 449 4e6-34e:taz kllmol9 ollH
    zl$ $e-E 6l+ ¤-g 4¤o14. ol ¤-g +ae iE olg4 EEI ol9ol ^Jtqq
    +d 44e ¤q4 fl= a.ql 6llBEI+. El+q "J6lE, ol "J9 9lHzl <13
    arc 8.4 gEl^-Ee.l,l¤ +a ^JE
    + olg ^iolql ,$s oJHol zl+6}rl s= ag TIaoJ 4.o14, olag ol$,<J r.ill
    e+=
    "l]+ 4E ttgrol4.
    olg a6J s+6JEol qldal +g olf+ Hlql d6l-= z|41 olgz.1 .Jq qlEol+. ol oJq
    I o1959.<le E9B4 qqalE HJ¤dtr, BS ol9ol rH 8.44 rJol rilltr-Hllg, +
    44 +z= B^d6t7l ulEol4. olgd r14lql^l Elql d6l-= 7I4l olgEE ufl$ollr.'l ei
    qldE9 a7)E 4x1 otlLlrl(hftice energy)4tr +El. 4z} "ilrJxl* ra{l olg aB +E¤
    rgE EE olgg ,l4l dlEilE oJ.$e-tr sd6l q gs+
    E?.161+"llHzl.l4.
    Naclg qlE EE, re 8.4E Adg rll+ S+^14, 4 ol9 ,J 4471+oJqlE slq E
    E olgol sd6l E9zlE ag tltr-6ll -tr7t. ol 4ag 788 kllmolg gaE 6E, olaol
    4z|.llHzl z,lol 94.
    NaCl(s) -+ Na*(5) + Cl-(g) L'H4zy: +788kJ/mol [8.3]
    ol4ag ql+ +g gg 4aolEl. ElqlE Na*(g)el cr@) 7l ^J-+ d=6}q Nacl(s)g.(J
    c6l-= qr+ae gg 4col ¤46ri: -788 kllmol).
    E8.1ql= {4 =z}zl olg At} e+BEq {z} ollujzl <}ol iE99 = "J9 91tr}. ile z
    81 4 ol9 rJq ,il+ rJ6J oJqol zle"*Et= ag +4u+. +ql d6]-= tr olg rJ .Jq
    qlEql HJ=6]-=
    "llulzlE
    olgEl44q g,s,* E-gH+ aq, a44se ol-e-c Ea ^J
    col tsg 4col qal *+. olBl6J rJ6J oJq ql+q olgc EeE 'il+++ qq6}j1 +
    Lq47) d_il., tg +=dg '*=El. q= Nacrg 801.cql^.] +=trI.
    =q

    A KCr(s).- K*(g)+ Cr-(s) U- +g--J q qlLlxlTl"J=ElrJl=71.?

    lxllel !z| olluJzl a7l+ olg=q d6te+ =.21, _L4l ,llE aE %I^lql q+ a
    ol$^J
    dg+. d6l-= E + "Jzi ^JE rJg 44214 ElHl¤ qluJzl(s.1e)= +¤. ^lr+ a+.
    8.2 018 331
    =Bf
    x.8.1 otg eg EloJEsl 4xl qtLl^l

    Et-*E 4^l 0llHrl(kl/mol) EI=dE 4^[ 0llHrl(kl/mol)


    LiF 1030 MgClz 2326
    LiCl 834 SrCl2 2127
    LiI 730
    NaF 910 Mgo 3795
    NaCl 788 CaO 34t4
    NaBr 732 SrO 3217
    NaI 682
    KF 808 ScN 7547
    KCI 701
    KBr 67t
    CsCl 657
    Csl 600

    u",:9* t8.41

    ol ?+7+ + olgq +91 d6}olq, db F olgE +d 7J 44o)a,


    ^lq^l e,4 ezb =E
    rc= dF+E S.eex tOe I-mlc2o1r1. al s.+91 +El-U Htel- ,Jol, 4614 a7l7| ?zlBf+,
    olg +d ol8 .Jqe +7FJrl. trl+
    ^Iol9 Aqtl arg++, +qt d6l-= E F ^tolE
    olgE *+ ullgol +e 7A+, 4xt {lHzlts oJ$ {o}z} 4e++ +46}.r., ol¤ *4
    ^J
    Eol a^g+=,67t++. ol9 tlxlBg d6[q El6]l^l 6J4g H9 qlq^J Hs]6t71 trllE
    "ilHzl9 rzl HEI=
    .ll, 4zl olg Hlzl$ts_4} ol99 d6[ rTlq e.]=+tr].

    qH 8.1
    '7 4zf qlt-lrlE q7l

    E. 8.1E era.alxl "Jl. olg aldE?l NaF. csr, caoE 4^lolll_l^l7l=7l.61.= +^1e +E6t,\lg
    =--J

    nllS +Tlgsql^J ae +ql^j oI4E qeJa++ ol$s.l


    =zlE
    B^1 Tlzl olg a.J sltlEe-l pI4^lsE+El tlqlzi"J 4 +7I6IE_tr.,,., (7.38), Cs* ol9ol Na* ol¤84, I-71 F-
    ^Jl
    zI qlqrl= ?c4l.t +4. tr+ r+= Ag "J + gl+. rlel-,r-l NaFoll,rl Na+e| r- ol
    g ,J 4?-l= Csroll,rl Cs*q r- olgrJ 4eltrL} *Ll. a 4.
    fil¤l +.JEql Eq fl= olg=fl d6}+el ^JqlzJoJ
    =71= 4 Narg {z} ollQxlzl-cslg 4zi 9lHzle4 q 3+. trie+
    ?CB 9s-z} 914. (a) olgE d6l+71Z++ qqzl= +
    qlq zlTt +^l= q-s- r+ 44.
    716Ir., o) olg 7J 4471g++ qlLizl= rJi+trI= ^l +716I=
    ^I¤
    ql 7la6rq, ul e.+E ol*6l.q *ql4"J q1u1z1 ezl$ {rd CsI<NaF<CaO
    4-e.-e e4o-Jr1. AE ql++ +^l zl s=ulEzl¤ s 8. lql^l +"J6J+.
    Eol NaFE Na* olSr} p- ol$9-E, CsIE Cs+ olgr+ I- > H,* qFil 1

    ol.gg.-tr, CaoE Ca2* olg4 ez- olge-tr +Cqq 9l+. s.8.1= -H-zl EJ-L, ol¤ AE+ E.*Eg !z| ollulzl +^l=
    ql+6l.^le_.
    a6I9 +"J QrQzts rl a.+9 ts^Iql 9l_e_Es, olp.s.l {a}z}
    (a) NaCl > MgO > CsI > ScN (b) ScN > MgO > NaCl > CsI
    a7I6IH {z} olluJzli fr{al f;zirf,r}. IIi4^],2+e+ 2-9 (c) NaCl > CsI > ScN > CaO (d) MgO > NaCl > ScN > CsI
    Ad-= r*= ol$e-tr ol+qd caozl ^l plqlE 6q^'l 7I+ (e) ScN > CsI > NaCl > MgO

    44 "ilHzlE 714 1olL+. > .H.= qt{t2


    =
    NaFel CsrE ol$ {a}z} ?Jr+.4+ "l E}6JEe.l 4z} qlqzl MgF2, CaF2, ZrOz * 7l* 4zI qqzl= zl4 4." t
    zlol= 4 aA Lil olg +d A 4Elql E4 aag 4o14. qltlq= Eee qL =
    AoJTl?
    332 88 ol-sf 7lE TllLj
    =-cfq

    olg rJE 44tl +7I6tE 4zr qlLJzl= Ai6lE-e, !zl. olluJzls.l HF +^ll= ol8 tI
    zlE +^ll= rlE+(:H 7.8). +7lgE^Jql^l ae +ql^J ot4E 'lleJa++ olg HI
    zlfiol f;zlalzl 4lE"ll +qa=61
    olg a6J p+6J89 49, fzl¤eql^J oI4E
    'H4a++
    4zl 9lHzl* 4eil4. =aJ 8.sE .JA4 ++ g+E rvrcr(ru:ri, Na, K, Rb, crr+
    gqE Nax(x:r, cl, Br, D9 olpl Ag a6JCg Eq ^E
    =+.
    q¤ rtsE 0l86lG KFsl 4^[ollH^l ,Je.l H+.1= +61'^le.

    910
    1 834 )1
    788 788
    ^[ ^[ 732
    oil 701. 691 0ll
    657 682
    Ll Ll
    rl
    ^l
    o o
    E
    x -Y

    LiCl NaCl KCI RbCl CsCl NaF NaCl NaBr NaI

    gfolS u^l= BolS HJ^l=


    =7t =7I
    A-lH 8.5 "J0lt !E= U^l=oll ttt= 4rI0llLl^le] +714 A:Btd
    =0lt

    sel p *"J ?}. ol*-el tzl Ht|il


    olg AqI qlqzl E^lg .El611^-l e]l ge olgEol ul$rj zli,flel {x} ullzlg 7144
    ^JCel
    -r. 6l+zl= ¤Bg + 9l+. qlE 5q iEe dzil dz} oJ 7Il= gqBlEr Na*E CC6f
    9, Nec+ eg dz1 E11ilE r*EtI.
    Na ls22s22p63s1 : [Ne]3s1
    Na+ '1s22s22p6 : [Ne]
    4zI glHxlE ol$$ {o}z} ?z}B9l n}n+ +7i6}zlu3, Na2+ olgg sfl6l^= olg A
    q+ e+qlEs +.1¤ + srl + drll d4+ iE gzlel ql+ eeE+q zil4qqot 6Fr

    E ++6] 3 {lHzlz} 99-614 * 12.+4). {x} olluJzlsl +71={* 4+ AA Azl-= qlq


    g rlt 9lHzlE E_tI6I7lql ++6}zl *6t+. trI4^J 4E r+ ++Ereg olg
    ^Eg
    C EAq^l 11 olgeEtrJ +4loJ+.
    ^E4
    ole] $,r.|olzll, Hl++ .gz}ll a4¤ Ez|6J rll flzlz| aaql dzl-= Bzlalt a+ql=
    sg.l4+ ErJE ¤-gol .Jqtq. 4+^J cr g4+ dzl oJ rll= ¤rll Bol¤9 cl- olg
    sE qq, Ar4 F9* dzt HIil= ,*YL+.
    cl ls22s22P63sz3Ps : [Ne]3s23ps

    cl- 1.s22s22p63s23p6 : [Ne]3s23pu : [Ar]


    cP- olg¤ ^Jc6|71 +14^J= F Hrll d4-E cl gzlE + +41 +l+el dzt dagl zllgl
    4oF 6lE-E glHzl +E"ll^J ,ll+ qBEl. nlzl^J ole aql elilEql^J cP- ol¤* *"1-B
    + s+. olel eg 5el.E, r, 2, r31++ g^E 44 r+ , 2+, 3+ d6l¤ zld ol.g ¤
    8.2 013 333
    =-Ei

    + gla, ls, 16, 17+ El++ fl^'=


    EI e+ElEg qltl6J 7+7+
    -3, -2, -r d6|E 7Id ol
    g a6J +B+g qltr-g + 91tr1.
    ?izl qlLlzl {llf: Born-Haber tE
    4zt {Hzlts dqlg 56il Hts +6J +: flrlq}, olg A Lct (g cr(s) AH: Arr'[cl(g)) : tzzkJ t8.8]
    6J s}dJ¤iol ¤dq= gflE
    +41 Hl+.g.e+El Hess B -
    e- + cl(g) cl-(8) LH: EA(ct): -34ekJ [8.9]
    zl (s.6d)g ol4 eol 6l-
    ^I+6Iq 4l4IB +ts :14. -
    rcer:
    ol F +Cg.J6tH 3+Zlql get qlq4, -227 ktg E=trI.
    ¤ Born-Haber #E(Born-Haber cycle)olell oi: gq ;l+4etr olEg E.+ E4l E_eE o}4e+ e+.
    ql4 ++ r+Cg +Cg + 914. olE 5-99 $olz| tvtax
    Born(1882-t970)q Fritz Haber(I868'1934)q olEg E a 1. NaCl(s) Na(s) +lctr1g1 AH1: -AIJitNaCI(s)l
    - :+411kJ
    o +, ol¤.3 olg AqI o+.JEE oJAEql trlzl= s.Jg e
    2. Na(s) Na*(8) + e- LHr: 6g4Yt
    ^ld-=
    4 ol$ roJal-flc|. -
    Nacl9 ql.e. 5q -H.4. 4zI qlqzl= Cg'J 8.3q^l 3. e- + jctrlsl cr1sl Lru: -227kJ
    NaCl(s)ol **Eoll, Na*(s)e} ct- @)71
    ^l ola
    4. NaCl(s) .- -Na*(g)+ Cl-(g) AIIa : 7669 : LH4^y
    ^JcEol+.
    ol Hess Bzlg 4+6lazl.6l+ EleL^1.14. zlfizlz\ 4l4I+ EE oJSol qBll ¤eqq 9l=zl
    q]6l$ +471+*e 6iE q= .JAE 4= ^l-+
    trq +: rg 8.6q1 il= .Jae.l r+aql .llt+9zl alE9l
    ^lE ^lol ^l
    # *= q flq^'l Nacl9 ^J¤gg ol+B + 9lr+ ,@> =
    ol !+cg'++'es 7l+EItrI. ol +++ql fl='9E' .J"J +
    (s.7d). cl+E qlLlTlg qle'oI4E 6F* se4 qrJs qq
    Na(s) + : -47rkJ t8.sl
    ttaCl(s) AI{1"[Nacl(s)] =4 .J4 rJotot eL4. qHzlE z]lelop. ++I qiq
    4zt
    Lctr($ 9l
    - ^lE
    ol
    4= -E= <ig'J a+, f,{}e-+$A 4zl9lHzlE 4l
    EE ol HI*E qHI¤¤ 44 qlq4= ++4= ^lzl
    ,A6lq
    =
    B N.ct1r;o1 t}¤¤ol 9s.q a1qo16J+. +s6J qE 4I6J + 9lq= ag Born4 Habert "J9t+.
    ^lol
    + olrlls+ eol + ,l]el 4= 49 ^l-SB + 9i+. +¤ ¤+ E4l: 8.23-8.30,8.83
    1. NaCl(s) Na(s)+ ictr(g Lru: -LHi [Nacl(s)]
    - : +411 kJ
    2. Na(s) .+ Na*(8) + e- LHr: 77 Na+(g)+e +Cl(g)
    3. e- + |ct21s1 .----- 61-1r; Lft: 777

    4. NaCl(s) Na*(g) + Cl-(g) LHa: LH1 + LHz+ LH3 EA(cl)


    - : LHe+ 11(Na) Na*(8) + CI-(S)
    2+Al= r,il dEq^l l:E' ol$ol ^Jdq:4Cee, o1
    Na(g) + Cl(g)
    aE Tlal
    ^Jd "lHzlc+
    4EE lzt olggl qlqzl= Eql K
    = 5
    6Ia 914(++ ce+ rfl 7.r0oll ol n+Cql q* +il7| 9l+). oll lry[cl(r)t Na(g) + lctrt8l 6
    Lj K
    Na(s) + palr; Arl: Arir"[Na(s)] : 108kJ [8.6] arft[Na(s)l Na(s) + Nr
    ^l oI
    Na(g) Na+(g)+ e- Ar{ : !(Na) : 496kJ [8.7] U6
    - z
    ol + r+Ag ElrItr zp4l.ll^-l gs'* {lulzl, 604 kJg E
    -Affy[NaCl(s)l
    =4.
    ufittlz[z].a 3+Zlql q6l^l= NaCl(s)
    + *alq 44 ctz +ztE+
    El g^ gzte+ *olgg ol
    ^JC.Jr+. + +4lql
    ql6J $gul

    HeI= crts) C¤ elBEle+ giel dzt a!+E(EA(cl))E qI lts 8.6 NaCl Edoll t[|6J Born-Haber tS 0 | Hess E4lsl E
    ol4. --JP fl4_++El 018.5 r^-ll= 85-g tt|I"l 0llt-l^lrJZE -Eq
    =+.

    tol ;+ ol¤-
    olgsl {lHzlE xllTl6l+ 44+71 +714 41"14 #4fl +7li'l7l trI$"il, olg atJ sl
    *Eq 4zl qlHzl a7l+ "JHI4oE 4q ^Jl zll Szlnlzlul trtr-B+ 9l= "Jol+. tr}4
    olg a6J E|6JEql ¤4al* "JolgE a6l+ +E I +, 2+, 3+ol+. :aElLI dol *
    ^l
    334 8al 6lqf 7lE 7H.l
    =--Je-l

    +E Eil++e Elgc LI+ dz[tr+,rJl zfl o]trel dxl-= 7l4L+. qlE, e ++e
    7l^.llel
    [rr]+d10ss19 dz] HllTl= r*:+. rr4(Cu, Ag, Au)* r+ ol¤ol qzlE q]4(CuBre]
    Agcl$ a+el go1). eg*9 ^Jcq^l= ss d4¤ oaa- 4d +aee E+ ill+ ^}4z} ¤4.
    olz-1fl {ol +++ .Jqi4ss HlgC 7l^l {z} ullzl t}4e1 olgg
    ^J^d6tzl ?*=E}. Bd
    zl +zlol ++6tzl"J, 4+ H9l: BE6}|l xllqigr+.

    r
    \-q qFll 8.2
    ol8 {El

    (a)Sr, (b)S, (c)Altr$rl "JHJ4o+ SdEl= 018= ql+61^le.

    6ll'J xli [Ne]:l3p4ola, tslg¤ 7lalg dz] u|]xl!-4 F z|l9 d


    E4 Sr, s, Atol H zll9 drl-= E4+ gg + gl=71-= a zlz| -f-=.-4q-. 44^l s2- ol3
    ^JC.l
    ql*¤.i.
    colot t4. (c) 9+"lh3 l3f fr$ols-tr Al3+ olg Sdol qlt¤4.

    44 r+?+e) A+, qE flcz]-o3'o1s- E= +olgg SCg 4E {f4aj ole dd-= E_2.4e+ 2.sql^l qetq.
    x.JxlE +7lgst r gig +lile+q ql+g + 91trI. > !r= sFltl
    : rl-s ,.JcB zls.dol zlz* +g ols-g ac6}7l +16ll^l q+ + 2+ olgg ^8cts zl-tsdol zI* gi= qL a
    r giE {z} ullil$ ol+6J+ 9l+. oJTl? =
    Eol (a) ^EE# 2+ ++olEe oJolgg rJctJ xol4. (a) Li (b) Ca (c) o (d) P (e) CI
    {z} ullili [rr]ss2o14. E]+^J + zll$ flx[z[ dzl-= g7 > 3il= qF{ 2
    Sl+ olg-e--e B 4o14. ElrLll+ol eiel Hlg"g uI ^JCq= olgEE d6F= ql
    (b) +g r04 ul*401E + +olg ,.J,.dol 9lr}¤4. dz} ull
    +6I^19.

    zll7.4¤ql^JaEg EleI aol, aJ flzt_tr+q oJolgg ^J^dg 4lE zitr a n r"l* zl4
    _sHlBE d4E x,ll"J Hzl g= ag zlq6l+. trI+^l Aol ++ol olgg ^JC6J 4 zlt
    {x] Sx}z} dd dzl¤ gI, f-E}* = olgE d4q olezl +14 g.0-+ E}tE d 4^l
    g=4. qlE Eq l*)td6+s2 dzl u}]z]= r*= Feql^l Fe',*E 8^Jg ql f zllel as d
    =
    zl-= gr l*)zd6 AzI ts]]7l= r*=+. +7le 4zlzl zllz]qB [er]:as9 {z} uflzlg zli
    Fe3*E
    ^J^"i6Jr+.

    A olr- g47l lKrl4d6 c^l' Htiil= ,fE s+ 0l8E 8¤6lE7l'?

    8.3 l#EErJ
    aE ql++E Elol Eee olgc Edg z*zl g*i4. Er+ aol ,H.J d6I
    =cg ^I*ol
    ts Be Eee, 7liil+ "_441, EE +=dol *e r.i]]7} Elq.a q}q. +lg+e+ ?ol, d7il
    +g.51.= EeE ulol fxllaf,u|. E+^q u4ol4 E^e+ zJol, :::ll tr-4"11^l dzl EBq:
    EeE Bol ll4.
    olgc EeilH aE6}zl ?*= E¤ol "ll+ *eql, ol Eeql 4e"6J + 9l= aq} E¤
    ol pealr|. G.N.Lewist:6J -gzl7l. rt= gzle+ dzl-E ++6Iq HlgC zlzlE {z} ullzl
    r*=qr ^J46IfltrL fl dzLtg:2"go;'cEAl ^Jzli e+E eQlg *# EB(covalent
    =
    bond)ol{l ajr1.
    +^ EZI(H2)Y zl* rJ+oJ ++ A6Je-l qlE trq + 4el +A ?)zlzl ^ls d=
    =+.
    8.3 i=? 335
    =--J
    6J oll=fal 8.7(a)^lH "Jd6l¤ E F oqol Hlg6[n, +d6l¤ E F d
    ^l-tr \
    zlT)QE Hlg6I= HlEq. 44 dzl= d:olB-rJ4. dzll +i ts^I
    "j ^folel lrt g
    ^Jtr ^Jtr trqol tl EolrlE (b)oll^
    7f "JC6IEI= 49 "JHol Elgqtrq a+L 4¤ 9"laJ4. ol +4ql
    =z.]]dt Eel daEollolE EetTi gclLlfl=7t?
    .Jqg +' q zl^116l $pall trz[.
    =zll6.s¤ql^l flz}{l 46t9 4eodJ
    "JzI qo+4 %IHq +^IqI %l-Hg 0l+6} drt==
    ,tlE EIal drl==3
    { tsz} 49 dz} "JE EEE al4}g + 9lr}. H, Ez}91 4oJ re+ rJe 4l& H lH_.f 6lr I BoFJeLf
    e q4 dxl zJ9 "JqeE ql6|], rB s.z(u)4H {z} ujEz} q ^}olql d+
    ^1e

    g+. an+zloE, dill4'J Cdzl4 tls z++el Ar+='Jqol grl. trl+^J


    H,9l 9li fl4:=e .<l-+ Et-d ?llcll, +¤ ol+= "Jd6l-= ts + qol q
    d+Elq il= ¤.d4ql olE47l oliEol4. ts4zletr a"+ e,Etql
    ^lolql
    4]6l= *f dzl%}g gzl¤ e,*^l7l='d4}rll'ile +eo oJE|. = +

    A
    ^l.tr.

    H2 E^[7[ Hr*-e orgslsrE H-dtr.. "J'il^r 7re-d E+


    =E'
    .J,
    I = rne olq Hz*q H-H =-cr'ol H2ol H-H
    I
    =--Jer ^17r7t
    ,J-deq ailrl, "J:drlE qEdt^|g. E!=3^1tr
    HJ"J-.Jrl.
    (a)

    -4 d^l gETt
    ^lololl?i3 AA
    Lewis 7t d=El:
    E"f ?6J ¤Cg Lewis zl.e_tr +48 + 91tr1. qlE 5q F 7flE H flzItrP
    =-ctoltrt.

    rl u, EzI ^JCg +g=r} eol +49 + ?ltt.


    H. * .H ---------> +

    ++ 4 +4 g^I= + H4l d^l-= goh=q ul$.$ zl;llol


    A6Jg ^JC6tH^l
    AE4 Ae .JC* F z1l9 {z} ullzlfi r*rll ¤tr}.
    F zll9 cl gztT} A.J4q cl2 +z[tr, qi Aq+ ^JCE gg %lHstr L]+ (b)
    E + el+. arB 8.7 Hz9 83 3-d (a) ,i4 E^toll
    91= E^le+ -"1 ?.lalrlHJgaJ. (b) H,
    :C1.+ .Cl: ------>
    .=^f L|l I^f Es^lolsl

    ¤* dxl+Ig ++6JeErAl 4 g4 flzl+ H^l7l44q) szll$ {z}(octet)E


    i*rl qq ul$rJ zlxJlol ols+4 ,J2 4^l tsl]il= ,*rI g+.
    qzl^J H2+ clrql ql4q +4U +4= Lewis +lE(Lewisstructure) s,= Lewis Tl 74.
    (Lewis dot structure)4r 6J+. ol$ faglrl dzt ="#E 44421 +16ll^l gg +EI.Ifl

    4 *f dzl-5t, + aqltlg dsg, ElEo# dzl-%t(lfl q+ HIAEI $g deE


    zl"J ,^dr-

    ++.ll= 4ol H .J+4ol+. olEloJ ,JHqE H2et ct2E Lewis *4.E +4LllE tr|s_4
    *r+.
    H-H 'gi-qi'
    Hl+eq 4+, +4 flzl9 ?)zlzl {z} ;5 49 ¤zl.4 HEe+ e+. q+^l Fe+ ,Jg
    t7+ gi= gdzl_E olgzl flall 6J 7}]E =o* d*g ¤^J6Ir, oe+ ag 16+ fl^= +
    419 a"fr Aqlg, Nr+ eg ts4 flaE ,l]g ++ A6Jg, ce+ eg t+4 flaE tll zH
    ^ll
    ++ a6Jg ^J¤6J ag ql+6J + 9lEt. olEloJ ql+g +7lgEg
    el 2+7) }ll++ gaE
    +^ 3I+6JE]+ rJol "*3 sl+Eql 4+g + 9l+.

    H-F: H- N-U -H
    I

    H H H
    336 83 at+ 7lE 7H'l
    =-ErE

    qFll 8.3
    Eli',lEE Lewis ?.4.

    E 8.2011 LlElL.I trAel=+9E! B4ol Lewis 7lE= HlEJo.-e, EAel-=+ealol EjBg ttll 8¤El= ?JEploldE E|.:-JE{F 7f^l
    dEs_e +dEJ 61.-stE)el El.+^l= ql+6[r. Lewis irE ral^19.

    6tlt
    .84 eie| Lewis zlEi ere+ +l AE +Aq gilt Lewis +4ql^l -u,E flztz} gazl-? E
    =+e-fl9
    zlzl $zlzl4z; stfl*77n"J* ++u4. =+e-ilE 3tr+.Jag B + 9l+. + a* d4-E aI49 dee q4q1
    AA 4 gz} +9q 9447I qE+ + fla$ a$oflo| oj E Lewis +4q "l+6llzl{, 9p$$ +4= ^l-8-6}q dTll
    +. e^= 9drl-= z*zl 9lr}9 41 7l]E {z}z} $eal q}S 9d4-5 q'Jg + 91tr1.
    ql, ¤+_sflg 6J ZIE {z}z} peal-c}. .J zl]el 3*tr aj > EE qlrjll
    7]]q i,o+61-L + tlE dxltl'$ trI+ + ++ dzttlrl Hl*+ dzltr9 izl rJg E^l+
    =+sfl ^l-olql
    qldl^j= gd4-= "J+6Izl"J, gA g4ql 4ollrlE =+e-flql
    gdzt q= X.JzI?
    trJ+^l7lzl *6J+. E|4^l N flzlz| {zffii.f zfl oldr z} (a) HCI (b) HrS (c) PFg (d) CClzFz (e) Brz
    =
    e + il= %r-"Jg ^J46il E g9.zl914. >.H=qH2
    Eol gi Szl-b $dzl-E SC6l7l fl6iq ^l llel s=+sfl uJl$$ Lewis +4e+ 4qt(CHJE Lewis 748 Hll.6l^l
    flzle]- 44 6J ,d-9 dzl-E *frollol6Jtri. ar+4eE + g e-. 4 +aql= q ,H9 $zlzl $tlzl9l=7r? 4 +aql
    a-e +Cg p+ElEe NF37l qqot +4. q ,lE a.J dlol fl]rq, H z]]9 ulpoJ {tol glEz}?
    =
    .ry. + S.F: -------)
    "'ii'"
    :f:N:ii: ------' :[-N-[:
    ,1,

    -r o Atl
    rlz. eH
    ZIE ="# dzl4l-e. +g *+ a6Jg c^d++. ol= rJ+61 =Jet flEGinslebond)olell
    6.J

    Elq. gg tszle] flzl-E=g + zl] ol^]E dzl+]g ="*6]9 Bdzl-E olEE]. F flz]zl +
    zH9 dzlt}g ="f6lE Lewis 74.91,rJ f {9_tr L}Et4r, ol= ol= EE(doublebond)ol
    ?+r. ++. elE Eq ol&sl Eaq1.tj a6Jg gz[7] 4471tll zll'J +^e+ fl^l7l 4^l7l
    ezH t &A,t lol oll,tJ
    "Jq+q.
    g:C:Q)
    --- O::C::O (E=
    :O: + .C. + :O:

    9ql +ElU Etel aol, 4 &i= Eie| + Tl]el dzltl9 ++4q 9dzl-E olE4. coz
    9 a+, ts^= F tla flzle+ '/+4 + zll9 dzl4l$ 3" f6l9 gd4-= olgtrl.
    N2 Ezlq^le+ rJol ¤zlg(triplebond)$.q1 zl]9 dz}4}g ++.JrI.

    :N.+ .N: -------+ :N:::N: (E= :N:N:)


    e^ gz}= flzlzl eeql 5Tl]E dxl¤ 7l^\8tr, gdzl-= ol+EJH Tl]el dxHrg + ^ll
    +6110l,*+.
    Nz9 Cd* ol Lewis +ae+ $Aq "Jil6-Jtrl. e^= zl+61 HI¤-Col *g olg^} EzI
    Tlillol+. r g"Jg 4+ "J4.J e^-e^ 4!] qlEol4. e4= flzI zJ 44zl1.104
    ql"il 9zl *=+. + A^ flz|;.1o1s1 *g a6J aol= ++ AqlE ?4"14. e^ gz[e+
    ,* zll oltg dzltg E"s6l-b q= qrl zlzl gzlel +a g+.e+q eA flzl zJ ?rJ
    zJolE ="r+ dzlt9 +q gl+g .J + gltrl.
    "l+ irolTt
    N-N N:N N=N
    L.4z L 1..24 A r.ro A
    8.4 I +d "! I7l g¤E 337
    =-J

    gHI4sE flxlzJ A6J Aol= no# dzlt9 fz| $$+q S4. ol dg s.e¤91^l rJ zl
    gqg 4o14.
    ^116l-Zl

    g^ta1 EJ4(co)e] c-o Zol= r.rs AoJ HJE, cozoilll c-o t.z+ A
    olt[. Lewis +6= =-d .Jg
    ral^l ?J-r. CoTf 0l= qE=-EuJol=
    Ar.6 A?]^l= s:dalts
    Il + "^)E)l?
    =--J, =-ar, =-Bt =
    "J

    8.4 I 'Jt,J +J 9.T.21 ¤aJ.E


    cl2Lt H2el aol, +"Jql flzI F zlTI e6'Jg E rll, dzl4.9 #-F6}rll ++qq+ .J+.
    Nacl4 ,Jo) +71&E_E oJ+ Eql +l7l+ F gztT} a6J6J ull dz}9 ++: 4E S.eq,
    Naclg Na* ol84 ct-o189 +¤g olg a6J sI.*Ee zl¤ali 4ol a]d"l4. dxllE
    Na szlg :s d4* ga gz} +eE sa6l olE"6J4. ql+EE EdSol ,*= a.Jg ol
    e+ ee + 7V\ ++4 AqI
    ^Flq =46Jrl.
    ZlE*¤(bondpolarity)$ -"# ¤6J 4^l7l + gzlql Eo}] +F6lrll ++qfl=zl, E+
    F6IAI ++ElH=zlql qlqi 6l.+el 3sol4. ++e E+ ¤:el(nonpolar covalent bond)S
    CI2q N2e+ ?ol, dz|5ol +F6l7ll ++g ?glol4. +¤ E+ E!:El(polarcovalentbond)9]

    ^J=
    + ilzltl += + flzlHr} E,* d4¤ q ^llrll sotBzJ4. "JqI dzl-E ¤olBzlE
    +qel ^Iol7I +E6l rE, olg ?El.l rJC¤4.
    {71 #JE
    9E Eqlol ++C *# E!l.Jzl, +C -2"+ AdJflzl, ol$ {a}olzlE ¤zt6J trll= dzl
    gcE= ol+*+.
    Ezl E*lE(electronegativity)= + tszlql,<i gzlz| dzl¤
    zlzl <1o a S"lBzlE ,rllzl-tr a9++.

    dzl *cs aol zlzl ffetr_ d4-E Eq'.rzlE tllzlzl e+. gTiE dzl *ds
    =++
    s olg+ qlLlzl+ dzt +lqlsq +fl^dol ileq, olgsl glHxlei xx| {r$E rB ^}
    otu).J flz}9 olgsl qlqxl
    Ell(agr
    ^J4zl ^Jdol4. ,]]+ = ++ztel dx} rl:+sc} =
    4l* r*Y s4* += gzl=E+q dzl-E 3q*214, z}4lg 4zlzl E47l7l *Zl 6l-=
    r*=+. olE g4+ $zl $$uz|ql* a4.
    ^d6.&g
    dzl *dgg #g olgsi qlHzlq 321 {a}rs"J o}q+ qrl daql zlntq. uJ
    E"JqS._L, E ,[t] tsr-l ol+q= dzl +Cg zJg, p]qzt Linus pauling
    ^-l.s "149
    (tgor-1j/gq)ol g3rlq|4 EllolqE zl{l-s._tr ,llg6}s.+. fal 8.8q1^J H= H}e} ztol, szl
    gcE= +7lgEE g+ql^l eE4, ++ql^J Hl++ gaE ?J++ +7l-dJrl. qq ql
    e_l(561 dol *^JE ElE6li1, ag +ql^J= = flzl Hazt +71-g++ $zl $$rzl z]4
    *+. olel ee A.Je ee +ql^J= flzl HszI f;zlpffi olg-p+ qlqzlTl ?i6l-r. d
    zl rlslEE rTil H6l-zl *= qtr-q= E4ol4.
    ^I¤E+EI
    dzl ¤.cs <i¤ "JzlE gs= Hr+. ql{ql izl¤Etrg dzl ¤-dg E:4 4r}g .Jol.
    oI F g^ + qe 44 4zl +^dE <tol 4 ql+B + 91trt.
    =zl=

    ffiffi fl^el E7l


    =¤EE
    Ert rtitEet olEzl rl-=7t?
    338 8B tr|-+ AJq ilE )|LJ

    16+ SAel e+ flxt HEzl5zgql qaf E7l 3dE9 e-*da olrqE!7|?

    fl s.o-+.0
    lz.o-z.o r{llq/\lE
    uu I Eo+ 7}q
    uL
    @ r.s-r.o E?l7lg.rl.
    Efl . r.s

    BC
    / 7
    1
    2 /r C/
    J 2z / 3.6
    4 <2
    5
    6 /
    8
    9 ?r <J A\
    10 Pn th
    &rt 11 zd 22 4/
    12
    sar¤ 13
    dz t4
    15
    15
    t7 ^-

    ArB 8.8 Paulingol gsl-+ 7l4E;Jd7l gdE'J


    ^|"eql

    t7l¤/6iEsf EEErel +d
    + gzlql 4El dzl ¤.cE aE ^lE+El aB +cel aE= 7lsI=6J + gi+. olell ^ll ao +
    E s=+sfl sltl$s ^J46ll tr^I.
    F2 HF LiF
    d7l3¤Eit 4.0-4.0:0 4.O-2.1:1.9 4.0-1.0:3.0
    eg EEtl ++d aP +8 ol8,l--J
    =-s' =+ =-J
    Fz9 ?*, dzl¤3 F gx|.tp1q1 +F6[r]l 3o+qE-e., t+ Aq]e +
    zl]9
    =+-sfl
    +c"lE|. a6Jg ol+= flxiE $zl $$Ezl F.J6J Ell ++c ++ a6Jol BdgtrI.
    HFE a+,
    =+sfl
    fl4t +A gzlq EI6ll = dzl ¤.t= ** 7171a_, r a4 dzl
    e-l ++71+E"6|xl *61a1 slq a6Jg +col+.
    "JHI49E +c ++ a6Jg flzl-E9 d
    zl $$rzl rl¤ tril +El-+trI. {}4zles 47]|gcE= 7l{ s=+sfl flziE t}Eilzle
    =
    E +g dzl SCsE r*i +^ gzls+q AaI gEE gq'Ja^J +^ g4q ++4.J
    "Jd6l-=, g+sfl flx}{l +84.J +d6l-= EC+trI. ole+ Ag A6I es= 4S4
    rJol
    +4.-J + 9lrl.
    6+ 6-
    H-F
    +, a - g]=+) Y 7+7+ +84 e oJd6].el +d6l-=
    6 1'cg4
    =q ^'el'c$Q
    ulol L:]
    ^'+r ^J
    d++. +c a!+ql^.t +4+ olgE d6IZlH+ zltrL
    ol
    LiFE A+, E+efl flzlc+ 4E flzl
    ^tole.l
    z Zj,71+^dE Zl-a oJ6}] dzl-= Liql^J F
    +_e.E zl9 4PEol olE"6-J4. a44ss A6Jg ol.$ {$(ionic bond)ol=p a}
    ^8zli
    aol HE| cq+ s.¤olr+. q4^J LiF= sd+ ol$ pf|eE trE LiE 5+= 1+olr,
    =
    F9 5-b 1-7I gtrL F gzl9 dzl *cs zlolT}2.0 oltlolE, ol= rJel d*¤ ols
    4go1aP. t4.
    eqlql^l flzl g.fi5.zt rJ 3 gzl.tr. d^l EJETI olEo 6li ag dzl. ujt gE 4l4}ge
    "J + 9l+.
    qlE E 3rlq+el 4&g dz} gE EEE rs 8.eql ++,119+. dzl "JE
    ^ll
    Es= FzollrlE qla4olr, HFql^l= r flxI +sE il+zl_r., LiFq^l= zl+e Aszl
    8.4 +d "! tr71 8dE 339
    =cf

    'fe d^l "JE Eq IITL OIE < rc 8.9 I^l- "JE EE ZH


    ElTl 8d-J Ll= __raJ= F2, HF,
    LiF ETItrESI 5^I "JE EE=

    + Eq
    =+.

    FZ HF LiF

    q A* g + 9l+. trl+^J olE qlSg + g^lE dzl ¤-^ds xlz| pffi aqle +c
    =
    ol q r+= ag tr.1
    =+.
    qH 8.4
    7{Elot
    pH-l J"*l
    f o

    qBq e--J 6 clE tl (a) B-Cl IE= C-CI, (b) P-F -EE P-Cl. 4 e+q^l clL fl^[7|-+84?] 3E
    =-Erol = =d= 'l=71?
    dl-=,J=^l= LIEILI|^|g.

    6tlff Eq^l gi flql flxldtzl ullEq gABtrI


    Eq A.J gzlqlg j1q6}q A*E tqlzl.J +Cg A46I q 47]|+dE {tg 7vlq, pe}=+sflol
    rJ +Jol aq}g
    = =
    Ezllol+. ¤c6J+. 4zl *tduzl EJ Y E4"J +d
    = 6l-= g aol+. = =+sflol
    4e ceJ4"J B9 s_+alxl ?*zl ollE.ll +7lgs^Jql fl=
    dzl gds a6}ql ql+ zlrlc-trsEl B++ 91tr1. *.8 (a) zH a.s-trBEl gie+ +iE dzl *d.r il+ 3.0
    Bol F A.Jql +549-8
    (a) aol gi 9zlol4. -2.0:1.001+. gie+ +iE d7l *^dE xIts :.0-z.s
    =46l=
    trI4^-l ol Ezll= Be+ c9 dzl *rjs. ulle :6.sol+. u}+^] ql+6J qlE B-cl A.Jol q +Col rq.
    =.zl ='-dtl4.
    +Tlgsql^1 +i= +4-E-+ g+ql +lrl6}tr.-E +^E d O) rB 8.8E+q gie+ "Jq dzl *Cs zl-b:.0-z.t
    z) $$rzl tlql4ee *S ag q+6J + 914. izl¤e :0.eol+. "J9 dzl +^JE xl= 4.0-2.1 :t.e
    ql^J e-=ql 9z16l= g^= q
    =+eflrl
    oltrI. tr|+^.] ql+6J rlls p-F palol q +Col rq.
    471gcE <lg ,*=
    =
    4. dzl +^dEq 7l7l7lrt gzl¤ ^tolE A6Jol q +t > H.* qlr{
    =
    1

    r*btr}.
    "l = aol+. er+4sE s-cr ?Bol trJ = +^dg El-g + 7It +^Jol e6Jg 9= lqlzt?
    4zl *duzl7l* q gi szlzl 594"J +d6l¤ E =
    (a) H-F (b) H-I (c) se-r (d) N-p (e) Ga-Cl
    +.
    =
    > .H.* qlr1l2
    G) ol a+, oJol F a6Jql *F4 oE ETll= F +g Aq+ * zl* +Col ag?
    4 ctq {zl $,$rE Elrt6}E g+.=7l]6}EE, +zl& S-Cl, S-Br, Se-Cl, Se-Br
    =
    =+eflol

    s+al s{!E
    HeI FE dzl *Cg. ile oJ6ll, HF Ezl= *C =" # eBg ,*+L+. q+^l *-d6l= d7l
    +dE7t,;l r flxl9l d+qi1, .J.zl $$uzl rJ ltg H 94+ "Jd6l¤ "l4l .J4. He
    =
    Exle} eol, oJA6I +dr+ gddl +dol oJzl6rzl ?+= +zl-= =l8,Ert(polar molecule)
    +i16J+. q4^J A6J4 d,I Ezl-= +Cr+ ++C oE ¤Hg + 9l+.
    HF EzlE +Ce + 7l^l "JBeE +48 + 9+.
    340 8ef ++ ,:*ol )lE )H.3

    ii-'F E= fi=
    Cbl.= H gxl'7[ TlDlol E e-=+ szl %IHql^JE a1ggr, dz} trJE7I flx| $eE 7l+rl ag ++U
    ^]e ,JA6l
    =+efl
    +. El"$Eql.! +z[-tr g g+9 ¤++g Ex]E oJA6] ¤g +4ql= +7la+n ^J4
    pb
    =alu, =71"61.b71., 6J + 9l+.
    b7f,oil-lE EalxlBbTf?
    0- Q+ +ce dEdql^J+ "Jtlq^J z^14 +=ql^J +eq= Eag 94 zlzl d4s ac
    6I= ql E¤¤ +C E{+ zltJ\A + E 19 +d6te+ += e49 oJd6|= ^l
    tt
    -- It =+.
    E tlottrJTlE+ Elig*+. u}t!z]zl-E *C ts4b olgql olEfl+. +C tsz]9 +d6]
    r-------1
    Eg oJolgql oJd6I Eg ¤-olgql olBloJ tr-g 4I¤+ tr, t2, l3tlql
    8|+r[EfllE p: Qr =411, =fl+.
    E]lg slzll, r.zll, +"_qE Be cag ¤Ee+. +zt 4el d6I +q= J*Elcolu} 4.J
    a fH 8.10 8=^l.sl- Al=^1. E ^J
    dzlql^le+ ag qlqzl H+ rlaq^l +s+ qeg.J+.
    fllE ,JP rTlol EJII] 8ol Q+
    el o-71 r Tlaloll EGI^I glE + ts lE +cg qBzl 4=JElg i 9)&t4? a7)= rJa +n7l EI4{ F d6p} ^l
    lrTl=
    rr! O-/\l=
    .^
    '_ll,
    ,\H,\l6lrl
    OO!-1. -+ Eq4 qg uI g'=-r(dipole)z} BC¤4. ''Fzt aTlE A*4 4E= 8=rlsE!!E
    (dipolemoment)4 6In, s,-tr- .E.^l*+. reJ 8.rcq]^l .H.= BIe+ ztol, azlY er +s
    7I Hlql"J F A6I Q+e+ Q-71zl4 r"J? Eq4 ilg tr]1 ,HzI EHIE9I a-7)+ QeI 19
    +ol gtrl.
    p: Qr [8.10]
    ol4g e7I +7[6J++, p] f;z]gffi.Hz] EHIET] 411+= ag Hq ,Fz[
    EHIEzI =+.
    AElg trJ +^Jol 94. Frq eg ++¤ tszlE .B--a_zl 5_HIE= A6I +
    alz[ $o =++
    ss so14.

    -gEt!2.(interharosen) sl-:slE,
    A .= gE{!
    =+eaJal-El(crF)elE+eaJalopleE(rF)e
    7Jel4d= ?t= = ^ie
    ilEt=olrL 0l + Er|.6 cl! a0l r] s=_r|--"fl!E= ,;=7fr
    fl^|.
    | =
    ,51-+^l -EHIE= ¤e4eE +Ag + fl9.q, yJ4sE ++UE|. 1 debye
    debye(D)E
    y z.zqx t0-30 e+xl.= ++)ol+. Ezlql 46H^l= "JHI4eE dot +
    =E-trlEl(c-m+=
    fl.tr- dzl-e r]]E {a} e(r.oox10-1e c)$, z3o1E ++lE solEE¤ + d6].
    ^l-s"6J4.
    r+e| r-E d6IGE Efl)zl- r.00 A trq4 fl= A+= ^J46ll HzI. ^J^dEl= r5r-lz]. E
    EllE L
    u_-L

    p: er: (1.60 x 1o-1ezx1.ooA)(t#X


    x
    1D : 4.79D
    3.34 lo-3o e-

    Ezt9 ,Lr.+zI EHIE +AAlg, qlzll 8.sql^l -H: aAH. tszt 49 d+ +Eql +* +s
    oJ dEE zllr" t4.

    qH 8.5
    olflri Erfol,'"U.+7.t sllE
    HCt eol= r.zzAolrl. (a) Hel-ct flxlel E6lty 21211+el1-g rrtl, At=^l-EE!E= D E+l-tr zllbl-^I-g.. (b) !-d4
    E^lel
    =-cr
    o+ *EE HCI(s')el 8+rl EEIE= 1.08 D0ltl. 0l 8--^l E.fllE 'J= 'zJ7l 916}|,\l= Het Cl fl^l'e-l c.al a7l7l e t?lE EnlG
    0t6f=71'?

    EII'J a"6lq 4l4}g


    + gltrI. G)ql^] .$zlel nt-=_z[ EdEg ¤+
    5{31xE (a) Hql.r'l cls d6P} sd6l olEoS} a+ HClg aFl +qas4, olE+q He| cr gzlE +E dq¤ al4}
    ic'':a_zl EBIEE 4l4I6J aol s+g+. ol {tg ll s.rog.^I E 4o14.
    e.+ I ,l-d g7l BdE
    =¤ "!
    941

    Eol (a) 4 gzlE da}ts dzl dot(e: r.oox ro-le C)


    olr]. t.27 A "J# ¤94 gl" o + ,'68-zi sOE= trl=g t,: e: (1.60 \. to-lsz)ezz at(ffX"*+,"*)
    4 44. : 6.08 D

    G) olrql p: 1.08 pola 7: r.zz Agg 9.a 91o ug 3.34 x 10-30


    1r.o*r1(
    o (lg al&6J + 9ttr1. a= + :
    1D
    -- 2.84 x 10 20
    C
    1,rror($4)
    ol d6}<ig e tglE rJ+61 +l&g+ gl+. q: (2.8ax ro-oe)(
    1r\ : O.178e
    t.aoxto-tse)
    ulaf.J ffi{
    EHIE$ d+Zlg HCI B4 49 dt} 'ff4'6i-
    EETI epa-r+ e*¤ +4UtrI.
    g{EE ¤+t}ol G)ql^l zl&t t}B+ +g.
    ,.dr=-.rzl

    E_e g4¤9 d6l+ dz} dd}trtrl g{ z}+. H-cl


    ?Bol ol9 AEIB+= e6leJ +t ="+ a*ol4=
    ^tdtr+El
    op+ ee ar|= ql+g + 91trI.

    >5r=qF{1 >E=qF{2
    HF A6J(aq] z)o\ 0.e17 A)ol ${al olgC e6JolE+ 7} 5+e-floi Hi(clF(c))q ^d+z} LHlE= 0.88 Doltri. ol
    dg Hrel ffiz| EHIE= gu}.Jzt?
    trI, 849 A"J ?olE r.oe Aol4. (a) q'- gztT} +Ezl.J
    (a) 0.e17 D (b) l.e1 D (c) 2,75 D (d) 4.3e D (e) 7.37 D gd6l-= z*Ayzl? (b) ol $zlel dolE e +flE gtrloJTp

    E 8.2= gs4le+ +iq a6J ,Jole}.ld-+z} EHIEE Ll+u 1o14. HFql^J Hr-tr 7rE
    \ 4zl +cE zl+ aa6}r., EtI zJol= 6zt+4E ag +rE_6I+. HFql^J Hr_tr 7tE^l
    a6} zJol: zlzlzluj, dzl ¤.cs zlz| zlolzls^l ts?]g a6}E*ol a46}n, t[+z[ EH]
    E7t qlrll s.sql^l
    4ot{r}. ^F&oJ
    4+ ,Jz 414}g HFql^J o.+r +e} 0.41-olH d6l.7},
    Hrq^l:0.0s7+e+ 0.0s7--tr 4¤ u_"1 rH 8.11q^J !-= ar+ ,Je 4+
    =qE= =q.
    x. 8.2 tJE{!E} *4.e; z3a 2Jol, \71gt5 ^f,
    t+^t sfl E
    Ei-'J= d7l=8E i[ g+rteslE(D)
    =B'JO(A)
    HF 0.92 1.9 1.82

    HCI t.27 0.9 1.08

    HBr r.4t 0.7 0.82

    HI 1.61 0.4 0.44

    HFoll^j Hte #oll tttalH-x eEt3 q +dg,*b7t, q 4e +d= ,*=)l?


    =
    +

    HF HCl HBT HI
    :gEUtrl
    a:19 8.11 +AE d6l.Eal HFoll^] !71 S¤EE += F= H_e+El l^l gE= 361-4
    = =GI
    'JZtl. Hloll^l: FErl3g 5713d^1oJ l= 3+ I^l-= F.J= ?.16lzl=Gl'J7l^l ?J:tl. qaf^J 3--J
    ol r,\lq r.]
    _l xlrl =
    - -oL -"1.
    142 8Af atq "J_*g )lE )ilLJ

    El Zll}ql^l e= dzt tsee$q, ol= s+ElEqlrl dz} d6}el He+ CE= be + qql.J
    + 9lrt. ol +{¤el 4*, 4zl +^dE zl9 Eslz}.i&+zl EHlEql olTl: ¤.Je 4* rJ
    ol9 EEIzI += ¤6JB+ r,l a4.

    EJ4.e1 j+,r.01o1 z3:g= zEI69-d


    El.qr-oll 9lGl116[Lf0lrl. H-col
    =-Br.=
    g+^|.EE!E7| =6J,J)l
    H-rel g=^l
    E 1.1 Aolrl-. ol eolet C7l BdE ife+El, H-c -E
    = r"gxlE q|=g+ o^]?71? =-del
    ElEErtrl=xl.

    ol ¤g tlzlzl dq, rH +z}tr EoiTI tr^}. s= ^JE]lql^l LiF= olgc r


    8.eE LiF
    ale LiFE flzt u]l¤g :H s.+9 gq} aE +6e} +^l.6}+. fflEll olgc r
    =z|]'q}+.
    rgql^J +g^14 LiF +zl-= ^Jcg + 9l+. ol +4+ /8+^I eHlEzl6.28 Dolr
    ^ll=
    46J 7Jol7l r.s: Aol4. ol <tp-g+4 4Eq 59s-fl9 d6tzl 7J7] o.ast+p] o.ssz-
    .Jg 4l&.J + gl+. ol a6Je ,li+ +^dg H+. E6J d6lg "Jql, 4E
    ol
    gg = = =4s
    olge-e. EElr^Ioln, gge_floi olgg q5 ol$etr Eel,r+.J olgc
    =+sflp1-r}614l
    4zI9 ^Jdg dEoJ+. 6Izl"J ole+ Ag a+qlE ¤e4sE +46J olg d6l=
    r+e] r -71q^l S=+. ol olg +qlEql^laitE aaJq elzJ9 *frCol
    g ^Ide =46J
    "J5l]
    =+.
    ol8 Tjtfal n"* rjEJ9 ulA
    e+ql AdJq fl"Jol 9EtlE zt+g olallalzl 916ll^l= olg AEl4++ A6JeE ++q
    .,?4aI4. ol *ql^J= EE, ++ +=E Elel lxl] 4+Eql^jE olg a
    ^l fl+6i.= 4ol
    6J4 -"S ¤ELeE +B4q A+6J+. rBl+ ¤¤e
    "lg e6J4 ++ Aq+ "F-+q ¤+
    oltrl. + zlzl 4$ +¤ ,Jql +H6J +Eol sq= ag z.l+ql= qizj ollull-E_E6}rll troJ
    zls. _q_E4.
    ol tlql^J f#6-J olg e6Jr+ ="+ a*q 4* +++ Eeg 3'+6JEE +3e+ Ceg ol
    6116l.r ql+61+ Ell ++6110} B aol Y++. ++ 4a;ol fE4.J plElEg Ez[*E

    { tsx} Eeol ,*i c4, = +=d4 #=dol *r Eq +eE olga}qzl ?+e =z}16[ cag
    tl! 4oe qltr-gtrI. HlE, olg 3a;o1 iE4ql 3r+6JEg +^Jzl7l ¤1., 5;4ol *
    4^l +zz 7lzlq, Eql +eE zj{oll{ol El= Eee qtr-++.
    EE, olq'* rHg4.J E+ql= ol luflel A++ql^l .H-= Hrel zJol, 9l9zl-=4loJ+.
    rHqlE E+6Ir qH Eeg A6Jg ++ A6Jr+ ol$ pa]e_+, Sali bqe r Ee
    E ^Jeql EI* F3qg olz{ ol: 4r3o1 ?s4"JzlE 9ot4= ?l* ++ BHol
    E^ll7I ¤+.
    =q.
    TltL ,J+6J ,JHg, ++r+ Hl-Ir4 ol$,$olt, + EI++ ,J9 ^JE zl
    'JE tl-E 4L¤+
    ¤+ ++dolrlr 214a13 4o14. ol tsF$oll 96J q+g ,]]* ti44olzlqi, FH4r
    ;.1-$alzlolli {lgzi q+ Bq. ql$ EH +49 ++oli1 gi= Hl=-+olzlEJ, Sncl+E:
    Ezic Eeola tlgq^l +4t ._qillol4. Sncl+E q=dol -33.co11g---4ol rr4"c
    olr{. Sncl+E olgc EeE Sae r*a glzl ?++. qts Eiq}Eql^J zlEl]zjoJ EB sBol
    9¤ 4.JxlE ACd+ ql ql+g q e 6J + 9l= *Bol 9liz|? -B+ ai76J *H3 ol
    g a*ol +E4oJzl. oo* ¤Bol +E4qlzlE ad6l= i,r z16o + dzl *cs9 rt
    5 ols-ool=|. 1o14. ol olBg ol+618, dzl ¤.ds9 7l7l r.2oJ Snctn {r'}g ++ a6J
    -qzlql q zlal qlETt fl+. qlqe= +ololEE, *3, zlul-k¤ 5 + ?l=rll, olE=e. ad.g EB 3"f ei}"lal"J ^le
    ?4 ¤e¤ rE +aq r14lol4. ol geg 12.7Aq 7l+Elq 9l+.
    8.5 Lewis +4 l.l7l 343

    olr, {zl +^JEE +tr olgc.Jg gH}s4l ql+6J + gl+.


    7l7l2.1oJ Naclg
    dzl *cs9 il¤ 0l+61+ a.J +EBg rq+-6lzltrJ, 6J Tlzl +dg 7l^)jl gl+. r
    H S.sql +qd dzl gcr Zte ++E 4Is+ tlEl] Hslql +Hlq= aElg HslE i1q6}
    zl *gI+. ql. rH 8.8q^J "J7iq.e+ 4}iE dzl ¤.ds il+ 3.s-1.5:2.0o.tr.
    =q
    ole a6Jg qltlg f gl4(Naclql^J d7l *cE. il+ 3.0 0.e:2.101+). ItI+^.] 4is+
    r,JTlqz(rr)(Mno)9 \|{ol 1842'cola, Nacl4 ,J+ 44 +a= ,*= +4 aill+=

    ^Idg ai E*Izl ?++.


    rElq &+ zJ9 A6Jol 6Jd. olgd.J ag olq+. +Ie+ rrJTlqi<(vrr)
    "J7Iq3e+
    (Mnzo)i q=dol s.e'coJ 54 s4^Jltr, olgColzl!-rl= =o+Col ,]-J s+.JEol+. "J
    7lqz4 4ls} ^JEH Hslz} 4."I9 Esl¤ "J_qa+. "JHI4ee ++q +Is] t4z| +7lal
    E ++^dE +71-6JrI. ++E 4}:4 rJ4zI ,ll+ +e "JE l}(ql+4sE 1a olf)$ zlzl
    E, ol ++"1 El++4 ol+= AEle tlB6l ="+¤g ,*=+= ag ql+g + 9l+.
    = olu Mnzoz4 ?g EzI^d Ee, E=
    trI4^l +g 4IsI ^Jqle ++g olg A,* sl*Eol
    Mno+ 4Cro+2 eI zJ.$ 4flzl olgg ¤^J6JE1.

    ffidl-Ll= 41"c0tl^1 +r, 131'c,tl^l Bts taJ^q riilet, 2320"c0t1^l + +^q -r.^ll7l ?ltt. olE a
    Cr2O30lL, tl= 6lLl= OsO+alE. -tPJ^4 ?^ll= +!olal? qlSEl=7|?
    I

    8.5 I Lewis +A 147.|


    74E s+5JEql^.1 A6Jg olallali. ql E¤¤ iE, tszl9 5dg ¤HB trll zl+ ^t
    Lewis
    +gtt. olel eg ol+E Lewis 74E r4= ag +s-61-Es EIE^I "Jol-E Bszl- 914.
    Lewis ?S.E 3e|b gH

    r. d4l d6l-= rt{+q, E= gz}E gx}7t dz}E i}*+. 4 flz}g i)zlzl dxh=
    ad6l= E¤-ol g+E +7l¤-E=
    EJI
    ^I++rI. *ol¤9 a+, ¤.d6l6l+B dz} *
    zl= rl6J+. oJolgel *
    a+ "Jd6| 6t+.J dx} zl= nBI
    =+.
    qB gzlE+q d^l
    7l eL Tl=zlql r]16ll^l= 4la ¤ $szt S+. + {z}$ zflfu3 +.c6}+.
    z. gzlE 71E-+ s,<lap, q-
    gzpt q!. gzlql aqlg 4..JzlE ul4qzl +16I +g
    Aqls-E oXB flzl$$ gA++(6F+9 Ce F 419 dzl-= +4U+). plql^le E
    zlr-| olgoll,rl fl^l7l gAg +^JElltr a-7\E qI+. ql= plql^l HCN$ *Ltl
    =E
    He+ Nq ¤6Jqq il¤-g r+ElU+. co,'-q sFnq ,J3 4flz} tszl4 olgg +d
    fl4-= oJ E7] Ezlajil. 6d gz}= gHlzleE 6d flzl-E EEl.'(tj1 9l= trlE gzl.
    EH+ zlzl $$uzi 4+= 4* zlqd}+. qE a++ Lewis 74E _a47) dql q
    Y+9 Cs=ol ¤ea14.
    :.6d gzlql aqlg -E= gzlq q6}q gdzl_= gc++. +r= .J ,IE azl.g"J
    714 + 9l*¤ 7lqflai.
    +. gdzlE dzl-b 6d gzlq +b+. ole+ aol B c eal ?d 9zl* gdzl
    =n}6l+
    ol^JE d4-= r*zl g+.
    s. 6d flzltl gA4-= q}+g
    "J+ +'E+ d4¤ *xl *attr +=! ABe-s s^l+
    +. +d gzlql A6Jg flzl.9 + 7l] ol^Jg El++ dxlaJ¤ ^l-.S6lq ol+ e6Jol+
    A}+ a.Jg "J=+.
    q¤- qlTllSol ol 4^"r¤ s+6I= ql E+g aolEl.
    =
    344 85! Al+ z3gol tl! tllLJ

    qF{ 8.6
    Lewis ?t. falzl
    Ar"gtrl oJ(PCl3)ol Lewis +I= r4^19.
    *Utrl
    "tl ti {u}z} pea}+(+aql^J 4
    allr.lE z+zH9 dg 24tE 4^l
    g{lt filg E44-e-E.+Q Lewis +z= f4= E4lol+. +4U4= X9 zl9at4).
    =
    +lq^J ¤H+ s+Al r+49 ole"aJc|.
    :ci_P-Ci
    Eot a4l, flzlz| {z}el ++E 414}++. ql(1s+)3 s7l]9 t"
    :ql:
    $zlz| {zf$ 714q,4 ga(17+)Y ztnq flz}z} {zl$
    ,*=4. trt4^l gzlTt dzt9 +fE']..s4 eq. "nxll, + $zlzl ag 7lq6ln, *2
    zetllof, zt11 dzl¤ #d
    +]4 Pq 9lzl^171tr ga47} $cg+.
    s+(3x7):2a
    E4, qL flzlz| olr flzt"ll ¤49"1 9ltszl-= 44421
    :ci-ii-ci:
    "l
    gzl# 4¤614, r= a*g ffl+.
    I

    :cl:
    +l6}q
    ^plq +"J.JHI4ee
    flzl# Cg6l+ %lBg +"J6I+. 6tzl"J o14 ol +a: r-.= flxlz[ gdzl¤ q]+6]E-tr ol S/loll,t] u[z]
    + c}.JE.q^l Elq4E *q s^l¤ fliz}+plxl g^Sql H 94(9d4¤ E}+6I=4E qe.J ql= +'J aqle drt
    96l] Eqr4q 9lEt. trtq^l e4 4 g^ fl4¤ ¤aq += F zll99 7lq6l4).
    +oJ A6Je_E *4 +48 fg + gl+.
    > .s.* filxtl l
    Cl-P-CI trI.g+ 14 $zlzl ElAq+ dzltl.g ,*zl ?*= Lewis f4
    +4+ qL AoJTl?
    I

    CI
    (cl g4-= p gz}9 El]zl6.t9=zl=
    94, s-="+, "I4+ql =r*Y
    (a) COz O) H2S (c) PFr (d) SiFa (e) a, b, c, d + 6l+ oltl

    +_s_6171 g+. El"J r-ll zl]g cr gztTt gzlql


    p a6Jqq gl > H.5 Slrll2
    ag Bq +: qtr +aE 7l-e" 6I+.) (a) CHzClz9 Lewis *t9lE H zl]9 flzlzl $zlzl \r]
    =
    ,}lrll, +d 9zt9l ¤.J,* 94¤ol gdrl-= EJ+^l7lE+ qYTl?
    Lewis dzldg 4=+. 4 ct flzlzlgdzlE q}+^l7l7l I (b) Lewis +a= f.;-l^19-.

    qru 8.7
    cl* ¤Ef* {i Lewis f3,
    HCNoI Lewis 74E ralll9.

    $}tS
    fa= rzH, +i(r4+)= +zl], ¤i(ts4)i s2119 gztzi d ¤ i 9lo I,-e +^ql= trl ol^.IE dzl¤ Hl];<lg + StrI. "J
    z|= Tlal+. trI{^J gztTl dzlel Aill aj$ 11415:16o1 E ts3 67Hq dz|= 4i$ ${21-5 "J+6}4 ull;la}$ 6
    +. gzl4eE g4# ullzlalf %r-He qE z$\zl \fi. 3 *dzl-E olE + S.+.
    +^= + 7l]E d^l-6}"J 714 + 9lo Ir + .Jtl + ,ll9 +g H-C-N:
    aq+"J r*=+. trI+^l c-H-Nrl ag El]gg Ez]-bal4. u++^J N9 ,* zll9 ul=ofl- dxltrg ca} N .r.1o1q1
    Bg F z$l zli-$! H-c-Nr+ H-N-col+. a Han ^l-so6t{
    ol+ aqlg reJ E+. r4E c9 +flql EIrl¤ flzlzl t\
    ullzl= de4es +"Jg 4o14. +q}^lql^-l gzl-=ol olel-
    71Ei^l -F6IE-tr ++ aqlg rej Eq. ol +a= ce+ N +
    ,Jol u]]¤9"1 91r., +i7i e.tr+ {zl ${ez} *ot
    "l +lq E-+ 9dzl-5 "J+Eltri.
    s+?ol trl+^l ot4e+ rJgg4 +aql^l
    46J+.
    -_oJ+:l+. ^l
    H-cilr:
    /'; '
    --------) H-c:N:
    H-C-N ce+ Ng4ql 4,* gdzlzt "J+qfleq, +a gzt ++lql
    F zl]9 Ailg dz}4zlol+. H gzl= + ,l]el Azl"Jg 7l dxl + 7H7I Hflzlqfl4. ol4ol $ulE tewts +aol+.
    8.5 Lewis +4 -lal7l 345

    >E=qld1 (a) $.* (b) tzl] (c) 2zll (d) zfl 1e1+zll
    Ezlrlol czHNolq. Nol 4= gri 6I+qEI ?ElE EzI > H6 ff|rfl 2
    9 Lewis *45:4^19. gHI= Lewis fsoll,tl ol+ A (a) NO+ olg, (b) CzHa9 Lewis 73E f.4^19-.
    qle H 4"J71?

    qF'il B.B
    trffl1|ol*ol Lewis *-4.

    BrO3-o;3o; Lewis 75E ral,t.lg.

    6H'J 4gc. .Jq ol.$el Lewis +a= relr., d6l= qgg s=


    E_-EtrJ(u+)g z\l! $zlzl 7j,zli= zlz.l:L 9l_a. &A(16+) + *+ql szl6l* ag ++61+.
    E 02119flzlz[ {z]f-z}xlr. 914. olgq 1- d6l¤ rel > .H.= qF{l 1

    6lq drll dz} izlq dzl t 4l= +716ll^] 4l^I6J+. trI4 +4Ie+ olg(of-)el Lewis faoll,r.l Hlaql d4+g P 7l]
    d4l flzlz| 4x} ig z + (: x o) + 1 : 26olq. Soa2-, No3-, "J7l?
    ^l
    co:'- 59 &A& +olgg a+, 1}A 94¤ol +C Hl+ (a) z (b) 6 (c) s (d) a (e) 3

    4 Szt ++lql HHg¤+. Br flzI ?9191 o gxl¤¤ HI]S6I > E= qlrll2


    -a, *.J a6Jg fq!,, Hl++ dzHlg HllSdIE ++g e (a) Cloz-, O) Po43-E Lewis 74E rEl^19-.

    =trI.
    I :O-Br-O: I

    L,[,.]
    E^l t'lsl t=44 ?.L
    Lewis

    Lewis +tE :rzl,tl $z[ E= +gz] olgq dz] EE= ¤B++. trllE= gdz] +4g
    EI+6I= rI+E gHlE Lewis 73E rg + il4. ol +48 EF +zt LIql^J d^IE d
    4l uH¤"ll zl{a}QL ^J4B f 9lzlr}, E= 7l-L.o6J +^71t+6trll 7lq6}zl= ?}9 4,ol
    +. qBl Lewis f4 + qL Aol zl* tst;J7l? 6J TIzl d= *Hg ilzlzl dzl-59'4
    4l1rP(bookkeeping)'E Fsll 4 Lewis 7691^1 4 grlE B^l dtl-= Addl+ aol+. '*
    +zlql^l 5d flz}9 E*l Eol(formal charge)i +zI ql 4aJ dz}lJ¤ + g47I E*6IZI
    {h{ zttl4l TlC6l.S.g 4 4 Hzltl r*r]l q= d6}ol+.
    Lewis 7:E0l^l Efilel E^l E6l= Xlt!61= gE

    r. sE EI3"+(HIA*) dxlE a_471719il6|_r.9= gzlql g*qlEl.


    2. s= a*(+"J AqI, ol+ a6J, dI+ aB)E dHle AElg olE 4 flztql B'J*trI.
    3. 4 g4.9 ¤^l d6]+ ?C flut9 flzlzl dzlfglrJ : flzt.ll g'J6J dzl-fE U4.

    ¤^l d6t:gzlzl flzlg4 f -i(aa* dz|9 i)- Elso# dz}g + [s.rr1

    +s-rI ?9 Lewis +aE T}zlb ^loloJe+


    ol8(CN-)oll^J flzl-=9 ¤^l d6I 4ltg E
    oll E#all ezl.

    [:C:N:]-
    6C c g4^b +2fl$ $zlz| azF= 7l4L+. ^IoloJsl olgE ++ a*ql ezll9 dz}q cgl
    346 88 Ef-+ 7tE TtjE
    =-c'g

    27Hg El++ 4^l7l glrt. cel B^l d4= 4-r(6)-2:-lE zl4I6JrI. Nql ql4^-l= g
    zlzl 1J,zl szl, olg ++ ¤aJ9 dzl67H, AaE Hl++ {x} zz11o1r1. Nq B^l
    ^l-oloJEl-
    d6l-= s-+(6)-2:0ol+. ¤^l d6l-= s^l+ dill olgg trIgr+ ?ol :E + 9l+.
    -1 0
    [:c:N:]-
    d6l-= -E+ t}6IE olgE A4l d6}e+
    4 flx}9 B^l te
    -l.J ag +HdlE. +^"i E
    ,Iel ¤^l d6tel *g golqot afr, ol9e1 A+ B^l d6te-l 6Jg olgE d6t=J4 eq.
    ol{ Ez}{l qq zlzl Lewis +a= rB + 9l+8, B^l A6l rll'dg olL *az|
    'ilql
    q +s-*zl, + qL +z7l trl +^ll+ Lewis +4oJzl= AC6l+ ql E+3 qE
    =+. =
    ol co, EzIg Lewis *3 + 6I+= + ,llE ol+ AElg zlz)t- glq. rel+ tl zl]9 rI.J
    A6J11 el zI9 t+ e6Jg TIT! +E ++q tsdz}4lE "J+g + 9l+. olg fagl 4aI
    q B^l d6l_= 4l{}6ll _BE,

    o C :O-
    gzITI
    d^I 646 646
    - (flx}"il BBg dz}) 646 745
    d6l: 0 0 0 B^l -1 0 +1
    CozE UlC Ezlol!-.E oJ+ Lewis *t l.+ B^l d6lel 6Jg oolqo} Elq. rB+E q
    -
    +471q +^llq} +4"J71? .JHI49E F Zl olt}g Lewis f4z[ 7]+E] trll. trl-3.9 7l
    +g ol+6IE +^.11f, +aE dqB + 9l+.
    9lllE! Lewis +:E tr¤6t71

    1. flzl¤9 B^l d6I7I o4l zltl& Lewis fiz| +^ll6IE+.


    "JHI49E
    2. 471*tE7l flxlql +d6}7r +lzloJ +271, $zl $$uz| zle gzlql ¤.d6t7r
    =
    9lzlE} +etr+ trJ +^ll6J Lewis fsolrJ.
    q4^l Cor9 Lewis +.ai a Hzll +471cJ $.tllalr|. r olf+ 919 zl? r.ll r|4 flzI
    9 ¤^l A6l r*ol solzl ullgol+. ++ A.FI +.J Aqlg 7t1l += Lewis T3i dxll *
    aql Tlqq-71= 6Izl"J, r 7)q Ayzl rli+ *+.
    ¤^l d6IE 'IHe ^Js += Lewis 74 z[+u]l e] z]zlE eAg ql ++6]xlE], B^l d
    617I gzlel d^ll d6l¤ +El4= 4ol olHg Bddl]ot .J+. ¤^l d6l+ tzl qal++
    e+ ee 7ll.Jolq, gztL+ olg9 drll d6t EE= B^l d6}ql 94 aaq= 4ol otrj4,

    flzl zJ9 dzl ¤.Cs ilolel Ae gdE +e s.JEql E"l] ACg+.

    A =+eaJE E:d6r.= ¤;d Extoil^i =+eal flrrer E^r E6r.7r' +1oJ Lewis ?aE g4
    I a e^t rao++El olE =E= ol=ol'J +
    I
    ?,1=71.?

    \-t qru 8.e


    Lewis *.ael E l tat
    utole^lol$+! o;¤{Ncs-)9 zlE:plLewis +6= q34 eq.
    [:N-c:s:1- IN:c:]$l- [:5:g-S:]-
    (a)
    '2J
    +6011^1 4 gxtE E^l E6lE +61^le.
    (b) E^]da|.0] u lAa[G 7|.8 Et'J-d Lewis 74E 01t- zloJ7l?
    8.5 Lewis +-I -lal7l 347

    Ttlff ¤^l d6I= N flzloll glqo}6J+(716 z). o1 F zlzl fl


    (a) ?c ,t49 N, c, s 94* 44 s4l, 44, 6rlflE fl471 49 zla.6tH NCS- olgg Lewis 76=' +"Jql +lzl*
    dzl-= z*E4. *q ¤H* zlt9l ul4 ^ll +aE B^l +a7I +^ll6J Xol 84.
    d6l-.= AIIaIE trIg-r+ 44. > 116 qlrlll
    -2 0+1 -1 0 0 0 0 -1 q-41o1$(So+2-)9 Lewis+a= q.J6}ll :1qe + fl+.
    [:N-c:s:]- tN:c:!il- 1:p:c-S:l- ¤r 9xl9 B^l A6l-z1 aldpt$ +aql^l= p zfl$ S:o
    7l-xl +a EF, ¤^l d6}el !13 ol39 di]l d6I.J ol+ a6Jol
    =^l]6IE7}?
    o) tzil (c) 2zH (d) t\
    ^Jl
    _rol4. (a) oz]l (e) +zfi

    (b) +^ll+ Lewis *3t .JHI4SE B^l d6l9 tlol zirJ >H=qF{2
    Ie tr-E11E z*Al A4elA t). ul+^] 949 faE * olg(NCO-)$,r11 zlzl Lewis ?rz| 71s"6t4.
    ^IoloJ4I
    ,$1f, faz| otHg "J + 9l+. s.oJ s.a¤ql,q Egt 4 (a)
    ^ll
    7}zl9 +a= f4r, 4?fE B^l d6l-= e46}^l
    zlfl, Ng ce+ sql uloll dzl *Cszl r+. q+^'l +E -S. O) q' Lewis ]42| *,tllszt?

    {-.al+, E^l{Bl, ta1l++ ddl


    gzlql 4}El+(oxidation number)E +q4= +49 4zJql^l &El++ ¤^l d6I E+, grlE dzjl dol¤ a+6lzl +
    A7lj6[H+. dz] ¤-CE.9 THHol &E}+A 7lz,7l]LJ oB^1, 44= ae olq+. dzl *cs9 qa3g zlrfxlu1l
    g^tg 4iE1++ sx} zJ ¤{}ol $dal olg a6Jol4r 7}a d6l+ r qgg +^16'J aolzl trll$ol
    4tts 4ola, B^l ^}ap5
    g trlel flz}9 dat9l 6ll$++. + tI++= aC6J trll E= +. aE.ql +q6J gzl_=E tlql4 dzl gds9l ul4 *+
    ++ dzl-=ol $zl $$uzl g4q EB9qol Elq= a A6J dzl-=ol Hl]+q= Xol !*44.J 4o14. :B s.sgl 4
    olq. ql= = gCE=
    .r-J 8.12(a)91^l HCl9 Lewis +a= ^J46il 449*ol, cl9 dzl 3.0olq, +A= 2.1o1+. trI
    =q
    -H-4. tlp++e +q6}7l +16ll, grl 7JE -"+ e6Jq +q6J +^l d7l gcszt y3 cr flz}9 4* 44:.0/(:.0+z.r)
    F zll dzlE dzl grjsz} cl gzlql e.BEl4. ar+zlg. :0.seoJ HlH, HE 4*z.rl?.o+z.r):0.41q1 4B6I= d
    tr cl gxlql szll$ $zlz| dzlzl= zl EsE 7l^141i. a os q^J6J + 9ttrt. 6ll'J esJql= +
    Strqa, +C flx}g ull
    -E-rf {z}zi q} zfl go},'.] cl gz}el a}fl49 -1ol Etr}. + \! $zlzl +q44 9oe ct gzl-= o.se x2e:r.rle9 4
    a gzlE 4*. ol EJBeE a|fl flxlz| dz}Tt s.= ^J4zl z|$ z[{rp g + 9leq. += "Js a}E ct 6C flzi9l
    qE^j,4iEl+= +rol ¤4. ula|{ 0.r8e trJ=| E+rll 94. ol.tr. oJdl Cl fl21q15 s.rr-
    HCI Ll] SzI9l 4* B^l d6l-= tsllC6J A+ql= dzl g "J+9 +E +d6l7t +7lz;lAl q7, HI4.e HE a+=
    cr= a.(Fj ^J4q^.1 a6Jql +qq} + g4q 4r+ 4* 0.r8+ trJ=:g +E oldo}zt +7I6J+(4IE++e+ e^l d6l-=
    d4-= #6}zll trB"Jr|(rH s.rz(u)). clE A+ 77HE E s.z1t3 o1 izf *91 +r+.Je] PEE izlol*,rl"J, ¤xll d
    *¤ d4-= 7}xl7il qE+,6d cr gztE gzlT} dzl-fc+ d= s^lE.qlql= izl fl9l szlolq+: aql +el6t+.
    erll qq, +iq a+ql=,tL rl]E dz}Tt g'&g+. El4^l Hclel ffiz[ EH]E= 4 flz]9 ++ d4ql ql6J d{14
    crrlH flz}9 Bal 461Y44 ool g+. .J 4EE
    ^lla"t4.
    qz'll s.sql^J Hclsl ffizl. E-dE= H

    H H

    (a) (b) (c)

    arg 8.12 HCI E^loll tH-sf (a) uE[+, (b) E^] dol', (c) E^l "JE EE
    348 88 6l-+ 7lE 7flLJ
    =-c'E

    I A++ A+= 0.178-E ++ d4ql 6l]r*


    0.178+, CIE "J4 qEI4 g4= ol+* e+q e.sf.flol zfl$slol, ${
    d-bql, *rl dzl +^"jEE zlloe rJ+q ql+q} +ilql ,* Ezt 49 flzl¤9 ++ d6fzlxjE aq6l +a* + 9l
    tI'J6l +d+g -u_"J4. oleloJ f,r.f$ol gztE d6I ilql +. rH s.l2(c)oll HC1E d6l +sE A+qE AI4I6l-q +
    ql6J ql+4"J +il$ !l*6}zl= o}zltrJ, dzl $CspI da} 4,-l]qq.
    E4 ^lol9 +Zl= .JHi4eE q +4-6I+. gf^l B9l=ol +H g+ +41 : 8.8, 8.49-8.s2,8.86, 8.87, 8.90, 8.91

    8.6 I +"d 1z
    0l+Eel qE EaoE+El F
    7fl9 Hle+ o g^l7l
    EzI4 olgq glq^J, d¤zlsE ACg flz}9 Ell¤g * t zll9 +^Jl* Lewis if4E rJ
    E
    Sdltl= aE g+ 9t=7t?
    ^1tr 44zl9lE 4e4zl ?*3 4*zI 9lq. eE(o3)e + 49 &+-th ,J Az'J zl4zI E"J
    6IE^J ++q11 Belq +zZ r*= Ezlol+(ra 8.13). 4 &a g4+ 67llE gxITI dzt
    E zlzlus s= +4-= 187l]e.l flzltl dzl¤ ,*E+. olAg Lewis f4z[ H]=.{1 + ,llel
    o-o s"J A*r+ t z|]9 o:o 016 A6Jg 7l4o| 4 $zltl E+ gdz|4= "J+Elg
    9"laJ4.

    1.17"
    r\
    rej+ ol +"J +ab +^ll+ +471otr-]trt. ell+6}E dfl4-9-e ++g +ae+= B?.1,
    arB 8.13 e=elE^l+6 + 4E {}i-4}^ + a6J9 z)olzl ^lE +E7l trllEol+(o:o ol+ aqlol o-o +.J
    Aq+tr+ Sg as.E qtr-B+. rel+ Lewis 74E rB ql g+ql o:o AdJol +lil6t
    Eq rg +E ?ltrL

    o4:0,
    + 7l7l Lewis *.aE Ezl9 +a= edal-L ql 9lq +aol 4=J6l7l qlEql, + 7l^l +
    t*4. ol + 7l^l +zz:H ull flz|9 Hllzl= sq6lrll E
    a 7i+ql olL olulz| +^116}zl
    "J6Izl"J, dzl9 Hll^l=,tls 4szll ¤4. ol4aJ ++E Lewis 73E BEl iiE(resonance
    structure)4I t}trI. s=E +e= 4¤61 ¤B6lElE .J+ Lewis *4.E E+ r?].l', oJ
    + %r-6J d¤sE srlaJ4. ol= dr] Ezl^E + +ael ¤t_e__E ¤Eg + 9t+g +qU+.

    ofo:0, '----- .'.6.a\


    ell qB Ezl^b + 7l] ol^JE *4 +z7l peaJzffii olallalzl +14q. EaE e6Jql Hl
    +6lq ¤E6J + 9l+e=J 8.14). +E/qr+ t.+49 E? "Jegl "JzI 4?o14. eg "JE
    +E4r+ u*a4 qlE= .-aJ6.rq +4 .JE= "J=4. +4e 6J 7}zl9 .JiI4AE +ElB
    f S.xl"J, xttq AillCg 7l4L+. +^q EAe gilel F 7l^l 4g ^Iol= S+ Zi+ 6l+
    7.ol olrl4. qE qlE +¤-qolfl+71L+e ql= t +^49 LIEILI= 4ol otr-14. ulafzlzl
    ^]ol= *+ 7t+ +qr ¤Eg + s+. Ezl F
    tr s=r+ ae +zI7[ + 7l7l Lewis *4
    zlzl f,f,alull +^lloJ Lewis fzz| dxll BzI7a91 t+6}al 7lq'*+r 6J + gl+.
    or4 ?9 tsz[{lr]9 dxll dz] H||gg 5 zfl(EE -u olt])9 Lewis *49 ¤,Bs-E -11
    49qot.J+. +4 ErJJI +^1614l, EzlE 4 +E *ae13 += r+oJ 5dg zlzla-
    9l+. ql= 5E e+ +4+ aqt ?Jo17l &^-&^ a +"J ¤qlr+ tI^-4Ii zJ o16 dEI
    I +rJ AE.J F z}l9 F"6J o-o ¤rJ¤ r*=+. E +E +Aql^l ^J46l] HH -s=4
    ?3 EzI +a=, Lewis 7.3 +4q E6IE * zlzl +^Jl+ 7ae"3.E^loJ + S+= a
    8.6 I
    =E
    +^ 349

    olq, qlE Eq eHI ptJ(half-bond)9:B + 9l= +4e fl+. olsl+ 6J4l


    E, de4e-e *+¤ Ar+e+ oJxl6lE+ ¤+s+6lq +4L1lE^1, F ,}]E EF
    rtsoll Hol= c^t gE=, os9 F 8B
    oJ Lewis +4= rq= *HeE ++tr + gl+.
    +aql,(l .F +49 E-oEEj Tlqef oJ^l6t
    ¤E6t^le_
    A e='il^r o-o e-Er='1.5 ¤E6r.7rE -drf. orarEt 7,]LJ'il er6r"E, =71?
    oJ^tqg
    =--J'oe L1)J71.*?71? "Jil-^44
    I e=el
    I =-J
    Z0l=

    +E +aq E r+s qlE^J,


    ^l4
    E^lsl
    =:-J
    Z0lEtl

    rJl zl]9 tE"6J Lewis 74E r*= A& ol$$o:-)


    sb Lat^{

    I r84oll BzI. :i

    [ ,o' l- :O:
    H
    --
    Lo*-.,] 't'*)o:
    I

    l-["iJ (a)
    =oi lx .aE{ lr

    4 +4ql^l flz}9 u|l¤g ,Ja 444 +lil"J +e+b 4q1 a-qa|4. +H +


    aE:aB rll ,tll zlzl +4= Ag gzl¤ol l-E +aql^J +"J6}4l 4q'ap, d ,0.'\o' 'o.a\,
    z]. ullzluJ ffi $olr|. ,rll 49 Lewis ir.4i 5g"614l +^ll4q, ol fa$$ -u

    + qla 4ol d+l .199 dxll +=E 4e44 srlal* aolr, ol"ll rll zl]9 E^l Lfl 8r[ oJETI $
    N_O ?6J zJolE E.J6l-trI. Ell84BE +=6lat. + l-

    No3-oil^l N-o rrr-o aEl^|, sf-d^E ql


    A =-Jg
    No+'1^le.l z-er01 Hl6H^l

    I aa ere.
    gB EzI4 .l3g 4*gl= E.5 TkoJ Lewis 737t t+6I71 sg +
    olt9 qE ^le qE 9= EII
    E gl+. +E "Js 6iE, 6I+ E= + zll +a7| +3trq q G)
    +^llg + 9l+. *sE olq+ ql= E}+rll ¤ 4o14. arH 8.14 +E +4E E
    -Eree.EIl.==E ^le ,iP.=iEg^l
    LfEILt|=
    {!flel +'c ^qeel
    E-sroe ErJg 4q,3tg ¤E6l= a+ Bl+
    6fr[. (a) +^! Eee T=^q+ -r$^qe.] E
    tBg *zl EzL cusu9 Ezl4g ,*E {doenzene)olrp 6l-b eEl+
    -erq_+ -sr 7f^l g^l
    =al
    A= seEI qrffi(aromatic) fzl +ztE A!}g ¤H6I= ql 9lq^l +s-+ 4l
    UEclTltl..
    =4P
    zfe trE-g fi.rt (b) e= E^l= + 3
    ^q
    ^
    Hol4. H14lel oz]] Et gz}= +4e rrl "Jql^J ^Jtr A6Jqq flr, 4 +a E +ael trEEtl. e= E^l'=
    =--Joe
    +4'Uo-" ¤E:Bf + g.tl.
    flzl"i] 6.J ziel +a gz]7r a.Jqq 9lE]. ddlg F ,l]E F."oJ Lewis *4E O 7|Iq Lewis

    7l^lq, ?+r+ *44 +49 El+'Jrl. ol f zlzl +aE +E +4lol+.


    HH
    \/
    C-C
    /\
    -H.-------
    H- CC- H
    \/
    C:C
    /\
    HH
    + +aql^l ol+ aoJq +lil7} +Eql 75ala].. ?+7+4 +H +a= ^ll ,IE +A-+a E
    a*r+ ^ll zl]q +^-+^ ol+ a6Jg zlz]|t_ ql4. :244 q141 7a9l qlql dql4 A
    .J
    r+E E6Iq ozil9 c-c A*E z)olzl E+ FoJsJ t.+o Agg .J f ?i:rll, ol19 c-c
    +"J a6J aol(1.s4 A)4 c:c ol+ A.J 7Jo1G.34 A)9 6zJ <lol4. 4el^l {4lql^J 4
    zJ! c_c aEle +g a6J4 ol+ e6Jol g..Jg aee gtrI(fal 8.15).
    ^J4g +
    Hltlg s.¤61+ TItl "JEI4.J 1lIBe +}ql A6Jd +d g^|= ^J+6Er +ldql
    r14E Bzl *E +i_+i g4"J +4.11= olBol+. ol+loJ HJBeE {dl Ez}9 *
    tlEel 8--"-lrl1 sBotl,'.1 Edq
    e s,rE ,J=arE gEl= +%:A7l? Eg +4.I= "JHg ++!i eol "J+ u.ra} ffi*gl el6|] +Eq: + +ae +4Lllrl
    4, olulH ++6l.4l q4B rr-l .Jql * rl]g gg rEJ^J 't+U+.

    <------) EL

    ole+eg rJ+"J s7l *Eg, Hldlg +z7l F +B +aE s6J ¤44= 4* ttzlrl
    4 ++ aolTlE 611, c:c 016 a6Jol +4 rel 4E +Ce E^l4ql raqq gl
    a rH 8..t5 .,J-d=' +71 gF-JE zl ?++g a=6J+. El44-==g HlalE olfl ES+ 7l-b'* F zlz], E¤g 6J4l oJ+.
    ^l-s"
    ?.! fll{! EIIIE^t= 8q4E= 0t
    E EJ^ fl^I.440il +4 ?^Pl-Lf zlzlt_ ?14. ol4aJ s}E.E=e
    Eol olEl6J {ldlE +4 ael ^Js}E+ Eo}. 9E
    7lI^11
    =--J-st
    -dEHoltl. EdP F
    = =cg+s6}tr}.
    + tsot "t a+ 4E {tql 9lq^J
    AE +47f LlElLfl
    =-d
    q, c_c =:srE=
    E"J Ole
    I
    =--Jol
    67J0 al.= a= =-Er-4
    E ! -Lrtl. Eldsl 4 Lewis 748 C:C 0l= z;5r[.,tll7l|el C:C 016 +
    " I |

    =-sf ^llTt|el =-dE =-cr=


    E:r r1g EJel+^-e 4,rtEat0lt!(C6Hg)01 9ltt. -dl,tfEal'01?!sl Lewis 74E ElE4 eq
    HHHHHH
    tttttt
    C:C-C:C-C:C
    tt
    HH
    dE= E6]l =dl^lEal,0]?19 C:C E-ctol tl= F THHtl *[tl=
    Ttlsl gE + 9ltl
    ^ll
    ol,Ja-l;l:dl^lEalolglol AE +48 TlTltl= "J= AEA6F=7|? =rl-=

    ire qFil 8.10


    -* io{
    ,*ffii oo -f_z
    t+

    So3elSos2- A g-t+ Alc14o+ rl g= Ae o1t- 2loJ7l?


    =:grol

    6tlt 4 A+ql q+ olfl +^ie, s-o a*ol sog9 4* t44


    4I4e+ uffizizl-E, EJg e2119 flzlz| ,*=tr}. E}E^l o.E. Sa, Sor' 9 A+= tqlzl o e A+= ag ++UtrI.
    {zf$
    SoaE 2azH9 flzfzf {zl-$ r*=tr}. Lewis *4.E rq .HE, ol43 Sor9 S_o A6J TJoly r.sz[o]n., Soa2-E A+=
    ril zi]g E¤6J +E +a= rB + 914. l.st AoJ d¤4 Ar+e+.J^l+4.
    :O: :O:
    lltr.-'o. :O: > .H.= qlr1l1
    EI-S tBql q.J ¤H 6 *e ae?
    at'.-o;
    .:o. /t:-o; .:b.
    - a\ (a) *B +aE rg rll, flxt9 gA %r-Bg HI¤ + il+.
    g}9 No: c| rJol, sor9 dxll +a= ol +a=q gd.4 O) g4I olgg 6t+9 zJ N-o ,J A6JJ+ F zll9 4-3
    e+. q+^J 4 s-o ?E] zJolE E.J A{} zJole} o16 d N-o aqlg 7l4EI
    q}eol rb 4E7l E 4o14. ola.g *g aqltr (c) '*B'9 Ezl-5"1 +-s aE+ rIlE ^Iolql^] BBlE4l
    ^Iol9 E ^ls
    4 4.a, ol+ ailql Hl6ll a+. *E6J+= ^J4g LIEIU+.
    so32- olgg 2611E 47'F_ zlzlatr-, -E= s-o allol (d) ol$(cN-)g E 6I+9 +415J +H +aE
    ^lo1ojql-
    +"J A6J"J Lewis 7.a5 +^ll6J +a-E 7}zl4l ¤+. 714q.

    I
    .. -1-
    :o-S-o: l-
    (e) 99 E= ¤Hol *+.

    L,[,] > -H.= qlr{|2


    +41ol$(Hcor-)9 F Tlzl t+* tE +aE rq^ls.
    8.7 I "JE^l+49 qlq 351

    8.7 ltstzl+flel qpl


    gdzl-+zl3 Etlg zle ,IHg izl6}= ql glq ol]+ ++6rj1rer¤-6ll^l s= 3*gl 4
    $ z$alQr. ^J46J + gl+. :244 s.z¤glrl g Hte+ zJol, dol ++q olg a6J El6J
    Eql ql+ 4¤+ 6JAl7l9l+= aql ++6110} .Jr+. Bdzt +4e ="f d6J9 s+'* B
    e A+ql 4+Elzl ?*eq, gdzt +]E qelql= r|-Sq ,tll zlzl +¤ol 9ltf.
    r. g-fzl]9 dzl-= r*= EzlL+ 4flzt ol8
    z. szll-H-4 49 gzl.z} dzl-= r*= g4¤s ol+q{ Ez}+ +flZ} olg
    :. szll_H-4 B.g gz[7] d4-= r*= g4¤E ol+qtl tszl+ 4fl2[ o]9

    E#zlf o; talE 7l1?3+


    aE ql+EE +^l+ 4flzt olgE A+, {;ll flz}z}dzl-b a}fzllolr., dz}E$ Sd6l
    AJg ol+I 9lq. rq+ ClO2, NO, r.ror, Or-et ag
    "J+ EzI4 4fl2[ olgE=* flzlzl
    44zl E+7floltt. olel+ C*{l d{¤ol Ed6}rll a}g ol?= 49 Ezl-L"tr S"J o}q
    el4 flzI ++lql gdzl +zlol "J+g + HrL ql= Eq NoE s+6:rlZlE flzlz} d
    zlg zlzl{, ol Ez}E z}1i feal f Lewis +a= q+4 A+.
    N:g e+ l-'t:g

    tr
    eJ7.Pf
    E4 EilE4E -trtfltr -g tttl, Noel Lewis 74.E q! '2101
    tl +^11-d7[?

    azPl87Htrtrl 4¤- 'd+


    gdzr +4q qgl + + Hxll +¤g gz[ EE 4fl2] olg Lilql^l aJ flzl ++]q gz[7]
    4^l7l szfl-E_r| 43 3*"14. olfl A ? Hli4 EEr.(olul !$oJ qlE +ie+ gEg
    =
    a+= xllelap), rlE q+E Bie+ tsllgE E[6JEq^] gag+. ql= Eq E4ol=+e_
    fln+ ti(BFr)= ^J46ll pz|. Lewis +a= rel= r+C + a +^l+El ilqlqlE rzl H
    E +^ g^I ++lql 67HE A^ltrJ 4*r+ +2 +z= Eg + 9t+.
    =zlld}=
    :ii:
    I

    ;!aB)r;
    ol faoilrl s4 19 B^l d6l+ 0ol+. ol+ a6J9 ^Jcg F6}l B4 ++lq 87H9 dzl-=
    Ellil6J +E 9l+(+d gzlql gdzl¤
    "JE + 9l= ++6J 4zlzl S+8, r-l+ AaJol B-
    g + 9t+= x9 tzlal4). r+zl 6tE 7l4E #l" 6J +H +2.71^J¤¤+(B^.] d6r
    ^ll
    5 S34 "e +EI4fl+).
    'F*' :F':o :F:o

    ,;iagiF:p'-?qrl]p'.,- ;ril(nl'
    ?++9 Lewis *5.E E+ s=+9.fl g^ls 6Iq+ +4 gzlel +71 4^l* :il" +6rE+ +
    4. aiz1u3 olae *+eflg +g d7l +cE= r4dl .H-E olae *zl s4. d^ile B
    d6l= ol*l+ +4714e6J lol olH¤ "J6ll r+r+4 Lewis 7491r.1. n:p oli
    ^l =trL
    a*g 6l+ F flzl9 ¤^] d6t= +r"J H]H, ^]q4sE *g dzl g^dEE z*E s flx]
    I ¤^1 d6I= -1ol+. IrI+^] B:F 016 a6Jg 7*E Lewis +a= Bi ++lql szl] ,l"J
    352 83 al+ 2:alg )lE )flE

    9 flzlz} dzl-= r*= +aB+ E +s.6I+


    'H' :ii: :ii:
    F:

    B\
    I

    .-B-.
    I <------)
    tt .-;ij'or,
    :.\1 F.: i{: --F ,")r,
    EiBdol
    =
    74 ?^ EIBdol +3
    -E-E BF3= seg 4l ,J 949 +81+ +B +a"Je.E 444Eull, olrll +^ +flE g
    zltl $zll62fl$o1r1. BFr9 444 ,l# ol S.d4 "Jzl*+. BF3= oI4 H]¤-zlH
    +iel =q
    A6JE+ + 9l= Hlr"f d{{rg zttl Ezte| 4¤61 Hls"+El.
    H F HF
    tt
    H- N:+B- F H-
    tt
    N-B- F
    tt
    -------+
    lt
    HF HF
    olq6.J .Ja.J s+*E(NH3BFrq^l +A= szflg glzlz| dzl_E ,*=rt.

    flzlz I .l.zlz I 87HHtrl


    .Jg e+
    gd4.4E qle.l + ^] H4lolE^l +Be B4 E= 4fl2| olgg oli=
    7l-8 g:e qel
    Slzlel flzlz} eeql azH_E_4 E+g dzlz[ :l= ?*"14. q]= 5q PF5$ Lewis +z=:a
    g ql, 6dfl "J flzI +$lql 107HE 4^l7l9lE+ dzl¤ HIguIot'*+.
    :F
    .. I-t
    :F-P-
    " | -ii
    :E:

    6d sz} +Eq 848 a+61= dzl-$ ,*: Ez[+ olgg 4gz]4(hypervalent)r].7


    6J+. olgE +c q= srn, AsF6-, rcln-olr;. NCls q oFaq zJol 6d
    =g^I7I +zie+
    flzltl 2rtzl $zlof, afl471+rt+ olge sE4.
    4flzlzl Ezl-= +c flzt7l-+7l-&E^Jes_ 3+71E= r o}4g trl]+ ^Jcg+. olq6}
    =7i]6l.zl

    +*¤ Ezl-=ol ^Jcq: ?¤ ol#= flz}9 a7171tlq4ee =zl rll-golu|. q1=


    =!d cl)e+
    5q P flzli szfl$ F flzKdxl"lE sTllq A6J6llE zl+il4l 44ollzlzl ?+g "J#
    +E6l r+. HlEql N gz}= srl]q AElg flzl-E +&6[zlql= LJ+ z]+. a7)716[+9
    Eiolzl ullEq, aflzlzl tsztE +d gzITI F, cl, oel 7Jo1 a7)7l ql+ zlr dzl *d
    E7I El]+ gzte+ a'*B trll +E "Jsqdq.
    =
    Hzlzl44ol gdzlE ar+6J + 9ltrI= ,l]Hg, izl&etrgtr 3+71E= r ol.4ql
    9l= gzl¤ol Hlq fl= nd sHlE¤ 7l^la_ 9l+: ^id4 g7l++ -..,(s.8p). olql Hl
    611 2+7lE ga: zs* zp gziTt sElBEJg a-Jql pFse+ SF6 zJ¤- ts4-59 ¤
    ^F&++.
    6Jql 4,* olE4 g+E pe+ s gz}9 Hl 3d stslgs z$zlzl EzIg Bcql tlql4eE
    ¤6}ol +tr}= ag .J^l+E|. ql+EE ElutzF=¤ flzll, :-6?71 g4EE a7l7l r+L
    ^Idol,
    Blq 9l* d eulgq agrldg ¤H6I= ql q +s6}+r. er il+.
    qlzll
    =zllE+
    8.11
    87il8 a!+Efb EzPl tr,fE *t Lewis ?4.
    lcl4-el Lewis ?4.E ralllg.
    nfi.J (rz4) flzl-=. 74== 7*Yr+.ICl4= 1- d6l-= z|41 ol$ol
    ololsH(rz=)! zznq :J.47l d4¤ z*ts4. 449 gA u + Qt zlel dzlE +7t6llo} aJc|. _zeilr e {;ll flz}z} {
    8.8 3+
    =-cfsl ^ll7lel
    e0l 353

    zI9 fb t::ool4.
    t + (+xz) + ololeEg ffl9l rzzle1 dxlE T}4EE gd^IE+ dz}
    ol*9 6d fl4+ r flzlol4. 4 cl g4ql 87H4 d4¤ Hll zi +zfl c'1 gr1.
    zl6.}E(r4 ct ,rtolgl +.J e.Jg s¤af= + rdlE dzl¤ E > jd.= qEtl
    sx4:3244 {z}z} $ea}c}.
    +6ll^J) 4* Ezt* ol8 6d gzI.J s"ll t zl]9 El="#
    =t9l11
    A+ tsg 4^E 36-32:40lEE ^Jqzlee = olole{91 dzttlg ztzla 9lE 4¤?
    (a) SFr O) SF6 (c) SOFa (d) SF2 (e) SOr2-
    47HE dzl-= Hllil++.
    > !16qffi2
    (a) s, c, P, Br, I flzl6 9E 4ol szflts-r| *g fl47}
    [,p<Eil $zl3 zlzl ?+= ae?
    (b) xeFz9 Lewis *4.E rel^lg.

    ulzluJee, gdx} +4g "J+61+ Lewis f.3e-l-gdxl¤ ar+6tE^l $zl {a}el ullzl
    zl *fl +a
    ^Iolql^l
    dqg 4ot 6l= 4lzl gl+. qE Eq .Jt ol.g(po,3-)el rewis
    +a= ^J46il trzl..
    .. T .. 1 -'13-
    l:O:l
    1

    :O:
    l*r..-r
    :O-P-O: lo.. lo..-,
    I O:P-O:
    I

    :i I -,"
    I

    :9:
    L ,dr' ]
    flz}9 B^l A6l+ Se4_q_tr E^lqq 9lq. g+ +aql^J p flzl* tsd4. +zlg "J+
    6lzl"J, e_¤+ +a= p flzlz} szlel dzltlg
    TIzlH^J B^] d6[7]
    ^Jql4etr 4e t]ql
    olrf(-e-gf Lewis f4oll qal] +z]-+ 3zl]g +H +=;l9l4= ag .J + 9l+.
    :*o,r4-==9 olzlE por3-91 4qI +lE + +a + ql
    {ol f,rllaJz}ql ql+ 849 Bol
    11 9lr+. al=E oJzI qq|g olE4t 4ltlg u[greE 9p ¤74s=3 g+ +
    *
    zzl cl +^ll6tEl-rz +t}J+. =48
    +E ¤+4-E=g olg rll9 Ei] zJol= r46J Ell. 9E4 +
    +tI++. oleT]l tlHig e_lag qq 'lle.l Lewis frz|
    Z71q +^116}+r. gztl+ ez} Lil

    9 ¤x] dr} EEq Tlqg + 9l+= d¤ trzlrl4 i4.

    8.8 I # rJEJsl
    ^llTlsl
    ,Jol
    BxlE qlcce E4¤ol 4E a"* ad|el ^]I7le} *¤ol glE}. +?-l= sttgld "te +g
    a.Jql ql.J s+ a6J $gylE +a.J + gltrI= ag E*tr}(s. s.a). s s.a= {zloIr.J E,
    8.3e-tr +^l 6JH Hl+g+. sql^l g + 9lF"l, trI=! a6Jg "JHlzleE +"J Aqlq Hl6ll
    ,.16I+.
    ¤+ Ael $girl= qqg + 9l= ax]H, gHl4t "*g ="+9 a6Jql ql+ ¤+ At}
    a"lE +48 f li4(s 8.4). gul-tss d¤ olrl.J flzl a}"llrl flzlzJ a*ql q+
    =61
    a.J flgrl, ¤aJ zJol, a6J+ rJE tl++zlol+. qlE
    =q
    +i-e^ +"J a6J, ol+
    a6J, d+ aq}el a6J qlBrje+ ¤oJ ?olE Hlj/B *. s.r4 s s.ag zl.EEu11 +
    ^l-.$6J
    el+.
    C-C C:C C-C
    r.sa A r.:+ A t.zo A
    348 kJ/mol 614 kJ/mol 839 kJ/mol
    354 g3 6lqf 'J -sfg 7lE 7H.J

    x.8.3 ¤+ etl ?lEJtrl(kt/mot)


    u= 7l*[
    trloI
    =E
    C-H 413 N-H 391 0-H 463 F-F 155

    C-C 348 N-N t63 o-o r46


    C-N 293 N-O 201 o-F 190 CI-F 253
    c-o 358 N-F 272 o-cl 203 CI-CI 242
    C-F 485 N-CI 200 o-l 234
    C-Cl 328 N-Br 243 Br-F 237
    C-Br 276 S-H 339 Br-Cl 2t8
    C-I 240 H-H 436 S-F 327 Br-Br 193

    C-S 259 H-F 567 S-CI 253


    H-CI 431 SBr 2r8 I-CI 208
    Si-H 323 H-Br 366 S-S 266 I-Br 175
    Si-Si 226 H-I 299 I-I l5l
    Si-C 301

    si-o 368

    Si-CI 464
    r L= 7i;l
    "t6 =H
    C:C 614 N:N 418 O:O 495
    C=C 839 N=N 941
    C:N 615 N:O 607 s:o 523
    C=N 891 S:S 418
    C:O 799
    C=O 1072

    E 8.4 UoJ, ot6, tA EEq B+ ?jrJ 'Jol


    71 l e0t(A) )7Zl
    AH eB z0t(A)
    =H
    =a
    C-C 1.54 N-N 1.47

    C:C t.34 N:N t.24

    C=C 1.20 N=N 1.10

    C-N 1.43 N-O 1.36

    C:N 1.38 N:O t.22


    C=N t. 16

    o-o 1.48

    c-o r.43 O:O t.2l


    C:O
    C=o l t3

    Ea gz1 ?J 4.*+71;!71-6Jql q+
    flBq= +7[6[r, ¤B zJolE A4++.
    a6J
    olag +^ gz|7} 4 211341+lil6l_rz, tlE ,Jql trl+ q ,J6l4l Ealr gl¤¤ LtElu
    trt. g+4etr + gzl
    ^lolel A*itl +4ilq 44 aBe
    z)olzl d.olzla q ,&4d
    4. N-N +.J A.J, ol+ AB, q i[+ e6Jql q]+ ol3l,* ao]g f.al 8.16q1 ++.]]fl+.
    8.8 301 355
    =+ =-Jsl^llTlel
    N-N cJg e-drl016 e-dol E¤-.J TlqE 61.= 8E +^0ll ?,101^.1 N-N e-cr'oll rflEi eg
    g!=JtrlE qE6i^le.

    1000
    N:N
    900

    800
    =o 700
    E

    J 500
    Y
    H
    ilru 500
    a N:N
    fin 400
    flru
    300
    4
    z 200
    100
    N-N

    1.10 1..20 1.30 1.40 1.50


    N-N Zot(A)
    =--J
    AfB 8.16 E^_E rJ,JEtoill1g eole] EZI
    =-Er'^ll7le[ =--J

    qFll
    F ¤-E!I
    .a.6t 7UL{
    o H'llo

    {l1il +7le ,t[EE +'\d!(phosgene]8 gttrl EJ*etg4 Tlitlel E11$"lo+ HJ3^14 ilg-e-e:El
    d6ll
    ^'ll4ltHE0{l^l
    ,-^I7l =7l
    [llE0ll r=l1l EBElfltl'. r
    =-JE=
    0lE3 rel.\o'lel phos("!)e] genes(eHolt-lct)0llll +46tfltt. +.\{!el 34 zsd HqEEP
    EB 7l=eE C 12.14o/o,O 16.17%. Cl 71.69%0ltt. EtraJA 98.9 g/mololcf.
    (a) ol a[-glSolE^14]= +6l/.19.
    (b) -E= fl^l7l'EJd^l +4= PJ+6|t=E^fq lll zfxl Lewis +4= ral,\lg(ClalO fl^l'= Cel
    =-sr-dtf).
    E4
    (c) E6l"= olL Lewis +47178 ?All-d aE^l
    ^l'e-6lq =86t119.
    (d)gil 0flLl^lE coklet cr2(s)E+El Tlill +,^{!e-18¤ HJ8oll rH-d aH= zl{l6l'^le.
    =:d ^l'E6lq,
    6tlU

    (a) s^d9 de4g fli 4C-o.tr+El +g+ + 914


    ,,-t-, +qlEol4n z|{alrz,
    (3.5¤). roo 99 ol E6J
    E 6 c, o, clE E+E 4lt}tl+.
    4 E+E r+ 4*Alse ++q ++ 4 g^9 5 (rz.t+ se(##) : r.ou mor c
    +Hl:, F zl]9 oq ql6lq oJ 419 ce+ oJ 7l]q o
    zI 9l+= ag +4llla, q+^l dEal"l cocl2oJ
    g"J+fl+. (16.r,sol(*ffi$) : r.orr mor o

    de^lE Ee"*g tszte}4 7JZ rz.or+16.00+


    2os.4s):e8.9r g/molol4. trIJ}^] cocl2z| $zlal (7 t.6s er:\(*HH) : 2.o22 mot cl
    ol4.

    (b) Ei= C4.E 6z1], gi= zzll! $\zl $


    +zll,
    z|= TtzlEe, Lewis +aql dzll ++e+z(7):24
    zH9 dzl-= r*=+. E+ +J ¤6JS 7*E Lewis
    +r= rEl BE, +d +a g^t= gdzl-= "J :o: :o:
    +6txl *6J+. +6 a6Jg "l+6ffl q*9 ^ll .. il t..
    zlzl ]4tl gdzl +4g "J++g g+ 91tr1.
    :Q.l-C-C..1 + CI <-------) :Cl
    -C:C.J
    356 8Af trl+ 7lE 7HE
    =Et"l

    (c) 4 gzlE ¤^l d6l-= Al4l6lH trIs-r+ A+.


    4 i)zlzl7l-61 4Ig e^l d6l-= z*zl uilE9l, a H4l .. 1
    :o: :o: :o:
    +^71 7l* +_s-B +as q+g+. dxlle tx41 g ..0 ll o ..0 ..*, lo ..0 o lo +1
    zl+ BE ol Lewis +4E ++U+. :Cl-C-Cl: H
    9J:C-QJ: H CI CI

    (d) szlE Lewis f+? +qL HI¤.^lg r E trls=r+ e+.


    :C:O: + :Cl-C1: --------) :Cl
    IIl4^] ol *¤¤ c=o aql4 cl-cl aElol B"lzlr,
    ei zH9 c:o At}4 F zI9 c-cl aoJol dC¤+.
    *.8.3e-l a6J qLlzl= ols-"o|fl AH : [D(c-o)+ D(CI - CI)] -[D(c:o) +zD(c-cl)]
    : lroTzkl + 242k1) - 1799 kJ + 2(328kJ)l : -141kJ
    ol Hl*e gg HI+.JS 7-qalzf. reqlE E+6Ir
    ol Hl+ol .J"l4zl +16ll^l= 4oJ Hol+ += qlqzl
    gg 5i6il qlHzlz} ="#qqot alEcjl, :43 Hzk)ei
    ozre)zl ¤ao1q H2o(s)E ^JC6t= a+e} a+.

    eEg6stq
    EF4 e-st, Lewis 7lE "lgdll ++l(^1E, 8.18) ol *ql^'lE il e.l
    ^Jdql +q6lb^1. H
    zll9 dz}Tf EEi* drla(E= a.g Erl
    =t ?lEf(chemical bond)9 Bd6t= tlE ++ql
    =dg *+fl4. S(nonbonding electron pair, lone pair)) o E Bof 9lEzl$ oJ +
    +E e*g f4l ^,ll a"FE BF9I4. oe EE(ionicbond)g Hlql tl4. BdzI +4e + 9zI zJ aql+E AA6F= q 13+:6I+. 6J
    d6l-= 7It olg5 ^|olq Cdzl4.J 6Jol4. g+ eg 49 dzl*J9 ++6|= d3 're f,E(sinsle bond)9 ol+n, +
    =^H6l=
    (covalentbond)g + gzl.Tl- dxl-= 3o-+ol{ ol-folzlr-. Ea g7.I
    ^Iolql F
    1l Eb Zl9 dzl-trg 3"S6lE 7+4 oE 4A
    =+ ^-ll
    ol+ aB4 ,d.
    (metallicbond)$ -o4 g^Iql fl= dzl-59 ul¤2110*e$el Bd (doublebond)4 +t= ealt.iplebond)9
    ^JC.J+.
    sEl. a.Jq B^J3 g^l7l-
    dzl4b 9zl9 494 dzl-59 tta + a6Jg flzI zJ El-6 Aq}g qlol+. + flzl ^lol9 eq} eol=
    ++9s ol+q{E}. 6J gztE $z}zl. {2ffi sBg trll Lewis 7l + erJ ?l?-lE +48+. ¤{} zJolE F flz} ^}ol9 eq}+7l. +
    E(Lewissymbol)e|-r161-: dr+d 7lE= g^l¤g gd 7I6Jql Ei+ +^6JtrI.
    ^l-s-o++.
    rlf*l(octetrule)$ n[=71 9]oll flzfz] dzlE ?|4 *+d+q.
    e-d +¤ "J d7l gdE(8.4tr) ++ a!+"Jzl4s" 321-5o1 ;
    ol +49 Bzf+ olgql fl= g^l¤ol azll$ flzlz| dzl-E z*E
    gz}
    ^lolql^] f,-f6}al ++qzl ?*g +E 914.
    eEI
    4."14. =c(bond
    polarity)p 6l+el a6Jql,tJ {z}z} ¤+6lzl *]?9zl *= ag
    018 olg a.Je aj flzle.$el += g^[s sd6]rl EJ{}+. EC 8+ 3t}(nonpolar covalent bond)oll.tl A'*ql +q
    =-d(8.2tr)
    d^t7| olti6.J ¤4q_lrll, d6l-= E oJzITI +Zfg 4^l +eE dd 6J d^l¤e + gzlql *56}rll *#9zls}, =+d B+ flE(polar
    aJ4. olSC EAel
    "JAC3 6J olgr+ r olg +9lE Eq4-= covalent bond)$ q! 6J flz}9 dz}.ll Eilr.J oJqol qE flzttr
    HlEll +s9 d6l= ts olg ,J6J adTl .Jqql Eql 439 qq 4I+"J+.
    ^LolE =.ril
    4. ol tE t49 =zli 4rlolt-1xl(latticeenergy)E BzlqErll, ro+6lb dzF= A
    dTlEtlE(electronegativity)+ trIE g^Ie+
    "lg 4zl-= Tlill tlqlE olg-s.e Er.l6I= ql ge+ 9luJzl= "J zJ4eE EqBTl= bqg +4.IE +iloltrl. EFgflg dzl
    'El+. olg 46171 +7V;lA+ olg ,Jq 4471zlTlgE 4xI 9l gdETI 7l* gioJEll, +E gzle+q dxl¤ Eq*zlb t'
    LJzl= 7ltltrt. Born-Haber *S(Born-Habercycle)$ f+6J gq =
    4ol zI"J =+= ag 9oloJ4. dzl *Cs ilg cs9 0.7q1^.1 F
    qt4 ++ 48 ge,tJ, {x} ollulzl.i Hess E49 ol+6}q olg A 9 a.otyzlE B+lE zf+14. d7l *dEY +Tlgsql^l ?J+ +71
    ti pltlEol ^}^JEl= qel Elzlql^Jq qlq^15 EL6lq 4ltql+. "J A+ 'JHl4eE
    g+q^l e-E-a--9E ,J++ +7l6la, rJ? +
    g A+ o}4tr r.ilEja+E A^o.Jtrl. AiI gzlE d7l SdE ilb
    8e
    =-s'(8.3tr)
    t+ e.Jg g^I aql g1I7I a7,h= ++4q a6JE +Cg a48J Ell ol+el + 9l+. r ifz| g.;. aq}e +
    ol+qdE+. EzI 49 dz} tsg= Lewis ?E(Lewis structure)
    E Ee'J f 9lir], ol %LBg E6l] q zflg flzfz| dzlz| BEI dol4.
    ¤i9 HJ34l 357

    $I(polar molecule)E o}d6}e+ gd6tE +dol oJil6}zl


    {fl ^ll6J
    Lewis +aq}-e.E .trtr6}7l7l4e6}xl *g EilE 9l+. ol{
    ?*= szlolE}. +d ts l-= olda14gr+ gd6l +sg ,*Y 4e a+ r B4-= ¤Bts Ell, r tszlq ql6iq F 7ll E: r oll}el
    -e ¤BB + 914. olfl'J d6I E?]E. F-r(dipole)E Bdqq, 8El ?E(resonance structure)= oil=.+ Ezl^E qq +B
    ^l-&6iq,
    a- 3-71+ g'=-& sElE(dipole momenOq q6l] ACqq +9= +4E g+_e._a'l4u+. e+(o3)ol+ #zl tsz}"J {dl(cuHJ ¤
    debye(D)o14. d6I7I +el 449 62191 tr+4,F
    E4E aEe+ ,Jg ¤E.J q *B +a= +,qd-q.
    z| E-H]E9 aTly 4^14184. xe+ y g^I7l-^le qE dzl -s
    EEII +=lel qq(8.7E) gdzl +4ol E= a+q 4+qzl=
    dEE 7le ql, x-y olilzi $zfi *c Ezfz}84. *=+. qlelel A++ q^gr+ rJ4. (a) gfzll9 d4¤ r*= tszL
    ql++E a*e ++ aoJr+ ols a+E ++ acg
    ^Flql^] (b) +4gr-Bl3 d^t +sE rJ4l6f^l gra^J= gz} +9lq gd
    trl.. +++ El?+ rJE a6JE A+, olg A'J Bqe +^116}rll +
    trL (c) 3 sz| +gql +n d7l gc4.J g^I
    4+E 4ol ,\[{o]zlq}, gzl rJE dzl *cc i}7} z}rj+ ++q ^l¤ sc6}^l *"J
    5ol *ol Eq.,4q 87llE ar+61+ 7l^l7l :7 ++lql +eq= a
    &s* *4lzl- e 4+ qlETl-+xll6}zlE.J+. + Fol+. gdzl-= an+61-b Lewis 74E iTlgEql^l 3|zl o1
    Lewis ?6:1el7l H EB +5(8.5E,8.69 9zl¤ol ^ls qB t9 flz}"llrl +++4.
    ,I SAq=^I "J + 9148, 'Jrl"J 4Ag 5dl f Ezl4 ol99
    =-3 +.J* o"+ e* Belql 46Iq B
    Z0l(8.8E)
    Lewis 73E rg + il+. ol ?9 Lewis +4ql^l 4 g^I9 EAI =-del ^llTlet
    + ¤.J flBqE +Ae| + 9lEI. "J+4ee +e eqlg ¤+ a
    Lr6](formal charge)$ a8"J + 91trI. ¤^l d6l+ s= $zlzl z;
    d. tBqi E"J ¤Be.l B+ A.J tBqtrEl r+. gz} rJ aq}
    3 dzl gCE= r*=+b zla6}ql^J flxlz} z*i d6l-= "J+4. fz}6zI6J9l trI+ + flzI zJ ¤+ ad. zloli zJaop., ol= a
    gEI4eE TI^L +^jl6J Lewis 7r*, H+ d7l +d4.J gzl¤ q ,.l4xl: a4.Jil++.
    E-e]
    ol -9E ¤^l d6l¤ 7I^lE^J 7I+ *g B^l ddl¤ r*= +aol4. ^.ll717I

    qlEE 5a6J B^I(E= olg)9 +eE -Ed6J trll, * zlzl9 *

    6J+ Tel ot BE E+El +'tt qat=e q¤E:s + elolot -dtrt.


    . fl^Ie+ ol$$ Lewis tlst3 ¤ + 9l+(8.1¤). . Lewis +ae.+q B^l t6l-E 4l4l6}j1, B^l d6l-= ol+6lq
    +E ¤+ +-41 : 8.13, 8.14, 8.19, 8.20 tsxf4 ol¤9 $.rllfl Lewis +aE 4Hg; flc|(s.s¤).
    . 4xI glHzl= olaNop., ol$$ 7la6fq 44 ql +A S+E4l:8.4e,'8.s2
    =zle| dalql
    Ll^l7I +7161+ +^'lE cltlE-g +gg + 914(8.2B). . a6Jg ¤B6l+ Ell +B fe$,<J-$flot 6l-= E^l¤¤.
    ^lB.g
    +¤ S+E4l: s.2r-s.24 + 9l:1, +41.J +E +aE rB + 914(8.6e).
    . g^IE {x} ullzle} gd^l. +zlg ol+6}q, tsz}g dz} eEE +fl g++41:8.s3-8.56

    ACB + 9.lE Lewis +48:zB ; 91r|(4.:9. . gd^t +4E qlelE Elsi6la, gd^I +49 ++^l7lzl *c-
    +fl S# E-41: 8.3s,8.36,8.47, 8.48 qlqlE C++ Lewis 73E rB + 9lEt(8.74.
    . dzl *ds il¤ ol+6}q ++^J ++ AEt, +C o"+ Ag., ol +E g++.41:8.63,8.64
    e eE}g ^lE'J + 9l+(8.4e). +H s+ E4l: 8.37-s.40 . a.J ¤4(+"J, ol+, Aa, aEr.rilzl(Ei flBirl), Et] uJol
    . d'¤4 o + +Ag ;d+^I EHIEeI eE. ,Jol= f4g, olflz[ +4lE ql+"J+ 914(s.s¤).
    ^IolE
    E^lE d6t Br,lE 4l4I6J + 91tr|(8.4a). +¤ g+E4l:8.7r-8.74
    +A g+ E4l: 8.43,8.44

    -=.o Hl'e-/'l
    E O -
    O!-
    - *QrQz
    . za: Is.a] trn $..a"ap F d6}el ul¤l¤ glulzl
    il
    't":Qt [a. rol
    u|e{!E
    .B^l d6I: flzltl !zl-)(a6J dz})-Hl¤L+ d^I la.rrl B^l d6}q Ael
    358 88 el-+ ):6Je1)lP )lL=

    oJ+ +all
    tso.tr _H.= 7]lE 8.s 4* Lewis +aql^J, A, D, E, q, x, ZE +Tlgsq z.l¤.
    8.1 +S 4 Lewis zlE9l ql6ll, 94. x7I +61+ +Tlgstlq + + +zlE g^E¤ +EI4a 9i+. EE Szlel ;Jal {a}z}
    g r^^19. [8.14] 0ol q= 94 ozHE E+ +e_^le. [8.3¤]
    (a)'X' O)'x' (.) :*' :E: X
    :A-D-Q-Z
    .. il t

    8.2 rl* zHe Hl zlzl o1g A, B, x, yel tL44?1 0lg HlzlEg


    z+9 d6l-= trl=A, l+9 d6l¤ lrl= Be+ A
    +4.11j1 914. 8.6 +g rBg ole& -EzI(HNoJe+ olp,t! ol$(No,-)9 "l
    3"JA6h=B¤4qoe +4,11fl4. l-9 dal=4bx, z- 9C Lewis +aE .H-q +n glEI. [a.sd, a.ea]
    q dq-= 4i ve| Ag gd6l+ +¤4 o e (a) gs'J dzltlg a7l.4q Lewis +rE $C6I^le.
    '144fl+.
    t8.2¤l (b) ol F qqlEql^l Nel ¤^l d6lE rJgTL ofuls r]$zlz
    (a) 9L olg=el a.Jq^l ololgr+ g"lg9 EITI l:loJ ol (c) HNozei Noz-f 6It+71+E +aE .H-oJ aol+ ql^Jg
    g a+ElElEol SC¤ + 9lE7l? + il=71?
    (b) (a)91.r.19 eoJ 6 7l* 4zl qlHzlE z*b ol3 atl (d) HNo29 N:o a6Jol Noz-9 N-o a6Jql El6ll Azl,
    Eld¤ol ^JCq= ae? = g}gal, egzl= q+61^le.
    2- H-O-N:O O-N:O

    o
    1+
    1-
    o
    2+

    o 8.7 qE +++d +^I9 +84.J Lewis 74b +q=4 A'l.. $


    dt Lewis +4ql^.1 4 eA flzl+ Bd^l +zlg "J+dlq,
    A B X Y EzI4ql ul*fr dz].tt3 H+. e^-ts^ eEle t,2,30
    fBg 'ea+9 E +E},.llfl+. [a.r¤. s.sd]
    8.3 trl¤. NaCl(s)9 0J5+-qE, 4 0lgg Hg
    (a) tszl4 +4 gzlE H 7l1"J7l?
    -e.-*^lqq ql4(rB 8.4 +4). l8.2dl
    (a) 9L 4E *ol rE olgg 444Ezlr
    (b) +4-+4E A6J zlolz|
    f;zlal$ +^l4e +g6}^ls_.
    O) qe +ol g+ olgg 444bzl?
    (c) E4-t4 a.J + qB aol 7l* TtolAl A.Jqq ")+71?
    ^qq
    (c) sB olgE a+, P 4lE gal= 44t]|4 tn zI83 zI clcacSc
    ^l}.7l?
    8.8 xz| :izl(Na-Ar) fl^oJ +fl^IC llc} +olgql ql+
    (d) sH olgE a+, H rlle.lHItstlE !$$tlzlitl2 Lewis *3E B^I. dal d6l. rg t -91.,.1 2-, 3-e-
    ^J46ll
    (e) (c)9 gq= tE z}+el *e (d)E *B *E 4+q t} ut+2il qH 7|zlel +E EtgzI^J olgg E9 + 9l+. 4
    ^ll
    .H.4 3zI, 4&zl? "lgql qlql (a) 6C gx| xS *s^le-. (b) 6C flzl x9
    (0 ol4+ olgE Ag 4Hol olilgoe ++ eI^J¤41 zI B^l d6l-= +6}^le. (c) 6C flz}9 ¤zl {o}z} 6ol q3
    cEi'L 4zt 9lHzl atg +n= olqlzL *oJzI? Lewis 74E ral^19. [a.s¤, s.0¤, s.zd]
    L 2 J
    I :o:
    fr-

    1..1..
    I :o-x-o:
    l"r"
    I :o:
    4 6

    Lewis 7lA(8.1tr)
    8.e (a) *.!LE zl4:flr9 $zlz| {zf i= flzl HEe} a+.
    o) e4 flxl-b H 7\E fl^l7l d^l-= T|zln glEz}? (c) I
    7 8 9
    tr gzlel {z} u}lilzl- ts22s22p63s23p2olEl. ol gz}E gz}7}

    8.4 El-8- sHlB EE= qE fl39 z+ olgel flzlz| dzl¤ 4 dxtE H lloJ7l?
    44r ?14. ts.z¤l 8.r0 (a) + EY 4^: +4 flxli gdzl¤ a]]g Eil 7I+ .JC
    (a) ol g4= *9.JzI? 6lE|. (b) * flztz} BdzI ;|zl9 qeq{ flztz} dd{l
    (b) ol gaE flz}9 dzt uH^lE.r^^ls. H z1l9 {z}z} rl ol¤ flxte.l dx} ullzlTf
    ge-6J7}? (c)
    k22s22p3E4, gdzl +zlg uJsalzl +l4l E zllg {z}z}
    1l 1 1 1 1 trJ gg6J7I?
    4d +4(si)g a+ (a) ;149 {z} ullzlg r ^ls. (b) #} ¤z|
    -8rl
    u* 359
    =rll
    9 Sxlzl dxlL H 4loJ7l? (c) flulz1{zf$ z}zli ${{ 4ElE +A6l^le.
    g qL 4"J71? qgt Edt Narq caob Fdzl-Col+(g^l-7| dzlE +
    8.12 (a) 5-1o14;.(ri)9 dxf Hl]xIE
    ^A^ls. 4olEl+'flzl-9 fl -s23Tl rJ+).
    xlzf H zll.Jz}? o) ag 4+ g^ql 6}EE(H0E
    {zlg d (a) 4 pI6J¤9 ololgE Ad¤ +6}^le.
    HH^l= 4^19. (c) Tie.l urE ulzl eg +q $zlz| {rf (b) 4 sHlEe] *o189 A6F= +6}^le.
    ^l qtr +ElE"l q
    *71^lil fl= aaH eE++. Hfel {u} Hl]ilq^l 97}7} (c) 4zl9lHzlE *ofB^l ?*g
    ^J-qq^1,
    sElBile 4E6l+ +aag qr 4.Jzf? +c eHlgile 4^l glulzlE z[114]r 9lt9*z]?
    =
    4E"61-Eag q! AoJTl? (d) E. 8.le| 4zI qlq^l= ol*61q, ScNel {z} qlulzlE

    tO- 4 Sag Lewis zlEE L^lg. ql+6I^ls_.

    (a) Al (b) Br (c) Ar (d) Sr 8.2a (a) olgd rSlel 4zL qlqzl= trl-g *+, (i) ol$el {;}z}
    -*r, trI.g +r}*ql q4, (ii) olgEE a7l7l G.7llJ.ql q+ ,+4 +71
    s.t4 4 gzll+ olgel Lewis TIEE rt^19-.
    (a) K (b) As (c) Sn2+ (d) N3- 6l+7t, +^6]e71? (b) -B.8.rq E^lqzl e+e +-g EeE

    0lg
    I 44 {lulxl$ ql+6iq 9lHxlz} *e a+El ufl$op.le.
    e--J(8.2tr)
    MgS, KI, GaN, LiBr
    8.15 (a) u|:ullf, g^Ie+ 4I^ flzlz| q!$alq olgC Ee-J olg ol$ qlzlS
    L}4ql^ls. 8.2s A6J clqlE KF, NaCl, NaBr, LiClollrl (a)
    MgoE ^JC6I= El¤¤ Lewis TlnE
    ^Fs-oalq
    (b) H ,llE dz}Tl-olF6|flE7f? (c) 9tr flzlz| ql$oll.tl
    (:fl z.s)S ol+4q 4 +6JEE oJ=olg-golg ,JE 44
    E +C6I^le_. (r) (a)9 B-g EIB;_s_-a 4^f {LlzlTf +^
    dxl-5 **Ez|?
    6f= +^Jqls clqlBg +g6}^le-. (c) (b)ql.<1E q+rl E
    8.16 (a) caq p flxl ^[olq] "JqL+b tlf,$ Lewis zln$ ol$a]- 8.rql +4ki 4zi 9lHzl9 ¤E<lg Hli6J trll. olg HI^IE
    q +44^ls. o) ^JCg aol+ ql^Jq= Eeel alE4g q qlt} ql+ol c++71?
    jt^le. (c) H zll9 d^Izt olE6I9.b7I? (d) qE gulzl HI
    8.26 trt*el 4zI 9lHzl 6ql^J q! aol ol¤ Hlzl.EE ,.t
    *ql^l d^l-= g9=7I? olql
    a,dJ.

    r1-9.4 flaE ,Jee+q Sdq= olg e6J +6JEq +qL


    9+ 4"J71?

    419 qlaalrle.
    (a) NaCl > RbBr ) CsBr (b) BaO > KF (c) SrO > SrClz

    -s.rz(a) Al4 F (b) Ke+ S (c) Yel o (d) Mgc+ N s27 Cuq^l d^l F
    'lE
    zllad}q Ca2*¤.
    ^Jd6lEH
    qlLl^l7l
    g.s-61r., oql d^l-F 7]]= dzla}g o'?-E trllE ql
    8.r8 trf.g 4 flaE SEol Cdal-b ol3 aEt sl6JEg qH a
    ^Jcg
    uJxlz| pealQ. rflqlE caozf z.l.g tlelel glql Hl6ll oJ
    Cat4. ol49 7l* $ ¤B6f= ae Elg + q! A"J7l?
    oJTl?

    (a) Hl¤4=+sfl (b) g^ (a) cao9 4xI9l,jzlb HI¤¤ "J"zlzlql +S6l r+.
    ^ll+.4
    (c) 4E4 dl (d) oJFulE4ta
    (b) caoE =o# 4d-slqlE"lE ol r+Ag 4e6}zl 9+4.
    rpg- 4 olgel {u} ullzlg g,r.lop., qL aol ulgC zlzll (c) CaoE ca* o-E-4 q ¤.e+9,*Etrt.
    9 dz} Ellil= r*=zl ed6|^le. (d) cao9
    =
    qlgsl= 4t+.
    -arr(a) Sr2* 1b1 Ti2* (c) Se2- (d) Ni2" (e) Br- (0 Mr,'*
    ^Jd
    (e) Caob 4zl dt4"llrl 9IC6IEI.
    8.20 q¤ 4 ol99 {z} ullil$ E^ld}n, qL aol ul$rj zlzll B.2s g+e+E BaIzE ^JC6fzl flaN Born-Haber tEI9 ¤4161
    9 dz} ullzlg z{izl Aa6i^le_.
    p3
    i rJl ol*¤ 4 +zlE gz6l^le. q! BalTl gg Hl+g
    (a) cd2* (b) (c) zra+ (d) Ru3* (e) As3 (0 Ag* ao e qltl6l+7f?
    r-zr t")-4zI qlLlzl= qlills ggglTL gg"Jrp (b) Naclg d 5g-c,:18 7.t0, rHz.rzE^EZ ol+6}q Rboq 4zt
    +, 4^l "ilulzl9 $ag ¤B6l+ Elq +*^lg 4 o^ls. qlqzlE Al&6f^le.
    (c) NaCl4 zlol, ttl d6'l olgg-e. ol+qd 93 Caoq,J -s2e(a)
    8.30 E 8.lql ?ol4i vtgclrq srctz9 4zf qlHzlE
    ol2zl $ol ol$ee. ol+q{ gq El6ll 4^l diq^l7l aA =4E,
    caclz9 4^l qlLlxl B9l= qltl6lrle-. (b) PE c, rg
    ]=aL *All:7L9
    L'I. AL'I:
    -
    7.tL,7.r3 "i cae.l zz| olgq- qlqzl(ll4s kllmol)$ olf-
    8.22 Nacl4 KF= Fg,il 44 +48 zfzln !]rf. ACg +.Jql 6Iq. cacl,e] 4xL qlqzl¤ z1416}^le.
    zloldg "Jolgnl¤-olg
    ^Iol9 44o14. aa e-d, E7l38E,
    (a) ol E9 4^I qqzlT} E 8.lq +q4 914. 4zI9lHzl
    8.3r (a) q+ 4 pltlEg =:d=d(8.3tr,8.4tr)
    6199 EL Na-cl4 K-F A+ + qL aol a6Jol ++ ?aJoJzl, o|{zl$ $$ai
    E
    =Ae .r.ls. (i) d, (iil BEI^E, (iiil E, (iv) &t. (v) otEr
    q ,J+n ^J461+7t?
    0) rB 7.8E olg HI^lBg Na-cl, K-F
    (b) F 7]]E +g g^E+q {dB Ee xY= -33'cql^l
    ^l-.&6lq ^lolE
    360 83 +qr 7lE 7tl'J
    =_srq

    #=+. xY= r"+c E¤4 olgc ge + qL aol4 (b) Al, si, P + 7l+ zlg gd
    471 ¤.CE7I
    6J f glEz}? (c) Ga, P, Cl, Na 6 dzl *CszI zI+ g4
    =
    (d) K, c, zn. F ¤ Bae| ols- a* e+ql$g B^dg
    8.32 S, H, K, Ar, si 6 roS Aqlg BC6l7l qEe 94= qu 7l^tsCol

    AOJTI?
    TleL= g4
    8.33 Lewis zlEel *3.E ^l-S6Iq Sie+ Cl gzls+El SiCl4
    Lewis 8.4r El=g eq} + +doJ ae qL a.J7I?
    ,t^JCq= HI-S4g s7l6}r, gztT} d+= +ElLll^ls. (a) B-F (b) Cl-Cl (c) Se-o (d) H-I
    (a) azl9l si$ flzlz| dz| fg-? 4+C A*q^l d7l gCETl q gzl+ qg 4..Jzt?
    =
    0) azl{l 4 cl gxlel gzlT} dz} +=? 8.42 +gg*col 4zlb i^lE_+4 ull$olr.le.
    (c) sicL B4ql^J si +9lE g^I7I dzf +:? (a) C-F, O-F, Be-F (b) O-Cl, S-Br, C-P
    (d) sicr4 tszlql^1, 444 ct ++lE g47I dzl-+=? (c) C-S, B-F, N-o
    (e) sicL +zlql= H zll9 ?6J d44r"l +461-=7I? &43 (d s.8.2-e.+q, HBr gxiE +E
    Ezl¤ +c6l+ He.| Br
    8.34 Lewis zlEel Lewis *48
    ^l-.*6lq
    p4 r gzItrPH prrzl dal¤ dz} d6l +91 etr. 4l4lal^le. (b) gzl¤g +E d
    g47t 6i7I H6Ixl ?+=+r zlzg;[n, HBr Bx]q h3 "J49 z]
    ^JCqE HI¤:^19 s.7l6}r d^l-= +EI4^ls.
    (a) azloll P9 g^I7I dz} +=? 4^l Aq+ 4olzl zAl A^++H, ,C-:arz} -EqlE= +7161
    (b) azlql 4 F gzlE gzITI d^l +=? !z|, zf,Aa[{=7}, H6izl $4.=7p
    (c) PF3 $zloll^l P +fl$ g^I7l a^l +-L--? 8.44 H enJ+ ololgH(rBr) +zl.sl e{} TJolY z.qg Aolr, ]d+
    (d) pF3 +^Iq^l 449 r i?19 t]zlz| dz} ig-? xl e.HlE:: 1.21 Dol+.
    (e) PF, $zlofl= q ,|lel ?B dzltlol
    =z116l+71?
    (a) ol BxI4^-l q¤ fl^z} gd6l= g ase q^J9bzl?
    8.35 (a) oz9 4 Szlz} e.+ gdzl +4g ++6lb Lewis 7 r ol+E d$6t^le.
    aE ¤4161^le. (b) ol +4ql^J a.J dztq f3? (c) oz @) IBr Ez|91,<] re| Br
    ed^l7t 714 +E dd¤ dzl Bgl e

    9 o-o 4!13 o-o +'J a{}g -Ee6}n 9l= s}t}EE e Al&6I^1e..


    o_o e6Jql El6il a-g aoE qld-ge-7L zJ ae-_e 9lt9 .q*- 4 ,l3.g olCE +;gE + qL 4ol EzlC Eeolr,
    Ezt? "l9l qd ¤B6I^le. qg Lol olg^J gd.J^l oJrH.^le_. 4eql HBBS ^I
    8.36 (a) +4}cl +^(Hror)E 4 Szlzl sF gdxl +zlg -aas+6lq 4+tlgg BB6I^le-.
    "J+
    oli Lewis +4E ¤416'[^ls. O) F t]4 flz[,t1o1s1 4g' (a) siFaq LaFr 0) FeClzq ReClo (c) Pbcl4el RbCl
    dxl +e_? (c) Hzoroll.! o-o atJol o2E o-o d*er1 8.46 El"g 4 olcB slqlB + q! aol +zlc Eaoln,
    r^JE
    z)\eE 9ltt9bz| g}g aeE {ltr9iz}? "lq Eil"il ¤ q! aol olgc Ee.J^l oJotE^ls. zle+ BBHS
    ^t
    E6l^le. +6Iq 4Elql$g EB6I^le.
    8.37 d7l g¤Eql ql+El-* ¤B +5fl ag? (a) TicLe+ caFz 0) clF3el vF3 (c) sbcls4 AIFE
    (a) dzl g^"rE= +xl Lllel ql g^t7t dxl "JEE z[zl $9e
    Lewis +r, EE +^(8.5E,8.6E)
    ¤q'Pl=bqol+. 8.47 ffiel Lewis +aE rq^ls.
    (b) d7l sdE= dz} tlslE.4 zJ4.
    (a) SiHr O) co (c) sFz (d) H2so4(H= oql aqlqq 9lq)
    (c) dzl scEq 46J +^l <t3 tgzl fl4.
    (e) ClOz- (0 NHrOH
    (d) dzl gCs.z} ThtI+g g^olE}.
    =+eflg
    (e) rl1¤.3 d7l gdETl TtzJ *g g^olEl. 8.48 ffiel Lewis +4¤ ral^19.
    (a) Hzco(F H gz} sF cel a6Jqq 9l+) 6) H,o2
    8.38 (a) +7lgse.l 't ?zl.llrl g+q^l e_=3- q_tr a++ d
    (c) c2F6(c-c a6J +x}]) (d) Aso:3- (e) H2so3(HzI oql
    7l ¤.^JEEqB4 H+61-=7t? O) +Tlgstlql^l ae +
    aqlqq flEI) (0 NH,cl
    s^g dzl gcE= ol.4e qtqa++ qB4 g4zl=7p trl-* + B^1 d6[ql ql6J ¤Bs_E Se ae?
    (c) * Ei A\: tl* olg+7t A qb fla9 zSzl Sdsa
    8.49
    (a) ¤rl d6lE tlE}+e+ etrt.
    7I Tlrb\ ++.
    (b) 7I+ *3 Lewis +4E rEEH, B^l Ad¤ 44+6ll
    8.39 +7lgE"Jg +n6}q, +s 4 3q^l d7l *Bszl zl* ot*+.
    gzl-=;re^lg.
    = (c) ¤4 d6l+ +zI rllE g^l¤ 7J 47llgdE zl-= Ll4
    (a) Na, Mg, K, Ca (b) P, S, As, Se
    B 1o14.
    (c) Be, B, C, Si (dl Zn, Ge, Ga, As
    (d) B^l d6l+ olg aqi pl'$Eq TlaL ++6|E|.
    8.40 +71&E"Jg +n6lq EH-ql B'6r^ls. (e) Brl d6l= olg^I gzlel r5Flx| E-HIEE: 41416I= ql
    (a) 1649l,rl {zl ${ez} 7}+ g4
    = ^l-&t4.
    361
    == =rll
    8.s0 (a) t¤p] 'J(PFJql
    r]l'J +41+ Lewis 74E rE^le. (b) (c) 4gBfll9 :LE +^-+a ,J 4* 7Jol7l7J^lY ?+4. +
    gzt pe+ FE 4lEl+E +6f^le. (c) SzI pe+ F9 B^l d6t g 7a9l 4tI zl49 7l+e 6Iq, Bzt qlql ei-+^
    E +6t^19_. 7J 46J + H
    'llLl
    += A.Jq El6lq 6igzl ql+a]-^le-.
    ssr rlg +qt+ql 4611, gdzt +zlg Ei+^l7lE Lewis 74E 'Jdr17=1e1
    qE(8.7E)
    r?-la. 4 gzlE 414+ "t B^l d6l-= +6|^le. 8.se (a) 4* +6Jg = $d^l +zlE elelq 4r}61.= ae +E
    soclr(s7}6C flz].'14.)
    (a) oCS (b)
    "J7l?
    (c) Bro: (d) HClo, (H= oql a'*qq 914.)
    +A, ¤., glEqot, PF3, ArF5
    ol4}s}
    8.s2 *4 t}re g q+ +^ILl olgql 4;H, gdzt +4g tr}tr (b) trl-g olgol+ Ee + ga^l +zle-l qlqql 6l]"J6l= a
    t: Lewis +4= rEl-11, 4 fl+E "i B^l a6F= + g +9.9]rp
    6l^19. ^Iq+ BHa-, B3N3H6(HICi lqq +^l6J ¤4e Be+ No e ol
    (a) SOz O) SO3 (c) SO:2- +qe), BCl3
    (d) ol +zI+ olgEg s-o a6J ?Jo17lA^lY +^ls a 8.60 rl-gE HlrJq .d^l+ E= A++E 4l+^ls(+.J eqie
    B6I^le_. l. ol+ a6Jg 2. *+ ?*3 I o-e s^l6l^le).
    8.s3 ole& olg(Noz-)oll qlql4A"J Lewis 73.=
    (a) ol (a)¤Fefl9 _r]]E $zlz| {zlg Ttzlr. 9loq p+
    "14
    t jr^le-. (b) t}}EJee ol+q{ E"}ill ? q- aol ol qlE qql^l _7}]9 a6Jg "JE+.
    a4 Ed^lc.Jzt? (c) Noz-9 a'* ,JolE N-o +"J a (b) &^= zll$ flzlzi 4^lE 7l^l7L 9i"q cl.JE
    !+ "l ol+ 4aJ-rtr ultalB q¤ 1"14 qltqEzl-? qlql^J e'Jg "J=4.
    8.s4 E^t olg(Hcoz-)g +l&ol H* ol¤9 gqH^J ^Jcq= (c) _7}lE
    a^.E flzlz[ {zl$ ztxlL ?l-e-q s}'fl¤
    ¤_olge-_", Hel+ o flzlzl6d9 c gzlql A*qq g+.
    -4q
    _ZlE
    Lilql^J AEl9 "JE4.
    (a) ol ols-q1 ql6l6I+ olt}el Lewis +aE rE^19. (d) +^E _ZlE flzlz| {zf$ 7}^ln 9loq q-6JE

    (b) ol +4= ¤B6lzl 9l6}q +B +371gs-6J71?


    qlq^l eq}g "JE4.
    (c) E& olgql^J ea-t^ ,J a,*E aolTl co2ql Hl6ll s"6l g++ Bzvolg(Clo, Clo-, Clo2-, Clo3 , Clo4Jql ql
    ,JAq*3 aoE qd-qE7p -rl]q*4¤ rel^19. ol 6 gdzl +zlg "J+
    6J +^]loJ Lewis

    ass co, cor, cor2-ql^.1 tsd-41i t a'3,Jolel +^lE ql ag qe 4"J71?


    6lz1 9*=

    +6Iq 7l+d-g a+q r'',<le, 8.62 l3-17+ql flq +Tlgsl*e-s 3+71 ol6IE giEg g
    8.s6 Lewis ?49 No*, NOz-, No: q^19 N-o A.J d^I +zlg trlEzl ?*E $?tl t* 9l+. ol$ ¤E6l+ ql
    aol +^l=
    =71-tr
    ql+6}q zI+Sg a+q 4^le. qq. qtr
    ^l+g +49 g^Eol 'JHlzlsE ol+ e6Jol
    * zlll: (a) Hldlql^l EA-+i + A*e eolTl EF +$+ a6Jg trJE7l d+j1olot7l6ln, E qE ^IBg+
    7Ja, c-c +.J a6JE ,Jolql ql*+4. oI^IBql
    -s,y (HCCH)E +^-ea + A"Je Hldl9 c-cO)A.Jel B+ flzlc} ¤i}g6J+ 9lEla ¤B++. ++q "Jol SSzI?
    rl-¤- 4 olgnl gx|9l Lewis +48 rel^le. gdzl +zl
    aoltr+ rJEI.
    g trls^l *= ag +oI ol+= .gB6}^le-. olql 4 EI.J¤
    [r.ss]6,qg +C6l+ +sB{l +zi(croHJ= 6Z]E +^7} a}q -8.63ql^J qL $ulz| ${z} +4q^l B.q+=zl, Et
    E r7l= ol+a, ol :z7l + /lzl x1 E^l4E =" #6}b 7
    r S^}
    35 ol+7 914. ul$c Lewis 7.4t rls-4 aq. E +Hq 6J,J.q= dzl+ p zllolxl {ga}r.le.
    (a) PH3 O) AlH3 (c) Nr- (d) CH2CI2 (e) SnFo2-
    H H
    8.64 E1* 4 olg+ E^IE Lewis 74E rE^le-. gd^I +zl
    H_._ C\
    I

    t-at'
    I

    3 trls^l 9*E ag *ot ol+= ¤E6I^le. .lul 4 +tlE


    qL $ulz| ${z} +4ql^l H.q+=zl, s6.J: flz}
    ql^J
    I

    E +HqlgBqb d^t= q {qlzl {$a}.rle.


    -c c'C-rt (a) No (b) BF: (c) ICh- (d) oPBrr(pz}6d gzl) (e) XeFa
    I I

    H H s.crrb +71 tlqlql^] +B¤ E^fE


    =4*trI.
    (a) 4gEHI9 +B +4=E-F rq^le-. + H zl]'Jzt? (a) E}"J aE+"J f4$ rq^le-.
    ol E^lq Lewis
    (b) ol $x|$ e4-ts4 ,J 4* rJolE c-c Eg a.J,
    -s.os ^l-8-6}q
    gdzl +49 EJ+^l7l=7P
    ol Lewis +3=
    c:c 016 ¤oJ9 ?olp] ulfafrp ^J461+zt, gg G) r E gdxt 7zl9 "J+^l7l= 7IL"+ +B 74E=9 F
    c-c +oJ d{}4 c:c ol+ a.JE Vz3 t3o1tl f \ {.Jzi?
    olr] rlzJalizlr (c) B4 d6l-= oJ r]|, seclr9 Lewis 73 ¤ zt*
    =z]s
    362 88 El+ 7lE T|]LJ
    =-a'E

    +^]+ a3 gs lelzl? (a) Br Br


    8.66 (a) S&sI zll!(xeo) EzI$ 7|!'odJ Lewis 74 qi 7I^lE Br-C-H
    lt + Cl-Cl-> Br-C-Cl + H-Cl
    r?-l^19-. ol +4Eg 44 xe:o 01u! E'*
    o, r,2,37HE lt
    Br Br
    + 7l^\il 9l+. 0) ol *|.E +48 + tsut 4 EE g4ql
    4"ll gdx} +zlg "J+^l7l= Aol 9=7I? (c) ol ull zlzl
    (b) H
    +^+ ++9 +E +4e=71^17r- il= aol glizl-? 914
    E H zllzl (d) (a)9 Lewis *4.E + ol E^Iql H- C
    I
    _s_H*2H_Br_>
    zltl4.J,*=461+7I?
    Bll d6l-= r*E 4e {g 4tzt? I

    H
    s.67 l}4}(HrsoJql El]qq fB H H
    + 9lb Lewis ]42| "*4(4 u
    E oql a*qq *+).
    -C-Br + 2}{- S-H
    I

    (a) Bdxl +4g El+6171 96lq olE tewis +aE fB H


    I

    7-aJ71?
    (b) ¤^l d6l-= 3li+6t71 +16ll qE rewis +== rB a HH H
    ttt
    (c)
    "J7l?
    8.68 qB pl+zl-==g +xI+ ol,gel
    H-N-N-H / H-N-CI
    + Cl-Cl --------+
    Lewis Taoll^J 7I+ +^Jl6J
    +4= aa6}b gd^t +4ol a H4l zliol 99ot aJ
    ql 8.71 q+ ¤BEol *.Jzl, zl1l.Jzlg {$r}.rle.
    (") ?6J9 ?Jo17l 7Ji1 ¤*
    +7 ^d4-J+. E +E q^l¤g 7l* zl¤+ B^l d6l¤ E elBulzl 4t14.
    g + 9lL+7I a H4l 7l+ol qqo} qqr Ecl. H g^I (b) c-c EtlS c-u ¤Ele+ rJ6I+.
    Eol o sul¤91 eqlE oJ&+ +^ olg(H2pot)g qltr- (c) 9HI4 e B'J Ailg s-10 A CEel
    " aolE 7f{+.
    (d) clsl a*ql= qluJzlzf 9l+.
    Eq +gq B_61^le_. ^]tlElq
    (a) gdz} +zlol a H4 zl+ol4-a oJ+E, 7I+ +^ll6J 8.72 EI+ ¤BEol +oJzl. zl4.JzlE ¤B6I^le.
    *3E qL aolet qldl6l+rt?
    Lewis (a) Ei-84 t+ a6Jg +a-+4 +"J A;JEtrr S+.
    (b) B^l d6l-= a Hal zlfol4r. *4H, 7I* +^ll+ (b) o, $zlql5 Aq6l 6z]]el 4* 4^l7l +zl]6Jtrl.
    Lewis 74t qL a'J7l? (c) "Jtpi +Aql 9l= ts^-&^ ,J a6Jg ol4}sl E^ql

    B8 eEe] eot(8.88)
    9l= tsa-&^ a a6Jtr+ 'JE+.
    ^1t7tg
    8.6e s.8.3E ols"619, ffi zlzll{ H}¤.9 AH= alt}6}^ls(g
    (d) s+9 .tl4-t^ ,J A*e tI^E &^-&^ A A.J
    Hl++ dzltl-g 44421 S9trI). trtrI *+.
    ^iE (e) g^IE {zl ${sz} +¤++ 4E gx}e+ "*e a6Jg
    (a) H H
    + H-O-O-H "+=trI.
    H
    ).:.( H
    -------->

    B.z3 ++ A6Jq 4oI4fl'J Aile, olg eilql ql6}q B+ A


    HH {} qlBEle} ¤t A6J ,Jol¤ +g + 91trl.. trl-3 olg aq}
    H-O-C-C-O-H
    tt 6 qtr ae-l eq]e] .rllzlz| rl ^ll+il ql{}qbTl?
    H
    tt H
    Na-Cl, Ca-O
    8.74 r"+ AoJql qls}q flH 4.z]H. ol¤ ABq ql6}q Bt A
    (b) H H El $BEle+ B+ A6J,JolE +g + gltrt. El¤. olg a+
    ).:.( + H-C:\ --------->
    + qtr 4ol rl 4¤ ad. {gqE z}zlr 9lg aol+ ql+
    H H
    q=7I? Li-F, cs-F
    HH
    tt
    H-C-C-C:N
    zlEd(carbene)3 e47I + gzlq eqlqq iln aJ 7llq
    tt
    HH
    Hl++
    -srsEtlSgd^l.,ltlol tsaq1 tsoI lly Bq]E Eeol+. r*9 zf
    H}*^dol B+61 ++.
    (c) (a) zl* zJEt zleHI"J H2cel Lewis +3E -r.?l^19_.
    2 cl-N- Cl -------+ N:N + 3 Cl-Cl
    I o) eEI HI*ql E6Iq F zl]g H2c EztTl ail6tgg ull
    CI
    c_cg ¤B ?olE ql+6}^le.
    8.70 *.8.39 ol+6}q ++ Tlill^J HJ+E AH= 4l.t}6l-^le. 8.76 No+E +ol4 +aE rel^le-. NoE e4-+IA9 e+ a
    olql Hl6llNO+E ei-4lcE aB 7Jo]|E 7J71, sgzl. o|
    LlH.,J+71? olql Eil6ll ¤B6l^le_.
    +7f EA E^jt 363

    +71oJ+ +41
    B.7z At.J 7Jol7l1.1s At +}.-+4 ¤!*9 zld ^l]Eg Eeol (b) Nach9 !z| ollulz,lz| qq MsClrE 44 o\q^1z326
    "J=qa+. olaElg+.J, ol+, s+a6J+ql"lH 49zI? kl/mol)4 a+r B rll, Naclr9 s+.tJC SlBul(AHi)
    8.78 4q z)olzl r.zo AoJ ei-ei dElg zltl .<Ne$ Eaol <i3 9"I?lzl-?
    "J=qA+. AaJg tg,
    ol ol+, tI+ e,*6ql 4{cA47fl 8.84 qElBq ,lAzl 4zl +CEql +6ll EE 49 9!. :,1+r.
    ,ilE+.
    s.7e trlg 2+ pl"JEEE 4xt .llHzlb BeHz 3205 kllmol,
    MgH2 27 9 | kllmol, CaHz 2410 kllmol, SrH2 2250 kJ/mol,
    (a)flzI xe} yb 4zl *4szl.rle 4e.4. A+E ol?lz|
    BaH2 212t kflmololQ. +^t x-y+ HIE^I +Cg zf{o} of,c}n "s}+EJl, r
    (a) olE sl6JEql^J Hel&++= 44 gut"Jzl? "Jol*gzl-?
    6) +q4l s+6JE5ol -E_+ nill ^Jqlql^j ag c:^t?l Ellg 0) E r a+9 gql 948, aqlq^l + ?l^l7l B?-l gq
    $ zltl:L 9l+r 7}Afl.g Ell, oJolg-¤-ol3 Z?-l: q 4 9ig++ rd+^f E_EIEE trl 7ld+a 6F=ql, *e
    B 4ol 7l+ *gvl? A"J7I?
    (c) BeHz9 49 t mol9 izill$ olge-e 44b ql 320s kl 8.8s ul++ g4 o, p, re, I, Bql qls} 4*o14.
    9 9lHzlzl-g-s_aJ7p oI'-.lE :zos ktg qqzlE %Ie (a) 7l* +^J.J +.J aElg BCd-= + g6E r.s^le.
    6I=71? (b) 7I+ ,J +.J a*g ¤d6lb F zlzlz ;r e^le.
    (d) ZnHz9 4^l qlq^l= 2870 kllmotolLl. 24 c+6JEql (c) xyz9 EIE|^lg 7Id +q|+9 ,.J^JE zl-btol zl*
    ql6J 4^I qlqzle.l a"}.g jlqqug ql q¤ 2+ fl^71 3*g r.E^19. =
    Zn2+el o1e- Hlzl=+ 7I+ ElidJzl ql+6}^19. (d) x2Y3E d'¤4g 7l4l slql+g..JCEI zltsCol zl*
    a*g TIe^lg. =
    8.80 E 8.19 *g 7l4e- 4q, Elg +6JEE 4^I qlLlxl(3o
    kllmol ol tJl)= ql'U-6I^19. 8.86 'J,t}+ g^(clo(c))= s=+ !}llql ols4 qE 4zl*9
    (a) LiBr (b) CsBr (c) CaCl2 r+aql^J +.s.t q6Jg t4. cro $zlel ffizf EBIEE
    8.81 Mx +=E r*= qtr olg^J EAq 4zl ollHzlg oxto' 1.24 Dolr. o-o a* zJolE r.ooAol4.
    (a) cl4 o gzlzl 7t{ A6}q
    kl/molol4. M olgel d6l^= I +, 2+, 3+ + qL 4"J71? =7lE d^} do} tgl
    etr 4l
    r+Zl ^J4+ olf¤ ¤B6l-^le. 416.I^le.
    (b) gdq d7l g^dEE 7l3e clo B^Iql^J qts
    6J Ell,
    [s.az1"1e- ?"J s]+E caoi g4 dE4 ag +=E AAp]¤ gd6l-= g
    4(:B a.:).
    flxfz| fg1z10e ase 9d-oltzl?
    (c) Bal d6l¤-7l+e tJ oll, ol E^lel +^ll6'J Lewis 74
    (a) ol +4ql^1, P zllg o'-2144 olg4 *Bot ll
    Ca2*
    E r?]^19_.
    Ezl-? (fls: rH 8.3q1 +EI+ 9= olgE qlEg %I
    ^ll (d) Clo- golgol ¤4.Jtr1. ol Clo-91 4t al49 rewis
    6}e_e 4l+6ll^] El+¤r+= 19 zl9o}4.)
    (b) cao ?Col E4 E4E ca-o ol$jt6t9-tr 47ll41+8,
    +a= ^J4e4H, cl g^Iel B^l ddl+ gtrtoJz}?
    .ll H zl zi E-+9 4iz| *¤q fl=rp [e.ez] (a) Brr+ ctel dzl ¤.cE.E ol+6]q Br-cl Ez] LI g^]
    (c):H 7.8q +qd olg ElzlE¤ F.ll, ++61 "*BoI9l Eq ++ dd¤ ql.!-6l^ls. O) ol ? E d6}el f.H 7.89
    6tr+9 Ca-o olS{fql ql.J ulQ|j ollulzl$ ]a|,rl gzl HlzlE¤ ol+6}q ol B^Iel rd+^l EHIEE +6I^l
    =
    s(d6}9 rzl= 4 B q+ql+q4 9l+.) 9. (c) BrClel dr]] +Ag ;6l-+^} E{!E ** o.sz ool4.
    (d) olEl'* r mololl ql6J qlLlzl= faf^le. ol{$
    t}9 Brcl9 ¤B z3o1z| flxf *zlE9 qlol+n rlc+EtE, ¤
    cao9 4^f 9lulzl4 ulaa[{ o]qdz}? Ezltll6l.ff zIEfltr Ag ol+6}q srclgl^l flzlEg I¤
    (e) cao9 A+ol olg a6J!.+= ="+ a+ql Tlvl& 4, d6l¤ altltl^ls.
    +e AA 449 47]|4 ^Ja 4+ol E'J olg,^6}q A+ 8.88 'fa {zll(hydrogen economy)'E d4B 4l z}at qaig A
    tr+ g{ ++E} a + qqoJ s"Jol (d)q ollulz'lp.t} g, ¤B e
    ^l+g +aE +e +sltr 4+6}b
    HlHg +E
    olE alolql 7l* g6Jg Elaqr.
    ^J481.=7I? 4o14. zlHS ++E +i EltlEg zle +qtr ^J'JEJ +
    = 4E +4= zl+E+ + *zl ollE"ll +^E zl+61+ E{ ,ll+
    8.83 4$ ol$o1 2+9 ddl-=- ulE zl{} E+6JE Nachg {Cql
    Qla.J Born-Habe. i*19 :"4r.le_(r$9 2z.l olgol qlq E44ol+. qE Eq NaAlHaE NaH(s), Al(s), H2@)E E
    zl=*. 7.2q1+q4 9l+).
    sl]6l+ 4Aql^l pelel s.67oE Hr(8)E %I=++. NaAlHr
    (a) NaclzE gg HI-&ol qEJE 4zt glul * 3o# aB4 olg ¤*¤ g+ z|^lr ?lr, ol ="# dB
    ^JC6|= HI+ol g 54 4flzl9ol85ol ,tltr S¤qq
    zl= gEl+ 4ot 6l-=71? flEL
    364 8g 6l-+ ?:6Jg )lE tilLd

    (a) NaAlHrz[ E6IqE r+Cql 4+ +B "*A H]e.49 ] (c) 6}olsgi& olgql^l cl9 tr14= +6t^le-.
    (d) cl-o aBEol EF +.J a6Jol4n ilg 4, rlg^41
    ^19.
    (b) NaAH4ql^J d7l SCETI7l* gr= q- 4"J71? olgql^l cls] &q+E +61^le.
    E 471gtETr 7l* 4* gi== q- 4"J71? (e) &q-*fl HI*ql^1,
    "l¤
    ol9ol q dzl{tgg A"J7l?
    (c) dzl gdE ih= 4sz} ¤.ol9ol -fglolxl $|al 8.e2 Nzo9 Lewis +4 Ttzl= El-¤=r+ e+.
    ol olgel =71e, r?]^19-. ^'ll
    -r.. Lewis *4E :N:N-O: .------ :N-N=O3 <---+ ;5:5:(j:
    (d) +gz} olgq flE +^q B^l {o}i $u}olzp
    (a) ¤rl d6l¤-^|&4q, 9lel 7I^l +H +4+ qtr a
    8.8e I:- ol8* +.Jq4 ilzl"J, rr- ol$$:$zl $Q. ol 7I+ +!_6Jzl
    ^Jl
    "J5I^ls.
    (a) Ir-9 73E r.?]^ls(C-4$ol oI'14 dB'ltrt).
    Lewis
    0) Nroql^l a^-Ace'* 4olE r.rz Aotr, oJql4
    ,J
    O) Ag Hl tl+71, 19 dzl ¤.CETI Ll+ +o}^l +E F ?l r.r=N c.3 at}tr+ E+ aq. s. e4-4}i rJ a
    gzls+ ¤qlg olBzl qlEgl F:-i + fl
    "JEzl B zJolE l.leAoE, "JHI4ql N:o-84 E+ *4(s
    r+r oJ+. tlTzl Efl4E ag +B617l =zl]g
    +16l] ql^l=
    8.+). o1 +il# EqlE g q, qL *B TazI Nzo9
    xll.rlafr.l9. qls4oJ +3+r Bf 9ldbzl?
    (c)4E +l*E r:-E gdxl +49 +lH]6J aolTl qlEql
    [a.sr] (a) E4olo]41(C3HrNJ3,tll zl]9 C-H7l7l No e H]fl a
    + s,4r'6Jtr1. ol rl+s] tsg *g=z|? g zllgalE HI4l +4e+ zJr[. o] gz[g Lewis +a= rEl
    =xl]g
    (d) E 4E a+E F3-E F7| + 7H-H.+ *g gzle+ aEl6l
    ,<le. (b) l.al Lll tsd-er eq} aol$ ql{-6}^le.
    Tlql= q+ 4ol^l + S+a +El. ol a+9 "J
    =xllg [e.ea] +-E]olpEEHl4l(c6H4ctrg HIAIE +i gz] zzllE E
    q
    + &s-=vl?
    q+ gzls il+4q gqdE}. ol +zlE u{rllz} u}e-$ pol
    8.eo 4 E^l+ olg +ql^l c6ild gxlgl B^l d6l¤ +6I ^'
    +q4 fl4.
    ^ls.
    (a) o:9 +d gzI'J
    (a) EEF} dxltg +7I6Iq ol +^tE Lewis *rE r4
    (b) PF6-e; oJ ^14 ^19'
    (c) NO2E e4
    (b) ol tszlE A+, +E +azt f4aJQ{ :
    f.r-]^19.
    =zl]q+zp
    (d) ICI3E otole-H
    +=E
    (e)HCloa9 g^(+^=+Icq aqlqq 914.)
    (c) (a)s}6)q^lel +B +ab Hl4lel +B +45ilH ^lE
    trEo6.J +a5oJ7I?
    8.er a1o1+$A4I ol+(clo-)e .s.Elrllel .r?E. d+ol4. 49r HH
    41 o1.$(ctor-)g e71 e^Ixilq 7I+ +s+ d+ol4. F \/C-C
    olgql 4EJ Lewis *4E 44 a4^le.
    (a) 6lolsgd4} olgql^J clE ¤^l dq¤ +6f^ls. H- C-H
    (b) cr-o AilEol e+ Bg A*oleln *g ql, +g^& \ C
    olgql^J ctE B^l d6l¤ +6}^ls. CI CI

    t6J oJ+ +41


    8.e5 Tlt}q ez} B-A:Boll ql+ Elg +atg *"JzI, 4A"J7l? s. 8.39 ol+6}q ol + EJ+ql ql+ AH= +C6r^le. ell
    (a) ol $zl-i +4!}+ flEl. ql4oJql^l qq.JsE H+q= +aql^l &+.21^1349
    (b) +¤ +4E rEdJ4H,
    "l ETtgl A-B e1} aolT| E ¤ "Jolqbzl?
    Ell Hl-8:ol cJ
    .JEI 40lE|.
    8.e7 F++49 as+ flzl¤q ull¤ ttqzl4E qHlE¤¤ old
    8.e6 ,lq7l.7l ++t +El+^_E d+q= HI-& + +-s.+ a exil{a 6J4. .s 8.39 ol+4q TlAl tl4ql^19 +g 4
    g, qql?lq^l qEil"JeeE H+|olE|. ol^JaEl EJSql Eil6J AHE +61n, qE ol{e^ll7l7l*
    ZCHaG)-CzHo(8) +Hzk) *g qlBq= Tlzlr 9l=zl +e^ls-.
    dzll ol HI+g trE +46lql^l d4qq, rr}^71-+^E HH HH
    d+^la Eol g+.
    tt
    H-C-C-O- 'H+H
    tt
    (a)
    tt -c-o-c- tt H
    zcH4@) + Loz@) ----- czHrk) + H2o(s) HH HH
    ^tlEt.g.
    rfolollE ollEl
    365
    =u =* =rll
    HO (c)L+4 PlqlEe F{'Jzt?
    (b) _H+H- til
    C-C-H
    (o ee4 slElEe F{.Jzl.?
    (e)olE +6J¤ol +al-coJ7l?
    I

    H (0 qH ElqlEol olgCoJTI?
    uEt oil=JE! 0ll1lEoJt1l5l0lE
    8.102 d7l ¤.dEE aEE 71ts 4lHe El-9--4 e+. g^tE d7l
    gtEb r g^19 olgs+ qlq^lql^-l d^t a+E= u ilql
    H
    .,H Elql'JtrI= 7il'Jol+. dzl gc-=.:k(r_u\ k= Elql^o}+
    H\llllHHHH (a) cl9 {z} {e}E.z} Fel dz} A+Ets.E+ +qlE E+6l.
    (c) H H+ lC:C-C:C-C -H r. FE $zl $$tzl cl-H-+ ol+= ol a9= ol+
    H
    -H H/l =
    H 6lq ¤E6l^le.
    ElElrf0lu
    ^t0l=euEJl (b) olgs+.ilulzls+ dz} aslEE E+ d7l *cEeI +fl
    ol 9lb olf-b Fl"Jzt?
    (c) zilztrq +qd +zlE ^l-s"6}9 19 dzl +dE7l4.0
    (d) H N=C+H ol qb k <lg 46}^le.
    -C:N
    A+= ol+6lq cl!+ oel d7l ¤-BE= aa6Ble-.
    (d) (c)9
    olol4^loloJ6+ Bll= 0l^1lELlolE= (e) dzl +cEql 4iJ e. +E aE= $zlel ri| olgpl ql

    Hzl4 dx} rl+Eq E+g-e AE++. ol oJ4g ^l-*


    8.98 Ti2* olSg Ca gzlel EdxI^Jol+. 6Iq gE4l g^EE dzl *dsE al4}6li1=+sfl
    (a) Ti2*4 ca9 dz} ullil$ r.rl9.
    9 dzl +CEE 4.001 qAl .J4. ol %L^lql E6J A+
    o) ri'z*el ca9 Hl** dx145 4lt}6}^ls. Br9 dzl gCEb g"t.Jzl?
    (c) rizl cu'*q E4^l7l qEJH. d6f= H zI¤oI t;lizl?
    s.103 3Eg 610lEElolE(chloral hydrate)E +C 4¤q^l +
    8.99 (a) 4&E| +4'(Hror)E Lewis 74E rq^le-. (b) r+&E+
    H4e "Jq4 9l.I', C t4.52o/o, H 1.837o, C|64.30Yo, O
    +iql^l TI^L ercl ?*3 *9..Jzt? (c) 4tlE] +^= Hs 13.35o/oE +dqq 919q, Ezl"*g 16s.4 g/mololrl.
    .e,+E] -H-s.6I7l +16ll +r ?J4 Bql ++.I9 Bqltr +,ll (a) ol Ed9 d4l^le +9.ql7l?
    ¤trI. +&+ +iE 7l* "+* a.Jg Szloll ?E+ qlul
    G) olEeE e44g+9"J7I?
    714. Hel ii}+g +6}^le-.
    ^12 =lql (c) ol $zlel cl flzl¤ol oJ 7l]E c g^Hl a'Jqq fle
    8.r00 &4q dal aslEE -l4l kflmololn, a]]'J Hlg"4g rl-g 4, tszI 4ql 6J zlel c-c ¤EI4 zzH9 c-o AEJoI
    4 Aq. gl+n 7Ia6IJ., ol Ezlq Lewis f4$ f.4^19_.
    o(s) +e--+o(8) 8.104 ol^lol E3$ u|g(barium azide)g 62.04%o4 Bael 32.96o/o
    K,oG)g 4zI qqzlL 2238kJlmotol+. ol li- ++ c 9 No+ ol+q4 fl+.40izlolEo]ol$e.loJaf {alir-
    e+ rH 7.109 ol+61-q. q+ Ei*ql 6llBq= &^q '2iI ol+.
    dz} a+E'E Zl4}6l^le. (a) olzlolcq-.lgq ++^lg aa6l^le.
    O-(S) +e--O2-(8) (b) o}^l-olE5+ olg.el TIzl +B +4= r4^le_.
    ^ll
    8.101 uleuJq tI4 &ffi'o145 4qq ¤Eg F +
    '+q1ts9 (c) :foll,tl q- +a7l7l* +!-t;J7l?
    4ql aa $colloi +4. a H4l= flEqTt d+ B4 ¤ql (d) ol ole-E a.J aol= qlc-6t^le.
    I 41686t71tr qq 9lr. + H4 ¤eql^l= *4lol +=e 8.10s ot^JlB{(c,sJ4 e^(N' BztE E E} ++ AE-g 7}^lr.
    I ?Callo} ttr|. dild "Jql^J "Jt13 oi+ aE zl4 9lzl 9le+, r s}+zl ^dee ol+ +e+.
    ?*e F 49 +?-l *zlE tsdalal q=ql, 6}+ql= gL+ (a) F E49 Lewis 74E '*,r19.

    4 Eeol, +e 6I+qlE ff!.\ zl=zl5q 9+. E6J + (b) 5+ cql^l o}^llB¤I4 a^ Eztg glBE= *"I
    ^8c
    ELJg dQl +eglE lH 4llE: 76.07o RueI24.0Vo O(4* ts_J., olEEo6I qL 3rttlEol El .JA4.Jzl r
    ^19.
    ul), zH +BE: 61.27o Ruel38.8% ogln 4q fl4(a=* (c) N,z| sd &+4q Nzosk)E ^Jd6l+ +q HI+^14,
    El). of^lleflol Cor(s)e+ H2o(s)¤
    ^Jddl+ EE "*+
    siq
    (a) rH *EI^EE ,,JEl4e Fq..JzI? tsI_q-.,-l-q-
    JO f
    rl o
    = ^r.
    (b) 2H +{}EE dEl4e P9..Jzl? .l F +E}EE +d (d) Nrc+ CzHz9 g"o} tsl flgqE Zl&61^le(Nro'(s)9
    g AAd-= dtlg 6lH^1, r=+^l +6JEg 2s "cql^l ^JC
    qlgElb 11.30 kllmololrf).
    +E HlH, d9.9 zfFL dEl tI^19 41 gsoJ rzoo (e)Nzel czHz= ¤tl tlgulzl ^JB6l +g s? ¤*9 zI
    .cql^JE Ezl *EtriE ag grll g+. zlr. 914(s 8.3). q¤ + +.J¤ql 44q 44 E & +
    366 83 al-+ 7lE 7HE
    =crol

    HI+el qlBqE 4&6}^le. o}^-llBHle +^e+ Hl s.r08 +4I3 HCooHe] +El4g zlzl=. 914. oly r.220 slmL
    ^+ qlqloJ(cHJg {d6|l., 3^= +4e} H}*4q
    s.6Iq I "JEE zl-d +^qe.l "iillol+.
    (a) EtI9 ts+ gzlg
    "J zll9 HeI + 7l]E oql ABgq
    g-E.qoI(NH3)E
    ^JC6J+.
    s.106 54 aAq^l qlg._qgl "JEqotel Hlso6Iq +r+ e^E 9l+. SAIE Lewis 74.E rqr, +r-Bol +4l+48 tr
    ol^19.
    ¤ olrJe ElElEg "J=+. ol +qlEg + 6e.0%oe} e^
    30.4o/oE ol+q7q 9lq. e"+g 184.3g/molE 4EElfl+. (b) *4lg ++'l {L4qlrl NaoHq H}+6}q +4} olg
    g.+49 g4+ uBlezl ,fgqHg Ell= qle *B'J4. ol (ucoo-)9 ^Jdg + gl4. .1trll9 +B "*+ elq Hi+
    +zl 4ql^l +4 e^= rq +=E olfr.. :r4 Lll E.E 4¤ *r'l-c-.
    (c) *,tI ol$el Lewis +=E r?-1r., +Bol S4tIElE B
    e6J rJol= AEI.
    (a) ol539 dE44+z}^lg A.rle. ol^19_.

    (b) +"ltl cBE ol EzIg Lewis *3E,!^ls(fl (d) 0.78s mL9 *t4 Sd6l U*6t71 +16ll^l+ H mlel
    e; uli.{ z}g=zE,
    +q +^.il+ Lewis +=E +olrll+). 0. 100 M NaoH i 8 o-!ol gg-aldEz}?
    (c) n4 4 9zl rJE a6J AolE ql{}61-^ls(ts1r.: Sa n4 8.r0e g ailH Sr.qo1= d-E+sflEI $c(boron
    ^118.7¤q^l
    ql^.] s-s aoli z.os Aol4). Hlso 6Iq ?IA.J Elql+g BC'J+.
    trifluoride)q
    (d) ol c}6J¤q {d sBq= 480 kllmol.tr 9ltt¤4. s(c) (a) oJe.ulol-g5geilsl +4E EJ+ ^J^JEE Lewis 7
    9 m;5 222.8 kllmotol4. .l sHlSE B+ a6J S 3.E r.q^le.
    Bq= +44^le-. (b) BE6l B-N Aqlg c-c e*B+ EJ +dg E+. E
    oJq ,IfL gH}4ql ¤4= zlq^l B-NE d6I.EsE ql+6l.q :4,<le_(xlls.+¤
    ^IEll 7a9 {zl
    s.107 pa $zlolcf.
    ql ttg 6+el6- TliE
    9l g^| 47||= ¤+614. ^l-S6}^le).
    (c) t9ri +4= +=+silF+ +ie| ulfo;| grilos o3-
    ^.1

    Eqole+ Hl*6J+. +ge+ +^ HI*el B-N a6Jol .S


    I
    E+eils} El*e.l e*ql Bl4 q +c.Jal, E +c.Jal
    ql+6Er. olql qdl ¤E6l-^le.
    =
    P4 S.ll0 gs+ oj-ufi'(ammonium chloride, NH4CI)9 ,l]+ Eql g
    dgql^j qlg arllol+. += goltrI.
    (a) p4 Ezlql^.] r.fl {zl-4fol (a) oJsE olgrl gp+ ol$el Lewis +eE r"l^19_.
    =4]6J+n ^J46}87}?
    (b) olE4ql.b Q zfls.l p-p ¤qlol o) n4l gp+.Jstsq N-cl ¤'*ol +461-=7I?
    =461+7I?
    (c) $dzt +49 ++61+ dB pe $x|el Lewis +4= r (c) ra 99 g+'Js# s00.0 mL9 Eql +olH +EE E
    r-l,rfe. ol EzI= *E +48 7l^la_ 9ibzl? :-"=zf $ulolzl 4l4I6Iq 4^ls.
    (d) B^l A+= 7l+e 6J q. dB e^Iel (d) (c)9 ++"19 EE gq¤¤ gr+ gee uffizl f.loll.tl
    .J{{zl? ^l{^ll Exl +
    9:= 4ol rl H r+E d&¤(silver nitrate)g.+q +qot 6lb7l?
    =

    t6ri ¤41 E-41

    {ltl(c6HJE +E +a7}+*E.gEB6l "JC6}4 "J=tr}= 4 e{}g ^Jd^l7l+ +4+ H}*(hydrosenation)ol 9t+. HlAl
    g dllfl.trI. ol f +rI U¤¤ E6Iq 67llE c-c
    ^pl=Edl^lloJ(cuH,r,
    +"J a6JrI l2zll$ q-H +.J A*g 7ld +g^I rE +
    (a)) *9 c9 rllolq= ol+4q, 1.0 mol9 CeHok)q 3.0 mol
    *E)"e d¤¤ EI d¤4'J +4+gg 208 kflmololr|.
    E o1,q1p{l(c,H,(g))9 S^gg Eln1.6}^le_. E +ql qL ,tlol=eald(C6H16, lzllel C:C ol6 EEL sz11s.1 C-C t
    lol rl ge+^-19 Tlil= ^lq=7l? Zl^Ittol Hltlol zlH g A+, ro7Hel c-H toJ AEl¤. 7I4l +gzl nel clql-E)
    oJA oJil 6l+71?
    Cn| g +4+ Hlg"EI trll dql4.J +islg
    =-E_,*
    O)) HIAle] +i + 4l7l -cH37le zl+E E+g(c6HscH3) ^lol=edl^lloJ-e_E
    g 120 kllmolol+. ol Ar+Eg ol+6}q Hl4lel +B .JC
    +4-ql 46ll I (u)ql^JE 21{g q}$6}rle.
    (c)) tszl¤¤ Elig + 9= E +E HI*e e4-e4 ol+ 4
    p] 9lHzlzl
    "l- CszI B^l q+d-q -H.^ls.
    (d)) += tsEl+ie+ Elf,6J trll, HIdq AB zJ.lq ¤t143,
    '*¤ Hrp+ EI+^14 c-c +oJ A'*4 + Zle.l c-H +oJ
    !e ¤zlE^11 367

    Hl4lol +B +4olr., 561 .Jd6I+= ag ¤B.J q}=: +


    E$zI? ol"ll 4lall ¤E6f^le.
    (e)) 4¤.4 ,Jol 94¤ +a= ,*b
    ^Iol=s++EilE4ql
    (c'HJ9 A+, *B +zE ,*Al ¤4 +tg + 9li dE
    1l0l=EgEIEilEelgl
    E= 4l&g +.88+ |IYzl?
    (S)-naproxen

    \
    i

    (R)-naproxen
    9.1 > Er[ sg +^]E +z]g +aE ril
    t. tr}.

    9.2 > VSEPR .EE Lewis +4e+ dz} EJE


    zl E* ¤q Elgil zl.ae rl
    ^lolel

    Erl
    gztTl

    Taef
    ae
    Tlol
    dxL'tl Hlg(vsEPR) _E
    =
    Bg E4q 716I +== ql+
    ^l_s6l.q
    +E+.

    7)
    E l= 9.3 > Ertsgr| Ext+¤ ts^IE 716l +
    ae+ A6J
    ql^l
    B4E B46l{ Ez}z} *C
    ++c.JzlE ea6Jr+.
    9.4 > B+ eilal eHl=J Ad ++ a'Jql
    Lgwis 75= Erfe.l ol61dt.= Elt EEE raj I rl flzfE ^folql dzlE qB4l ++
    ^da1ap =-Er'= =rt. 6t=zlE.JolB+. g47l ail olEql
    L[ Lewis 7^.= E^lel zEl6eet 6 6[Lf?] E^lEi1l9 Eg= LIEILII
    =d ^l aEI dzt= + gzlE gzl sHlB
    rl gr=tl. E^fe,l Esr.l"e7l(Erl +4.alrE Er')= +d BrEg =4 ql^l TlqlElg trq olE gz} e
    4alZalql 96[q
    ^lole] Hlgel Aaol .JqLI=+.
    ++ ellg BC
    =!EJtl. +tr|.

    9.5 > Ed eulg 6J flzfel sulP$ol ,!E


    a6JE
    ^]7le].
    +cr+ rJEq, Eeel EzlE EoJ4 aTly r Ee qB4le.JEEgC+6lq gC sEl
    I Ceg zal a++q14. tszl +a9 U!s-6J EBg trq +E H 7l Bg "JE=zl 9olB4.
    zl +4.J ql= g gzlE dzl.fl ulE
    ^J+q H}*ql^l + 9ltrL Eg 9.6 > trtE gzl eElB=g ol4 zl-ul
    9 4e Hslrl. Ar+E 7t4 eZ ts7tq qlol+. ol A-^l4lE r =B
    *Betr {! .rl:u} a'Jr+ n}ol a6J
    = g B{g + A+. Bg eq}e'* zl]9
    Hql + zflel !tr trI= +zl7t 9lq. rEE IJEB$ (s)-naproxen .<l:uf p'$g.-e ol+q4 9leq, El-6
    4 r$el elqllg Fg6Iq, plq| A6JE ++e+
    (n)-naproxenol4.
    e+e qI7fl9 ^lrEt Ad-4 6J Zl ol
    +E e+. rel+ H"Jq tEIBE n4 cH3zlzl +lzl7} ^1tr fld-d {l.9 ulol e+g E+6In fl+. olel
    9l+g E + 9l+. (s) qa35s- +ag Feol 9l: +]zl-= ilE6l.71 + aElEq 7l6fol4 Ellg4, f,zl pI
    6JEql elE gEjE+.
    +16l] il'Jg+. (R) e+qlEe 'JAqlZl +q+ s47I $.sq, dxllE =116l+
    ,Jql g+. ol +6Jgg AgdF olC{{l{r Eel= 9.7 > Exl eHlB aBq qlt ¤ rl +ta}
    =
    ++E +a olrd{,llq +6Iq, 24*ql,\ trJ EI]+ZI ¤4. zilqf=E+
    =ol H4l
    r Ai6J ,JH.J Exl sElB olEg
    flea1q1go1-Ba), A* BzI sElB
    q^l Bg Lqg Tlgq^l + SI,BEE ol.${;llEsEl +E olce r+ Hla* gz} eElBq zfltj$ l:zlle]

    ^llE
    EiEn, E46ll., Cz]eI4. El.

    ol t}e.l A Hrll +E= olzlfl Lewis *4et


    dlrlg E4 e4 ^lol 98 > 2+71olflxlExtel F Hall izl
    el +al= olallali 4o14. +4= EzI Ll]Ed4fq +z| da{ E_ olgzl.
    +4ql q+ =il
    qq4 +9 Es'E
    oJ +rJl= qql6}zl ¤ 4o14. ol*l6.J zl^lg Ht=.Is r471 9l6}q, Ezf sHlB olEg +
    ^IolE "Jd+ tld+.
    E ++ a.Jg Ee¤. tr4 H"J6l eE6J + 91trt. Lewis f4ollr.-l
    aE.g E_^i6l+ ql ^F&g dg EzlTI a*ql ^F&6IE
    sHlBql ql
    a3 6e,* +^lE 4l+.Jtr}. ol eul$$ ,l=¤
    a.'.|*c--8,&{ EztE
    rJ + ol6I6J + 91trt. ol tlg 4¤¤ +46tH +ql Eeg gE4
    "t ElEzl +cql qldl trE6l= q Esol g+.

    < Egol fl* ezgg 0l F El5J=01 EgalZl -EoJ+. ra]Ll6iL|-


    =9o-[tr1 0l+ 4tB Hnl"z1-g EIEIEB -BtC5^11e. U==q rfg ap-1
    s] EIA flxloll,(lel
    E7lE/\e trlErI
    369
    e.l I +xl EoJ
    xflstlql^l= 73E ^F8-6rq ="s d6J s+6JE.9 +z}4g ¤B6Iqq r=a: (3.5p).
    Lewis
    rel+ Lewis 74b ts^I EoJg 4l^1617l *E}trl-. Lewis *3E ++61 flxI zJ AEt+e+
    A6JE ="+E +ElU+. ql= Eq ccLE Lewis 7zE ql Zlel cl gz|.zr +C +d gz}
    ql aqlqq 9l+E 4"J9.JEl
    =E|.

    CI
    -Cl:

    Lewis 74EE"J.J BEql g4¤g l-+ rflE|. rEl+ f.al e.14 zJol dzll d-ztg Ell
    gql^l= Cl +lz|7l,t|{{(tetrahedron) l.^l?-lql +lil"l] 9lr+. ull zl]9 E^]4e+
    ^}Hill=
    ull zll9 dd}4¤ Eg r*= oJill EBol+.
    +z}el Eolg Z!il4(bond angle)oll el6]i Adqr, A.J4.g Ezlql ¤46l+ flz}4¤
    fla6p dq 96]] "JEqtl+. +zlel AaJ4g ¤q} zJol ,.,., (8.8¤)e} E}41, +zt aTlel
    E-o&g ac++. rB
    e.1oll.tJ cclaoll= E+ 6zH9 ct-c-cl paJzJol olE. E
    =46tn,
    E6.J ql z}l9 c-ct 46J zJol= g
    += F"J+ t0e.s.olq, ol 4EE' ^[Hi]lE
    =Coltr].
    + Eg6|rll l.7sAolq. r4^l ccl4el aTle+ !-oJg 1.78A aolg c-cr a*sE ol+
    qd Elot4* 6o19l EzIg t^Ig +a= r?-l7l fJ61]
    ^iEalE Sq6I4 ¤Be + 91tr1.
    rB e.lq +e+ 9l= +zlg ^l-soJrt. gHlzl"J dg +ol Hql fl= ad.g 9ul6}r., #g
    4lzlE 5=ol g|$e-+ qq+g.J6ll Hq+g A6JS L+ElLllr, dde +ol +14_q__+ ¤4
    Eql/l^l E{zlE e$g +ElLll: ql ^F&g+.
    ccLaH EI ,]lE +d gzlq F z1l olt9 ee 6+el flzlzl a6Jd ts^l(E= olg)+
    el EzI9 EoJql 4* E9= BzI. oltsl8'J Szt9 .JHI^lg AB,ol4, *C flzI e
    ^146ll
    9l rzll9 B g^l7l. gaqq fl4. COrc+ H2o= l_+ AB2 Ezlolq, SO3el NH3= AB: E
    zloltrl.
    AB,BzlE 7]+6J EoJg iE n Zlq 9=-Jtr1. ABz4 AB3 Bzlql^l .JHl49.e BaEl
    Eo&S r.e 9.2q1 44H+. AB2 $zlE C¤(linear, 46J7J:180")o144 t¤¤6ent,
    =
    4*r++1s0")olr1. AB3 EzlE 7IT "JHI4oJ + 714 E"J:g AAL4B E^J?lql B gz}Tt

    8rJ illt Etsoil4 +98ttl4?.l37lE ?,ie +EoJ7l?


    =¤61=
    LII 7tlE E= C-Cr
    Eolo=I E{ eol: 1.78 A cc14 cc14
    =:d

    CI
    P= Ct t
    -C -Ct C1
    'J943 109.5'
    8_ETtl EB 3?J iilt sE 8^l?l g^l s-d
    ^lEill
    arB 9.1 Ccr4el ,\tEill+I

    370
    e.1 E^lEg 371

    \ ol= 6 EE ?A.u l" ot,-J 13 011- 7^9-]7ft

    o.,.o-,=o
    COz SOz sos NF3 clF3
    dB
    AB2 AB2Eee AB3 EE Ar4E A% 8'+gE AB3 T^tE

    ar* 9.2 AB2etABs ExtEelEg

    +lzlt+. A ?147I B gzle+ Ag ¤Hql fletr I


    E"Jg ¤E t4¤(trigonal planar)ol
    -r., A flz}7l B gz}9 ¤H 9lql gl-g.E t4gB(trigonal pyramidal), + Hlqol caL4B
    .J q4ulg EoJol+. clF3el ag "J+ AB3 +4+:ae e.2ql Ll4u uls{ zJol, uli{
    Solq} EoJE 1z[$(r-shape)olr+. flxls=g ag ¤Eq +q 9lsq + ,]lE B-A-B 4
    g el eo', Hrll 4g l8o"ql 7l*q.
    ^Jl
    El]+ Efl.AIE .l++E AB, tszlel EoJg feJ e.3ql +4u szll$ zl$ zlat *aglrJ
    q^Jg + gl+. -Et= +aql^J 6d flz[ +EE nz]lsl B i)zlzl,l]+ qla4s-e.
    A
    =46J
    +. +fl= olul $oll,<l .r1l zlxl EoJ, dB, ¤E t4¤, r4n ^IE^ll +38 ++fl
    =
    +. t4 8$E(trigonal bipyramid) es'E BE t4¤(ABr)ol A+48 ol4 9lq 6I+4
    + 7Il9 flztE +7la zfzlt- 91= +a.tr. 7J+BJ + 91tr1. gBill E"JE AB6S A gzlE
    +q ae rl4ql 6z19 B flzlzl ol*61+ B gz} B-A-B
    ^tolel ^IolE 4E
    E+ e0"oltrl. .lAE qla EoFl ol# E+ 87He-l A*4¤E Eg 7izlr. 9l= gB
    =46].q, 'JEill
    =
    4l (octahedron)E+El El^J q 9+.

    SF6 .Erlts tl'B ¤: ol. Ert-?gfg 7f^lb7[?

    AB2 dB AB3 EE At4E ABn,\Pr1

    ABs 84 EgC A86 gEill

    fts 9.3 ABn Erloll,t.l B flrlE 2Jel71zl= EIc}|E 6l'= Eg


    372 9g E^tst 7t6f +^q otE
    =c

    8^l-Ei1le0{l^1 EgB o e Eslg nll, F 7fl e.I fl rlt= ol gzl dE46tLLt7 | 6ieE}7 }?
    ^llzei
    s^laloll^1 3^t
    Et 7ll= rllz
    F flrllE,\lalo{l^l
    flxtrllz

    + +
    lTt!9
    =q31
    ^l'Eill
    arB 9.4 +Eill
    ^l-gillE^l.E,gel

    rH e.3ql EoJqlE +4zl olul lelal g+E Eolol sq+qq flzl ?*4.
    flE sz11
    ql= EE :H s.zgl EE6J so2 Eztg fre¤4 NF3 $zlE +49¤e:.H s.:9 t
    olql= S.4. :44 ++rll 4olzl"J, +e¤4 AI4g¤r+ zJ! +zl4"J E"Jg
    t I
    s7n 7lE +4_E+El +Eg + gltrL elE 5E :e e.491 H= u}e+ pol, {,r.}{xlloll
    +rldq flxl-$ ¤+4qe ^ll4g + 9l+. d^I{ill +ldql^l zllrl6lfl
    v ^J
    As:9 ={61=
    /J4gd +z7l EEl. + trzll flzl-= 6.J 7l]q flzl-E zllZdtE 4"lzl ABzE
    ... g¤ +e7l-g+. =-

    ell AB, +4+ ql+E re e.39 7le +4q +Hg Eo&g 7l^la- gleq, *4E ol

    + TllelEd 4* -e.oJ'g q+g f ilEzl.? ++ flA'J ull(fzl&e9 ,4 p 7C ga +9 6l+)


    ,\l6i HIIE
    flrP] gfl ErJ8 Llt{ -EB(valence
    ^71
    shell electron pair repulsion(VSEPR) model)S ol
    e"6IH olBl+ eEql Bg + gl4. olEol 4r .Jt4ola 6Izl"J, EBg ol+ rJtrdl
    4. zlls.z¤ql^l "J + ?l*ol, vsEpR EBg BzlE Eolg ql+61-= ql ql+ +-s"6I+.

    trl.l-Eillcl.tlEcl, AB+ E^lel gHJ4oJ _"gi 7t8rll 6fl_l.= ,l.t4 EJE(square ptanad
    ?^,01rt.4 szle1 grPl tr+ ee EEoil Eq fleq. g^l.B= E^leloll ?ir. fl
    A: ecql ral e.3oll^j ,Et 7tl 0l8e.l fl^lE^t4Bel q. EE 7l5t
    ^l ?i. q! =4etr[.
    ^t4e.q
    q= ^ilz-g ^t4
    +5E Eg?.!71"?

    ^llTl]elEd
    E{O{,\l7l
    ou o- Hud erlP
    s.2 I VSEPR -E¤
    +,Je F 49 +d Eg +4 +e ag ^J46ll !.zI. rs e.sql^l B= tste| ?ol, F
    ,1]9 +dg z|fl!s.-+. .r.le. H4 EHaJ"JE|. 4 zl*alE '^J-e gfl Eq4 fleql1'qI
    +. ^ll H4l +dg +7I6lE +d=e dA|4BE qAAg.#"JtrI. ql Hzll *dg +zI
    a|fl .<|Sillz} g+. olz,lH +d +q q+ al4e-l zlt;l ]zzl g + 9l+.
    =r]]6Jg
    E4ql^l dzl¤g qH Eql^J *dr+ Aol 4Eet4. oJ ZIE dzlt}ol flz} .r.1o1
    I +rJg ^I{B ull, 6}+el *# Etlol ^JCE$ "Jn 9+ -l.. (8.3¤). ¤* dzltl
    (bonding pair)g 4zlzl zlzJ
    "*ol
    gaq= S9.ll fl41 de]++. r*l* gq.g E
    Ljl 7flel=d
    HllE
    rJB9(electrondomain)ol4r A9++. Hl+6IAl s.:¤9lr.J HIEoS dzr}}
    ^tEill =elilH
    (nonbonding pair) Ei rB dz}4f(lone pair)-5i 6}+el flz}"ll +lzl6J d4 Sq-s-_e
    a.l.H 9.5 Edotr Eq C C^l
    qo{
    o- cel.J+. qlE 5q .JEqolg Lewis 73= e4 gz} ++lql ql 4el dzl. sgg zl-
    9.2 I VSEPR -?-d 373

    zlrl ?lr}(sg de-e. s^lg rll zl]9 ="# dzl%}4 d5e.E^lg 6J Tl]el Hl++ d4t)
    HlSP t^l-8
    H

    8+ IrtS
    Bzlql ¤{{+ r+¤: aaJg 6l+E dzl ¤99 +Ct+. E]+^J os9 *B +a= +d
    &d gx} ++lql rll zH9 dz| ¤9¤ r*=+(+.J e6J oJ 7ll, ol+ A6J oJ 2fl, uleo.S {z}
    tl oJ zl).

    ,9-6:9
    gHlzlsE Hlso+ Ax},lr, +g At}, ++ Aile +4E +d gx} ++lql^l 44 xJ 4
    49 dzt gqe "J=+.

    BE +zs= TtTl EE-dAB3 E^lE 8?+tlExl'.


    :B:
    il
    :H-A-P:
    ..

    0l +4= "JE^t+4E r$e.izl? A 3^l++l0ll= H 7t|E E^tgqol ?1=71-?

    E¤e dz} ¤9ol +a6F= qr glq^l ^1tr Hlgqi+= aql zla6Jq.


    vsEpR re
    ^lE Eq^lql
    e.sel +.$xlH dz} ¤Ee aJ4.

    +q4l dzt s99 +ql q+ 4te_l tsllgg ^}g ,Je_l +ge 4ae q^= aol+.
    +d ,Jq +^i^dg ql+61 7l^l daa13 7\61+471E'J6l+. rH
    dxlle AzI ¤E4
    s.s9 *d4H F 4e1 dzl ¤93 d$ee ullga[-r., Tl|el dzt ¤93 SH +4¤ E
    ^Jl
    oJeE Elig4q, !l zll9 dz} ¤qg tsl]goJtl-. ol*loJ El]¤E+ Elz4l sz]]4 0z]]
    ^IE4IE
    9 dz} gqg r*E a+= e s.r9l 'I4*+. sg.r4 rH e.39 zlt;l ]49 ulrall -E_

    H, 5'J+ +aqs ag grll E 4o14.

    ^iE +=
    AB, Exl E= ole-E sole *d flxl A ++lE dzl ¤99 +ql ul4 94
    a+.
    ABr tsztE= olgel 6d flzI +99 dzl ¤99 u]]99 trt Eqq 7l6t +E
    (electron-domain geometry)4r 6J+. ole+= 84, Ezl4 olg +9 flzt"J9 Hllgg E
    rlel 7F175(moleculargeometry)+r ++. e49 zla| fa$ E^l-B ol] E= Hl="* d
    zftfg ^J+"JuI.

    Ezl s_"d+g rStEJ afl rsrpn 9$ {f,-a1-21


    +zlE r-olg a4g ql= BzJ vsEpR -E-¤g ol+4q dzl. ¤99 zlt;l ]4$ q+++.
    El=o# dzltq 9t dz} s9fzt H zHoJzl .JE tsz}9 zla[ fa$ q+B + glq. e
    zI9 dzl. ¤9ol IlF e6'Je_e+El ^JCqgg 4* ExI9 zlal *ab {z} $$$ zla}
    +ae+ +96I+. rq+ at4 olt}9 ¤9ol ul="# dzltlg EE|61-= A+ql Bzl EoJg
    ql+g trllE, Hl++ dzl4orol dx} ¤9 zlal iaglE zlol!|zlalr +zl.el zl4 Aay 4
    E{l zl.Ja}L dzt ¤9"J9 E++4= {$ zl$a110t q}+.
    374 93 E^lgl 716l +^sl=-Bt olE

    E g.l trt ojol+q Els trt oJoJel 7t6l +5


    EII Bq+- dxt gE HIE Erl Bqq 716l+5 q|= 384
    190"

    2 dB 180'

    1,20"

    3 dd
    ou ,AI7L6j
    E- o 120"

    109.5'

    4 109.5'
    ^IEill

    900

    ,<LTl.il}4d 120"
    5 E- O= O
    90"

    6 gEill 90"

    .dzl gqe] ++ qlqtr ilz|gl uNf.li(coordination number)4Z "J6l7lE 6J+

    VSEPR C.EE OIE=e! ETIL] OIEgI E.g q|+ EJE

    t. +zt+ ol$$ Lewis +='E rq-r. :.::: (9.!p), 6d flxI +9lE dzl. ¤9fE d4.
    Hl++ dxp}, +"J A'J, ol+ aB, ++ Ad.g 44 6t+E {z} gg-s-E ,J++rf.
    2..s e.lr+ eol, dz} ¤9 zJ9 *Bol A|zl EIE+ flxI +Eql dzi ¤99 ull
    g6rq dz} ¤99 zlul +a= AA.J+. =:d
    3. aqlg flztg EIgg Eu]el zlot*3E ad++.
    ^l-8-6[q

    E e.2= AB, +zl9 +d gxl. +9lql ql 7]] ol6lel dz] ¤9ol glg EI 7Po* +z[9 7l
    6l +e= sqts"J 1o14. gdzl +zlg tllq= e4+ oleql^J g + glE l_E -E_olg.s
    *6tr 9zl ,llE.ll s e.2E zla| +s6[+. fei
    e.2 I vsEPR -"8 375

    89.2 6C grt +qq 2, 3, 47ll t^t "dqg 1ts +4sl {xt odol fl Exl'sl 716l +L
    Ert BE+ fl^t gqq 716l +^ Efl BE uleg BE Erte.l 716l +4 qt

    2
    qrg 2 0 d-{M ,\l a!
    g:c:9

    :id:
    I
    3 3 0

    E{ol ?\l7la
    .ti\r..
    E{Ei tTla

    2 I
    I/\]
    =_qa

    4 4 0
    A H
    c
    I

    t"

    t
    J *Y
    ^lEill ^tEiil

    l.i
    3 I
    ,Y t*t
    J llgd
    ,\17
    E-=O

    2 2
    H
    itiiH
    +-9.4

    =H e.69 vsEPR
    .Er¤g +41= zl+6}q NH3 $zlsl zlal +aE ql+6]= %r-H
    ^ll
    g Hq i4. Lewis +aq^'l 7l|E ¤q+r} 6J ZiE EFo# dxftl9 9l zH9 d
    zI gqol
    ^ll =4= fai
    "J'J+. trI+^J .s s.r-trPEl NHr9 dz} B9 zla| ^lEaloltrI.
    =4l6Jg
    <.LH 9.6 NH3 E^[ 716l +4
    ol
    l=d
    2771

    NHs + H- trl-H
    H
    I
    + ',Lzt* + ru
    Lewis?I= E= d^lgqg 4ltl6tn. g^l=el BHE= g7l
    ralq. E^t gqE 716l+4= =gE
    el6ll^1 EII e-J d^t gq.J
    eEEl+Ee.13 lEEtt[ na16|q E^lol 716',f +r=
    (^lEi]l). 3E:eltrt(At4g).
    376 93 E^lel 7l6t+^ef 0lE
    =--J

    Lewis f+++El + 7llE dz} gEg HlE"s dzHrql Tl"JElg .Jr gleq, ol4g
    ^IE
    ill9 r-ll ,]] +{d + 6I+= ilxl6tr. 94. Ezt9 zl-ol ]4$ AAg oll rll z]]9 N-H A
    6J"Jnq6lq, III+^I +49 zlt;l]4zl gq. re e.4sl +rJql fl=+e, +
    aq^l 'il zll9 flzl-= 4a4gg EI +e: a}4g azy aazl g+. ql 7l]9=^IHill dz} ¤qg
    ,*= q+g
    ^iHiil +aE+q dl4g +zt +a= + 9l+g ++6I+.
    t4g tszle] fa* ^]Hill dz] ¤99 fagl zl=t 4o14. tr++^] ol^J4
    zla] zlo]
    oJ 2*49 lge.s"ol+.
    ?E flz}4 dzl ¤99 +7I E oJo}zl *g e], AEt4g "l^J4
    .J 4EE+EI Hq++= ag +
    "Jrll
    g 4o14.
    E += qlE, co, +zI9 Eolg aa6ll 5!z|. Lewis +38 .HE, 6d flzt iHql F
    Tl]el d4 ¤q(r+4 oJ 4lE ol+ A,$ol il+.

    0:C:Q
    + 4E dxl ¤9.$ dBE dx} ¤99 zla| faE ulla$lQ(E e. r). E trI Hl++ dzt
    .,5ro1 olr-lzl qlEql +zl9 zla| feE d¤olq, o-C-o A6J4g 180.olr}.

    qH e.l
    \6EPR -E-E
    ^lt
    vsEPR E.B= +3 E^l"l 716l+4= q|=6l^le. (a) os. 0) sncrs-
    ^t86tq
    THU 4A +zlE zlol7aE q+6I71 96Iq +d Lewis +zE
    E4 E+ gE}^l"l AB,oltr, +TlgEq p 79.11 6tl'J.61-b :fl F ?d flzI i?19 dz} ¤q+E 41416I_2, dz} ¤9
    6d fl4-E 7|zlr. 9l= E IeI4fl4 ol39 E l^lol +q 9 zlal +a= e:+. Aqlql 9sL dzi gqq Hl]ge+q
    d4(oall 9lq^l= Ac| szl-E+ &i Szl99 f-rE-6l.4). EzI +aE 9olt4.

    Eol (a) ?*, F zl9 *B +a= rB + 9l+.


    os9 :O-O:O Q:Q-QI
    -
    +¤g ol+r glTl qEql, 6d o flzlc+ 9p o szf ,J aq} ,Jol=
    E"J6I+. + T}zlej +B +aql^l 6d o flzl= F 7l]g q+ o gzte+
    a6J6I-r. 9lr, 5J 7l]E Hl*+ dzltlg zlzlL 94. q4^l +d o g4
    ql ql6}q 4E dz} 899 z*ts4(zlal +4= ql=ts oll
    "l* ¤Elg

    +e+
    ^ll
    a|49 dzt ¤qsE al4I.J+= ag Ed6t+). ,tll zl]g d7i gEg 7I
    rl u}l¤3 ¤H d4B"l+(E e.r). dz} gq * F zl]E AElolq, 6l+
    =
    Hl++ dzHlol4. trI4^l +zI zla| fai ol^J4.J 4g-4ol 120"
    oJ
    Bg¤ol g41s. l.z). o,o\o
    +sl ol qlql^l tr=ol, EZITI *B +a= 7le q +E +a + 6ILl-=
    ol+6}q +zI +a= ql+tr + 91trt.
    ol$$ r.. .. .. 1-
    +a= Elg-r+ a+. :cl-sn-ct:
    t
    (b) snclr- Lewis I I

    'Jr' ]
    6d sn S4+ zfl$ cr gzle+ A6J6Ia. .J zl]9 El:,-+ d44}g 7l-
    ^.il
    zlE+ Sn gzl ++lq Lll 7l]q dz} ¤99 r*=+. ol= 6fLI9 +lld
    ql= Hl++ dzt6lol +zfl{+
    ^tflxll
    dzl ¤99 zlal +a= r*=+= 0
    'st-cl q
    XS 9olaJ4(s e.1). rll z]]9 aq}++ zH9 El=o# {z} $$$ z}zli Cl \tu"
    dr} ¤qel +zt zlo[ fa] g4gqolQ(E r.z).
    \.,
    ^IEzil
    9.2 VSEPR -?E 377

    > .EE qF{ 1 >HEqm2


    4*9 ABs EzIe+ ole-=--a-
    ^J4d] Bzt.
    (a) SeCh, G) co32-ql 4"t9 dzt ¤99 zl"t +ae+ E
    PCl3, SO3, AlCl3, SO32-, CH3+ zl.$ zla| +aE q+61^ls.
    BH A4Bq Ezt 716| +4= ,*= +z}el oE+ q llfloJ7l?

    (a) t (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) + (e) s

    Hl8+ {ailbtzl rffi {tjol AEriT+ll trlil'E-


    oCEJ

    s e.2q sE6J Ete+ aol. olt}4.J zlalfa-+$q ErJ H.q'+E aEgvsEpR E¤g ro xlTLul

    ol+6}q ¤E.J + 9l+. qlEI.J(cH*), oJsqol(NHJ, E(Hro)g q-e 5q EzI. TIzl


    ^ll
    E+ dzl9i99 zlal Azzl
    ^IHillolzlEJ,
    rEq Aql4e EA qsq.

    TO
    H-Y5n n-Y5H
    I{10e.s' I{101
    Hl=o # dzl-tl9 jzl ¤oJ4ol ad6.Jg Tqale|. E" f dx}%[g F Et] szi
    |zlxlf!
    el qql E6Iq El=o# dul{r$ 6J qql 94^]rJ oJ{ol 4lsoaJ4. Hl=".$ dz} Hl83I^l.8
    =elzl"J,!-v\71 ql+ql,
    %r-e e9 "Jqg E6}ril dzl ¤ 99 =" # dzl-t9 dz} ¤ 984 +tq^J
    q H4 ul{Q(:H e.z). r}e},t1 Hl="r? dzP^}ol =o# dzB}B+ q He +rJg il.zl'*r+.
    Ed4eE Hl++ dz}A}g :H s.s9 Hl+ql^j q r_.1 +F* +dn+ z;Q. Qt\4,eE,
    El++ dzltl9 dx} S99 ol* dz} gqq q Hlgqg 4+6Iq AEI49 A4^la+.
    q-e a6Jg +.J aElB+ dz} da} ulEz| = trl-6 a6JE trl
    =uEd^I gqg zizl
    =
    6Jr+. E,\d(phosgene, CI2CO)9 Lewis 73E {zJall az}.

    ..\
    :Ct

    C:O
    ,(l "j
    .l.B 9.7 e:cr.g Hl,lEr Cxl.
    4el dx} ¤gol 6d Ea flzl¤ llerr+, aq}4ol 120"q-l BE al4¤e.l EEg 8rtl4?.!+tr|
    ^ll =q+r.
    zla[ f=tr qlt]6J + glr[. r4+ ol+ aq]g Hl++ dzl,^d}zlH aE6[q cl-c-Cl a
    6J4g 1u.4.z} g+.
    =q5q
    Cl.-tz+.e'
    ,"1[]g
    /?124.3"
    C1

    "JHI4ss q+ aElE dz} S99 +"J A*E dxl B9s-4 ol* Azl S99l cJ *
    Hlgqg 4+4.

    Ett 0l8el 3E +^ 6 6lLl= +34Atl.


    [
    lil 'o,

    Lo:. )p:
    0l 0lE"l ,3EJ2f? 120"01r|.. 0l gll 116 Elil= B:3t0ll1l tselEt lal.oJ
    =al.= =:Er.0l =:Er.rjoll
    ildlET|.?
    378 98 E^lsl 7l6t+^q z--J 0lE

    E_tttfl flal-7|.etE rJ: +zl


    fzlgs9 3+71q: olt}9 +7lql fl= 94+ ql 7l]BtrI "*9 d44}"il E6I Eqr+.J
    + 9l+ '::::r.. (g./!). 6d SxI ++lq s7I] E= ozflel {21 ¤qg r*= E4+ +4 r,}g¤
    (trigonal bipyramidal, sTl]el dz} ¤9)ol* E}Edl¤(octahedral, 6419 dzl. S9)"I zlel
    ql +zlE zlo[ fag +4'd+(E e.3).

    E 9.3+{ grt +glql s7flet 67l| txt gEql trt odojql 716} +5.q Ertol 718} +-T.
    E1|6J

    Extgq+ drt gEE 716l +5 EB Bq HleE gE Erlsl 71617E qt

    5 5 0 PCls

    l7 t at!.E a llT l [l!!.61

    4 I SFa
    *"
    "d
    ^l^e

    3 2 clF3

    TII=d

    2 J XeF2

    ,\l6t

    6 6 0 SFr
    r..l
    EltH +.I:ol
    "JEilIE

    5 I
    I BrF5

    r L7lE6l

    I
    4 2 XeFa

    r L7l Eloia
    9.2 I VSEPR -?-d 379

    szll9 dz} gqql ql6J 7It .Jaqr dxl 899 zlo| *ai /$4 r^dlg(6|+9 gH
    9 ="#q* F /J.4g)ol4. ^l+vl^) ="Pt rlg ull$$| gr-1, $4 agE ax} g
    +Utr flII", 6d ?^I, qE HJB
    93 zlalol4oE EEsl += + ="F9 +lrl7l. 9+. + ,llel ¤Eg q. $r'j(axial g^ti\lolol 2+E= 71)4 g0l.E7l?
    position)$ 6J-.1.r., rll zll9 gqg 4E *i}(equatorial position)S 6r*+(f.H 9.8).
    4 + %r-6J ¤qg -E= 4E %I"J ¤q4 so.E olE4. 6lLl-E zlE %I6J gqe += =Hl5t
    7flq
    F zl]9 4E %r-.J gqr+ 120"8, +BJ6J ¤q4b so"E olE4. ^il Hl6l
    ^lc
    qts Ezlz} szflel {z} ¤qg 717)a- 9lqr 7}c6l] trzl.. r+ a}4 0lt}9 Hl++ ?.1^l=

    Hl++ d4g.g +"J6J E= 4E %l6J + q! sqg d+q-=


    r{1t7ta9
    od-d=
    dzlgol Ed:dtrt.
    =4++B
    7l? ol e$ql qlBoIEjE H^l qL +lxl7} ¤9 zJ Hlgg al^E6l+7|= A46}]ot
    120. +lzlql flg trItr+ e0" +lzlql flg trll + gq
    aJ4. dxltol +"J:d ?trt
    ^1tr, ^|olE HIB
    ol gd q r+. 4E ,J6J gqe Ezl F ,ll ¤q(+BI6J gq)r+ es.$ ol-$,xluJ, 4. a rts 9.8 A4 8gE 716l +^9
    )d+Hlu grF=g + 7[rlg +
    %r-J ¤qe Tllsl q= gq(4E %r-6J ¤q)4 eO.ol+. trI4^l 4E %I6J ¤qe + ^1e
    ^il Pl^l7l
    EJ6J gqB+ dzl- rlsg B La+. Hl++ azHr ¤9ol *# dxlt}tr4 Hlgqg = =4,Ettr|".

    q rzl gfl6}s._4. Hl=" $ dzltlS 6+tI ,s4 Agq zlE *t:J ¤ qg zlzl6J+.

    ES ac fl^t +Eo, T,.et Ert EqE 7,"q^t4g4-.J


    Llt EEE +4-Etlts E^t=i1t ?rz1 q g=
    i e.t. E& Eq ^lole.l 4Eoil =z6tq ^lEiilTl olSE ¤E-g + ?1ts7l.?

    azll {z} ¤99 dz} ¤99 zla} 7=E 9E4l(octahedron)olQ. gEillE


    z}At "JdE}
    6rHq +lld4 azle1 4+4¤ ES zit 4E4lol4. -*. e.3ql^l trFol, 67HE dxt ¤E
    g r*= +4-= dxl. ¤9ol 6rl]el +lldg 6&6Ir, gE4 +dql flzlzl915 {o-e ,J?
    g + 9l+. EE A6J4g eo"olq, 6rIE qrldg E+ E'J6I+. qe|^l "J'J s4E AqI
    dz} ¤94 6l+el Hla,* dz} ¤99 ,*:+8, HIA6J dx} S99 BH^llE 67H9 +rl
    d 6 qL *qlE 9l^l6J + ?l+. r ar+= 6}tl ^t4g¤ EzI 716I +^71gq. rq+
    F z1]9 HIA6J dzi ¤9ol 9lg trltE gBillE ^J51 +ql+ql Hl++ dzHfol 9lil6llo} HI
    B4ol 447l qr, E s.:9lrle| zJol EzI +a= rt4 sB¤ol g+.

    Itq qH e.2
    tni qtE flat7l.?e¤ *E +.atE 714 +a
    vsEPR -"E= (a) SFq, (b) rF5 E^lol Tldl+4= ql+61-119.
    ^tE6G
    6tl3 +d
    4lEJ Lewis 745:fl F, VSEPR EBg ^l-s'o6}q d
    E^l +d gztTl +7lgs.9 p *9q1 9lE en,g E4¤o]4, 4 ¤qq zlol Tac+ EzlE 716I +6= aA++.

    #ol (a) SFa9 Lewis 7a5 ffi$ zJ4. .\S .F:


    :H'

    ..q. .F:

    +g ++lql szfl$ {z} ¤9(+zH9 s-p 46F} 17HE Hl+r.+ d'Z1.t})g


    ,*=+. 4 4zl ¤qg +l4 r,6}gq E^-IEE..t"J+. ITI]E Hl:uo+ dzt
    tl dz} ¤qe 4E oJ6J +lzlq +e+. 47H9 aq} d4 gq3 +I}lxl
    47llql +l^l6FrE +ztE zla| fa| ^ld
    EoJ,ol g+.
    f ,,*t
    t\
    S

    FF
    +
    380 98 E^lel 716l+rq olE
    =-c'

    +g ¤ezlss +eg +a= e-ql 9l+. qltl+ arl Aol, HIA6J d


    zl gqg 4E oJ'J +llq gl4. +,J6Jr} 4E,J.J s_F AsJg Hl++ d
    zpl.f$etr+q ErJ +le Bq 914. ollg Hlgqol q Hlr"+ dzl* 186' 116'

    ¤901 4?l ¤qg'"Jqu+'= ag e.lulqlQ(:fl o.z).


    =

    g0l
    *3t +gq aq .- . ,/"F:-'.
    (b) IFsE Lewis
    fz'rI.r.:
    ;.q.
    ololeES gz} +gql dill 0zH9 dzt sgol 9la, r+ rJ zl]E ElE".? d
    zl+oltrI. El4^l dzl- 899 zlol *=E BlE"* dzl{l-ol 6}+9 gilE i}
    F
    al6}r. gl= gtrillolq, EzfE 716I+a=
    ^I4gqo1Q(E
    r.:). F r,.

    '-i-' 4 | ,.,,0 F

    +sl Hl*+ dzttl ¤93 ?tI dzl gEql Hl6Iq q rEs, ulelul= u[$
    q flts +zll9 FE +ql7l9 F gal-= 6J6Iq EJ +lE +oI 9i+. dql4eE
    Hlqr+ +q7l F gzt 4E= gE^llg ol*4ql 4Eql e0.B+ zle
    ^lolel
    82.o14.

    >H=qF{1 (c) ,tJ¤ (i)4 tii1o1 ";O.

    ^I4 BH¤ +zl-716I fa$


    ol¤ an, +^l7l z|1lr]. ol (d) (ii)e+ (iii)ol E*+.
    ^l¤
    +zlq q6J q+ ^l+ + "*= ae? (e) -eF "*4.
    (i) +rI= +d gzt A +?lql Lll 7l]E dz} ¤ qg 7lzlj1 gltrL
    >s=qr{2
    (ii) o1a6 B gz},r.[ol$ B-A-B 49 eo.oltrl. q-g 4qlEE dz| ¤99 zlal *=eI ezlE 716l +48
    (iii) Ezl+ g4 Aql F zll9 Hl=o# dxltf¤ zlxll !lu|. q+6I^l9-.
    (a) aI49 "*tr1. (a) BrF3 O) SFs+
    ^'l+"Jol
    (b) (t)4 tiilzi "1'1.
    ^1+

    * Ezl'9 s.oJ
    zl7zlzl EE,J E olg=e t4 aI49 #d flxl-= -tr¤-6}J
    le+ ?lzl"J. vsEpR E¤g
    trl +d-6J EzItr-E qtlg + 9l+. o|,rllE4l Ezl-= -l?dl _H_zI.
    H
    H- C o-H
    I

    H
    vsEPR E-¤g ol+6l.q 4 *^ flz}9 z)el ]4$ ql=g + 9l+
    H :o:
    il
    o-H
    I

    I^f gE+ 4 3 4
    d^t gEel 7l6f +4 Eitrl ,\l716l
    ^tEill-d ^tEilt:d
    qlAr 109.5" 120" 109.5'
    =-cf4
    e.2 VSEPR -E--J 381

    ol^'llEtiE ¤xjl+4011^j olttJ 7t6tT1?71?


    =-J401

    /.tEill d^f gqq 7l6t + et gE a4E drtgqel 7t6l+^et I^t EEq 7l5l +^el
    ^fEill E^tel 7l"l ?4
    Erfel 7l"l +4 EE A4B E^tel Tldt +I E3e
    ^tEi1l
    a rB g.g 0l^ilE{!(cH3cooH)ql flrl +glel dxl. BEzl. E^1. 7 16.1. +4
    =c
    g+ c= 4Zl9 dzl. ¤E(E+ A$g zlzlue' r gz} ++lel dz} ¤q zlal. fae|
    EzI 716l +a= 5.i r.|flxlloltrl. 6C cE:zlls.l dz} gE(ol+ AEle 6l.+el ¤qeE
    al^I)g 7V)q, dzl. ¤99 zla| fae| +zlE zla| faE E + ¤E +I4¤o14. e-
    o fl71+ +{el {21 gE(+ ,l]el a.J4 + 4e.l Hla6J)g zlz]rae dzt ¤99 716} +
    a.=
    ^IEijlolr EzIg zla| fa| +g¤ol+. q-+ e6J4 Hl++ dzll^dl-e +rJg "*ol
    ztzl6}zl qEq 6d cp+ o gz} +919 4*r++ olt}4.J 120"eI t0e.s.e+El ErJ Hq
    t a,es qtlg + 9+.
    ol..rllE& tsz}el +aql ql+ +4e fEJ e.eql gl+.

    qEI e.3
    ,j6J4 qE

    ,J4El b0ll Eel Htol'J gE=lpoly(vinyl alcohol)]olalu 6lE +Ed rE^lE E.:d-6tq, HpILJ gi.=olzlr. 6lE
    ?.P+e
    ^l.EElts
    EPJE-d e7E Erl-= TlEeE -dtl.
    HH
    H-O-C:C-H
    tl
    Hl'01'J "JiEsl H-O-Ce[ O-C-Csl l',J= ql*6l^19.
    =-ct49 =
    6fl.J
    E4 +471 +ol7)il, + aql4g ql+61+- E4lol+.
    rewis
    rfs- $o t-rE c ++iql Zl9 dzt ¤9ol 9l+. q^Jq=
    ^Jl
    4lEl 54tI AqI4g ql=6t71 9l6}q ?qI fl= gz} Azl ¤qE zlal+aE ¤B +4¤oln, oltr-4oJ A.J4g
    ^Iolql l26"olEl. :alu| c:c ¤9ol rl r7l ql$ql ?*43 rzo"
    E ++lE Eqr^|I 9l= dzl gE+E ac6J+. ol^JzJ?l
    zJ9- t gr} ++lE dzl. ¤99 zla[ ]agl 9=t4. ol 4 .H-4 oJzJ H 4ot'J4.
    * HlEos dzlttol4 q+ a6Jql E4q qA aol4. > .H.E qF{ 1

    =qE EA ,llB
    Eol H-o-cq^l o flzl-b ?9191 +zll! $zf ¤9(zzH9 +T181tr
    ^FS9= +qlE"J H
    6l.0lE4ll(CHuN)oll 3x11oi5 gz15
    4q}$ zzll9 Elaq})g zlulL 9l4. relo-e. o ++19 dz} H H
    ¤99 zlo]. +a: ^lH4lolq, ol^J4oJ Aql4g loe.s"ol e ++4 zJ"l Sdqq 914.
    C-N-NII H-N-H9 ol^JzloJ a N-H
    4. H-o-c 4E= El++ dzl4t9l e.l6}q ErJ
    loe.s"-tr+ ErJ +g a_sE qt¤+. =q5q *49.44 9"IoJzI? H H
    I I

    (a) 109.5", 109.5' (b) 109.5', 120" (c) 120", 109 5"
    o-c-c a.J4g q+6I71 9l6}q +aql 9lb c grl-= a (d) 120', 120' (e) Bol S4.
    qot tJ4. ol c gzlq ¤ElaJ SzlE,tll zllolr., El*+ dz}
    382 93 E^lsl 716l+5el olE
    =g

    > E6 qlr1l2 H
    uEulol(propyne)ql^-l H-c-He+ c-c-cq a.J4g I

    ql+6t^l9-. H-C-C=C_H
    I

    s.3 l+a|soJ4+al+tr
    ol4l= +zI7I ell $A.J E"FI ¤Eil= zlfl=zlql ql.J A61l= 7l^1A1qHq. rl4rl a.a
    ¤ql^J zig EqoJ At} +C4.9=_z[ E_{Eql q]6J +^ll_+ Eota 1o14. aqig +de
    a$g ol+I 9l= + dal flzt ^Iolql 4zlzl ¤"t4 +E6}rll ++qfr,={ql qlEI 6l+
    9 4E+E 4* zlq6}4. + a6J flz| zJ dzl *Cg zlzl fizl$++ A6JE +CE r
    "J+
    olgzl tszlE }d}+zl -E-HIE= EzI9l d6I+ EEq ql'J
    =:7I6J+(8.4t1).
    zlE+= ag "J.l. 9l+. =^H6l+
    oltel gzts ol+qd +^IE 49, ffi4.5rdE= 4 aBE +Cq +xlE zl
    .rll zll
    6l +aql el=++. +ztq 44 aqlq q6}q eg $-rJ(bond dipole)E .746llot 6l+
    ql. olae AqI* + g^Iql 7lq-l6l+ /'d+z} E.fleo14. dBg co2 $xffi- qls Eq E
    z|. :aJ 9.10(a)ilfl zJ C:o A6Jg +Coll', C:o 46J Eg E.J6IeE A6J 6liz|$
    a_71+ ?4. ol tsz}9 dz}'Js:1Be 4 ¤Elol +Col4= ag EB6l trq +zl"J, E
    zlE d4l ,|bl-+x} -E.H]E=
    "lEzI?
    olEg aTle+ %16&9
    e6J ,&d+z}e} ,Lr-+zi EHIE= qq"J"lE+.
    = '*=+. 49zl EzI
    E .}HrI .EHlE: e* ,FzIg ulq6Jol+. EIEIE oJ6J trll dEI 4*xl9 a71e+ oJ6Fg
    E+ n46}]ol 6J+. coz9 + 4E A6J .&H4+ a-7li ?zl"J oJ.Jg Cq6I4l Hlqlol

    4 cJ+ rH gle.l+'gA qqq Etg gEt?l7i?


    co2' Ht' H2O, +¤
    7{61 al=Tl
    B O-l.1
    =
    5g6l^l,J EJEH HJ:del eg 8=^l

    <---------------+

    f t I T
    tsP TII "JE
    3.5

    'J3 d^t "JE 2.1 2.1


    3.5 2.5 3.5
    Eill8=^t su!= : 0 Iill 8|+^l _EE!E

    (a) (b)

    arg 9.10 +=8 Exl.?.!coz,ld ExloJ Hzo(*xl'=F fl^l'slI7l8dE,J)


    e.3 | E^l_?gfrl E^f 383
    =5
    4. olE¤ 6J6I= 43 roo+1-roo)8H, a7l+ ?zlq} El'il +EE + +E q6F= ar+
    ?+. +E a3o1 sol q= axlH, A6J,'d-:a-rzl+ ^ls'^J4lg+'. l4=e 4 4,*ol +C.J
    zlElE dill ;$]zI -EHIE= 0ol E]I, 6]z|.<l Coz ts{+ F*C(nonpolar)o1 gq-.
    q-$ge. F z]l9 +C A6Jg ,*= #g¤ EzI"J HzoE
    ^J46ll H_zl(rH e.10(b)). +
    AtJg E.J6ta, 4a3 ffizls.l a_7l| aq. rqLI Ezl+ #g$olq^J eoJ.t+zl+
    ^J
    tr $dq qI4 u"r.Jol olHoe. tr+]lqzl ?*=+. :a4oe. H2o Ezlg {ill ffiz} EHIE
    u sol olrlr.fu: r.ss D), EI+^J Eg +d Ezlol+. fe e.l0o)ql^l trFol, &e gz1
    +E4ql gd6l-= rrljl 91,r, ,+ +L flzlE +E4e oJd6l-= ,*yL+.
    =

    A
    | =,,
    O:C:S E^l= ,SEolq, Lewis +I= CO2el+^l6ltl. 0l E^[7|'-7qdolal.z GlAEl.

    fa e.11qlE "J+9 +C +zIeI ++C +xlE ql= Ll-E+*.sq, ol5 Efr +C Aql
    $ zlzl:L ?l+. +d ?)zlzlt'"J6J fl2}"il E6il qla4ss ;Alq il= E4E ++colrr
    (sr,e+cclr. E= s flzlz} Eg6J AB, $z| 6 EoJol qlae a+ r+ Ad-ol +Col4i1
    6Jzl+E ++C +zl.l+(dB(ABr, ¤H +4¤(ABJ, ¤EB(AB4), d-4
    ^lHale+ ^I4
    ,^JB(esJ4 ggi111an)).

    3.0
    3.0

    1 l+ I I
    +-----,

    2.1, 2.1,
    HCI 3.0 2.5
    2.5
    4.0
    =,$
    -o
    2.5 2.1
    NHs
    3.0
    t
    BFa
    o=ll
    cH3cl
    f/\l CCI,
    o=l{
    T-O

    arB 9.11 e--Jg Tlxlr 9l= "f +=d E^l-=(*^|.= E7l


    =d =d =dE'J)

    qEl e.4
    szlE +d
    ttB E^lEol +=dE^l= qEd[^le. (a) BrCl (b) So2 (c) SFo
    =doJ^|.
    rtlt z|.rlE t}4qq F*c Ezle ¤ a.Jzl, ofr.ls ,r.lE z.t5]
    E4 7l]9 Ez}^lol +qxlr. E^l7l +c.Jzl= ql+61+ 6lq +^J *zlzl9 4e1xl5 $o}ts4.
    ^il
    Ez{o14. Eoi (a) g^= uB"Jtr4 dzl +dE7I =+. +C aqlg
    44 47]|+¤E7I +E + zfl$ $zle ol+qA E4-= + ,*= E= olflz| gzlf *C Ezlol4. tri+^.1 Brclg *E
    col4. ^ll zl oltlE gzts +dg Ezi9 *c3 EzI9 zl gd6l-= trl= gAE zlzla 9lE *C Ezlol4.
    6t +ael4 a.Jel +Cql BEI 9l+. Ir+4^l ,tjl zll ol.$el
    gzl-= s'B6It 4 Bzt9 C*E Lewis fa$:fl.t1 $zf
    BrCle.l {t-421 EHIEE +C<}g p :
    ;=i Dol+,
    0.57
    9 zlal +a= A46l]oF oJ+. -]Aa_ 4zl gCE alg ol¤: (b) 4Ii= *ts4 dzl +tEzt =-71 *C d
    trllEq sozi
    6lq ai+.!8-:a_zlE %}.Jg aa++. ulzlu_|e_e a6J.ts+z}
    fl-g zt^lr 9l+. TIzl *E +a= +.Sr+ a+.
    ^]
    384 93 E^19 7ldl+^q 0lE
    =-J

    :O-'S:C|: <---, :b:S-O: .---------'b:'S:O:


    gE^]| Ez}g zlo} fai 4lolzl qEql, Ae rt}qz}
    tl4lqa, E{+ ++Col+. 4 p =0014.
    vsEPRE¤ql 96.18, olE 449 +e¤E EzI716l + =
    q+g+. >E6qH1
    Eztzt tol 9io o-e AB.ttL=--,zl+ tl4l Ae+ BE d7l ¤.CE7r 4E en, E4¤ r.E6l-xl.. gztq
    =E
    q4 ?*eq, +zl+ +Col+. ,51+^I E{ETI0g trll .$ztE zlai fa| q-g + qL
    H

    "r'\
    7.oJ71?
    (a) t49E O) EE /J4¤ (c) rz}¤ (d)
    ^IEillB
    SO2el aj--z| E.HIEE .,,JBltg p:r.63 DoltrI. (e)Bol F z|] ol*
    (c) EFg-fl* slH4 dzl *Cszl rl^l Aq+ 4-=-r4+
    = > HE qI{I2
    +-sflg 6r*tr1 641 s-F aBe +d + ++lq gEal El¤. B4-= at.JzL FAC.JzI?
    LoJe-tr ts1|g6JtrI.
    (a) SFa O) SiCl4

    F,S;F
    t,,
    FI t

    e.4 l#'iEFzlsHIEJ 44
    vsEpR E¤g Ezl z16l +aE q+68 ql ¤il-l.J ElBolzl"J, flz|,'.p1q ql A6Jol
    zil6l+zl= ¤E6tzl *.Jtrt. =".s ¤oJ olEg Tllgp ol slelzlE'$ "J4 qolg ol+6}q =
    4E %IH oE r Erllql d=6IH+. gzt sulBg ol*6}q e6Jg q$rll ¤E6fr, Ezt
    9 zlal +aE q${ ¤BEt f 9lEzl? Lewis9 dx}{}A*4 gzl sElB T]]Hg Aqle
    ?rJ dzltlS fl4¤ ^lol9 ¤qq d+qq glr, Hlaa,I d7]-tlg 5c +rJg.Jql +q
    9= s+q} A6Jq EBql flrP] ee olp(valence-bond theory)o-s olqd+. flz| 9ul$
    g gcg + gl: %LHg E*6Iq ol d=Hg q-a-6Je-Er{, vsEpR EBql qq" 6]+
    ^Je
    ¤EHg g=trI.
    Lewis olEoll.{Ji flzffiol dzl-= ="fre- ull dz} "JEE q ulEql *
    ^Flql A+^lvlTl
    ro 7l=19
    * ¤ltol scgrt. flzltl aEl olEql^l= qI gztg gztTl gz} sHlgol trI
    gzlE g7l7l ?lzr sulg4 *rJg ++6J trI, aa {(overrap) + q
    I
    oT ddvt/
    =lllill I
    =H=
    Pl.-lleHl= EA
    =
    .il dzl "JEz] 6z]a]E 1es E + 9l+. sHlB9 = AaeE *4 l¤¤ ^}ol z]tl
    1s 1s + 13.471q ^FlE ++g a"*d}l, ="# ¤aJol dCgtrl.
    f.s e.zql= F zll9 flzlzl d=flq 6}+e.l E{-= BCdt= ql$ fl
    H-H ^ll7l^l
    ol$e_e zlfap ?14. urE ¤c6l+ qlq^J, ,+ +L g4-= ls eEl
    ^l7l 4t*
    1s 3p

    +9tr1. aa ¤qql 9l= dzl+ .J+ qql 5^lql a=47]| ul+ql ?lzl-= ^JE E
    q 'Ja 6F+E ++ A6Jg
    H-CI: ^JC++.
    sHlpel AaeE ="# EdJ¤ ^JC.J+= oiolqq=, += EzlqlE "l+z}
    zlE + 4+g + 9l+. HClg qlE EH, gi= [Ne]3s23p5el dzl tsl]i]=
    '*=
    3p 3p
    q. grq fl^l7l _sHlgg dzl6J zl]r} zltl 3p e_HlE 6I+E zll$rp E+ ill
    gl4 9rI. ol ap d!-b H9 rs dz[e+ 49 ol+q ++ 4.,]g
    ^Jc6[q HClg
    ,9i-9i' E|4l +r ?14(:H e.12). gaq rt= + zl9 3p sulge + t[e] {z}e olul
    AreJ 9.12 H2, HCl, Clz9 E*'J-'Jg fl ill+14 ?loIr-+. +deiE aElql +q6l.zl *=trI. u|{z}zl-+ cl, $ziel ;19

    ^[
    9HlE'01 2Jeo eu 88Eq. a'Jg, dut aJ 7H7t ^ll914 ?lE cr gztg 3p eul$ol 4E cr flz}9 3p e_Hl
    e.5 esl= 385
    =5

    0i refiIi0{i^l Hz E^19 ,JB goEi,JB +*E7l?


    ^jl7lb

    @ @ I

    I
    I

    I I
    1 I I

    I I

    I
    <
    5 9HlEr zEol 67t--Joll qal
    6
    trlEJl¤ ollLl^l7l #4

    6H-6H Tlol HlHlelnl -436


    Ilxl 471
    0.74
    H-H Zal
    oJaj4 HJg+
    ^t0l0ll =-J

    A.r.B 9.13 fl^l 9Hl=Jol ZE0ll ttt= H2 E^fe-l 'g'5

    gq aa ="+ a*g ^Jc6I: aeE ¤E6J + 9i+.


    q
    ="+ ao"Iql^J a6JoJ + ^Iolql= 6J^J 44 44zl f.H 9.139 flzlfol ,rl
    =zll++.
    E d=6lol Hz Exl¤ ^J^J6J oll, F zl]g H g^IE ol+qd 4lE qHl¤ qlLJzlTI q¤rll
    H6l+7l¤ Bq flzl¤ol +.Jd Er,l Eq4 ilg tr]]= ^le_'Lvlz.l'*6Ii1, trI{^l
    =+.
    9lHzlzl 0q flzt zJ 44zl rJi6J++ rEE rs eHlE ,J Aag +7lz,JLl. 4
    =d*+.
    44sE "l ^Iole.l {z} prz} r 419 slHl¤ qlqzl= rJi't}+. olgz}
    =:7}6}E_+
    4lel rlEl¤ q1qzl zJrgl^l E=ol, a!+9 ^il7l= 67Id+. rEl+ :74 e.139 g4¤ol
    =
    o.z+ Ae-+ c) zltlol d=6IH qlqzl= +46|rll +zlq14= ag Hq olq.J +4
    =+.
    oJ 6zli +51
    "l ^IolE 442)4 HIB trllEolq , E J 44zl ** oll +s6l.rt. rlHl¤ ql
    LJzl +dE ;l+r*ql^l AzJ 44b z +zl9 a5J ,Jolql 6HB.J+(ol qlql^.]= o.t+ ]i.
    ol 4+{tg ,lEI¤ qlq717} ¤Eig rllzlgl
    "ll'J6Jtr}.
    l4oe. ++g E6J rJ"l} ^lE +
    doKdr}e} q) ^lolE qlqol, ag d6l(dz}-d4, e-e) ^Iol9 Hlgqq +¤g
    =
    ol+I llE zl4ol4.

    e.s I E:^J sHlB


    vsEpR EBg gzl sElBq ^ll+r+ EoJql zld4e +A7l S.¤-qlE E+6Ir, +zl +e
    ql+6[= E]l o[+ f-s. a]+ qlE 5q +d +A flzt9 2ss 2p sulB(oF==g +
    = ^]Hzll
    ol+6l-q, c-H p;Jol
    llzl *4)9 ^IE,ll +4ag
    ltdg 6J=o}j] qlql.Jql^J 6J6l] E]]g
    g ag ¤B6l+ ,JBg ol6ll6l_zzt .JE|. ++ 3a3o1 flz]. sHlgE Aaee+q BCg
    4E zllH4, vsEPR EBg ol+6}q gg EzI +== qBril as}^lrJ i 9lEzi?
    gd. sz} sElge g4 +=ql qioJ "Jzl qq4 E¤ql^l s= +qI q++4= ag tr-
    716lz} ,re (o.s¤). Ezi +4= ¤H6I7l +l6ll^J, + gzlE gz} sHlB(EE 6d flzt)g
    E¤ e.ulEJ(hybridorbital)ol+a dl= 4.E+ sHlg¤- ¤c6t7l +l6}q gqlg+11 Tiael
    q. qB Ec eulEol=zl r.tr"Jg fl49 flxl stslB EoJ4 +e+. g4 eHlBg 4=
    4Ag Edit(hybridization)up 6l= +E4'J ¤tlol+. + flzlel gz} gHIEE + +=
    ga6l7l ql+ql, grtg s¤ stslBE ++ ecq= ql ol+g gzt sHlgE +el e+.
    386 93 E^lsl 7l6f +^e[ olE
    =--J

    sCole.l "JHI4fl BEI= oJotHzl fl6lq, vsEpR E¤ql eldl ql+g dB, EeB, ¤
    g+Cg +9 a4lggBzt.
    ^IBiil E9
    E AL4e, tszl +ae+ eCsl ¤ql
    ^IolE
    sp Et 9HIEJ
    ecgl4ag ¤E6l7l 9ldlq, ++4 ?9 Lewis +a= z*E BeFz E4-= r.qdl EzI.
    :ij-ge-ii:
    vsEPR E¤ql qe.$, BeF27l + Zlel $E"6J Be-F A6Jg r*= dB +ar+= ag ql=
    g + 9lrl. flzlzl A6J olEg ole"o|{ qBZl A.Jg ¤HB i gEzt? rel {z} u11x1

    (tszzs2zps)y 2p 9-Elgql EI 4E &4^l7l9l+= 49 eq ol gdzl+ Beel 6J 7l]


    g sdz}q erg zlg *c a"* ae'g ¤d+r}. rq+ ee =+. flzlg olu s_u1gol F g4
    I q! _qHlg$ fi!.{ Be-F A{}g ^Jd6l+71-?
    ^J4E Be flzls.1 _sHlg tr ++: trI+4 e+.
    Hlq

    1t 1t

    1s%2p
    se fl4-= Hlq
    ^Jqlql^l &4^l7l szl 4lE9l =+eil flzlpi a6Jg olE + s4. :4
    u| Be flxl* zs 4zl + 6It+= 2p e-HlB.e'+41'+rlr z[¤*c-e/] + 7l]g a.Jg Bc
    g+ el+.

    1t 1 1

    Ls 2s 2p

    Be flxlt olzll + z1|9 gdzl-E zlzlgtr F gzle+F Zlel +C ++ A.Jg ¤^dg+ 9l


    q. rq+ Be9 2s sElBg aJ Tl]el a.Jg eCd+ rll ol$a|-r., 2p e-HlBg += + Zl
    E Aqlg ¤c6I= ql ol+al7l qlEq, + ,IE aqlol E56[z] *g 4.o14. tr]+^J .J d
    4¤'+tl'6}9 F zH9 Be-F polg "JE + 9lqqE, BeFz9 +4= qd6l ¤Eg +=
    s4.
    ol tzll= ral e.14el ztol2s _sHlg4 + zll9 2p e-ulgg'gq}6}q + ,l]el {eg 9-
    ulgg "JEeE;l 6lla6J + 9+. B^dg ?f+E sElBg p eul$zlfl + zlE E
    ^lls+
    u (robe)E ,*YL+. _144 p s_HlBr+= r+tr 21, 6J EE= 4E e-u_u-r1 g{ aE+. F ZIE
    ,(ll-tr* sHlBg EoJg zJxl"J, trE_g EJ6Je Hlqlol+. a4 e.14ql^J H44 "e.
    = ^lE
    *^l6J F zll9 _stslgol Ec s_ulB-olq. r?,1n il zll9 s eHlgrl t zll9 p e_El
    ^]]e+
    Bg scal6l$.zl rt]E9l 4r:E Edg sp Ed sHl$ol{r. *4. sz]z] ai] E¤ql u]
    sH, Azl gqel C¤ E]|gg sp ECel¤ 9rloJ4.

    + + =¤Et

    --J T|lol sfl^f gul= -d THel pfl^l g.Hl=J

    F zil9 spC¤ gulEJ -BfAl ZxlTl spEd eHlg


    /3 aHot Hol\

    A feJ 9.14 sp Ed 9.Hl=Jel Ed


    s.5 e8t= 387
    =d
    F ztlsl Be sp E¤ eu1g"l
    =
    etr <rB 9.15 BeFz0l^1 + 7l|q

    ,/\ E-d Be-F


    =Er"slgd
    a a
    a Be a F

    F9 2pflxt9ul=J F9 2pErf 9ulEJ

    BeFz9 Be ?zl-e.SEl + 7fle-l sp Ed sHlgg "JE: stslg Es= ++4 A+


    1l 1 1

    1s sp 2p

    sp EC -sulgq d4+ F zl]9 flzlc+ A6J++(rEJ e.15). sp gd sHlgg


    #6lzlE} Hlql HJ-6JoIE-E BeFzE =+efl
    F ,ll9 ABol F"6.J dB +aE r*=+. +4:61-
    *4 zp sHlBg ^l-s6}q gcg *_r., Be9 Bot glE F zll9 zp i)xl sHlBe HlgcEl
    ld-qolq Hlq gl+. ,I E+sfl flzlE F zlel rlEp flzI stslBql El=o# {zl4}g z}zl
    l- 9l¤¤ 7lq6[4. rH e.rsq^J= rflg +q6[r]l 6]zl +16[q + Z]9 gzt
    sHlBg ^Jq6l.H+. =+s{E
    WW,1,

    Mffi BeolEdoll elq6[^l .9J3 F zHolp 9ulEJ8 + T||sl ee-F zgzto]EE HJ:*ee Btlef6l-
    ; itf?

    sp2zl sp3 +^J eHl=J


    .JC +E gzl sElgg sC6|99 ql= Ae +q eC sHlgg E=+. 4 st _qHlE
    g *+6}zlyl oJ6}ol +s+. trI4^l + 4el zs eEl?4 et zl]9 2p e-ElBg 4l9-H
    ^Jtr
    Hlql %r-6J"J F 7l]E Fo* E,! eulgol "JEqdq(:H s.14). gxl. sHlBg r+=
    ^Jtr
    3r]e-tr gcs+4q sp2el sp3 ae += zla| j[a$ gg + gl+.
    qlEEEBF3ql^J zsetslBrl+7l]E 2pe-Hlgg4ieE, rll z}I9 EiEodJip2gC sEl
    B.l ¤t¤4(ra e.16). ,rll zl]9 sp, EC sulBg Ae ¤Eq gl-tr, 120. Bq4 9l+. ol
    sp2 cd 9Hl=Jsl= +rr ,(t0lsl4Eb g0l.?]71?
    ^Jl7ll9

    -'J4l A^ll
    sp2 Ed e.ul=J
    (= EEtrJ Eq
    -et zli9.s 9ulEJ =)

    4*rc a =¤tr|

    F zl.9 p gul=J

    )llel sp2
    ^jl gHl'J
    =5
    alts 9.t6 sp2 Ed 981=elEd
    388 98 E^l'g 716[+4e] olE
    =-J

    E gC sElge BF37t ¤H d'-48 +471qE+ ^ll 4E ++sfl gzle+ ^ll 7l]g t']q" 5J
    a6Jg "JE= Ell ^F&g+. Hlq il= 2p edTl eEIBg gcslqzl sr tsol fl= aql +
    el6l+. olae Zl9 sp' ¤d sHlgol +q q= ¤Hql +zletr ufltj:o|-L 9lsq, 6I+
    ^ll
    E Etr= ¤H +l+ql, +E 6I+= or4+ql +q 9l+. ecs]qzl ?*e stslBe e.6¤el
    ol+ adJg ¤EB trll +s6t+.
    s gzl sHlgg Ae +Aeql fl: 7]]q E= p flxI sHlgr+ s6J¤ +E glq. ql$
    ^ll
    Eq csoE +i g4-= +a gz[e+']l ,l]9 .E++ a.Jg "J=E]. ol r+cg 849 zs s
    zI eHlB4
    ^ll
    4lsl zp flzl -qHlgol 4q^l ql ,l]E t+:'*
    'p,
    Ec sHlBg EIE= aq
    -E g + 9t+. 4 Ec sHlgg ^lE^ll +lldeE H]]6J"J EH= 7l4l+(ral e.17).
    'p' =
    ol sC -stslge He+ Ae r+E g^lel flz| eulp$ A! + zll$ {x}e ol+qtl A*g
    "JE= rll ^|&gEl. fl^l7l A6J
    olEg^l-*6|q, cg Lll ,]]E d-s"+sp'¤C sHlgol Lll
    7l]9 H flxl9 rs eHlEr] Ae-e-er^l HI zl]9 #6J A6Jg BCd]-= aee cH+9 EB
    g ¤E.J + 9l'I.

    A sp2 Ed fl^l'otl= Edoil 6tq6l.^l L:E 2p e'HlEJol p] 7tl 9,ltl. sp3 E¤ eulgE 7l'T.! fl
    zp gHlEJol 4 )ll o^)=71?
    | ^loll= =doil Etqstrl ?J?

    p eHlg 60il^l olE aol .F Hfil faJq oJ 9.g4 sp3 eHlg¤ EJE= Edoll 7Et
    = =d
    TlqE -dEla 8r-t6l^b7l?
    = zzzz

    +
    v v v
    x x
    s 0- Py P,
    -et 2fi9 s gulEJ

    =l HJ=="h't
    et6il L1t 7flet",
    =¤Elofl

    sp3 sp3

    9lE Lll raJ= gilE (= etj$ HE)

    sp3 109.5'

    spj
    \
    sp3

    sp3

    areJ 9.17 sp3 Ed gHl=elEd


    e.5 I eHt= 389
    =d

    sp3 eg gHlB 6: olE F 7Vl H:2J6J I^l¤oil es-d7[?


    ^t8el=^l7l
    tAsl LilTll sP3Cd tlAelF 7fl sp3 eHIBB Hl=+
    9Hl=J"l UllE t^l-5= s:Bt6tr ?lq.
    ^lEill

    O-H tg
    =-ct

    arC 9.18 H2oe.l=¤ eHl= ¤E

    gdslg 7il'Jg Hl=o# dzl-rat¤ E6J6l= Eziel aqlg ¤HE trllE ol+gEl. ql= E
    gz}++lq il= dzt sg zlal+a= 4qI^IE^llol+(r=Je.18). trl+
    "l urog =!d o
    ql 9l= aee ^J4g + 9l+. ol s^d sulg +
    ^l 49 dzl-t$
    sp' EC sHl$ql
    =q
    F 7}l: Hl="fr dzP^"r9 gaJa|-I. 9111, +e F zl]E +A gzte+ eoJoJEl.
    6e.J1Pf tr,i
    zlfi;ztlzl gcslql 4.J EEE +i, ei,
    4I4e+ ,J2 2+71 fl^zfz1 q+6}flE|. 3+71
    ol^JE giEg 6d flzI ++lql ezl]-H-4 *3
    dzl-3 7+= EElrPt(hypervalent)olzl oll+
    q1 ;.fftr& C4¤- EoJdl]ot 6J+
    (.s.711r. xllr.z{oll,<J pcts, sF6, BrFsq ,J& Zfl^l7l

    +zl¤E z)al AzZ q=g ull, vsppn EBol + "*=E|: Ag tr9i+. ol5 E4 rqq
    E A*g 7l+i;17) +l6ll^J g^d _sElgg glEzl.?
    'J+dl
    ^l-o"6J
    i
    4Eql EI6IE otq+.
    z,flzlzl Ezlql gC _sBlgg
    El]6l]^-i
    ^l-8-6H^l=.JgtrI.
    r ol+E ¤EJBzr.
    2+71 gaql ql6H flxlz} a6J E¤e flzlzl. ae sHlBql azl o1a1E 4z]-= zl
    'l]gql
    zla glE ..J. 3+7\ gA plBEqlE + zl+gEl. qlE Eq pr:g HzSeg a!+g ¤E6J
    el +d flzl9 s4p sHlBq s^deE EE6r= ae 4e6l+.
    gdzl-= Hqd +6JEql 4611^l: i)zlzl44 a sElgg E6J^14 g^"j eHlgg
    "JE
    q, gC sHlgg += +71^l7l: ag tr-^J611 E + 9tE|. ql= EH sFo9l glold azll9
    gc sHlgg "JEzl +la}{ *9 :' sHlgr+.!l zll9 3pq\ +7lE *9 zzH 3d e-HlBg
    E-6J6t= ag
    ^J46ll E + 9ltrL
    relLt *4 U -sHlgg 3se}3p-H-+ 9lHzlzl. ¤d Ezl
    qlEql, 67llE sC sElBg
    ^JC6lzl 96Iq
    gsql qlqzl"JE 0zH9 EFe-fl flzlc+ ¤
    6J6Iq E= qlqzlB4 r+. olE4 4lllql E"rE, *9 :a sElBe *4 oz11E
    =+e-fl
    flz[49 a6Jq] 14 erq6]zl *=+= 1o14. q4^-l sF6oll fzfialg aq]g 67HE g^"i
    e-BlB.s 7l+61+ ag E}'J6lzl *4. sFoe} 4E aflzlz} tsz}9 a6Jg ql g
    .q_6J + rl g+ =E6l=
    ^I^ll6J
    A.J E¤g s+ql H+lE B.q++. +461E +4¤q 7l6}oi4 5
    C9 Cdzl4 +gqeE ¤B6l+ vsEPR E¤ol ol= EzlE zla]'f=$ ql+68 ql ,l]
    + f+6}trt.
    r}+ql^l EBg d^ll7i ol.,-l+ ¤tI ?ol, a6J qlLJTl, Bzl +a -EoJ+ aol -
    ^Fsq*
    46J + gl= ¤illE +Eg g^"r sHlgE a+i.lH 6t+g EBg q!
    ^J+5i= ^lEolr+.
    4t7yz1y + *zl"J :aa* Hq^J^l= .z+zl *4. 2+71 fl^oll ql.J gc eHlg -E.B
    e q]+ ++6}+: 4.1 fzl E}qlql^J ¤zH ¤.Jr] tszl 716'l +eE EEg
    g+4ol+. rq+ sFoel =:89S.94,
    rJg Ezl¤91 El]61]^J= E¤q +417| 91trI.
    "ll
    390 93 E^tgl 7l6f +4q 0l=
    =-af

    +:^J 9HIEJ gE
    +z}el 6d Szl ++lql 87ll ol6IE Azl-= 7l^lil 9lr, Ezl 7lt;l +371vsEPR E¤ oE
    ql+.J dzl ¤g zlal. faE qe= a+, dE}4e-tr flz}7} 4B olE¤ ol+,* gc s
    Elge +zlE ++ a6Jg ql
    ^l¤6I= E46I+. sc sHlB 7ll';el ql=ol .J4l= 7l7la_
    qlxlrl, dzt ¤99 zlal *aE "Jr 9lg ql, a*g olT= 6d gztel gzl. sElgg
    ^l
    +6171 +16ll gc+= 6J4.
    ^l-so

    eg Lil flrloil 9:d E-g eulgE BH


    ^{¤E}=
    t. EzI* ol$el Lewis +4= rflr+.
    z. flzl.9 dzl. ¤ I zla| fa$ 44i;l7l +l6l.q vsEPR !-Bg ^l-&oJ+.
    *4
    3. 7l6}q|4 HHgql 7la6t¤, dzIS¤ #o6l-b rll gs-d EC sHIBg H^l++@ e.4)

    olqoJ +41: f.al e.1eql qlE 44H,r, NHr9 NE gc+7t q¤4 aaq=rl=
    trq =q
    =+.
    8 9.4 9,3 9.ulEJel 7l6qt4 ulloJ +^d

    ?rt9.HlE E¤ e.u1g 716l+5 qt

    180"

    s,p F zl]9 sp BeF2, HgCl2

    ,\l:-1

    s, p,P ,r11 zllel sp2 BF3, SO3

    E{B{ ll7la

    s,p,p,p ,il z}]9 sp' CHa, NH3, H2O, NHa

    ^lEi{
    NH37[0|.U PHSE .84:-J tttl, 014 raJ= olEXl +¤-g + ?lE7l'?
    4.
    ,'':ltt tt'

    + "-T-" + "izi\ + I
    I
    NHs
    "' "' T
    HH"
    N9 sp3Ed gHlEJg 7lle.l

    fA9 1s gHlEJ"f ^ll


    7flel N-H
    3g= ed:dtrt. ^il

    Lewis 74'E vsEPB .E.Er.| 8 9.1.e+El fl^t E 9 4= olSatG sp3


    :aJrl. el d^t BEE 7l5t =C
    +4= 3E:dtrt. eHl== dEl-.Jtl
    =8
    rBg.19 NHs9'lB9Eds"ul=J¤Br=e.67[Hl-a5t|Ealq7^]==-Br=-dd6l-1H18+d^lt=+8dl==deElBoll^EE=fitl
    s.6 I 116 391
    =--J
    qH e.s
    *{ Ezl-slE^Jcloll cilEJ 7l+

    NHz-9 5C fl^l7l-^l.E-d eHl=JE ¤E6l^le.


    =d
    Ill'J EAlolEl. A^lEz1 d4 ¤qE zla| fag +4,ttE s¤+
    E4 +gz} *ol8{l 4'J slolrlol +qflji, 6d flzl¤ b sp3olQ(* e.4). ql z]l9 ,p' gC sHlg 6 F zl]9 sHlB
    Eelt gd sHlBel =. += ¤EB 4¤. _a7ag E4lol+. 3 Hln"* dzltrg +¤-6t2. += + zlel sElgg +r g
    4El +c 94¤ Eq& sc sHlgg 446171 +l6}q r
    z}e+ Ailg ¤d6I= Ell ol*g+.
    gxt ?919 dz} gqq zlal. fa$ "Jotot *4. reloE > !e6 qlril 1

    Hzl 6d 9zI i99 dzt ¤99 +E aCaPl flo|{ Lewis q¤- olg+ qL a"J7l?
    ^l+¤ 4+g + 9l= +rI+
    .6C
    7ag =fl4. vsEPR E¤ql E"ll ql+g aq zJol, eCEl flzl9 sp, Ed _sE]BE a"Jg ¤H6J + glr, 6t
    +d grt ++lE dzl gEel iel zlal +aq q=+. +E gd sHlgg HlE"f, dzHl-g zlzlt, 914."
    = (a) Coz O) H2S (c) oe (d) cof- (e) Bol F 7ll ol^J
    Eol Lewis +a= q-.q- n+ e+.
    > H.6 dlril?
    [H:1-v:H]- sof- 6d gzlE dzt ¤99 zlot +ae+ eCEl¤ ql+
    N ??l9l +fl! fizl ¤9ol 9loqE, dzf ¤q +== a^l 6I^ls.

    e.6 I E|6,.'1iJ
    z)]llzl rqql ++ A'Je] dzt "JE= qg ¤eq+ zld(qrJ f, internuctear axis)tl
    ql d+qq 9l+. + qg E= d$ s-u1gol ail= ¤gg zls']= zl+rl, rEo(o) ?!
    Ef(sismabond)olell6I= ++ ¤6JE + BEIIE BC'Jtt. r.l:u} ABE ¤C
    q-r+ ^lrll= +
    Aq.
    . Hr9l^J ,+4E HE+q g F s sHlgel atJ(uB s.rz)
    . Hcrql^l -J ,l]E H sel- ei zl]9 cr p sHlg ,JE Ae(rH s.tz)
    . cl2ql^l 4r:4 cl-tr+El g F ,l]E p sElg ,J4 44(J4 t.rz1
    . BeFroll.r.J FpgElgr+BespEd gHlBrJE aa(rH S.rs)
    q+ a6Jg ¤H6I4E, qrJ +(:1H e.20)ql +4etr HH6JS F zl]9 p e_HlB ?J4 4
    eq^l ^Ja + Hall ="F9 a.Jg -aq6l]ot 6.JE|. p _sHlgol gss d4^J rlol(2.) cg(pi
    bond)ol ^J^.ig+. z-E6Jg "lrJ +q ge} ol4ql^l dazlE at}ol4. o d6J4 +_=.rll
    , ¤tJe. "-qrJ +ql^l a4_= gaB ffio1 s.+. Hl+:.H s.zooll,! tsB6l4l Holzl grzl
    "J, z. E*oll.<l p eulpel +H aeg ^Jql4etr w
    d?o14. a 4+ z. ?6Jg a 46J
    trr+ "JHI49E q E6I+.
    4el E= a+ql +"J a.Jg o 4oJ"l4. ol+ e6Jg 6J 7l]9 o ¤6JrI ei zl]9 n 46J
    etr +^dqq 9lr, t+ a.Jg * z1l9 0 ¤EF| F 7l]E ??. a6Je-E +cqq 9l+.
    < rB 9.20 o'Jilal l,r'JEJA
    ulE z 3doil^l -4rJ + +lel0l
    o rJ¤J
    A^l^ltsF Bqol 6|'Lfol
    aHoll^l

    6H)l Z a\)l = r'J*Z ol=ir ?+: 4= +


    F+LTL
    p p

    p p
    392 93 E^lsl 7l6f +^ef 0l=
    =-cr

    H H :N
    H
    )Ng a ?33J :d rll9 ,l-d4 ?jaJzl"
    6J o Ef z|iol o
    'it zll9 o Z-d F tll9 r'Jil
    olqoJ THHEol q¤4l rt84*zl-5 oJotHTl flall c:c ol+ A6Jg r*= qlBfl
    t
    I (czH+)g ¤rlszl.. rB e.21E +-E4 EBq^l Eq += 14 ,Jol, 4 trag 4lE
    ^ll
    daJ4ol qi rzo"4} a* r+ +d gzlE += +i "l F z|]9 +ae+ o E6Jg BC6r7l
    afB g.2t oil=JdlelEE S4 glafl ,p'gc sHlB(rB e.16)$.r.]-g-o.r-o- 9"laJ4. +4= Hl zllg ilzltl dzl-= zlzltl
    +4. 016 ,Jgtg -sI THel C-C a, +ql 4 +r9 '* zl]9 d4* ulp{(unhybridized) 2p sHlgql Bo} ql4.
    o 2JBJal "J 7|]E C-C r ,J*9 'p'gcEI
    e ol+ol^i 9,lrl.
    ol Elgc a_ElBg rll zl]9
    'p,
    Ed sHlBg EE-6tr. gl= ¤Hr+ -'-4 grrjeE +q gl
    *9 zl9al4.
    qlBql tszl.9 Aqlg ¤C6l+ r+Ag
    ^J46il trzt. +l flzl9 4 sp2 EC eHlBe 6J
    7ll9 dzl-= r*=+. aale.?2E -HE +d c-c o AEle 4 Et gzlql^J * zH4 F z}]9

    + Tllel EJ^ Bxl.el"p'Ed eHlgol Eg gEoil +lil5l'= aol ell6isE!7i?


    spz gHl=J
    =8

    --?
    7
    .C

    )
    ulEd 2peulB

    C-C "J C-HoeAEd


    fl
    C
    - H o'J-d C-CoE-d

    -E
    il
    p 9Hl=J3 + Tllei EE= 7l^ln
    ?lol^J, r + 2llel +tr=
    7l^l-r. 9lr[.=-dE
    o-tLl'= E^t EE 9]0il,
    tl= 6lL[= E^t EE olafle ?]q. valC-CzrEilEd
    :
    tc c L.
    _ a
    L -2781
    I/
    ,./ =B

    r^a*9.22 oil=Jil!(czHr)9 Ed eu|g,3g


    s.6 I tl.6 393
    =-Et
    zllq zj,zlzl c-c o AaJg BC6I=
    'p' EC -qtslgE Aass ^8CEg 'J + 9ltt. +
    ql c-H o a6Jg +^ql tsoI glE Ec sHlBol 4 H sxlg rs
    ^F&g+. 4ge.e 'p,
    sHlgq A4 ^J^dgtrt. olq+ c-H Aqlg BC6I7l 9a1,t1 szfl dzl-= nlE}^l
    ^l-sot4.
    c,H4 ¤.zlql^l flz1l rztll! Hzltl44 + 1041= szl9 o aE.g ¤c6I= ql ol+g+.
    H* + zllel flzlz| dxl+ 4 Eaql + ,l]4 ElgC 2p sElBq +oJ+. :H s.zzgl,!
    H*ol, olE + sHlBg +EeE
    ^JE
    aae + 9l+. a44sE dzt gE= c-c a6J
    +9 9le+ ol4ql d+qq !la, o14o1 "-?Bol4(:4 s.zo). tr14^J qlgilg c:C ol
    + a6Jg + Tl]el o ¤6Jrl 6.J 7l]E , aaJeE +^dg+.
    z- ¤6J.$ 4d ¤e4str ++B f flzlt}(*4z| S*6J + 9tb 4.$ SzI9 9l;l$ol
    qlgHl +e: r ¤6J9 ,"I6t7]l flga 6H=+. a4l, qlBfllE c-c AB aol
    'I),
    (r.:+ A)b c-c +.J A6J(1.s4 A)tr+ gt 4.r, olE ,J* c:C ol== Ad.E
    =zl]=
    "J
    =rlle+
    E4l, czH+9 ezH9 s-E flzli Ag ¤Eql +q fl+. z4l4 cHz 449 ?g ¤
    ^l'*+.
    Eql +"J ,ll"J 4 +ael p e_ElBol + 44 z. 4*.g ¤^J6J + 9l+. z. ¤6Jg ts^IE +
    Eol ¤E +a= z}4ot"J 6IE=tr, EzlE a:/Cg 7rzlril g+.
    /J+ aqlE s^d sHlgg qlE o|,rJlpfl(czHz)* sa4
    ^l-s6}q ¤EE + 91trI. =H
    Etol 9lE dB +zlol+(H-c=c-u). dB +4i ,+ +4 fl471sp Ed eElpg
    ^l-8'
    ;t{, El A q +4-+i Aq o ¤6JS BCil4= ag "J6H EoJ 4 ** flz}E
    r.JE zlzJols.! sp Ec +qlE 44e F zl]9 Hlgd 2p sHlBg =+.7l^)a_ gl+(:19 e.23).
    trI+^l sp Ed +^ gzlql F 2il9 p eul$o1 tsoI 914. olE + 7+7+ 6J zle_l p sHlgol

    Aa4^l .J tlE z' ?EtS B¤++. u}+^l o}^llpQlel ++ A{}e.J 49 o d6J4 F


    419 n A6Je-s +Cqq 9l+.

    oilEfltrlof^llBilte.l eg EBE.trqe g4g rril, olE Exlel c-c 3il rl zoltrJ


    ^]l7l7l
    6E7l?
    sp Ed eulg

    ulEd 2p eul=J
    C-CgC-Ho'J-dEd
    v 23il
    C-Ho3B - Co

    ssEd
    C- Cn 4'J +C-Czr

    a rB 9.23 ol.tilEill(CzHz)0ll^1 + 7}le.l z 3B Ed


    394 98 E^lel 716l+^et olE
    =-ar

    clol0l[(diazene)olaE 61ts EIlts Ettrtl.lo1 N2H20lr. Lewis ?EE Ehe-4 e+


    H-N:N-ft
    rlolofCg dE El^}(47flsl fl^l'7|'eg C80ll 84-g + il!-)l? olLlalE, E^1.7l'EE
    =oJ)al'r
    E(E= Lll fl^1.7|.a3 EEoil ?l=)olal.r 84--J +"^)=71?

    d sBIBE+el z d,*9 +5 +E 1lzl"J, ¤zlrl* p sHlgq aaes ¤dqE z' ?


    B"Jg reJ6'J+. olBl6J rr EElg A*g flz}9l Hlgd p _qElgol 4lEI ¤C¤trI.
    gC =zl]6J
    44rl sp sE sp2 sHlgg 7I4l gzlEEI z' d6Jg ¤c.J + 914. 41421z?zl i)
    zle "JEgti +zlql^l ol+ A6Jl+ +6 ¤6J(r4sE z dB)3 rJ tr$lola, 561 c,
    N, oE A+ql HE4ol+. s, P, siel ae q gxl-e=g n 46J&"CC6l7l7I dxl ?*4.
    =
    qHl e.6
    +zl-Lllrr ?s"t a.E6J9
    ^J*
    E (f orm ald ehyde)= rl.3rl.,JP
    Egrl I df 0 | Lewi s 7^.=,f=ri

    H
    EtsHlalolc E^lLt|g a[-=t ? HlEd eul=Jel ZEee ¤861.^le.
    =-J= =d
    nil.J H13+ E^13=
    C- Ho 7l^l= 9Hl=
    s4 *"Jql4olE EzI ,Ie] Elq aqlg gc aEIBE ¤B Z6J

    g ag s+{+ Ezllol4.
    fllel +"J ¤6J3 o Aqlolq, ol+ Aqle o ?{F} z ¤*e
    E ol+qd+. olqil 4!Iol ¤c9= %r-H3 vsEpR -E¤
    g {=t Ezl-9 zla} fa-e.$q +Ets + a4.
    ^l-*6}q
    --J 7tl9 c- orAil C
    - O o'2j-J

    Eol c flz}.L: +flql 7l]E dz} gqg 7t4rrE, a.J rB 9.24 Egtll6tolE(HrCO)oll l9 o'JaJl zr'l-'J9 Ed
    ^ll
    4ol .+ 120"oJ SE +4¤ +aol+. ol+l6J a4Y ctl sp2
    sC sElBg r*a 9l+= 4¤. 9"184(* s.a). ol sC s (fl g.3q;4o1cel c-o ¤iI ?ol: ql+g(H3coH)el
    Hl93 o Aql.J + zlel c-H aqFI6J zflg c-o ?EI9 c-o aq+ ?ols4 sg aol+.
    EJE= EJI Erel u14.,,3 2p e-Elgg rQlE $o[
    ^FS'J+.
    (a) alLt9 dE+ *+
    glr, ol= rll zllg sp, Ec sElB trql +zlsE +q fl4. (b) ¤H (il4 (1121";g
    o gzlE +gql ^ll 7flE d4 S99 z1z1oe eu1 (c) ¤H (il4 (liilol "*8
    tl! 'p'e46[+E
    *3 a o e ++g + gltrl. olE g^d sHlg 6 (d) ¤B (ii)e| 1iii)o1 "19
    c-o o ailql +q6ln, += + 4lE o gzlql il= F rl] (e) EE ¤Eol
    "*g-
    E Hl="+ dzttlg r*a 9lq. l=lo+ C gxlijH o gz| >E5q42
    E EzI ¤Eq +zlel 6J 4E p sHlgg ,*=+. + F zl]9 (a) o[.tJlsu[o]EB(acetonitrile) Ez]ql^l 4 Ba 7gE
    p eul$o1 c-o z e.Jg ¤c6t7l 9611 444q(jr?Je.zt). A.J4g ql+61^le-.
    > H= qr{|1 H
    *d qrlq^], *.oJEll6}olEq e"Jq ql6l^l oJolB9ttrI. H- C-C :N:
    I

    ole+ +¤4q q-S ¤B + "*= ag *e^le. I

    H
    (i) E4q^l dzl+ "- ¤6JS BCd-= ql ^FSq*4.
    27l]E
    G) 4 Ea gr}e.l g^.i+= 4l^l6tn,
    (ii) +zHl^.1 67l]el d4+ o ?QIg ¤c6l-= ql (c) +zlE o ?!I9 fel ?,.aqlE +E e46}^ls_.
    ^F&qfl4.
    9.6 I tl6 395
    =-Bf

    *B +4, H
    ltrJ4El, rr 73aJ

    zlftz\zl ol eql^l Eflil Eztgl{ EE} dxl* ¤4+qfl4(localized). olag o A n 4.


    zlTI A6Jg BC6l+ + 7l]E flz}q"J d4etr E+Elq 9l+g 9ol.J4. rqLl Be E
    ziql^J 4a;o1 {!-9.e E4]E}¤ a_e_E= 4e6}4l 7l¤g + S+. ol3l+
    ^}+e n 46J
    g E+61+ 241 ol^J-E +B +6= r*= Eziq^J 5al "*ol rJzJq.
    ¤xug ?r ad-e_s ¤Hg + $= +z|9 qlE, + ,llE tE +^= r*r 9l= dd(coHo)
    ol 9ltrI -,,=, ($.6¤).

    <------, IIL

    HI413 6 fl4zl dzl¤ tlx):L 91trI. gC -qElgg ol+61q Hldl A!+g ¤E


    :oz11s1
    6tqB, *c : tszlE +ae+ "Jil6I= EcsI q*E dq6J+. 4 Ba= 120"$ zJog
    37HE ?lzlql EelAlq ?lo o-tr 4e* gd sHlBg sp2ol+. 6zll$ $xll$ c-c o ¤EI
    4 ozHg ¤49 c-H o Aqlg =B e.2s(a)oll^J Eol= 4E, ,p' gC sHlBtr+El BC
    g+. Et+^J 241)q flzlz} 4^l7l Eztglrl o ¤EI9 Bd6l-= ql
    ^l=SgE+.

    fll8oll 9,tts + 5+9,, AilZ +qoJ7l"?

    H H
    /

    (a) o ErJ (b) p eulg


    A :19 9.25 E!t!(c6H6)0ll^l o "J ?, d:d (al o 4d +4" (b) r 2JBJ? 67t| EJA fl^lel E lEd 2p 9al
    =Jol Exldoeill EdEtL

    4 c gz[e] gcg sp2olug, 4 c gz]tr]rt +z]E ¤Eql :-u; B-a]eE ull¤E] zl] t
    9 p s-u1gol 9l+. 64lq p e-Elgol n4ql El]gg 4,9 zll9atE, ol ^}Elg qlBHI4 ql
    +6] Hli6}r+(f.B e.25(b)). B9 0211E fl^l7l dzl* 4p s-u1g-o- zl]4 ill+l 6 6zlE t
    p 9-Elgg {g+.
    +?]=p s-Elgg ols-oo|{ ^Jl
    7}]g ¤4¤ r ¤6Jg ¤cg E + gl4. ==J e.26glr-l -tr

    ExHE rr Z-d HIEI|]E 7' <.1.H 9.26 E!{!9 ulErtlE z


    =6J 27el
    =H

    e \

    t
    \

    vU \-
    \
    ,/
    no{

    \ ;-
    I
    \

    /
    396 93 E^19 7l6f +^ef olE
    =-c'

    q += a^lfl, olEa.J Ezl]H Az}g "JE: f,="6J + Tlzl *Eol glErll. olE 44ol E
    ztE +H +4 + 6l+ql 6HBg'1. r/l+ + 714 +E +aE rJ g Hls6l+ ¤Hg :H
    g.zaq e-E+ql -E-ol= a4H, E= 67l] tsi ?lzlql ''J4 EIA' 6414 n dzl-= r*r]l 6l=
    1o14. trlltr]lE Hldel s^lql ^l-s6}='q4¤ .JE g' re4, ol :zflol qBrll qlgq=
    zlofl ffiflot'J+. ol EBg Hldlg B^-+i AtJ,Jol7l E+ EoJ6Ir,,46J 7Jol7l
    c-C +oJ A6J(r.s4 A)4 c:c olf poJ(r.3+ A) ;.1o19 4.o e ql+6}r.ll 6.J+. ol ql+g
    dE4s.E ++g H1419 +i-Ea 3a3 aol(r.40 A)e+ "Jil+tr}.
    HlU9 z, A.Jg ol* flzl zllp {rJ9-e ¤BE f S. o E'e., e4zl rrAly e44
    ^lol9
    Er gz1^lolql Hl¤4qq 914(detocalized)a_ "J6Jrt. Hlalg r 46J {z}el ul$xfl rfl$
    "Jaq-r+. Et rr EEt9 dzl. ul$zllelf r*3 #zl +ai7| qE ol+E ¤
    ql 5H6l
    ^49
    B6t= ql ++61+. HlE4lg z.E6Jgl Ell6J trtzlIr+ ?sql d3 EzIg zlal Tagl ^ll6Jol
    9l+= 4o14. ul¤xl]¤ z.eulBol 3l4eE ¤442]|g16ll^l= ulEz]]E]g zr ¤6Jgl $4
    g s= i)zlzl ae ¤Eq] FqoI"J *4. olelt +44 r]6J qEql o dt}"Jg se-6rr
    fl= +4ql^J= E + S.: EzIg dzdg Eq "^lrfel slql'g e4).
    =+(3e7+4
    {x}$ ul$zlltl frzl tsz}9 Ceql qB4l g.}g +:7}ql 4a]l #zl e+El. ^lrJql ts]]+
    z'll ¤ 4o14.

    qH e.7
    '7 Hl$|tE ,JtJ

    tr1y olE{No3-)g ¤E6l^le. 0l olEe HIEXHE ,-'JE[Z'}E7l?


    =-'Jg
    B}lU 44'p'g^Jg ^l-S6tH ^ll ,lle.l N-o o e6Jg ¤Cg +
    5^1 +q{ 4Sz} 9ol9E s}q^lql qlfl a,*g ¤86}r, 9l+. 44E o flz}9l tsg + 444 ul¤El dzl
    'p's^rg
    El¤4l¤ zr ?dJoJxlE ?46.J ag s+61-= E4loltrI. 4-¤. Tfzln 9l+. tr++^l qL +B +3=zl trI++ ag ¤
    4g a E4lE Lewis +aE rfl= 4o14. ol+ aqlg +l H ¤E]E olg¤:E + 914.
    zl"J += qel zll9 *B +a7I 43 o1¤! ¤{}
    =xll6J+=
    9 z.CEol Hl¤4qq fl+g.J^l+4.
    Eol xll8.6eql,{ No:-9 ,(]l zl]9 +E +4= tr9t+.

    [u-[-u] - [n l-u] - [u-[-o]


    4 *E +aql^] dz} ¤99 zla[ ]ai ¤H t]4¤ole
    E, N flztzt ¤.Cg zlds I + 9l+. ul¤xH¤ , 4*
    g ii}"+61-q_z 'p2
    E q, +C gzlql AEIoIn flqfl^l :.B A N-o o ¤t}ll ozHE {zl$ rl-o"afq,n, o gztg HIA6J
    zltlg zlrl ilzlzl sp2 ¤.dflzl ^J4d1l E ¤e_zt 914. *o {xl{fc--tr l27HE dzl-=- 6}q, t87HE dzl-=
    ^1,s" ^l-&6}f.
    ?+?+9 o flzlz} olgE ¤Etlq sp, ed sHlgg 7I7l +. trI+^J Bot 9l= ozH9 dzl$ "139 z.4loll Eflzle +
    ^l
    r gzl. 9 t}A gzt)7} ul¤.! p eul
    91i1, z-| +z1l 92114^ fltr}.
    Bg 6I+4 zlzl4, ol ulEC p eul$g olgel *Eql + 4Zl gzlql^l zloJil + szlg p e-ulBol z. ?E19 ¤^d6l
    zleE flil6il fl= ag rElg + 9l+. E rJl rF&¤4. rll zll9 +B +a +q q! aol=, ei g
    NO,- ole+ z+zll9 flzlz} drl-= 2144. H4 +zt1 gzlE zlel'J zll9 &t gz} aE p sulB aaes B^Jg 6J zl
    sp'EC -sulBg ¤}+6}q ,Hl z]]9 N-o o a.Jg ¤d^la 9 Exl¤ N-o zr A6J, +"lzl F z]l9 osl ul{al {z}
    + 9l+. N Sztg -sE sp'gCg 4 o galE tI
    ,610l p _sHlBql
    ¤ql= tlt}6l] B +E 9l+(faJ
    ^l-8-6}r., =^116l+
    s.6 | 116 397
    =Ef
    e.z). rq+ 449 tH +a= H6}zll Noa I ++g > E*qF{1
    +rql 7lq6}E-tr, z'¤Bg ^ll N-o A6Jql Hl¤^lq
    ,Hq s= Ezt(o3)9 zzl{li H zl]9 4471 *Y7]r?
    q 9l: ao-s +4S4. No:- olee 6dz} nAl= 7l^la- (d 2 (b) 4 (c) 6 (d) 14 (e) 18
    9ll, n ¤{}3 +2119 gz}ql tsl¤x1qq il4. > E= fflr{i2
    7[sl
    trJ^llE EIEItlE Elg Elq+ + qL 4o1 ul$4fl AElg 7}zlr. 9lEzI?
    ^il
    =ol =x
    N Or3-J N-O z ,J'*
    so2, so3, SOa2-, H2co, NHa+
    6tLl\
    = .. o
    o-uN_-o
    =EH

    Lad 9.27 NO3-011,t1 EJ4 tr! HItrIt|E 6Cx[ rrZl

    o ?i*tf EEql qn',J oJHl'4oJ TErE


    ",
    zlltlzl ¤qe ql$ 7latr 6Iq, eC 9HIBE ,HHg ol+6}q tsz[ +=E ¤¤6]= ql
    ql E+g e + fl= aEg olsqg + 9l+.

    . aq+g szl¤g -EE tlg 6J 7l] oltl-el dzl,'ldig ++.JEl. Lewis 74gl +4r+= d
    9 F z119 *f, dzl-E'lEl$rl. E= A6Jg:a,li6J.J rLlE 4^l7l o EaJS d+ g
    gltrt. .J gzlel ol* gzl
    ^tolg d*9 B^d6l+ ^l-851ts
    zI o
    ^iolql sz}]g"l
    Ell

    4At e^J gHlBe ++¤ tsz| +aql E6l] eag+. sC aHlgr+ flzI ++1E
    aJ

    zl-ol ]4 ^Iolel
    +4lE E e.4q +4H+.
    trllEql +E F gzl
    ^iolE ¤991 ¤4qq ?lzl
    . o. ?e.9 d4+ + 4E aa"I flxI

    ^lolel e+ql:
    r*3 zl{E 6}zl *6Jtr}.
    . flzl-5ol F zll oltr9 dz}t}g 3" 8B tril, + Ee o ¤*9 ¤^J6[= rll ,tl-$rl-r., :z
    olt9 dzl-ltot$ z. EEl$ BC6I= ql d6I "JE +de qrJ +9
    ^FSg+. "- ¤6J9
    +lc+ o}4ql +al]'t+.
    . B4+ 7l] old-g ¤!* flx}.ll Aa fl= ?'4l= zl4 + 9l+. +tlg z'419 dzl¤
    ^-ll
    g'BlEz|]'qq 9l+r "Jqlq. ol eql^J 7l+6-J rlEg olsoa|{, Bz[9 491 9].
    "'41
    dzlE 4l+E +qe + 9l+.
    =

    ^lrjq Eqt
    ^l4g Hol b9 fl=ql E61l b9 oJ+g arln ?l= ^ilE 6Jol +zlql ft d-lCGigidity)o]4
    +"J "J"+ql adol "*+la ql ^l4}g+. "J"_|g Eqle+ gg
    ol rll al-i *i*41(photorecepror) Ed'6J+(rB
    ^]l.E.=
    Efrll lllE
    e.28). "_iqi o+* Hql "Ja4q, otrJq g tr]] I
    ^llE= ^L+g 3g
    gg qlA6I+. E.]l rllee| fl$.t11 ^llE
    ^l+g+. ^lls= ^|eq
    EE +47lql= EE4l(rhodopsin)ol4E $zlz| llfrll, ol
    EzI= 4qg(retinal)ol4a 6l+ Bg 4+4 adJ¤ r
    ^qa7}
    $d(opsin) Eq¤e +CElq 9l+. ol Ezlq 9l= Bllqg
    g o16 a.J ++19 *az[ u14g ¤^+lz]etr I
    ^l4ni +Hg
    clqt HI¤¤ol gquq,
    +rlE + 94 ^tolel ol+ a6'Jol Ag gz} ^folE E"J
    \
    Ai+trtrI r}6t+= 4¤ "Jl 914(E 8.3). al+g Eqe "J a rH 9.28 tsel oJ+ tsel g"_Joll ?: ofrH fl
    ull ol+ eoJel E += +Eg.Jrll qfltsql, rag ol+ 4 E ^pJ
    ll^l--dole ^1lE(EaJ^!)e+
    ^llE(+=^!)ql+ ^lTl
    398 98 E^tsl 716l+^q olE
    =-Bt

    C-Cr'JB ol ae4 Eq fl= {zlfl gz}z} 7*4zlzl4 de + 9l


    H ,ll6J+.
    H H .JrJE qlqgg 0l+ gEl 9l+.
    ^l4gqlElBe ol+ aq+g aacql
    a^J ¤qlql^] a6Jql E6Il **6}ril E+e 9l
    H H
    +. bse qol E.qe+^l eE4lql 96I g+qB, fal e.30
    H
    n15
    vl6 71619
    =H= ql^l B=ol. Hg4ss E^lg 01¤! 46J9 , e.Jg #=
    AE+ee 6iq 90'Eld
    rB 9.29 0ll=Jfl1011,\1 EJA-EJA 0|6 egel sld= z' ,3E!.= Dfi
    r.1l ollulzlz|
    ^l-Sg+.
    r4l +^J EzITI "l A*g qd+
    cEelil 6Iq qd6]|^l +aql EEIrI "JqU{. BilElgg f-tle
    -e-tr
    tr+El +4qq, !lq^l +7JeE aH4E +l? xt
    qlgqtg c_c ol+ a*e ^J46]] -u-4. qgflE ¤l ^l4ol+=
    +g "J== H]¤¤ .JeA4. zlztlol9il6J +zl¤ol 4Zl=
    -cH27\714E -curzlql 46ll rB 9.29q1^-laH qd6J+ trI+^l b
    a tr-^J6l] 84. ol 4d3p _sElgg 349 u1fla|-r. z.¤
    s7H7l HI*q +q6lq
    ^l4ol+= A4g "J=+.
    g zH6I= Bl Bzl s7l]9 49 'Jz["J gs6]+.
    6Jg 4lEElq, ol 4cg ttrtl glHzl= Bge 6J+. Ei4
    qlElge aad g4E ¤rlle. Eolz}^l +11r+
    ol+ A.Jg +4ql^l aqlel 4d¤ xtle+++. HIE +.J ^l]aB*
    ^-l 4. ol 4C9 L?.lr{ gq+n, ol= zo}6J El3 qol .J^l4s
    (o) A'J +es= tszl¤ol 49 zt#E4l qd6J i glErJl.
    tr +slel -E¤ Brll 6l+ ¤^Jg ¤B6l+ oj+7t g+. He
    ol= pldol o ?!19 sElE daq 4E ¤6#9 azl ?*z\
    E= Bilqgoj gdql^l Eqq4 6lq q ol$ $zfpol 4j$
    trlEol+. ol qdg toJ A6Je_s ol+qd +^I Ll] gzl¤ g+6fzl *6fril ql+.
    +A g+ ti4l: e.lr2,e.rr6
    Hol=+ElE 0l
    180'ild =-'Jol

    CHq H H H H
    t" I

    H nI

    ,H
    rr, -
    -a,\t

    BilElg

    ArB9.30 EEt!E^l"J/.l4elsl-+eECOl7l^lBC=E+6lE,HP^qo+s.^lE016,j:-J?.lz2J-ct0lEcl^lr,ol80lzl-56f:llElol
    :ddEtl.
    E^l+^9 EEfTf g0lLfn +/.l lr e-Blol 34 ael +Ee H= 8+61-r ZtrJ6l :9r1.

    F T|]sl B^t7|"86 ?18 q, (I Z-doll Erq6[= eHl=JP +AoJ7l?


    =Er'e._+ =--JElol =d

    s.7 I +xl 9.H lEJ


    Hzlzl Etl olE.g Lewis f4, gzl. sHlg "l Ez[ zl-ol *zg +a]= ¤B6l+ Ell ++
    4ee E¤¤ :aEl+ fl^l7l AdJ olEol AdJq EE ag ¤H6ll +zl= 9*=+. ql
    =+.
    qBal qg E-fala rlizl ¤Ha[7] 9]6l]^-l Er[e]
    EH +^l7l
    ^4eg == ^J4E +
    =
    s}6HoI 6l-=ql, flzlzl 4g- ol ge-E ol g { S o}zl q H +.
    =
    Ert 9.Hl=J olE(molecular orbital theory)3 A6Jql El]6Jl^J q + ¤Eg + il: 4+ q
    +d.'* E¤ol+. flz| eul$ol+r 6l+ q+ EI+s flzI 4 d^l-= 7l+6J f ?l*g 0,J
    q^J aqB*+, ElioJ %I4gE, E4 gElE olE.g Ert gulE$(molecutar orbital, Mo)
    ol4,r 6l-= ir+*..J+E ol+6}q +zI 4 dzl-= 7l++r+.
    =c6J
    e.7 E^[eHl= 399

    tszI sHlgg +lz} eElB4 ee +cg g:ol Ttzl-n 9l+. ql= Eq 4+9 uoE al4
    (+= ^gg ,*=) + zll9 dzl-$ zl4 9lr, .JAaJ qqrl$ zlzl4, flz} eulpz,lfl
    i
    Eo]1d e¤HeE dzl
    "Js +E= gqB + gl+. rq+ Mo= gz} sHlBr+ BE, 6t
    49 flzlzt otqq dAl +z}e+ +Aqq 9l+.

    *A q
    5:1e1 +7,f HIE-
    +^ Ezt(Hr)E ol*a}q Mo olEql ql+ ++=
    ^l4}6l4ltrt.
    4r+9 u fl4-9 ls flz| e
    ElBg ol+6|q Hz9 Ezl -qHlpg ElEq ts 1o14. F zl|E flz| eul$ol d4zlfl,
    HIE^I F zll9 Ext 9.tslg.ol {a+. lqoE HzE ¤t6}rl +lull F ,l]el gz}9 +i
    rs eElgol aa^l + zllsl MoE "J=trI. :H g.sr9 9.=+ -'t+ql -Eol: 4, Hzll uo

    =
    + ,l]E rs sHle-9 ffi
    olfz[ r]6114^-l ^JrJtr]. +4= olag ts.z] 4.*(constructive
    combination)ol4l C4. olfl 44s_ ^$zJ ivtoE {l'JzlE tszr= BC"l= + 7]]g gz}
    -sBlgE 9lHzle4 *4. ol $z| 9ul$$ EE8 gulEJ(bonding molecular orbitat)
    olelJ, *4. =r]
    F H4l Mo= F zl]9 flzf eul$ol dizlE +d ¤qq^l {z} njs.z} t^IqE %}H
    o-e. +AA $^dg+. olag,g'4 aaj(destructive combination)ol4r aJ4. ol 4
    otr.tAl

    C* ol tlE flql "gzt sHlgr+ Ezl 9HIBE +l^J'ql^] q +Efl EEE 1o14. olfl
    ar+g rJZ MoE Elegg Exlgul=J(antibondingmolecularorbital)ol41 6}=ql, r ql
    LJzl= flzl sHlgE9 qlHz]e4 trJ ttr]. H,9 H]¤6JC Mo7]:B s.:r9 s_=-+ tr-+
    q el+.
    rH e.3lql^l B i ql;ol. A6Jd MoE dz} ,,JE= + 7l|g q ^Iolql d+qq 9l+.
    ol i^lxl EoJE Mo= + 49 gzl. sHlBg rlaJ_q_-Er!
    ^Jcqge, gzl eHlBg +t
    EI+E + ,ll9 6l ^Iolql^l 6JaTl+. ol Mo9 dxl.= + ,l]9 qol d-otBzl-L 91o us,
    trlH+ q .Jdd}Q(*g qlqzl= r*=
    ^JqE +^ flz}el ts eulpoll 9lg
    ol d!-= nts

    Et=Er'd E^ieHl=Jei 0l'rl EEoll^i d^1"= geg +Ee g0t?]7t?

    AI^fl I--J3 H2el -"! ,t|o;o; ottrl gE


    HJ=--Jd E^l gul=Jg
    -ol,qAlr l.

    C o Ot^

    ii@.@
    1s 1s

    H fl^f gHIEJ cls

    H2E^[ gHl=J -"_I

    E3 I-J3 H2e] "JE7t d=


    5^l^|.010il
    E^teHl=Jg
    =--Jd
    Bd-drt.

    a:19 9.31 Hz9 F THel E^lgHlg 6fL.l: E^leHl=ola += dlLl: EJ=-ctd E^|. gHl=
    0lrl. =-Btd
    400 93 E^lsl 716l+6\'J -ct olE

    4). clqol ol Aql^d Mo= q ^lolql {z} ujEz} d+Elrl trilEq no+ e*ql^J flxl¤
    g Et=+.
    ^lE
    HlE, Hla6Jd Mo= 4
    ^I"lql
    {z} ujrz} rlel s+. $z} eul$el ul-E 6J+: q ^t
    ololl{ a}!zl= Elldql tr-41^14^1, 7l* dz} "JE: F zl]9 q E}4¤ql flr]l
    ^leE =
    g+. q-4^J Elaql^d Mo= aElol B¤9 Hle ¤Eql^l dzl-= 4+=+. Ela6Jc I s
    ulBg HIE^I dzl trJE7l ool 9E q
    ^].ol
    ¤q.J olc! ¤lE!(nodalplane)$ r*=+(re
    s.:rr+: ol+9 rHq^J trrq: ddq_+ E^lg+). Eie*d Moq dzl= a.J gEql
    rrJq+EE +^ gztel rs sulBgl^-ltrr+ E
    ^l "JC6I+(+g 9lHxlE r*=+).
    rH e.3lql^l Hz9 ¤6JC Moe+ HIA6JC Mo E.Fel dzi "JEb + qg Fr+61+ +
    ql +l;<lElg ++6}4. ol+loJ +¤E MOE Exl gHlEj(sigma(o) molecular orbital)
    ^lfo]
    ol4r 5J4(o A6J4 Hl+6i+). Hz9 46JC r.l:u| Mo= crr,E *4. olrll flzlf :
    MOT} F zll9 rs eHIEE "JEqa+g 9rl'*4. Hz9 Eld6J.! rl:ru| MOE of,.a 3
    4. Ee: ol uoz[ H]AELC"Jg +4utr].
    F z]]9 rs flzI sElgr+ r=E+q ^JCg tszI gEIBE t}'ilzl 9lHzlE qtulxtEgts
    E(energy level diagram, $z]. 9ul $ + * (molecular orbital diagram){rE d+).P +El-
    U4. olfl EE= r.al e.32ql^li-ie, g+rl sE+ql gzt sElgg zlgull9l Mo= Bq
    +r 9l+. g^I sHlBi]g ,+r+E MoE ,d-9 olE F zl]9 d4-= ++g f 914(pauli uH
    Et gr-]) :r.:t: (g.l !l).
    tA s.zzq Mo Esql^J 44HFol, 44E
    H2 flzKH)= Bzlql eL zl]9 dzlE +i
    ,ll+6}q +^ tszr(H,)q= + \l!
    $zlzl ll4. ol F zll9 dzlE *3 9lHzl9 ¤aJC
    Mo(orJ9l r 4F9 "1E4. ¤1}C Ez} sElBql EqrJ dzl-E Et}
    =q781. ^¤Eg
    {z}(bonding electron)4i *4. o,, MO= ts flz} 9HIEB+ "llHzlz} *71 qEql H,
    tszlE F zll9 E4g Hql Hl6l] q 9lC6Ir}.
    gzlE {z} ullile} u}}z}21tr, Ez}9lrlg dz} Hllzl= H zl]g 4^l7l ill9l4 gl+g +l
    ezle s^lB + 9lr}. trI4^l Hr9 dzl ullTl: or,2ol4.

    trJef Hz E^le-l H g^l# Ed4g 3:d eol.EttF utl q EoEeq tseE, or" MOe.l ollLi
    xlE olgfll ElilE7t?

    Hlol 31= HJ=-B'd MO

    o 1,s

    otl
    L1

    ^l
    _uG.
    glt tt
    rfl"
    H ,' H gxl

    '.fl".,'
    H2 E^l
    2
    c1,s

    a fB 9.32 + Erl-(Hrg ollLlrl tr*e|. tr^l ts|1^l


    =91
    s.7 | E^l."El= 401

    il+t ?t= uJ=-dd MO < 'l'H g'33 -gE Elrl(Hez)ol


    0llLl^l trEel C^l Hll^l
    ols =+l

    oil
    Lj ,f,I- -8"
    ^l
    He 3rl He flxl

    ''- Tl,Fu'
    He2 E^[

    "ioi?
    ,JEor il+
    +zt gHIB olEql^J, ="# ¤6J9 "JA^dg z!fl i!*(bondorder)e] +flol 91trI. aql a+
    b a.Jc dx[e] ,l]+s+ H]a6J^d dz]9 zl]fs+el i]olE 2tr +b aetr cggr+.
    A6J ;<l+: i (a.*^a dz1 ,11+ - EIA.JC dz1 ts. rl 711+)
    a.Je 4zl z\i i}olE ig a.* il+tr 6J+. a* 4+71tolB +oJ A
    {zl_ri!-olE.tr.
    tl, zolB ol+ Ail, 3olfl r*+ Ailg *.J4. Mo ol$$ g+ 49 dz|= TIzl= +z[
    E r|+!.-e, i ,i , i r+ ee Aqi zl+E 7l+6I+.
    of zfl H29 He2el AB 4+E aA e32q e33g +a6}q +qtrzl. Hr=. 24tE e6J d

    zffi-zlzlL 9lr, EIAEI dzl+ zlzlt- ilzl gre Ee, p{} z}f} 1olQ.
    rs e.339 7l.l4 95. gx|(HeJ= +l+ .ilHxl f+l Es= LI44:ql, eE Ezl+ ts
    z| eulpql Ljl 7l]E A4-= il]+lot Et4. Exl F zl]9 dx}"Jol or, tszI sHlgql 5qa
    f :lzl q+ql qE + zll9 d4* oii ExI sHlBql Egzlo} qL+. tr17+^J He2$ {z} u}l
    7l=' or,zof?olQ. He $lx| eulgol He ¤Eld MoE ol+Hd szli glHul ?4E ue
    g4 sHlgol ue HI?5Jd tszt eElB¤- Bd6IE^l +7161+ 9lulzl"ll E6ll ^J4lg+..
    Hezi zz\4 A6J dzle+ 27|]E HIAaJ 4zlzl9lo =-=., AoJ 7l+: 0ol+. A6J ,;l+71o
    olel= 9ulE e6Jol s.+= 4o14. $z[ eu]p olEq E6ll +i: olfl4 $zffii ol$xl
    "J.
    q{+g r+zl ?*+: ag dq6}a1 q+B + 9l+.

    Z\ Hz9 -d d^pl-or" Mo0il{


    7He.l oT" Moe 7|86fl Ert H fl^t7l gEHe
    =Hqn =--JE
    '+or 9,r=zt, otLrt E^r7l wrE,,tl?
    |
    qBl e.8
    ¤EJ rl+

    He2* olEg ,J--J x145 gEtETl? 0l 0le0l He flxlel He+ ol8eB EalElts a4 Hli6[q ?]¤ts zio+ q|+6h=71?

    6flU $ol ol{aJzl, ot{zl= ql+61-= Ezjlol+.


    E4 He2* olgE AEI7l+E ACBlr. rag ol+6}q ol 7flel aql zH¤ ac6}7l +loll, Ezig dzt zflfe{ ol {z}

    .HJaqlc Mo: aBc MoTI qlqzlzl-e-E +?]+ aql ulEl qlLl44-qe 3+ q EqsI+. tr14^l aelc stslgr+ Ela
    llc aElgql ae 4+E d^I7I +^I9 qlLJ^l: eelc ^JEIg a4¤E q1qxl-H.4 a+ El ++. a44eB
    =q7IE,
    ail.l¤dqzl *:E+.
    402 93 E^lq 716l+rel 0lE
    =-Ef

    Eol Elq q= MoE q¤4 ilxl6l+4= ac6l]o} +tr}. 4* zlizl0-H.4


    =IrE, He2* Eqg ue flz}el olgol
    He$ $zlz| {zlf ls eHlgql 9:u, ol rs 9E1B3,*i ue" ol9rl ulaa|$ .JC6I+z q+El + ?14. zl4l r}4
    4,rJ Hrt He2e+ Ag BzI sHlg Es= "JE aol4(rg oll^l He2+ .lgE Bc.g d!l4-9--e +BqH4.
    e.33). trJE A6J rl+7}o-H_El pSol .fxllo|-1,, -r olg qlrlll
    =.H > -H.=
    .JA6I4a ql=B + 9l+.
    e trl-¤. +zt "! olg + ad. l+rl-it ae q 4"J71?
    E-ot Hez+ ol99 glHzl Es.= ral 9.34q +4H+. Hz, Hz*, H2-. He22+
    =f-l
    ol olge.!l z]]9 dzl-=i Tlzl!, ?l+. + 7l]= aqlc e-Hlg (a) o (b) I (c) 2 (d) 3 (e) +
    q 9lil6l--r,, Hrll dzl-E t}{llC sulgq +lil++. EI > H= qlr1l2
    ^ll
    4^l Aq+ zl+: H,- ol99 {z} ullzl$ &r, aq} 4+= aa6}^ls.
    aq+ ih : ia-t:l

    e.8 I 2+71 olelzf +alel AG*J


    Her+ o;.3o; dlf Hl1^l= ,t,tllg. Hz ol99 olgz[ ¤z]9 MoE gotBq, 9d ?zlgsq 2+71 gA + E
    4 (homonuclear) olflz| E{e ,}]el eg Bzls +C)9 ¤BeE
    I
    ,#,, ol q¤al
    =g6t4it}.
    2+71 fl4Y zsel zp sHlgg 7l.zlq, MoE ¤^d6}7l flalq zsp-l 2p eBlg_
    ^JE
    zl+6rEzl= a46J 9,t21 9lE|. MoE B¤ql ql+ g4e+, d
    "f-l )-tr'
    ol
    Ll
    zl-= r -qHlgql -.E *Hql 4e q TIzl +4g rI-*4 a+.
    ^l He 8xl t, / He* otg

    '{3' flz] sulgE + /]+e+ +El.


    1.
    ^J^d¤ tszl
    eHlgq iY
    H"z* ote z. aJ flzt _sHlBe += gzlE eElgE 6q^l Bl+6J glHzlE 7Ia sHlg-
    ArB 9.34 He2* o;3e1 qlLixl
    4zl* Er+49s e6J++.
    trs =Pl
    3. + gz} sHlgE Er+4ql e6Jg rE ,Jg Aaql Hlql+q.
    ^Js ^Jn
    fiflol f;z[$ffi A6JC MoE o]luJzlts *o[zlr, H]A*C MoE=qlLJzl
    tol-rl+.
    =
    4. 4 Mo= 4zl9+l ^S(pauti Ell4 gr-l) ¤48 4.il F zH9 dzl¤ ++g + 9l+
    (6.7 a) .
    "r=...
    s. tgoJ glHzl9 Moql dzl¤ 49 Ell, dlg ol+71 dq 4 sHlgql t zll4,
    4^l7l Eg+ ^gol
    ^Jqtr =qrJ4(Hund 74)
    .?1r.. (6.8¤).
    ^s
    LiPf Bez9 +al sHl=J
    q# 1s22sr9 d^I tsl]il= r*=trI. 4E ++g #id(ra+z'6) ol{iee 7}ge. 4l r,, ts
    zli zlxll$e.e Liz9 Lewis +a: Li-Li +oJ adJg +4U+. Ez| eulgg
    6l{ Lrz Ez}=rlltlE|.
    a6Jg ¤H6}H q¤.r} aq.
    ^l*s"
    reJ e.3sq Ll4u ule+ ?ol, Lig lse+ zs flzt sHlg qlLJzl +qEE, *
    =+l7l-^JE7IC6JE}(+4
    ri flxl.9 rs eHlBg 9-zl += Li 949 rs etslB4 +41 d-E 4¤-d4j1
    z). u[{z[z]e, 2s eHlgg 4E H gz]9 zs sElE4.!e r]E z]so¤Soltrt. dill ql
    zlg gzl eElBol 6Ja ql {el MoE ^J^dE}rt(+zl 1).
    ri9 rs sHlBg Hz^lH A.J6lq or, 4BC Moe+ of, H]¤Eld Mo=lj,<JaJe. 2s 9
    ElgE ag'JHse, 4E zr eHlBrl z++6}q ¤6JC(oz,) Moe+ Eiaqlc(r,,) MO
    ^JE
    ^JC6J+. "JHlzlsE a6JC Moe+ HleE+C Mo AE
    ilol= gzt sEIg +9 tlE 4I
    =
    gE {s.oil trl-4 ACgq. Li9 2s sulgg rs-H-r} qetr+El rl g7l qlEq q E44s
    s aa+. a44sE, c2sq ots sHlB ^lol9 ollLlzl zl+ o'rsel o'fs sHlgE oilLJzl zlB
    e.812+)l olfl^f E^fol 403
    =-'J

    m olL- MoTl0irl BEE Tlxlr,(3)t?


    tt rri
    -

    7sf 4-l fa-l2s

    f 4 yl(r1' ,/
    0tl
    Ll lll,l
    ^l (ri,
    l-4]l
    I-.. \
    is IaTl \ IIT-I1s
    l il,l
    a 07, ,"
    Li llt,l Li
    Li:
    a fB 9.35 Li2 E^tol ollLlrl tr++
    =9.1

    4 q r+. Li9 rs sHlgE qlqzl 2s 9.HlBs_4 :E{d q *r, r=el oL9 H}d
    =+l=
    ollHzlzl g{
    6J.¤ Mo= oz, 46Jd Mo-H-+ *+.
    4 Li gzl= ^ll TllE dzl-= 71484, L'z EzI stslgg 67HE d4¤ EEI'JE+. rH
    e.3s4H, 44 + /ll $zlzl or,, of,, ozs MoE d+++. aqlc sElBql ql 49l dzl,
    HlAqiC -sBlBql + ,llg 4zlzl ?lo Ir-E, 4q} 2143 i@-z): rol E+. B4+ +"J
    A*g 7l7la-, olE Lewis +4eI'J7l6J+.
    Liz9 or,4 oi: uo:. EF gd6l ill+lzl!-E rs 9ulg3 a6Jql 4el ot+aE 71"16[
    zl E+r+. rrzg E.J A6Jg
    =ts4e.tr'
    Li gzlg zs flzlzl sHlBg 4+ql Tltq} ta
    q. ol ql= q-q=r+ ae .J+4"J +4g ¤Eql+. ed+ Axl+ gHI4sE Ezl
    ^JCE
    a*"il z4 zlq6.}zl *+4. ol +4g Lewis *rE ql flzlzl dzI"J
    ^FS6I=
    a4 rg
    ee aolrl. q4^J 4E zazlE olflzt Ezl-= ¤E6J tr+l= q ol,rj ls sElgg rqtr g
    .s7l-$.+.
    Bez9 MoE Lrz9 9lHzl f;fl s.++e+El drll "J + 9l+. 4 se fl4+ Hl 49 dz|
    (1s22s2)= zlzlaa EzI gHlgql az11E dzl-= +olot ++. trI+^] or,, of,, a2s, atsMo
    g-d6l il]++. ee +E a.Jtr+ HIA6J^d d4-E zlzlsE A6J zF+= 6olr]. oleloJ
    =
    E4r+ .Jzl6]-F, Be2! fxJl6[zl ?+:tr].

    A Bez+ 71 ?Jtr-d o l3?]7 F= ql+61.^le.

    2p ilzl e H
    IEJE+EI Eal sH l=Jsl ^Jt
    4"lzl 2frzl olgzl +zlE J.q6[7] 4q|1, zp gz] sHlge.l AbJs-r+q rJzlE Ez] -q
    Elgg ¤qot.J+. p sHlB z+¤+ f.B e.36q +EI+ 914. 9zl9lrlE q+
    oJele
    ^lolE tr-g
    +eE z+g dqaJ+. 2pz sHlgg rltr. dEge "*.llrll 94. s sElgol eql6}
    az]H, 2pz e]Hl+E_ F zlzl HJHeE AEJg + 9l+. el zlzl A6Jg dzt trJE7I q ^Pl
    416zla}4 ¤'JC EzI _sElBg "J=trI. E tr}s aElg ai+ gEql^l dz} trJEE tsll4l
    6l+ Hlu6Jc tszr sHlBg EIE+. olsl'* 7+ E4 stslBg dzl HsE qrJ +g q+
    +{E}. :falog. l4,E=3 orp* otp+=- o Ez} 9_ElBol4.
    404 93 E^lE 716l+^cl'=-cr olE

    N/-l olE eEflel MO0ll^l fl^f sHlgel AEol 3fl=7f?


    ozpel nzp 6
    U3-Jd MO

    AO+AO 0tl
    Ll

    ^l
    MO
    =-Jd

    x{[H 7{il ( .l
    I

    . oi,,
    I

    o*.

    2p, )n
    'rz "a- ozP

    7f.-

    0_r
    id Tiit

    G
    fi
    a

    2l,,
    +

    a\*
    )n
    @

    @
    a
    I
    a
    fr,Zp

    ,'ffi n2p

    $ \

    o
    11

    )t frzp
    2pv 'ry

    A rH 9.36 2p 9.ulEJe+El 8¤E E^l'sZHl=Jg ElE x.ll

    += + 419 zp sHlBg +Ee-+ AA qrJ +el 9le} o}4ql {z} prz} f;z}aJu}. o1
    el+ ++el MoE r Er] 9.ulEt(pi(a') molecular orbital)olz|-L *4("' A6JII +^t6I+).
    2p, edzl 9HIBE ,Jel AoJ ") zp, flzl 9HIBE ,Jq A*ol 7J4 n AaJC MoE "J=
    4. ol4al F zl]9 rzp Ezl sEl$g Ag qlqrl= ,*=tri. EIE "JE= f,tr1(degenerate)
    qflq$r fl4. ot&zi7lE, F ,llel +El ?t Ela!+^d MoE eq4lq. F zflg rrto ta1
    Be ^JE zl4ol ¤4(+ rllE 2p eul$o1 214.J aaH). olq6J ntp5g r-ll 4el -Etr=
    7v1q. ol*l6.J EBES rH e.36ql^l E-: HIe+ zJol, F zl]g q_s_-EpEl gqzl= HJ6J
    ee +e+ 91tr1.
    + gzlE 2p, eul$g {flos
    aB'J+. Ir}+^] F zll9 2pzeH)qE dag+
    r.-lE
    414 2p. EY 2py 9-HlBg AAtr+ rq. q+^l o2p MOE z-2, MO-E-E| trl *g .ilH zl(rl
    .JC6Irt)
    ^JEllql fl= asE
    ql+¤+. u[4!z]zlE, o], MoE z.], rvrouQ q +g qlq
    zl(q E.J46r+) ^JE]ql
    glrll gtrI.
    9.8I2+)l olB^f E^lol 3-Bt 405

    E:[ sHl'Jal Eal sBltse-l +{t


    gq 6t}q^l9l ga} eHlBql qlil ¤H+ ol
    ^Jql^lE + Eill+71
    ^lEElol
    zt e-HlBql ql+ ¤Be, Elq +oiql^l oJ4 qqtE 7l* + otol olll
    s+ ++ql *d 4o14. flzlcl Ez}9lrl9 dztoil ql6J "J srn.x
    v
    zI qq4ql Eel +q^1, +4= dz}9 F
    =d(dzl9 "il
    Hzl4 *rJ^Jql^]g tsE)g AC6I= ql +E *dol qi
    x
    r|. Schrodinger 4¤ *8rlol dzi qLlzl(E), ul*l aJi(,1) TI
    xll+6}zlEJ, ,//= zld4.J E44 9"lz| S¤¤ zl9a[4 0ltrlE
    =
    .-- io.sE). gzlel +zi -sBlBq E-ZE E^l: r1r'?(q.g "3 (sin x = 0)
    E)ql +46}j1 9la, olAe +rJ*E +q{ +lxlq^l dzl. Bst+t8

    *g $ffi $ulqlQ.
    = q¤ r,JE= *f9
    zll=}jetr -E^lq7l qlEql, {l=e. r
    +rJt}g E= Tldql^l *izl e + fl+. :q4 z zI ilf sin2 x
    v
    ill= ++7lg 714 +E 9lq. ql= Eq rg 9.37e1 6J
    ^foJ
    +8..J46I -H_zl. +19 r4sql^l ^[.J ++=
    xzl -?,,4]4
    ovl^19 H+l "Jql ++Ag, xzl 09lr.l +n7lzl4 H
    flg ql x

    ^I'J Elf9 fltS


    qlql^l ,ltt:+. u+4^l xz\ -7f TT
    +l "J+ZI9
    -r9l^l ovl^lE H+l "Jq^J *i, xzl sql^-l +z-zlxl9 H
    0ltrlE
    (sin2 r: 0)
    I .Jql^J .J+ol+. qlE ^I"J d.+E ^ll=-61tr(o}4 f4s),
    qla"J + ,l]q ++EE Eg + il4. *+E zll#g "J+ol a re 9.37 Et+el -'J#9 rzlls
    ^l?] ^l?.1 ^llE
    7l qlEql F ++q= E+ .J+oltri. +^l "Js]], 4l+g 6}tr
    i1+g S=q.
    +ldl Cu-= 9l=ol,
    ^qeol
    d6l-= ¤B6l-= xol otHS zl9dlot t4).
    gz} eHlgE rl*l EL+= rJ+tt -J+H+ q ++e+ u|1lz}zlE. gdol tr}q7} ¤+.
    ^t.J ^i"J
    +. 6Izl"J ffi e.+E ^t.J ¤.+eI
    ol zJol =-iil-6l.
    9t¤. 714 + :H s.ss9
    ^ll
    r4s=
    eBlgE +*.6J+=- 7ll
    H4ll zpz
    il+. q= r=J 9.38q1^] Eol: ls -sulB9 s^l= ^J {-6199 EI gdql ql6lq qla.J + ,]]el ++?-l= e= a
    4d] BzI. =q
    ol sr.l| 0.0¤9lr'l B{ ar} ErJ z}ol7t 9l+. g Bq ¤+= 4l*6IE ".tE {tol 4e-zl rllE9l F zl]
    q +BE rs eElgg +4q= r+* d.+: gdee+q + =+.E+
    9 S?4zl *9 <i9 zttl4. ulei^l ++¤ 4l+6141
    Aeg qtl++(gde o4ol +lil+ zifl= "J++). EE= qH,
    ^I.J
    ++ql^lilH ui¤. *+ql 46tr^l +ltlq q+ 4
    zrtg qU 4= +H9 ,b ?kZ trq ts 45 {t :rE gqqE4 ¤+. p, sEIBE +F 6J+E ^ll+6hzl q
    gi.JtF.J+"Jg ++6I+(rB e.38ql^l =+.*e4e 'J+EoJg ,Jol E z eulgql ql6}q qE "JE= Eril q=ql, ol{ol :H
    4). :eloe 6I+9 9ltl"Jg 7l4Ll. E rl+r ++= qe e.38ql ¤qces Ll4u rHol7, olaol +el7tp sElg
    E+q B ,lr-lq qg 4l* o9l 7lvlflag ^J46Izf. tr].4^l ql 44q g4ol EoI9-H sri El$ol+ ,,r: (o.o{'l). ol$
    :aA 6.22q14 H?l=ol oiqz} S.4. Zl zll*B qE ++ql ql6}q, + zl]g trEts ee 9tS zI
    2pz eBlEgJ+= ++4= rB e.389 r4Eql^] ul¤L ++g qe}^l ae +E= 7l4E+. olae ui¤'++9 q¤ d
    ^17.
    PEE z:09 xl+E^l HI+14 g+. !+t.9 + HI4ol s"J ql^.] r alg zll*6[zl qE, rag r dql^lE d4
    "JEE
    g
    ^lE
    ,JeLl,6l+E Hi+g "JE Alg zlzl:1, EIE HI+e +4ttr1= rJtti 844fl ol6fl¤ g+6la 9lzl ullE"ll, ol
    +E a|g TIdg ++61-4. ^IoJ .J+el +^16}zll ffi a5 E+ H^lBg ol 4 dHlql aa^-l ^l-&B aol+.
    E gEg 7l+E^l r ^Jg Hs+^la+. +q}4ss z--\oJ d sHlgql Et+E Etr sal ,!E += +ltlg
    'I+ E++g_HlEel
    u\ zp" -4F" EL+= 6J^J 0E <tg 7I4l+. ol43 xr ¤H9 7l4L+. glE Eq d,/ 'I+,*++ uJl zflel AE-E
    E= ilg 9rlaiq, 44t1 xy 4P9= zp" sHlBq Elq ¤B TIzl=Ell, 449 E-tr= ol*6t=
    "HE *4 +l/J.g zltl4
    ol+a +=+. p 9HIBE tFoE 6J+= + 4lE F'J.J ++ (.fg 9.39). += d sEIBE u|{z}zlE, 6}'+el su= oJd
    ol HlqlE fltlg 7lzlr. flzl q++e+ q+ Hli + e HE Hiql +lt}g 7l4L+.
    "ll$il ^l"J
    6t+. :18 s.:se ElEzl¤ol f e sElBq ql
    ^l-.&61+p,
    E4oJ EoJg +E}U+.. Sg^4 P rl+4 Es= eElBq *olq6J.S11+l ++9 ++4 4l&e ol 49 H9l= {q*+. olelal 4l4l
    gltr-ol +e+= a9 9"laJ4(rB e.r0r+ e.11ql^.1 !_ e +s EElzl¤ql E.ll +4Elq, :1e 6.Bq +s tg,* e H= ^I¤:6J+.
    ^Jtr,
    406 93 E^lE 716l+^ef olE
    =--J

    xyDttrl EE xy olc.l EJE


    DILI EE fi.E :0
    \-
    v:0 --=\ N Y'

    {l- <l-
    u
    ;IU
    itb0 itbs
    0hl
    W W frI
    H H

    I I

    -6-4-20246-5-4-20 246-6-4-20 246


    z (A) z (A)
    "(A)

    v v
    x x x

    z z z

    ls g.HIEJ ZP"9dl=J (2Pr)2 gal?

    A.fA 9.38 selp flxl9ul=JtrlE-tsr'+el?18 gE,J,4-al^4eBq,JE44 ol0l-srll.


    =g4g4EEf+oll^]

    etl +;]= Elt' 6J+9 9^J9:zel.f,.e-er{ da g+^Jg v


    trztr lB¤ flzlglrj gzt sHlB-E -Eoj$ z|.<l
    ol6ll"llot
    E+6I= aql^'l +ltol q gs* "Jg olqzl"J, EzI eHlB ol^.t6|.
    =Hg
    +
    olEql^l sElgE rl=
    ,\].P
    Aag ¤¤ts trll= olqoJ gtr-ql rll.J "l +E= 7tc+
    qle. x
    "H7t,ll+ +s6}]{l+. +^l t}tr ^}oJ ¤i+= ^l-s-o6}q
    BxI. ag 9t9
    ztzlE F zll9
    ^l"J ++= q6IAl qE,
    z
    +
    Erlqq :t_ a7l7l67t¤+. dIzlEJ
    ^]E +
    :a + 7ll=
    ^]s
    HlEl]el ?lt}g zlxl* EL+= q6}ril qE :1Eg d*za1=3
    = ^f.J ^l
    e t}4g+. arB 9.39 d eHlEJel ?lat

    ul$ *+E Br"r-+ ,|]ujg aql +zI s


    d$9 tla ++
    "loll.ll {
    EIB!+ HIA6.J Ezf eHlBq 4,* pllaf, zflSo1
    "+* ++= le9 fldrol
    El. ql= 59 Hz9 or, Mo9 zJ

    + +
    g 6I+9 fluf$ rs sHlgr+ += 6I+E Szt9 rs gulg
    ol Qollzl$.<l ¤cg+. F zl]9 flzl. ffi.J++ + flzI rI
    ++ olql d^[ "Jr5 5:21,,.1718^.] Br]6t: aaol .Jq*q(r

    ++ g 9.4O). Hr9 of, MOq rl-tr 6J+= 6t+9l ?zI9 rs e_ul


    gq += aI49 flz}9 rs eulB¤. miH^l B^J¤4. ol4
    + + + ariE gz} eElBe.l aae 84Eq, + a^I ^I"lql d
    zl. ujs.zi 0ol q= ++g
    "J=q U+. olaol ot4z}94.
    ol :1gr+ _14 e324 +^Idg +rE_614. :B s.+og H S
    sHlgql^J "Jel +l^Fl +9 +lt'-g s^l6}7l +16}l *94
    ^I
    B7t x6l tlU
    ^61 4 +*^qg ^FsoEJ4. rel+ slqlzl-==g + 49 ^Js +s
    fltlg +4.il71 +14 7l# tr|= ^49 ^l-&6}q ¤rrtr E^lE
    e.8 2+7lolfl^lE^lel 407
    =-Ef

    8^llE7t 444zls 6Ij1. 9l+g il4+ ilzl ?*: Edg,rf$alzlE

    ryry
    1s flxl
    9HIE
    1s
    9HI=J
    flxl
    ----------->
    C
    of, Ext e.utB
    o eI4.

    {
    of, tvto9 EIE *+E 4l+6hqg ull, :B e.32ql^l +q
    a4H dz} "JE= erll gtrl. dz} gEq^l= ?lt}ql 4
    6J Atr= g# trl^l tH ++614.
    gzt "l +zI stsleq u+5 E++: clE erJ, E"Jo+, Hl+
    Cg *e o1616I= ql g+gn 9l+.
    "JE *zl E]4
    H'J A)I =Eg
    g +r}6tzl 9+8, {zl! Eol, g,g-o1 *.rl$ sHlBg E
    +E 9l+.
    a + ---.--------->
    +d g+ Exil: 9.107, g.tte,e.tzt
    1s flrl 1s Exl o1s E^[ gul=J
    9UIB 9Blg

    a ral 9.40 flrlgHl=Jsl trl= Er+tr+El +-d E^lgHl=

    Bzoll^1 NeTfz;o1 {zf uflzl

    zsel zp ?)zlzl -sElBg r*= Bql^l Ne flaz1z1 Eq olgzl tszlel


    .ilulzl 691 Es(:lH
    zlc6l+ Ell9l, s sElg(rH
    e.40= e.32)4 p eHlB(rH e.36)-++q r8zlts $z} eulp
    E E4g A+^l? + 9l+. 9lulzl i+l EEE 4.zlzl5Ae qs=4'Jol ¤¤84.
    . zs zp Hzl sElgtr+ q
    flzl sElgg *g
    qlHz] t4"ll !lr] :.::=.,: 6.74). 4a+4
    o-E, 2s e_ElBql^j rJzl= +7l7l Mo= zp ilzl sElgql^-l .r[2f,zlg *9 uo_u_4
    q *e qlLlzl tl4ql 9l+.
    . F zl]9 2p" ial$ Aae F zl]9 2p& 2py sElBg AaHq =.4. e44e-4, AqI
    C o2p MOE rr2p Mo-HQ trJ *g "lltJzl t49l qll, HIAtJC ofp MoE rrlotvrou
    q q +e {'Jzl tr4.ll ilr}.
    . r2pq z'f, MoE rr+ ol=!e-s +qqq il+. 4 ++"I+ + ,ll9 ?9 uozl 9111.
    =
    E^l < rH S.41 2+71 E="i 01fl^|.
    9HI=J E^l-elE^l-eBl= 0llLlrl
    r
    tl-i
    tf... q* s-Ei: O ?Ile-l 2s 9Hl=
    =9-l
    af +E ?^fol 2p ?sl eHl=
    ^f
    ::: \
    g^l
    ololl 8E 4Eol gl+n 718-d
    flrl [-f]':i' '/iolq, ol?i= 02, F2. Ne2oll
    ' tH
    gHI=J
    2p- d1^-ltrJ g *= aee !-d4e
    ,,
    \ = ol=l^1rL

    'W4;
    :-
    =LlMul.

    qt
    Ll

    ^l ffil,zl,

    Itt I(r..

    2s [-_l l=__-l2s
    ,- 1___f
    f-1,,2' ,'
    408 98 E^lsl 716[ +zsef olE
    =-cr

    olL E^i eulgol 84q qlH^le.l xialE Hl+ll 61"ts7f? (8!+, 9E4 rE HIE)

    2s-2p tra AtE


    =7|.

    -tr
    7. r_ _r_l
    -rlt1 ffi
    o2"-o2pg:z +Ee qLlrl
    =9tel
    ,Jatd= +gEltrt.
    I-
    02 p gYleJ? ollLl^|7 t tso t o2s 0ll
    o2s g.ElEJe qlLl^l7t L1

    ^l?, ^l
    'f0tctrt.
    oy

    02, F2, Ne2 82, C2, N2

    A-1eJ 9.42 2s Brl9ul=rl2p ?7t 9Hlg 3E Eal


    ^l.019 ^tE

    rB e.4tql^l dzl# qlLlzl tr*q 47El7l dql rElbllot 6J s4zl + z|^l trJ
    =91
    ilq. 9lHzl EEE +^Jg 4l ,* flz}9 zs eul94 += gzl9 2p e-HlB
    =+l ^lolq ^J
    E 4|+ol $.trI7 ,t46ll*E+. ¤4lE rel6J tlE 4L¤+ 9lg + ?l-2, sal "Jq\}4. f=J
    e.42+ * fl4.g zs eBlB4 trIE gztE 2p i-EIgE Aeg +EIUEI. olel+ zl+e
    ^JE
    o2,$ ofluJzlS +L^lvla- orp9 ollHzl= +71^14, oz,4 azpq qlLlzl zlolE r4l "JE+
    (a4 e.42). olEl+ 2s-2p ^Jg zl¤+ El]+61 + ilq, tszI s-HlBel qlq^l +^JE +
    gi]H Br+lzl tEl. Bz, Cz, Nz9 rr2pMo qlHzl= = n2pMO qlHzl.H-4+1"il
    9l+. Oz,Fz,
    Ne2el o2p Mo qq^l= r2pMO qlLJzl-H-+ olillql flr+.
    Ezr eHlgg qLJzl +^J= rEj+ Br9l.^.1 Ne2zlzl 2rtzl olszl +zl9 {z} uflzl} Q

    *4 A+. ql= 5q +^ g4= ^.ll 7l]9 flzlzl. dzl-=,*=+(4+ 449 rs d4-E F^l
    6.J+= 19 zl9al4). r7l6l-q BzE 0zll9 dzt= $zi eulpoll +otot eI4. olE 6 ull
    z}lE oz,el oj,E EF d+6IE-e "Jat EEIS S4. 4ulzl F Tl]el dzl+ n-2, ?aJrd uo
    ql +.J+. 4 t zll9 dzI.E .1rrzp _qHlgql +oln, !1 6.J 7l]g dzlE E+E 6J zr2p Mogl
    +olq, + zl dzl-= *l"J6J t}ql= ,*=rt. l4 o e Br9 d,* z}fi 1olQ.
    ^s
    2+7]|4 eE4e-E * gi4 olEo ¤ oll"I4 F Tllel dzl-= re e.41q il= qlLlzl
    fl EEql H Foto} ++. qE E9 cr-e. zlfl Bru.trI A^I + z11E trl ,*=+. ol5 dzl+ =
    r2p Moil *.4 EzI n2p 9ElH¤ Sd6l ill++. Bzoll^l Ne2{zl olgzt tszt9 {z} ullzl
    el a6J rl+_L rH e.4ql gl+.

    tz,l-Hllilel +alsl^d?
    zlzl* +ql^J Eeg 4f,$ Eeq dz} ufl${l 'Iel +s.J AE= xlldialzlE ++. +
    7]] olt}g gdzlE ,*= EzI: ztzltrgl olgil+. e+ql+ql gdzlzl Bg++ q]qe q
    ,J6ll Tl+. o I Bl oJ ++el zlzl 4 4# gtz t|!(paramagnetism) o ElI. 6J+. I

    =4^l7l HE Eag zITl^Jql Eal-41 HIts++. olsl+ ceg


    uJrlzH(diamasnetism)
    ol4r ,*+. r=J e.44q147]14 CAg +46l= nd4.J *Hol +4+ *=ql. ol %IBe
    e.8 l2+)l ol3^f E^fsl 409
    =-'J

    \] HJ'JEI'¤ eulgoil 71"8 Ee qlLlxlE dxl"= 7fxlts ?J8El E^t(E)3 ol' ztro)7ll

    a 2s-2p 8E :tE z!? 2s-2p 8A qE


    B2 c2 N2 o2 F2 Nez

    oip c\- 1t

    0ll
    q ,5p ri" 1 1 1t 1L 1t 1t

    ^l ozp 1t T2P 1l 1l 1t 1t 1t 1l

    T2p 1 1 1l 1t 1t lt ozp 1L 1t, lt

    ai, 1t 1t 1l cl, lt il, 1t

    o2s 1l lt 1l O.^ 1t 1l 1l

    1 2 3 2 1 0
    tl=Jtrl(kllmol) 290 520 941. 495 155
    =-d Zol(A) 1..59 1.31 1.10 1.27 1..43
    =-cr
    dtr 8^17ld u^l7ld EJ^t7ld d|^l7ld HJ^t7la
    ^1714

    a:19 9.43 2+71 0lErl E^l.oll rH-d Erl 98lE E^l Hllilel E 7l-^l ¤:d
    ^[e

    -E gzlzl.<Jg qlztzlcg 7lo)71Bq4rll B"J+. ol EJHe zlzlgol gl4+ fl= tl4ql


    ^l Egel +r]l= +a++.
    r Eeol $zlzlrjolg, zlTltlq^l
    *g +zlE ++E a trJ
    olQ. tlzlzlrJolH q zlg +4= +48 1,o14. rB e.43sl 2+7) fl}.q olgzl849
    dz} ulzlc} .Jzl6l+ zltl4 4+ol deg Eq +eqfl+.
    dz1. H11il= Ezt9 4* 44 q e.J SlB{e+E +Eol !!r] ,.', (s.sd. s.sd). A6J il
    +71+716J++, aql44= a^6}r. aqi qlBirl= +7I++. qE 5E aB a+713ql
    NzE s3 az'J 44eI a.J QlBq= ,*Ert. Nz EzlE +E Ee4 ei elql+g ^J
    =
    ^"i6}4r drll HI¤.6Izl ?+b+. = aEl7l-+9 ts4* r +^IE
    qlel4.J "JcE= ¤BB
    oll E+g rq+ ae ad. zl+E ,** tsz}4E eg a6J 'Jole+ ee a* flgq
    =+.
    ral 9.¤g cz E^pltl^t7l¤g= LlElL,lrt. o5l Mo9 ollLl^le
    A o2pMo ollLj^l7f z2p
    .t oot= rE,Jot q6qts7l?
    i

    Erl fl= sEfl0il^l EJ^t7ld IE= Etrt lt3 8Il'7ld /.lE= Htrl= EBe-e < -LE 9.44 ri7l.8=
    ^[7l8ol
    eg= Etrt. EBf -e.e +8 EJ trHoJ-.J Erl). ErlElrt ^lEg =
    ^leg ¤61ts d6J
    l-

    I i
    ,t!

    A &\
    I

    lfia.
    r rE
    0- ^lE
    i t
    6 3
    I
    0
    f
    410 9.} E^lsl 7ldl?^sf OlE
    =--J

    sJrfl s4ill e^E +E 3+, Gltr 3rl7i qEEl=7|'?


    ^l{ ^f0lE
    ".q o, E^tE 8^t7ld
    .: rllEoll ..
    =¤0171

    .i
    L.

    J
    M
    Eillua=
    0l3aJct. ^t7l6t0ll

    A rH 9.45 o2E AfrtTld a4^ll ll4= +qE, Eill CAzf rl5ql 'Jal-==tf
    ^f4 ^f0l01l

    a 7*71*gql +E6i+. E{} 263 .l=E ^"jeql g.&g += 6J oJz}g sol+. tr}= "J
    4+ qd6}e+ _sElgg dd9 zz1o14.
    &4 Ez}(or)9 ?Elg Ezi sHlE olEos ¤E6I= gul_E* qolrl. 4Id EzlE
    Lewis 738 ol+ 46fl+ gd6l {t$- olE d{¤e +4U+.
    9:9
    s9 o-o Hlr4 tg ¤.J glBul(+es kl/mol)E ol+ aq+el
    26'r aol(1.214)e+
    =4el
    "Jil+r+. relL}:,H s.4391 ++U EIeI eol. tla Ezl+ + 49 gd4-E zlzll 91o
    E-E tlzlTl^oi Ee.Jql, Lewis 7r9l^l= olE Mo olEql^J ql+¤I qlE,
    ^lEg + sr}.
    o,el $zlzl,tJol reJ e.4sql +4+ 9l+. Mo ¤Bg &^e-l 46J 7l+7124= aE Cq
    6rrll ql+'*4(o1L3 Lewis *i9l^lE ql+E]9tr|).
    orEPEl 7I8 F zll9 dzl¤ Bzla}q rrfpMo= EAq 4++. trl+^J FzE Hlzt
    F2-tr
    7l¤ol+ ql+qr, Lewis *34 gil6l+ F-F +oJ A.Jg Tltltl. ufzluJ9e F |l9 d
    zfp frzla|$ Ne2= trJEE, dz}= E= eqld q HIaBC Mo= iHe+. _t*lEtr Ne2
    E AB x|+= soltr, Nez +zl+ 9+= ap-tr q+g+.
    =^]]6].xl

    qH e.s
    2+71 olg7,l ol*el+at sHl=J
    :
    oz* ol8oll ttlotq qE¤ ql46|,^le. (a)=d^l+, (b) (c) ?!=trlel.'Jd,Jol
    =-cr'r[#, =-d
    NH'J AB zl+¤ Al&.J + 14 e.$E zleg r.l-a"6lq eql $l
    841 02* ololgE ¤4 zlzl ceg ql+61-= E4lol+. gqel A.J zJolE {l*'J4.
    4lsl o2*9 Ceg Aaolzl 9lat9 or"9 Mo]-39 ol¤' Bol (a) oz* ol83 ttzll$ flxlzl- dxl-= 7l7lq, ozE4
    6J aol+. *d dzliE aa4i1, Mo oilqzl EE= rfl 6J1l7l44. or*E ^JC6I7] fl6l.q orE+rl 4lzlB dzl
    4. gd4y Hlql ^flg zl4.4ol $,= dzl,ol+. Aql zI+ + ,llel ,tp ==1j,zl6E 6t+ol+(:H s.+t ara). u14,t1
    =
    : AqlC a.Hlgr+ HIABC sElB dzl+ zlol9 l/2oltrl. oz*i B3 + rllE gdzl-= 7l4Ll.
    s.812+7l olfl^f E^fol 411
    =-'J
    (b) +4+ 87Hq eqlC dzl-(o2s+ egJe+rll zl9 Hle*C
    dz}(or-p4 eI zHzI 4g)= r*=trI.
    "++^J A.J
    xh-L + 49 .19# 46J
    ^l+714tg
    aql^l +^lE +g6}^l
    =
    s4 a+. 9. Cr'*, N2 . o2-. F2
    (u) Cr'*(N2 (o2-(F2 O) F2 <o2 (N, (Cr'*
    i6 - t7: zi
    (c) 02 <C22*<F, <N, (d) Cr'*(F2-(02 (N2
    (c)oz*9 a6J 7l+= or(4,* il-+:2)e+ Nr(¤B il+: 3)
    (e) F2 <C22*(O: (N:
    trl+^l aq+ qlgqe+ ai+ aol= o2e] N' ;.1o1
    ^lolq 9l+.
    g ql+ +TJlxol ggot c\q 700 kl/molrt 1.15
    "l-4, 4+
    Aol4. ol olgE dqlzl a'J qlBulel eB rJol= 4zJ azs 4¤- "139 zl-7ld+ e6J iI+= q1;;f.<le.
    (a) r-l-tlcl-ol&(o,' ) tul o1-4gq- olg(cz,
    kl/mol4 t.tz: Aol4. )

    o16{ olfl7,f +zl


    Eq olgxl Ezig Mo= dzllolE Ell ^l-s-o 6J ar+ E"J+ grlE q6r-61q, +zl¤ +c6[
    + gztTl q-g olt{(heteronuclear) olgx} +^lvl^l ¤EE + 9l+. ol {oll,<Ji olfl
    =
    olgxl +xI.J &E+ e4(No) tsz}"ll q6ll ¤H.J+.
    No Ezl+ t+9 q zlzl 6s_t ^Jq4.J zl5$ a{6l+ aes gq?+. q= Eq
    +"]E 4liil= olg;.lzlzlr-| q4 .rllEE +ol4+ Tlqg +c+^\vl7l fl6}q No=
    =+s
    leeSLJ cr]q4 qE +EE t gtlol dB*4lq '4lE dB',Ez[s^]g NoE
    ^l-sq}+.
    +scg q"lla g+= +e+ ^ll EE 4elzlqlrl +qaq-. No= 4la dg 5eE.E zI
    +6tr, ge ^JEq4 HI+ r+A"tl Sqq+ aeE ge4 91trt. NoTI qlrJq 4^Iql^l r
    e+ Aol +s+ qgg.J+= L3 rsszH oldql e.lde.l 9zlS,ol B.l¤¤d4. el+5lE

    No= g+7H9 dzl¤ r*r, HI¤:Col '}l* zzl ql+ol4. ol EzI= ll7HE flxlzl Az]E
    7*a. + 7llq 7l-b* Lewis 74E, :aB + 9+. q *g B^l {6}el Lewis +a= AA g
    4ql gdzl-= +s^l{+.
    00-1+1
    l-rl:9 .------ 5:6
    + +3= E+ ol+ a.Jg 7l7la_ 9J.xl"J, rH e.43ql fl: Bzl-E=r+ HljzB u]l Nog .g
    E4e A6J Aol(l.ls A)=, a,* ^I+7I2-B+ z+= 19 zllrlt4. Mo -E¤g ^l-.s"6lq
    No= qBz]l ¤Hg f 9LzI?
    olfl olflz[ Ez]9 g^l-=ol dzl *Cs z]ol7] zzl gfefl, Mo rHg 54 olflz] E
    zls.l Mo E-sq 6J Ttzl +,qt +c 7l6IH ¤4. dzl gcETI q gzr eHlg
    ^I.*"J =
    9 qlqzl= 471+4E7I q zle flzi eul$H+ q *g oiluJzl ^J491 ?l+. Nog Mo
    EsE rH e.46q +EHeq, 4}dE {zl ${s.z} =zl ullEil, t}aE zss+ 2p gz} .s
    BlBg da9 zscl2p e_HlB!_+ .JzJ rJ *e ag E + 91trt. Mo qll,lzl EE= +
    =+l
    Ess+ 44 +L+. E]+6IE + gz}9 zsel zp sHlBol
    4 olflz} BxIg Mo qlqxl
    =+l
    z++6l.q E.J+ Bqg MoE tlEzl rllEolr|.
    ^JE
    olq olgzl Ezl¤ rEloJ trll, Moq E +E +.qql zlolTt il4. rvro= + gzlE gr}
    -sHlBE gqte-E trJsq7lzll,J, "JHI4ee MoE qlq4 4 zv\& "llHxl #g
    =+lq
    E zla gz} eElBol q EJ:e TlqE 4rll g+. el= Eq No 949 4*, c,z, a6} Mo
    : NE zs flxI sHlB.trEl 09 zs flz| eulpoll "ll.lzl +ql7l4 211d4. :14a1ozs Mo
    Nu4 o7l E7J trJ "*g 7l"lE,tI4. ol4* -sElBol rl ol^J Eq olgzl +zlE a+
    = rJol gzlE
    4 + 5.jqo+ g'JEol otq+= ag "J6ll Hli6}4l, ot, HlatJd Mo=
    =tr}.
    412 93 E^lel 716l+^el olE
    =-.J

    w Nooll= ? Tt|ol 3xi7l eE d^l7l9lb7|?


    N flIIgHI=J NOEIIgHIEJ o fl^l gHl=J

    D
    o.ir,

    II -
    _*

    oll
    2p
    I- Tl t"
    1L 1

    2p
    1

    Ll

    ^l ffi
    ozp

    - t1il
    IlL---
    lr' l'.
    +'-
    ai

    u
    a^
    L>

    "¤ffiil Zb
    ozs

    N grt No E^t ofl^t


    a.fB 9.46 NOel E^l9Hl=Jzt E^l-9HlEJoll r.ll-d 0llL1^l trs
    =91

    qqzlq 9lq^J Nel zs 9zl sHlgq zl*z) 4E4l N gztT} rJ 3 zl{5 .$4.
    rg e.46E Mo91 rrz11E flzlzl dzl¤ ,.ll¤-_e-Er{i Noe.l Mo 9lulzl i+l Es7} g^J
    ¤4. az11E a.Jd dxlsi 37Hel HlAaJd 4zlzl glEl= ag A6J 7l+7]|1(a-:) :zi"J
    g "Jrll 6l] olag Lewis 76-HtrI= dE4?l ar+e+ q a gil+r+. gdxl= N g
    =r+.
    zls+q rJ E zl¤E BE z.f, Moql zlEdl.rll g4(Sdz]P. dp MoE s=+ol+ g+
    qL *ol+ EqrJ + gl+). trI+^l gIE Lewis *r
    +ql^l ¤dzlzl N gz]gl gl= Lewis
    +4(¤^l d6lql zlaa3 EI +dq= +z)71^Id4.J dz}EsE q dqq ¤B++.

    sHlEJ3| qlLlx,l

    6s,* 7l+4 Edol +gol+a EqB+tr


    2l^llTlql zhr q¤41 4.J 9lHzl dQlol "J{rf.zl? 4oJ_e_
    '{lHzl'4r 48tr 4o14. zl{ zft.al qlLlzl flAg Zlg =Ezle_tr=
    e+q g "Jut(ie 7I^l*d)E ^|S6lq EzIe+ Eeql 9i
    6l+ ag +4 +^ll=ol zl+ql^l AotztE Ell flq +ql6J d4_= +E qlLJzl E.E ^JEl]g "J= E.qzI 914.
    E4lolTl uilEol4. z|$ f$$ EI6Jaa qlLJzlgg 4oJol = =+lel
    +?-l ++le] Blg 4, q= 5H *, g4 ag a5e r
    ^l-11,
    +. +E qce +E"J H t..J(++61 ee! zlz] tbJ 5q a# +C6l+ El+ EASol +A 7t^l+Cg dq6}q ¤.
    o-e.
    ^F*g
    + fl= ?++ "JE qlq^lE qloJoE+q EoI aaScer^l 4¤. r*=trI. ol 4ag Ezl-sHlE "lEr+ +fl
    9l+. 4-4e1 s.de ++6J 4oJ olluJzlE Elo}^l + zlq ^J461-= aol Egol 94. He {x}z};ll$l! 9l= +
    =olr
    47t g_se Ell + gl= ¤Elltr "JE= 4o14. *dzl zI eHlge.l dzl-= Hlq gl= ql6 k.g qlqzl +4lE
    ^l-s"6J
    q qo} z$zl(photovoltaic solar cell)-E- rlloj{g 7l-!'o6J al +q. MoEg.Ja.J qqzl
    =E
    7t^17 llzl ollE.ll.
    ^l-8-
    dTltr. HI+r., E+ AgzloJ Ell"J {xl$ zflpali aol trl 4¤il ulelel qu.1o] {zfg =+l= q}E + 914.
    =Erll
    4 qLJxl E^]¤.6]le6l-= %IH +q 6l.Liol+.
    e.8 ) 2+)l0l?^f E^;ol e:'J 413

    a
    o
    a
    tsolll4. +^qol4+ ¤49 ++.]]= EeEe E-f; z|;.1
    o
    "Jdol dzl_= +g ^J4g Moe
    olF^la + flg 4Etr
    il^l HlEs E^f
    9HIE(LUMO) HOMO_LUMO a4ol Eeol+. Nrg 4* HOMOqI^]
    ru =
    o<
    { LUMO-E dzl-= EE7]l 'JE= 4iE Hqlqzli-200 nm
    6
    I + ol6tE ultlq ql+g+. ol +tlg,.EtrBfl z}e.ld gqql
    B 4q(zlrl*cqE+El)+6}zl g+ ,, (:rfl 6.4).4
    ^.lE
    oil
    Ll
    HOMO-LUMO
    )l)1
    r}4ss N,: 7l-^l¤FCg ¤+g + flq +4¤. ,*r1l ¤+.
    rl {z}z} ill$lz{ gl= ^}Elle} Hl tr-EHE qlLlzl t4E r7l=
    o
    z
    a
    1L
    t alr d+ E^l
    4lo} 9luJzl dElql^l +s6l-tr1.

    =
    7l-btr Elol ¤+6fr, *4 qlqzl=
    +E= ol^JzJ os
    ^l=&
    zl-:,al olluJzl
    qloJ rlzl

    a qqle ut#q ++ Edol gs6}+. ol^Ie}4olq++ qe_


    oF I eul=(Hotvo)
    tr+q zld dzlE IJ4I.J i 9lErll, 4l +g n$g 714^]
    d4l ^l-+g + gl: Eeol+. rq+ rio2= ¤4olzl ullE
    a
    o
    a
    ql ,ll+ 4g.JE ElloJ +^lqHzl"Jg ¤+6J+. r4^l r+
    a rH 9.47 HOMO9I LUMOe.l 8sl F E^l- 9Hl=Jsl o1lll^l ql4-E=g HoMo-LUMo qlqzl 7J4 7lol7l7l^l*dol+
    ^f
    0l= HOTVO-LUMO zJ=olaln -sttt
    4eld Hqlqxlq ql'J6l+ a49 zl-r1 tszIeI rio,E
    =zle.l
    E4ql E6J H g+ql 46l] olotTldfTl +l6}q a zvl 4lq Ell.J dzl= "JE= "Jg 6In 914. ol4al %r-Eg F61l
    MOql ql6l rjz_|aN sopl t}trl(f=J 9.47). HoMo(highest ^l
    E4-=g trJ *g Ell*E s+6J + 9l+. qlE
    ol EzIg HoMoTI Tio29^EtrHg qlqzlH+
    occupied molecular orbital, 3l.I' d+ Ezt gElB)= dat HoMo +trIB,
    dzLq=g $zlE$4 Tio2E E= aolq.
    ol ol =
    6tzlz| {
    7l EqTl ?lE uoE alil +g qlq^l ^J4"11, LUMo
    =
    ql ].=q]r. e.19 ol-e9l BaqH dzl= B^8rlzJ4.
    (lowest unoccupied molecular orbital, slxl tsld+ +zl9ts1
    B)= dzl-= r*zl ?*g MoE 314 *g qlq4 ^J4E "J6J 4lo} 9luJzl9 sgzl a+g r trI4 444 zl*9 tsdq]
    4. Nr9 4* orp MoTt HoMoola-, ntp MOTI LUMool ^l +ElEn +st
    +ot +q 6I+"1+. q4+E +q ge
    4(:H s.+a). ^I*Eol ^lltlE
    qLJzl EE_gzle-ql ¤.Jg ¤Eql^l g
    614l gzlE E=+.
    =
    HoMoeI LUMoE qlq7,l zlol,
    = 4iE
    HoMo-LUMo t4
    e Ez}el d4-= 6l+ EJI gs+ qlqzle+ + +H ¤+.Exll: e.104, e.toe,e.tzo. dll ¤41 E4l
    =EAl

    Eo 6or qHl
    -4.41 TUL1
    o t4'llE

    flA g3 E^lE ?¤Elts ral^q rilloltl.


    Sa Ss gxl +^ts +ELr-d BB^[ ral +601+(reJ 7.27 *4). fla sJE r.8o-e 7[
    961g zlxllS s2 Ex[7t8dErl..
    S6(s) + aSz@)

    (a)*zlEs9 2+71 B40ll^l Brl TEl Hl*El d^l+^= 'J= ae oE fl4?]7t?


    (b) VSEPR LEE /.|s!-dfi SaelS-S-S q|{6t^19.
    (c) MO olE= ol8d[Q Szel S-S 'J-d
    =-ct4al'Ssl=d$=
    q|46t/.l9. Sz ErlE UxfTl'8oJ7l, SxlTldoJTl?
    ^145
    (d) gE El=Jtrl(tr 8.3)= 0lE6|.q, fl HJBgI El=4 Ea[,Jg qEd[^le. EJ- EE EJ3?]71, gE HJ8?l7f?
    =-Er

    6[l'J :S_S:
    (a) *9 16+ g^olJ., [Ne]3s23p4E {z} uflzl$ r*=+. + ..,/
    :SS \..
    4 tl* Hl+6J dzt ,*= +r= gAb +A(dx| ullil tt
    t$...
    Irte)zs2zp41o1t-, +Tlgs.ql^-l * HIE +lql fl+.
    :S-$:,/fr'
    (b) Sa9 Lewis T4E 4s=r+ A+.
    414 96l E^lel Tldf +^e.f ol=
    =E'

    4 *
    flzt ^lolql E"J eqlol 9la, 4,%r flxlqb F z}] 4+(6J 419 ol+ AqD= r*r, sz9 ,S Moq F zl]9
    9 Hl=o f, dxltlol gl+. Et+^J ?:r+E * gzl +glql= gdzl¤ ,*Y *47l4olap 9ltaJ4.
    !l zll9 dz} ¤9ol il+. r4n sp3 eCololl 6l]B6t= (d) s8 E{+ Hl z|]9 s2 +zls
    +hqxl= HI¤¤ ^J4+tri.
    ^IH^ll
    dz} ¤99 zlal +44r qltr-g+. El*+ A^I G)e+El Sse s-s E"J aqlg r*1, sri S:S ol
    (b)e}
    elEql s-s-s ad|49
    .rd}
    ^rBalg
    ros.s..H_4 Ea + + A*g r*={n E+. trI4^l 84l.el s-s +"J A.Jol
    g asE qltlJ + 9l+. ¤ql4sE Se 6 s-s-s a6J #q{n, +zll$ s:s 01;= e6Jol ^JCq= e1*o14. eI
    49 tos'-tr qltl{t4 e "Jil6J4. +trlE7llE srol ¤E + elgq= ^l s.339 olo-"olol Al&6J + 9l-n. -E 8.3ql
    a4olE, S-S-S A.J4g l3s.qol6J+. 4tlql 58 r ¤+ a.J qlBq= q-s=r+ ?J4.
    ^-l
    El= +Eg 4-of.r.l sp3 gCarIrI -e-+61= q zlg 4E= AH,-:8D(S-S) -aD(S:S)
    TIzlrll g+. : 8(266kJ) - 4(418kJ) : +4s6kJ
    (c) Sz9 MO= +E 3se| 3p flzl. 9ul$E+El +cqrl"J, D(X-Y)E x-Y Aql flB{= 9"lErS *zlol4. la.*
    :43 oz9 Moel Hl+6I+. Al4zl Szts OzelE"J6J g > 0olos g¤ Hl¤:ol4(s.3o. ,ll+ "J+ <iel aH,*
    r*=+. 44^.1 ozel Hli6IZl, s,:2E Aql HI¤:ol .JqB =
    ql rgol gs+ ag.J^1.J4.
    ^l7l4^E =

    sE'! 6s tq
    Ert sg(^lE, 9.1tr) EaIg +ilg Eolr+ r7l5 ?tfr4(bond dzltt Ell ZlHg +a-.J {oluf. flzfz} poJ
    theory)$ Lewis9
    angle)r-l- 443 polE ea"J+. 6d flzI 1'zl nzlq B gzlE E "of ¤** ol* galel flzf eul$ol ^.le Aa^J ^J^J
    olEql^J
    elr^IoJ +^l+ AB,gE 4E+1ilq, z\z;l ]4 E"Jg n +eL +q6J ¤+. Aa gqe F eq 116l + 4E dzfzf F^lql "Jqg "JE
    gziql q4 g?+rl,L. ql++E a+ ol5 zlal7=E 4c. q q "JAplq= ¤Eoltri. + eHlB aE Aaol BCq=
    =-A* =++
    zlzl zls EoJ(dB, +49, 4i4 tr-g. gHilDr} +flgE+.
    ^|Bi.il,
    a6Jg ^]r+.
    VSEPR E.E(g.2tr) flrl7] Ee drtg uJ,,J Eil(valence-shell Ed eu|g1e.str)gzI7I ?!l olEg cl-flxl SzI9l +*61-zl fl
    electron-pair repulsion(VSEPR) model)$ 6d flxI ++lel dzl af{ s, pE g!}4q ESgulEt(hybridorbital)¤ "JE= ag ^}^}
    7l *4.E)71 dg ¤E.J Ert Eet(electron domain)E ,Jg Hlgql 6lloh oJtrt. *¤r(hybridization)t: A6Jg BC6I7I 9l6}q 4E g

    E.J +z}el zlal ]a$ 6Jr.l4_s-E ¤H6J+. drl*g A.Jg ol zlE eElBr+ 44 + 9lE %I6JeE rl 3 ec0ote)= ,*: gC
    E *ll +"lEI 39 prltl(bonding pair)$, zA Er]ts(lone pair)ol g^l sHlBg "JEE}. gC sHlgg Hl++ d^l"Jg ++g +E
    4lE. 4e5 ulffi fl{$(nonbonding pair) o + ts+6}i, ol E 9l+. 54 BI4E gC+=.r-ll zlzle.l "JH]4"J {2.} $$$ zla}
    e gzl ffl9 dzt gEg ¤C6J+. ol EBql E6IE. dz} ¤q +3e+ +¤alg + 9lE+(dB:sp, ¤E *4:'p,, ^IEill:sp3).
    g rE x|4lol f {zl! t}gol .a,l^7} 9-=.q u1a;ojq-. + rEg gdzfE4 q g}g fl4-= z*i !filxlz](hypervalent) ezlE eg-
    ,;b6l$ Eel Eqd 9l+. g g^J sHlgtr ¤E6f7l d^l ?*+.
    El++ d^Itg =of|- dzP*E+ trl Elgqg +44IrE. Hl
    = oltl4 trl= gzl-E tsed+ d(4,J ag q4 {z} pEz}
    ao]+ dxltlol daap glilTl gln 4t3-z_|s_-+pEl =:d(e.6tr)
    =4 +e ++ B6J9 rEu(o) ZlB(sisma bond)olap .J4. E6J3 p
    Eq+r'll t+. ++ eqlE d^l gEe +'J 3!lur1+^ Hl
    _sHlgel +E Aase+q
    ^JCg +E 9l+. rq6J A*g
    Elol
    Eeg +4utr1. +C gzt 7919 dzl-t Ellgg $lsqq 7El+ =
    (z)?!?J(pibond)ol4n 6J4. CzHe9 ol+ a.Jg 6J z]]E o a6J
    5(electron-domain geometry)qn ,trl. flz}9 ul]93 Erlel 716l
    rl6J 7ll9 ,, ¤oJes +Cgr+. 7Jr+4 +t g4ql gCp+q^l g+
    ?4(molecular geometry) 41 6J4.
    I p eulg1p orbitat)ol 9ln, olSE d?ge z' ?6Jol "JEqd
    EII +d(9.3tr) +gzl .$zlel rSz]- EHIE= zlp g!=-r[(bond rl. crHr9 SA a*g 6J TllE o ¤*4 + ,}]9 ,, aoJe.P 7
    dipole)4L 6I:4 d.J9 4d}*zl-EHIEE Eq,*ql q+ g+n dE4. , a.JE ^J^Jg EzlE 5+t ullalol pea|+. ql= 5
    +. dBq ABz4, ¤E tl4qq ABre| rJg ezl E"Jg A6J tl ol crHr 6 F zll9 cH27l= aqlg
    ^J^J6IE ag ¤Eql +qo}
    +^f7I ^J4lqq ++d E^l-= "JEq, ,'5t+^t E{lE= 0ol g+. dJ+. Ar+4e-e. zr E'*9 ¤41= ExlTf aaCg r*E+
    "JEtrI.
    ABre+.s4ge] AB:4 rJg Eolg e'J.rtF-zl-= tl4l6} c6H6ziH q-+ a*g T}zlq + 4 ol^JE +B +3E r*b B^I
    "gBE
    zi *dlq, r Ezl= +^J ol g {ol Q({t-=- z} EHI E 7} 0ol otq q). 9 z ?EIe ulElrlliElct(delocalized). 4 zr ¤6JS $al flx1,t1o1
    q qdr+.
    88 flxl.7l 0lE(9.49 frtTt eE otE(vatence-bond
    =Brt =:Et
    HJS^I 415
    =i9

    EII gHlts(g.7tr) Er] gulEl olE(molecular orbital theory)3 ts -r:-L E-r=


    tJ AoI =T!
    AE oIrL
    l r-1
    zl- e1}¤. ¤E6l= E += EBoltr}. ol EBq^l dxl-53 e.
    =It 2+71 0lgr[ Extel qC+ 4+ eHlBe] dxl-b gz]
    e]= -"1+¤ ql q t4"ll ¤4laJ
    Hl=J(molecular orbital, Mo)ol =:-J(9.8$ qlEql. -EzI eElg
    ^l ^Plg A6Jql +q6}^l *6171jlEl6lE ¤Be .JHI4
    +. Mo= ExlE EE flx}ql 4^J¤ + 9l+. flzl sHlBiJB E 9-tr 4lel4 d39 dxlrig f].Ll. 2+71Eq olgzl E
    z| sHlgg "JC"J.llHxlE 7|^lq. q]4 dzt F zl]E z| glE uo
    xls.l MoE ¤H6IzJE, p eulgol eE61q
    ^¤E ^dC6J +
    e + 9l+. ^JE +E flzl9 flzI e-ElBg a6J6l eal sElgg n4'J 9gz} 914. 43 ,r1tr5 6J6i: p eHlBg o ¤'*d
    EIE + :14. zlt rJt+ A+e. + ,ll9 gzl. sHlBg e*g F =
    MoeI o* Hla.Jc Mo= sc6J + 9l+. 4rJ +ql +z16}r] ull
    tltl P.tl sHlBg ^JC6I:ql, 6IL|= fl^I eElgel qlq^lBq 6FdJ p .gHlBs A'J6Iq 4ol(zr) Erl gulB(pi molecular orbital)
    trl *1. EIE 6t+: q +g qq^l= ?*YLl. :1+ *g qLl^19
    g dc6Jtrl. ol$u[ $u[9] ?I.+zt eHlge +El(ee 9lHzl) tt
    9HIBE Mo= q ¤qql d6I "JEE rtzlxltl\. olag e qlg A6Jd sElB rlr+ HlaB^J eElB t}_s-tr {d¤4. oa ¤
    ^Iol
    El8 Ert gulEt(bonding molecular orbital)olafl '*4. U-r1 gg
    B-C Mo= qrJ +ee. tJdJp eulgE9 ddol"e El 3 aa
    qlqzlgl EJaA¤ Erl gHlB(antibonding molecular orbital)g 4
    g "3C6]-q n,p 4*4Mo-H-4 9lHxlzl trl aetr q+g
    *g
    gqotr+E dzl-= Hllz{e+. E}A.J^J Mo= q El. rBl+ olelf, olluJzl SrJE Bz. C2. N2ql^l FlBt{E}. ell+61-
    ^lolE ^Flg
    ¤ggl dxl¤ Hll4l6l-J q ^Iolg dzl- gETIooJ Eltrt BE!(nodal trt= gzl.9 zs\2p gx} sElg Ael trI+olE|.
    plane)$ rltl+. a!+C MoE e+E A.J ^JCq +4"J qlB,
    E
    ^Jtr ^Jn 4I+
    2+71o1+)^l EzI9 EzI sulp E-sE ol tszlg Lewis 7.4e]
    Hla6J^d MoE a+= ¤'J scql g46lEI. s eHlBol a4^J gdztE
    "Jil6l+ a6J 7I+¤ L+E+UtrI. zll4z} ol E¤g O27I
    d^dg a6JC Moe+ HlAilC MoE Erl eulEJ(sigma gaj9-e z}Tl+ql^l Ez|zi ¤4E flrJzl$(paramagnetism)$ u|
    ^lr.u](o)
    molecular orbitaDol 4l. 6Iq. ""tr el +ql +"J+.
    ^Iol 4q]ot +trI= Ag Aqd-zl q++r+. l-E da}z}4494 qt=
    flz| eul$$ a.Jr+ +xl sElgel qlqzlE oilLlrt=+l
    ^JrIzl tszl-=g uJxlz l¤(diamagnetism)-=q +4.il q, xlzl 1t o ggq q'
    (se= e,ut=J) E-E(energy-level diagram)E +EIUq. 4¤6J ,l]
    =rl .J Hlgg LIEIU+. olQ ol$z| tszl.9 tszI eHlB* Eq olgzl
    +E d^l¤ tsxl- sHlBql #. ql ,cB it*(bond order)= 4l&6J Bztel E^l e_Hlgr+ ++ oI+ +^l-6I+.
    i qll, a.J ^l+: e6J^J sHlB dzlis+ Hle.J^J sHlE d^h
    + i}.lg tlol4. 19 a6J il+! +.J e+ql ql"Jq}+. a6J ^I

    6Jf Tal ot B= E+Er +01 qalge trF=s :s + ?totor -dtrt


    . vsEPR -EBg ol+6}q +49 ;$ilg +4= ql+g + *El +a 9+E4l: e.63,e.64
    (s.24). +¤ ¤+ E4: e.2s,e.26 . ul¤xll dulg 7ll+¤ g
    ".419
    f 914(s.e¤).
    . EzIg zlol7=e+ 4 a"JE 'J+^I EHIE= 7l+e 6lq, +zI +E g+E4l: e.6s,e.66
    9 +Cg ¤aB + 9lE+(e.3¤). +¤ g+ #41: e.41.e.42 . aEL^J eElBr+ HI¤'JC a_BIBE zfl$$ {$op.. o4 zr Mo
    . ="* E6J BCq^l eElB Aag q"Jg ¤E"J; 91Q(s.a¤). 9 qlE :aB + 9lE|(e.74. +H g+ ¤f4l: e.de, e.70
    +¤ ¤+ +^\: e.47,e.48 . +^t sHlE olEg 0l+614, olflx} EzI9 tszl sElB qq^l
    . +Ag tsaI +=E TlaE d-q EzI 4 gz1"1 4aJ ed+ tlql E*'= rr-]i1. {xlg uflzlap. e6J il+E +B + 914
    =9
    E g^l6J ; gr|(e.sg. +E ¤¤ +.41: e.sl, e.s2 (s.z¤, e.a¤). +H g+ +^{l; e.21,e.72
    . e-HlBel rlrul.(6r), 4.ol(z) a"Jg Bd6l+ eElB aag r . a6J xt+, ¤6J aq+ !ol, zlzl4' cdr+ +zlE
    ^ll7l(flBi4)e+
    B + 914(e.6¤). +¤ S+ E4l: e.ss,e.s6 ezl eElg E^Ie+el +4lE ol6l++(s.sB).
    . HIC14 ee e^lE , aE-El¤xlq¤ ¤B6J + fl4(s.0¤). +B g+ E4l: e.7e,e.80

    :( O Hl._e_Al
    Orl- L O -r
    . eql{+= }{a'J tzlg +-H}aB dz}9 i) [s. r]
    416 93 E^le.l 716l+asl eEf 0lE

    oJ+ +41
    tso.E -H= 7llLJ e.4 49 EzIL Bolxll R-:ze. BEI= 401=+es4qoJ
    e.l 9E ao. $zlf 'r.lC(seesaw)'E-o3o14. (cH2F, ol E|[e
    .2A, e 3H].
    1"17a91 qsE, ol tszl9lrl H zll9 dz} sgol c gzl-=
    Eq,Rln glEz}?
    (b) ol .$z|5 0ol olH d^+zt EflE= 7l^lE.7l?
    (c) ol
    "JeI $xlz| *^dolH. dal d;rr^I EHIEE 4qE
    q

    rB e.3ql ?q+l zlB


    ffi
    7li;l +q^1, 6l+ oltlE gzl¤
    +^
    ¤ {.6}oJ7}?
    (0 tslegq E+-sdg
    (ii)tl-tr.+H g+sfl gxl-E
    9l=
    ^Iol9
    63.611

    +gvl?.l
    (iiil ta=.grl +^ g4¤ +d4zl
    4461-q ol
    ^li.EoJq ezl¤ "JE + fl= Ae qtr a.J ^folE
    (iv) tsae+q +^ gzl-= QI6ll 9l=
    zl? lg.t9l
    e.2 (a) ul-* rll zl9 *dol ?3 a7144.. +g^ln+ a+^q +.^J q
    ^lolE
    49 g,l.Jzl? o) "J"+ +¤.\_q +dql +rl= q Bq (D
    zlzlE, 89444 aq^l +d
    ^IolE
    4e qB4 qA=7t?
    (c) vSEPR E¤9 qtr Bol 6)q 9.il ¤B9izI?
    (i) d^I ¤9f ail qlt 716l +a= e.s rl-s E.-s: + cr gzlE z?lql q-E 4HI¤ 9lulzlE ut4
    ^IE,Jlol4.
    (ii) Elr"f dzltql 9t
    dxf Sqg a"+ dzlt}9 dzl u aol+.
    ¤qtrEl q f4. (a)
    "J.-t F
    gzITI ql+61 gr] ¤q4 9l+8, olEil ElHl¤
    (iii) dxt gqE ¤H t4¤ zlol +4q ^Jq.d-b gC 9lulzlE gulol{lbTI?
    e15 5prolc|. [s.zd1 (b) cl, Ezl+ d^lle ¤4+4. trl^g E-E= H7, cl2 $z|
    E 4+s] A!+ Aole+ 4a3.,r1lzlE ql+6}^le.
    (c)
    "J'J 4+61 'Jq6lql^'l Ct2 $;lzl "J+.1
    g+8, A
    E-g r}6l] zl
    =
    4Ez|. o_|oll zl
    fl.=zp
    200

    e.3 4 EzI (a)-(091 qlql, q¤. $zlel zla| +4e+ oJildl-= A


    100
    ^J
    E +E dzl-¤9 zla| f4i P 71]oJ7I? [e.2e] I

    3[o
    0ll
    0

    "G"
    Ll

    ^l
    o -100
    \
    (a) (b)
    J
    -200

    -300
    0 2.0 4.0 6.0
    cl
    - cl4ar(A) ------------,'

    e.6 r+¤- sElB Es+ +a gzlE sHlB ¤tq 4l+ +


    2lE 44U4ts.s¤1.
    =c
    (c) (d) (a) ol trItq s^lB +Zl dql q¤ aol d *A1* tl* $
    ¤B6l-b7}?
    (0 zzH9 tp 4zlzl gdz}Tl ¤+.
    (ii) tf, z1l$ 4^l7l2p sHlBql4+El 3s e_Hlgzlzl g+

    &.q, (ii,
    ,Jtr}.
    6J Tlel 4zlzl ts sHlBql^l+q
    zJ4.
    3p e_HlgTizl g+
    (e) (f)
    417
    =* =ril
    (b) ol gcs+ql^l qE BEIg g^Jsl eHlgol tdqEz}? (a):H9 + MoE 44421 96ll qtr -*.^lg
    ^l-8-61+7p
    O) +gq EzI4 ol3 + qB 4ol 9l olluJzl 591 ssql
    -------)
    1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
    6||B6l+7I?
    3s 3p H2, He2, Hr*, Hern, H.,

    e.7 4* +r14o= trr. E+ql B-61^le. [e.6¤] (c) ol $zlu| olgel aq} il+= gutoJ4?
    "J"+ dz} t
    7l]E ol 4ql +7}dl-8, qH Moql ,.ll+lzlE
    HHH H (d)

    H-C:C-C-C:C-C-H
    ttll 7l?

    tt
    HH
    s.rr trl-.$

    *d flzl
    MoE EJE= Ell
    +zI sulgel ¤ir'tr E^lql^.|,
    *E p), Moe] B4(o Ei zr), (c)
    g-ulgG
    ^I
    (b)
    (a)

    (a) 4 *^ g^Iel gC!+= +9.qi7}? MoTI AqlcoJ4 Hlaqlc.Jxle+. (d) trlq EHE 9lil= 4
    (b) ol Bzlql H zl]9 o dllol 9lbz}? 4 aA6I^1e.. [s.z¤, s.s¤]
    (c)H 4lel z'd$ol 91ts7}?
    a a a a
    (d) ol Exlql^J 120'a!l4g E_F *_e_^le-.

    e.8 oI4 rBe +++^ +ElEq^J 46Jg BC6IEI= F rll9 (i) (ii)
    sC gEIBE Aag trq +EI. te.6Al
    (a) rl-s + q¤ ¤tlol rJcqflEz}?

    0 c-c o (0 c-c z. (iii) c-s o a a

    (b) El-g + qB Eap^ El-d¤ola.=7p


    (i)cH4 (iil c2H6 (iiil cruu (iu) crH,
    (iii)

    t
    e.l2 q+ E-*.E 6d EzI cxq 4ln A+ Mo= L+44n 9l
    +. q7l^l g^ xE c(tst)e| ag +rlql 4,a3r]. [r.a¤J
    (a) dzlE zllffi reJa|{ xE ac+^le-.
    e.e q+. E^IE #*(furan)o14. *zl Ezl-E ++61 s^l6t= (b) ol Bzl+ t]-^tTlcola=z|, tlxlzlrjolA=7l?
    EIEsE +dE
    ^Jq6I9-L, azfl9 +aeqi *+t144 (c) ol $xle.l n2p Mo$ rEl6tH, cTlq a4l7lq6i4=7}
    9l+. te.s¤l x7l q aA zl{affliz}. o}qH F flz}e.l flz} eulp

    (a) f*9 Ez}4g +9.oJ7i?


    o olffi441 zl{o.ffliz}f
    uzp 1

    (b) ol ExLql^J flzlz| {zl; H zl]?lz}? Tzp


    1t 1l
    (c) 4 Ea gxlE gdsl+ F{"Jz}?
    (d) ol .$z|$ z 4lgl= p zll$ {xfz} llb7t? gE(9.1E, 9.28)
    ETI Eg, VSEPR
    (e) f*9 c-c-c a6J4g {del a6J4E+ gd ++.
    e.l3 (a) AB2 tl^l+ dBol+. ol { u +}el, A gz} +?lq 9=
    Elg + qL a"J7t?
    4trtt olfi t El=o#dzltl* 9-4"J7l?
    (il ++ql^l e^ g4q s¤q+ {dql^JE sc+e+E}
    0) xer,ql.! xe flzI ++lql H 4lE El*+ dzl4lol 9lE
    ar] 7l?
    (i0 ++g +lq LI4B ar+ F" + += +B +a7I $.EI. (c) xeFz9 +48 d¤.J7I?
    (iii) e-g^I r?.lg 94+ qazl r.al!-+ +=4 o + +
    e.la (a)'llEI.J(cHr+ r+g^& olg(cloa-)g qF
    g 4EE rle +Elql sEl. ^IErll +r
    ol+. olE u|$e-tr qldll
    e.ro olEll lH¤ rs gzl eElB-e.+Ei ^JCB Mog +^l sHlg
    "lEE aql4ql ¤E6I^l9..
    (b)NH3 e^l+ +49 +4ol]1, BF:E ¤E A4B +=ol
    9l'lzl ?fl EEE g+o14.ls.z4l +. olE ? ¤E6J Ezl= qH 4!zl?
    ,-I-' e49 zlo| fauJ rq6J Ell, +49 +a= ^IHal +4el
    9Bzll4Ezl?
    -sr.strl-g
    e.r6 Bxl-+3ql^l BAg e+4.3 ¤E6l^le.
    (a)*4¤E O)rtEzll (c)gtr,,ll (d)dB
    -fl--
    418 98 E^lsl 716l+rq 0lE
    =-c'

    g4ql Hl="f dxP*ol $.: $z| +a= +E

    -{f, ofi" r3--


    9.r7 (a) A ABu$
    oJTl?

    (b) A g^lql F zll9 HlEo+ d4{rol 9E en, EztE dzt


    S9 zlolTab F9,.JzI? (i) (ii) (iii)
    (c) (b)oll.{ 7l++ B^}E +x} 716} +a= +E"J7}?
    e.28 El-g -r.Bg AF4 E4ql^.1 zl.g"t zlE +aql 4+ +-E
    9.18 NHroff.tl Hl++^J dzltl ¤99 a7l7l :1a11 {}eo ulf, pH: ql rgg +4u aolq.
    ^ll
    ql^lBtrI q Ezl, zlgl ql{}6ll-E_^le_.
    (a) e^l.el zlal l39l *44q, 4 e^L E.JE dz} gqE
    Hl*+ dzltl-el +xll7t E^I 5.oJq ¤6}.9 +: A++ r+g
    9.19 zla| f3$ zll^l6}^le.
    e^lLI olgql^l qH c*.JzI? (b) 4 E^I E"Jql^l fl^l Aq H zll9 ul¤'B d^l gqol +
    (a) SiH+ (b) PFr (c) HBr (d) HCN (e) SOz zll6l+z|?
    9.20 Q* E!¤ + 6,J flzloll 4aJ a!+49 +d6li{ ql=6J 4¤ g^E 6 qe aol rH (iiilel tolsE ¤ er. g
    (c)

    + glb a+e+ E+dt a+B qtr A"J7l? 4 a+ql ql6ll zl-B +E=71? Be, C, S, Se, Si, Xe
    ¤B6l^le. (d)rB (i)9 ern +4= "JEqr qltlq= gi A= r^^l_2.

    9.21
    (a) HzS (b) BCI3 (c) CHaI (d) CBrr (e) TeBra
    trl-* E^Iql= H Tlel Hl++ dz}lA}ol "A!.7l?
    f
    9.22
    (a)(CHJzS (b) HCN (c) C2H2 (d) CH3F

    6C flzI ++lq 9l= trl¤.E dz} ¤E+q rlr* B4zlE


    EAzl.J dz} ¤99 zlaf +aE ¤B6l^le-.
    (a) 3 (b) a (c) s (d) 6
    (i) (ii)
    $
    (iii)

    6d flxlzl trl.sE dzl ¤99 zlzl* Ezl9 dz} s99 s.zs 4* e^lq^J zl4q} a!l4E 4l^l6}^le-.
    9.23 =tag
    zlal7a4$zlsl zlaf +aE +Etr]l^le-. /:\ ..
    1

    (a) Hl zll9 ¤dJ ¤q4 or]lE Hlad- gq (a) H-O-CI ^ O:


    "
    (b) zllE a6J ¤qr+ + zllq Hla6J gq
    l1z
    :Q,:
    ^'ll
    (c) 4C ,l]E eql gq!} 6J 7l]9 Ela6J gE H
    (d) ql ,l]E A* gqq + 4el Ela.J gE
    (b) H
    I joI,
    ^4
    H
    9.24 6C flz)-zl trI¤-E dz} ¤99 zlxlE ExlE d^t gEq
    -l-f
    H
    zlal-fie.| EzlE 7161+aE Sq..Jzf? 5
    (a).rll zllel d{} dz} ¤94 ozll9 EIA6J dz} gq
    (b) zle.l ¤il dzl gq4 6J z|lel u14o3-dz} gE
    (c) H-C:C-H
    ^il
    (c) + 7l]E dql dzl gq4 + Tllel Bla* d^I gq 6a
    i

    El-¤. +zlel olgq dzl ¤99 zlaf +=e+ +xlE 7161+ tal nl \*
    9.25
    eE.&^19-. 7

    (a) HCN (b) SO32- (c) SF+ (d) pF6- (e) NH3C1+ (0 N3-
    Ets 4 EzI4 0199 Lewis 73E f-?-17, dz} Sg9 zl
    s.ro 4.- E^lql^l 44+ a.t}4E +}t{ts xll.<lof.r.le.
    9.26
    6I +=e+ ts^Ig 716I +3E ql+6}^ls.
    (a) AsF: (b) CH3* (c) BrFr (d) ClO3- (e) XeF2 (0 BrOz-
    (a, H/Pt9:6
    e.27 l;l+E f-Bg AF3 Ezlql^l 7lg"t dl 7He.l +4ql 4.J +-"-l 2

    q rHg 44U 1o14.


    G)H
    r\..
    H,4
    vI -C:O
    (a) ts^lel zla| faoil
    =A6Iq
    zla| fa$ zll,rlaf.rle.
    4 Ezl E"Jg dz} gEE
    H
    I
    H
    t"
    (b) 4 +^I E"Jql 46Iq g4 Aql Q zu$ u14a3- A^I Bq H6
    ol+4161+7p
    (.)
    (c) rl^s g^E + qe aol rB (iilg -troJs-E ¤ errgzl "zt-6},
    H7
    H-CI ./-\
    rrJE=7\-? Li, B, N, Al, P, Cl.
    = (iiil9 er,
    (d)rB +3E nJ=4n el^Jq= flr a= r.,r (d) C-N:
    ol+E ¤B6t^le. l1s
    H
    419
    =* =xll
    e.3l oJsqoI(NHJ= oI+ AoJ Hzlq uJSaI{ ofu}olra} ol 4l7l7!Ei.J7I.? olpg ffizi EHIE= tlzlflitll
    9(NHr-)9 ^JC++. oJe.q o1=. 4F+ Hl+6Iq "]e.;. o1s- 9.44 r+ol=e +Hl4l(dichlorobenzene, C6H4Clrg 9--t, Ell4. u+
    (NHn*)s-
    ^JC6J+ 914. 4q 7I^l ol^de4E r*b+.
    ^'l
    (a) NHz-, NH3, NH3+ ,tll zlzl + H-N-H 4*r:o171* CI
    = doo
    \=!
    ='
    (b) NHr- NH3, NH3+ ,t'l zlzl +, H-N-H ,3*rlol7l*
    7}o
    aL
    A-o,
    L:

    e.32 El-gel AF, $zlr] olgql^l F zll olt9 F-A-F a6J4g


    714+ 4+ qg 4.Jzl? glA(ortho) ollEKmeta) EfaHpara)
    siF4, PFs, SFa, AsF3 ol ezl6 rrFxt EH]Ezl0ol olu ag qL AoJTl?
    ,33 (") BFa-b HlEq, BrF+-E ^I4 ¤E¤.J ol+E eHlg ats, aHl=J(9.48,9.58)
    ^lBilloJ
    ¤86}^19. (b) H2o, HzS. HzSe9l.rl H-x-H A.J4q H e.4s El-g
    =c
    4¤o]|44 +.J^1, ,l1a14E s^l6}^l9..
    EIT} qBril qA=zl? ¤E6I^le(flE: d^l+ gqE r7l (a) a"* aEJg BC6IEE a*ql flE 4 gz}9 sHlBg
    E 6C g^IE d7l grjs9l q- cE= E=.J+). tl=.r1 314o1tje1.
    e.34 +g tszfq ol99 r*il-?l+aE rq^ls(Hl++ dzt4:ol Q) a;! flxfe.lp.e_HlB4 +E g^Iel s edlBol aa^J aql
    glsH s.^l6t^ls). g "J5 += StrL
    (a) cloz- (b) So42- (c) NF: (d) cH2Br2 (e) SFa2+ EzI 4 flxl9 Hl*+ daHre ez} B4q ¤6J9
    (c)
    =+.
    EElxl Exle.l Egr| (d) ts s-u1gg
    "Iq ¤Eg 7l4t+.
    =¤(e.38) ilolae (e) 2p eul$g otq ¤Eg 7l4L+.
    e.3s ¤,fl-rd+^Ie+$z| ffizl. Edtrq +E"J7I?
    e.46 q+ + g^I9 sElE s'd6l= rHg r
    e.36 AX3 E^l-= jlEj6ll tr^I. A-X ef,-ol +coln Ax3 ezlE ^plq^Jq aag
    ?,1^19.
    x-A-x a.J4ol 100'q^l 120'-E f;zlal ql, ,t!+xl -EEIE
    qBzl H6IAETI? (a) 4 flz}9 zs eHlB
    = (b) 4 flztg zpz eBl-?J(+ il^l7l ,+ql fl4r zlg)
    v3? (")SC12i {r{z} EHIE=,*Y7l? +'J,*EE}H, oJa}
    ffi (c)'J flzl9 2s eul$q- +E gz}9 2pz eBl_
    zI BI"Jg qL EJ8JoJT}? (b)BeClzE rA}+zl I.HI-trE r*b
    ,*=+H. ol! qg 4¤"144 *.Jzl, 44.Jzl5 s^l6t^le-.
    7I?
    "Jg ffix|
    oJa| u3-o'3$
    BaJ.JzI?
    (a) paloll,tl e_EIBE Aaol 4a++, A.JgE6ild+.
    e.38 (a) PH3 e^l+- +coltrf. olae ol EZITI gE +^71H + -ya7(b) {oJql,r] 9HIBE a a ol 4 a+E- a6J rJolE a.o}d+.
    flE ,J,¤4 +4E x]l+61+7}? ¤B6f^ls. (b) e+(o3)g (c) s^J sElgg slETl .?16l]^1,.J gzlel s eulg4- 4=
    EHIE= 7l4L+a
    zl-9,'d-=rzl- t+. s= fl^I7t Eg6Jql.
    flzl.9 pe-ElBg "l+tl+.
    olaol qB4 zl-l"*zl?
    (d) Hl++ dzltl¤ ed sElBq +qEl + S+.
    ,3, (") BF3 +zl+ +^J"J7t, F?C'Jzf?
    e.48 IF, ICl, IBr, Irq^'l AEI g^I sHlBq Aa AE= qBal
    o) BF32-= BH +a"JzI?
    *44fl.}.zl? ¤B6I^le-.
    (c) BFzcl $zl-i {fz} gHIEE 714 7-oJ7t?
    e.4e BF, e^rql Eilql ^J46I trz}.
    e.a0 (a) +41 e.27E AF3 tlzl-=- -a46il -E-zI. olE + qL ael
    (a) s sz|(¤ql6l.zl ?*9lg oll)9 dzl ullil$ r..r.le.
    r5"qz1 s.dEaFl 0ol olUTI? ¤E6I^le. (b) +zll e.28E
    (b) F gz}(46}6tzl ?*9tg rll)9 dzl tsll4s ^'.^lg.
    AF4 Ezl + qL ael .tl^+^l t-HlE Aol 0oJ7I? ge+
    r*. 4 E4zl+C"Jzl, ++C"JxlE ql+6}^le.
    (c) B-F a.Jg ¤c6}qE,
    "lB ¤c eulgol
    7l?
    (a) IF (b) CSz (c) So3 (d) PCI: (e) SF6 (0 IF5 gcglElzl ?*a BoI 9iE B g^tE 4le.l4 sBlBg +
    -*n,cl* 7+ (d)
    e.42 +471+C"Jzl. ++C.JzlE ql+6}^ls. t.Jzl?
    (a) CCla 0) NH3 (c) SFr (d) XeFa (e) CH:Br (0 GaH: e.50 scl2 E4ql qldl Ezl.
    ^Jr-r-6ll
    qa3 c1o13e-eoilEfl(dichloroethylene, C2H2Clrg +s -E (a) s 9zI(E6J6I^l ?*9lg Eil)E a4 ullzle ,,,r'r1s.
    ^-lE
    e.J qgg ^ll TIzl +=(olce4)E ?*+r+. (b) cl g^I(AqI6l^l ?*9tg ull)9 dz} uflzl$ *,'.1e.
    (a),rll zlzl olcaillg Lewis 73E rzl^l9.. E-+ +^-+ (c) s-cl a*g ¤C6tqH, qtr gC sulgol ge-t'J
    A 01u' E.Jg zlt4. 7l?
    (b) ol o1534 u! rdE-xl EHIETL ooJ ag 9r a.q_lzl? (d) scslqzl ?*a Bo| *L s azlE 5l9l4 sElgg +
    (c) E-as9lB{(chloroethylene. CzHECI)3 H z}19 olCS *elzp
    420 gI} E^lsl Tldf +^ef ol=
    =Et

    e.sl +c flzl9 sc sHlBg +4ql^ls. o+9fl1EzlE d4l fl212142145 $u}.Jz|?


    (a)
    (a) BCI: AlCl4 (c) CSz (d) GeHa
    (b) O)q 4lE flz,lzl .j.zltl EzI9 o' A.Jg "JE='ll rl-S9
    flztE gd sHlBg +44^le.
    L
    g.sz *4 a,/?LO
    I:

    (a) SiCla O) HCN (c) Sog (d) TeCl, (c) H zl]9 fliltl ]J.zltl EzI9
    ""A6Jg
    trJE='Jl rl-SE
    LTLO
    ss3 "l-q gC sElg *?r:+ 5A.J 49 zlzla !lc|.
    ,llel \:/t!
    ^il (d) q ,}]9 il^l7l4^l7l tsz}9 ul*.,? dzHre-E Bof gl
    4 dr-ql 4ql +q1l zlg tlzlzl +l+ gC gEIEE gCsl yzl?
    =o+E A46l^19. 7l-!,o6J aql aC6I^19.
    (e) ol $zloll{ 4 +A fl^}q gcn}= f9..Jzl?
    ,.6s o|,(]lE& 9lB(ethyl acetate, C4H8O2)3 ¤:El]e+ 6J7l Zld4]

    Bt
    1
    e. rF*gi a}z1zf 45 EaolEl. ol{el rewis +a= q_¤-

    I I} e4.
    H :O: H
    e.sa (d BH4-, cH4, NHn+ql,r.1 zla| faa| +d g^I9 g^del H
    ttl I

    H
    ql=6f^le. (b) ol +^L=ql^l a6J 4J+^l-el rTle+ *6J H
    =
    g q=6f^le. (d 3azl gAq +^I sl6JEq dlrJ-61= +a
    4& r+?J;r.rle(HE 89. olEg 6d ?zlzl (a)e} F"J
    (a) ol +zlql^l 4+^ flxl9 gcsl-b +E"J7p
    (b) ol^llE& qlBe_l
    d4 flzlz| {2145 go}.Jzl-?
    6J ECEI= tl! 4 o e. ql+qEzl? gzPl
    (c) H z}I9 d^l-7}.B^l-E o 46}9 EJE= rll 9=7p
    q= eg(e.6tr) (d) H flzltl $zltl "'?-Jg EJE= Ell ^l-Sq=z|?
    7l]e.l
    ^F:o

    e.55 (a) +4g g4q *= + zllsl p eul$$ ¤*olld o


    T|]el (e) H 7l]9 $zlzl $zlzl +zl-E Hl="+ {zffie-+ tso} 9l
    A6Jg qBZl "JE=^IE rH oE ri.l^ls. e)p 9.ulpe Y7l?
    fdB r A'*g r?-l^le-. (c) 'JEI4 oe o' ¤EFl r 46J ,l* r3gg ofulu&"J Lewis +a= +
    6 qe aol q ,J+ 46J"J7l? ¤H6I^lq. (d) F 7He.l s e_ *r+ e+.
    =r+ol4lGtycine)el
    EIBE+EI z 46J¤
    "JE + 9l=71? ¤B6t^le-. -s.6 H :O:
    e.s6 (a).J gzlel 3lel4 gzl e_HlBol sp gcoiqH, gcplq lil
    H-N-C-C-O-H
    xl ?*.gp sHlgg 4el4ql H zl] tsoI9l=zl?
    zl]9 zr ?6J9 +E + gl=7|? (b) 94Bol
    "l gzl= H
    HH
    tt
    ^Je A6J¤ +
    Tlel g^l¤ tlfi 9lg + 9l+a zl$tln, ol gzl-=g HIE (a)+ T]]el e*4e r1l$ pulolzp rzl:r
    Ea 94 +9E
    ql A6'J ,Jol= E6Izl ?+=+n 6|zI. El"J o 46Jg 6de 4 Elel sHlB gCEl= +E"J7I?
    E HIE=(qd"]s-) aol fl32l., o}._.lE olf(o+z) ¤6Jg (b) F Tl]el 4}4el a4 fl^lE eHlg scsl+ +E"J7l? f

    +iJsE ulei(fl{al-=-) 4ol 4l+z}, ol-ulE zJSz}? ¤H r.ln e^q A+43 44 gol-"Jzl-?
    6l^19. (c)dill9 +^l o A6J+= guI"JzI? d4l z.?tlf: gul
    oJTl?
    ,.s? @) 9lHl.J(cznJ, qlEfl(crHr, of^]lE{(CrHr)9 Lewis 7
    aE rq^ls-. 4 Ezlql^l tsi flzpE gdg+= +E.J
    (b) s.6z ol4rlflgsl .JBj{ o}^]legeldt(acetytsaticylic acid)9
    7I? (c) "JE 9l+H, ¤E +49 B4+ l- \"12y2 16124 Lewis 74E EIq-4 eq.
    S^Iq= H zl]9 o' ¤6Fl z A6Jol 9l=7I?
    12
    e.s8 Nrql^l A4 g^I= r++ A.Jql +q6IzlEI, 6}olE4d v
    H
    (hydrazine, NzHa)$ r+^l gEl. "i'a
    ,ll 3 H
    (a) + tszlE Lewis *4E r?-l^19-.
    (b)4 E^fql^l e^ gzl-el sd+= H,C C

    9H $zfz| rl *6J N-N Ai;Jg 7l^l+71?


    (c)
    +E"J7l?
    lttH
    :o:
    -H
    e.se E-e.gfll(crHu)9 6l+ 6s+ +q}r,ll$ r, 2.3E A'Jr+g 4qt golqlzl?
    (a)
    6Jd6l: Ell =4E+g{lol?+n
    Tlr.llol+. r BzlE Lewis 73t 4* (b) ol5 4E +4 gzlq
    ^j-*E]= sc
    ^l-*El= aElg3 +i"J7I?
    tI *E+ (c) ol +4ql= o ?dJol H zll ilEzl?
    HHH 9.63 (") ¤xll z.doJ4 Hl¤xll z. 46J rJg itol= +EoJ7l-?
    ttr
    H-C:C-C-H (b) Ezl-+ olgol El¤41 ¤*9 7l^1:.^l qE4l acg
    I
    ".
    H
    421
    =* =r1t
    A 6lL7LO
    -T. II (b)Hz* ol+ql= Q zf el {x}z} il=z}?
    ^d=/
    (c) Noz 9 , dl}¤ ¤zlloJzl. Hl$zlloJTt? (c) ol ola-g {z} u}lzl$ Mo +Aql^l r
    ^ls.
    e.6a @)6J 4el so:9 Lewis +=E f.alJ., s g^telgdq¤ a (d) Hz*9 eEJ il+= g"I.Jzt?
    (e) Hql E4 *e 9lHzl9 tszlsHlBs+q * qlLJ^1g
    a6}^ls. 0) ol Ezlq E"J* +E Lewis f3z| ?iYzf? (c)
    So3z| ul$zll z 4iI9 zl4. A" e.ql{trlEz}? E^i 9EIEE dz} 6.J zl]E EEZI 6i9+r zlColl l_zl-.
    ol EE 1149 nr* ol¤¤ .JC.JzL oll{ #qxl=71?
    s.6s *=& ol$(HCoz )ql^l e4 g^l+ +E 4l zllg flzlzl4
    6Jg (0 trl-g 6 (.)91 ql+ dBss ag? "*=
    6d flzl-o]4.
    (i) Hol ?.JC sElgeld4¤Hla6Jc aHlBtrEqzl'J
    EtI ol.$e.l Lewis +a= rr]^19.
    (a)
    (b) c g^lE gdp++ +E"J7l? +.
    (c) ol o18e #+ +E *H +a7t 9l=71?
    (iil Hol Hla,*d s_Hlgg dz}= aqlc eElEtr SE
    ,ll6J+.
    (d)"1 slq+el z.4lglb q 7l]E dzl-7t *iz|?
    (iiil EE ^JEIql^l a6J eHlg dxlzl tl¤t}^J d^IEEI
    e.66 +¤+ qtr slq+5el Lewis +4ol+.
    El
    "*ol 9i4.
    :o: :o:
    e.72 (a) Hz- ol99 tszI sHlgg r4r., qlqzl e+l Es.E-r
    il I

    rl^le. (b) ol olgE dzl El|il= Mo +dql^l :al^le. (c)


    H
    zC'-- H
    Hz-9 ddJ xh"= 4l&6}.rle-. (d) Hql 96ll *g qq^19
    Ezl-eElgE+q te qlq^lE +^l sHlB-E dz} t zIE
    (a) ol +=el +++g 6d Ext.JzL olgoJTp +E
    Lewis EEal 6194J1 7146I -tra}. ol ==E tL4E Hz- ol¤* oJ
    olgol+8, {a}i $ufqlz}r AoJTI? ¤E6I^le_.

    o) 4 ei sz}9 eCslb *Q.JzI?


    (e) 4*
    6 (d)q ql6J ¤B ee ge ae?
    (c) ol Elq+g ffi-J trl= +4 +47191=71? (il 4.1 ?ql^J sElBg dxl¤HI?.JC _sHlEEEEZI6J
    (d) ol F+EI+q z.4l.llE p zfl$ {zfz} 9l=7}? +.
    (ii) qol Hla+c aElBel dzl-= ¤rJd sBlBe
    qg 4 EzIg +^I zl6t+=E ql+6}^le. =Ir
    ,il'J+.
    -ssz H-C-C-C:C-C-N
    (a)
    (ii, EE tl-qql^l ¤{} eHlB dz}7} H}A6JC dz}tr+
    (b) H-o-c-c-o-H r.l "*.1 ll4.
    ilil
    oo r-zs
    ^1
    ael 2p e-ulgol 6J
    ^ll
    gxlql ?1j1, 7\4 zp s-HlBol El
    E gzlq fl= rB¤ rEl^le.
    (c) H-N:N-H (a) F Szlz} TPtol d=6ll^l ailg q}5+r tr,lJ.4 Bxl-.

    e.68 +g ElEl+q^l'#¤4o e s^l+ gzlel gcq+ Fi.Jzl? zzfle] eulg tleE+q H z]19 o. a6Jol "JEqe + 9l
    (a) CH3CO2- O) PH4* (c)AlFr +71?
    (d) H2C:CH-CH2+ (b) 27ie) eHlE t}-e.-E"+q P 419 , a6Jol "J5qe +
    6lL7lo
    ^=/t:
    Exl eHlgrt 2+71 olflrt Ert(g.7tr, 9.8¤) (c)zzll! sul$ a6re-e.+El H ,l]E HleElc eul$ol uJ5
    e.6e (a) gC aHlgr| ts^l- sElgq zloldg +E"J7p ole + "^l+71? E qtr a"F9 *46JC s_ulgo; q}=q
    (b) gz}9 4 ez} sHlBql P zll9 dzl= -Jg + fl=7t?
    ^l:-7l?
    (c)*?6Jd B^I eElBg dxl¤ zI3 f glEzl-? e.74 +* d+ol +.J^1, 4l"JzlE s^l6f^le.
    eJo (t) F 2fl9 trLE g^Ie+q F zll9 gz} eHlgg (a) s9ulPg o EY o* MoI'J ¤^dEJ+ 9l+.
    ^lE. =6J
    6Iq eHlgg "J=H, olag gc sHlBoJTL ET]- (b) r* eulBel qq^l Azl¤ gd.g + 9l= +Eg l00o/o
    ^lEg
    sHlBoJzt? (b) o;] flzfel F zll9 g^l-eElBg a6J6Iq {l ol+.
    Ee eHlgg "JEH, olag g^J sHlg"J7l, Ezf eHlg (c) ,JP g^I sulBql^l
    "JEq{ sHlBol+8, H}A.J s
    oJTL? (c) pauli tsll4 gel(6.73)= Moql HIBoI A6J sHlEtrEl qqzl ++l7I tstrl..
    4+qE7I? ¤B
    6l-^ls. (d) d^l+ HlAql sHlgql Eq,J + S4.
    sJt H.. oig¤. ^J46fl B^l-. v?s (") Aql4-+, aql aol, a6J qlq^l
    ^Iol9 +ZlE +EoJ
    (a) ol ols-$ +zI sHlBg ralj1, "llHzl 6?l EE.= r4 7l? $) E^f sHlg olEql qEE. Bez4 Bez*t a
    os ql+q=7l? ¤B6I^le. =^l]g.
    ^ls.
    422 93 E^lel 716l+4el olE
    =Ef

    e.76 Ll** ¤B6f^ls. (iiil No9 rtp Ezl sElgg $d6l 4l+14 9l+.
    (a)!41q- olg(ol-)g arhl+ olg(or-)tr+ rl ,J aq} (b) No, No+, No-ql^] N-o 46.3-e1 ,qlzl +^l= ql+6}
    ,JolE 7l4L+. a. 444 zt7l4 Ceg ¤B6I^19..
    (b)Bz9 z|7l4 Ceg r2pMOTI o2p MOEU| qlLl'{7t * (c) 6C9 Fq olgzl E^l 6q^l No+ "f No ol+4 E
    gA+e+ "Jil'J+. {z({zlfz}
    Ag).J 49 F{qlzt?
    (c) or'* ol99 ozE4 q ,J+ o-o aqlg 7l4E+.
    te^831P, EzlE ExI e-HlBg r.q6ll EzI. +7lgEE 3+71 ol
    y?? (")HlzlTldol4E $olz| e]ulol-y ag +E.J7t? 9zI ErI9 MoZ 2+7l|olflz[.$z[e] Moe+ +^]6]+n
    llxlzl:j Ed¤ xlzl^Jql^] qB4 Hls"6I=7I?
    (b) z}4dis-zl.
    (c) 4¤ olg5 6 9H 4ol *zlzlr3 oe ql=q=7p (a) pg
    "l- flzfz| gz| eHlgol p2g Mo= +c6}= ql
    Nr'-, or'-, Be22+ , C2-
    ^FSqbTI?
    e.7s (a)+x}Tlcol+-L $olz| $ulali 43 F9.tzl? (b) trl-* fBg pz9 Mo +E 6tLl^= rfl aol+. ol Mo
    (b) {zfzl.! Eeg x}7l+ql^l qBzl H}s"6}i7}? el Hag+flo14=71?
    (c) rl-s olgE u! qts 4ol $xlzlrj o e ql+q=7|? (c) p2 gxffi.!, El-S rHq Moq q t\9 #lzl il]+l^l=7\-?

    or*, Nr'-, Li2+ , O22- (d) PzE llzlzl/3 o e ql=qe-7L d-zPlC a-E ql+q=7|?
    {Lz}zlcoJ olgEql qlofl^-lE gd^fq +E aa6}^le_.
    t4 e.3se+ e.439 ol+6}q q-e--q Mo dz} HlliIE rq^19.
    a a
    (a) 82+ 0) Li2+ (c) Nr* (d) Ner2*
    -xm4 ol99l dzl + 7||E fi7I6IE. r clE+g A!} zl++ +
    7I6l+zL *}61+71?
    [e.8a]rBr +zl+ EEd+ 4i]gol+. rBr$ $uf sulgg Fq
    e.80 rH e.43ql LlElu E4 olg^1.$z|$ ollulzl +9 EE= olg1I Exf Fre+ +^161tr|!. 7}a6ll tr^}.
    olq olfl^lr tszf4 olggl 4+El + glrla z|4a;1, c1-g-
    (a) 14 Br9 qL g^I7l g^f eHlBol IBr9 MoE 7C6I
    olg9 aq+ il+e+ deg ql+61^le-. Ell
    ^1714
    (a) Co+ (b) No- (c) oF* (d) NeF+ = ^h&q=z|? gu}.Jzl?
    1b) IBr EzI9 aq+ 4+E
    cN*, cN, cN-E dz1 tsIilE aaq^lg. (c) 49 fBg rBrE Mo +9 6I'-]¤ rfl {olQ. ol Mo

    "1tr 4'ol7l7t *t C-N 4**71^lz7l? gl,rl flzI sElgg zlqrzl


    (a) +Hql^J 4 4EzI?
    -esr(b)"JE 9ltrIH, qE ¤!0l gdzl-= 714+71? (d) ol MoE Bae +tolaETp
    =.71

    e.82 (a) &F] ¤i.(nitric oxide, No) $z1E dz} t rll= dAl g (e) rBr e^Iq^l ol Mooll p zfl$ {z}z} il]-?l^l=7}?
    ol tlo* olgol gtrl. ell ol;t+ Etr-ol "JqL+=zlql ql
    + ¤Bstr rl+ zJ*+ ae EI-g + qtr A"J7l? a a
    (il &^= a4BEl 4zl *4szl24.
    (iil Noql^l 7IA +g {'l xl9 .j^lY,\p +^} eElBql
    +q ?iq.

    ?l t++41
    e.8s (a) vsEpR E¤E Eelzl zla* P9oJzl? (b) vsEpR -EB PFa-, BrFa-, CF4+, AlF4
    g 4+El Eil, ol+ al}ol+ +6 a{}g +"J d^} sg-g-e (a) 9E olgq a+, ?C gztz} BdxlE4 r*3 dztE
    el:flz}?
    4l&6.J4. 714+71?

    e.86 "lH an, E{+ +4 a*9¤ dzl ¤99 zlal +4_e. E.¤ G) qE olgq A+, dz} gqrlExlq 716l+2.71$s-_tll
    .JEI. (c) olE ol8ol gB^ll dz} ¤99 zlr;l ]4$ zlz-litll
    (a) e flzlollE H gqol
    Tl]el HlE"+C (d) qE ol$ol .rl4$ e^lE 716I +vE 7l^1y712

    q6IE, =zll6l+zt?
    o)+qd Atrql ol EzI= trl-S + "]tr Ezi9 zl e.88 PF4CI E^l-= leJfl 5.2|.
    6f +4oJ7f? (a) ol E^Ig Lewis 74E r?_ln, d^l- gEE zla| fa$
    0 BH *48 (iil S4gB (iiil rzlB (iv)^lHzll ql+6}^le_.

    e.Bz trl*-e.l xF4 ol$$ l{o}^19. (b)p-F aqF+ p-cl aq} + q¤ 1"1 q Fte +rJg iI
    +7f EA E^lt 423

    aos q+qEz}? ¤86'l-^le. g^I egl ul*fr dxl-,'ld}ol flizl? olf+ +E.J7I?
    (b)
    ^16'J
    (c) pFacl ts^l.E 7l6L +4= ql+6}^le. 6)ql^]el Bol (.) (c) flzL szi EEdl gz}+n TIad-E, gz| AE izlgs

    E Bq qBr]l g';rg A9.!.zl? q^l qtr +q +6I:7|?


    (d) ol ezFb ol{}zJ.J dz} ¤99 zlat 7=ePH HEB 1i1 rs4 (iil 16+ (iii) r2419 rs4 (v) C-u-zf El gs'J

    aoe q*El=71? f-e+E 9Bzll tr¤941=z|? e.e4 Pt(NH3)2C129 clo+{g r*E + zf^l sl6JEol 91trI.
    Ie.8e] +afig g$illE oJd6l^l ?*= ql 7I9 E^J?-lql
    NH. CI
    ^I$,lle]
    6fl'JaJ+.E44ql 7161+4 4ltee, gEi]g +d+ + lt
    cl-Pt-cl cl-Pt- NHe
    49 +1dg fla8l^l "JE 4ol ^IE^,il ts^tel 544"J
    4 tos.s'99 trol^19-.
    tt
    NHe NH3

    9.90 trl-g sE HlrJg ill+^ls_. B^fg Elq 9l= a+ s-E4'g 4484H(cisplatin)o145 si*Eoll, 943 e
    ^ils+ol {^E4E (transPlatin) ol u}.
    ql= r+"lzl 44gEJ+^lvlE q= *s^ls-.
    (a)ol! El!+Eol 0ol ofH ,rd+z} EHjEE T*+71?
    Erl Ert gqel flxlE g=rtEEIE
    (b) ol + 6I+= E}oJzllollr, trl= 6t+= .J"J s4zl s.
    716l+5 =d
    E¤EI OE
    .TlT
    E|.
    "J.J
    zl*3 "J"Jzll9 Cl- olgEol DNA r-floll z]-z|
    Coz
    ol 9lE e^ gzl¤ql eloll 1+lqE^l .Jq\++.
    olo ^JCg
    N-Pt-Nq A6J4g e0'ql 7IA+. qL pI6J-Eol 6JoJ
    sp3

    sp3
    olo
    ME xllolu.l {l4o}.rle.
    drd
    ou /(LTLa
    E- o Ctl o

    SFr
    tlE
    [e.es]H2oE o-H at] ?oli o.so H-o-H [oll. 4g
    l04.s.ol+. E +^tE iC'+^t EHI_E= l.8s Dol+.
    gEi] (ro
    o-H a6J9 aE+ ''5q4= qH
    ts.r.E 6J-.I=7I?
    olo
    (a) %16&3 E
    sp3
    E^tg ,rrFzf E.HIE BlEl: qu ufaj9-tr .J6L=7I?
    /*EE cio
    El-t
    ^ITL ci e. El.E (b) o-H a6Jq a!+ .t8+^le] r7l= 4ltl6l^le(ts1r.: Zl
    XeF2 4Ig +l6ll^Jb 4q.Jol ge6t+.
    (c)(b)9 Bg Bsdle+ ftg rg:=-u1e.HlE(s 8.3)el Hli
    e.er Lewis f3E$q trl-S Eztt ol&9 7J o 4 z'9 ?6*iE 6'I^le. qfle9 Bol 4}iel
    ec6l^le. ^J44q1 dzl $Cs.ll B
    6J6l+7I?
    (a) Coz 0)
    ^[olo]Ldl((CN), 9.96 (a)XeF2, XeFa, XeF6oll,<J xe¤ 6d"+ gl d^I S99 zl
    (c) +oJql6.lolE(HrCo)
    (d)+4XHCooH, 6J zl]el He+ F ZIE o flz}7t ce+ A.J
    6I+4= ql+6|^le.
    6JtrI.) (b) rF?g +4y e4 tr'g¤ol+. 4 s41g rzt 15 6ds
    e ¤B+ s4eg +d6LH! 4E %r-6}ql +q 9lr.
    e.e2 +E& +^I(cH3cH(oH)cooH)= tr-+ ++E E4+ * Litrlxl 27HE F= + %I6Jql +q 9lEI. rF6-E Ezl 716'I
    g Lilb Eeol+.
    +aE ql+6}^le.
    (a) ts^b .JC'J +ql$ql^l 6J^J ql 7||E AElg
    "J=+jz
    z|{a}.2. ol +x}E Lewis *45:1i]^19. e.e7 sc sElBql r]+ El-g 4+ + se ae?
    (i) fl^I7I sp EdolE 4xlH fl,+q= 6l+el gcgfr} q
    (b) ol tsxlql} H z]]9 o ¤EFl o A6'Jol 9l=7I?
    (c) ol Ezlql^l zlrJ **zl? zl ?*3p sHlBol 91trt.
    "1tr co d,*ol
    1ii) sp2 Edalql^l q 3 e.E-= C4l4¤E +Ldg 6r*4.
    (d) ol d.e aBq +qq+ 4 +^ gzlql ql+ g^I eul
    (iii) sp3 gd4^J + e H AE 4E= 10e.s"o14.
    99 sdEl++9,.J7I?
    (e) ol -Ezlql^l 4 ts^ g^lE a'J4e qlq g"l"J7I? [e.e8] 9flI(allene)9 Lewis +4= E]s=n+ er+.
    e.e3 ABs E4-= :184 Ag zla| fa$ 7l4l:l.

    a4 e.25q uli* u}^l o-e ol +zlq +a= rqr, q-e-


    e.l Thzl e+q B4^le.
    ^ll
    (a) olezl+ ¤EoJzI?
    (b) ffiz| .EHIETI sol oluz|!
    (a) ol zl;| +4E olE+ +E"J7l-? (c) 9fl19 ABg HlE4.Jz|? rj$alr.le.
    424 98 E^19 7l6f +^ef olE
    =-sf

    9.99 oHel Ag ¤!19 zlzl} C4H5N E4¤i1eJ6l^ls. (d) (a)elG)q^l +Eu Lewis 73 +ql q4 'l]el +B
    (a) Lewis +4E $C6IE, ol B^lql 9 z]|9 o 4*4 r 74.$ zlzl;4.o1 llizl?
    ¤Elol glEz}? (e) (a)4 o)q^l +Elu Lewis f=oll^.l sel N flz}9 I
    (b) ol .E4ql^J H 4e_l gzITI (i) sp EC4, 1ii) spr gC dElE FloJzI? F Lewis +='E g4E=g BH +4
    +, (iii) sp3 eCol¤ zlzlizl 7J7: ) e ql*qE7}?
    ^19.
    H H (0-H_eld Exl.9 ozl]9 B-N A+g E+ t.44Aotr. E
    I 96I+. gHl4?l s-N Aqlg Aol= got 4$ol l.sr
    H-C -C-C-N-C-H
    I

    I
    [o]a olf ¤'*ol r.:r [olr[. B-N aq] a.lE Z]
    H g aEg oll, F zlzl Lewis *4 + qH 4.9 daa15
    aE(NaNJg Erl4 +4ql Nz= *¤61* *
    Ie.100] ol-^IolEEl-
    7l?

    4 "JAB +qlEol4. ol cl6J¤g 4-EilE qqEql ^l-* G) e4d9 z.4l9lE Q zlel {x}zf ilEzl?
    ¤E+. 9.104 4r d+ MOE HoMo4jr.6Ir., ;l^] Eld+ MoE
    (a) ¤al d6l¤ ;lr+6l{^l N:-9 Lewis f3$ rzlr.l LUMoqn +q. dE4ss E^fq ¤+(^|eld-7}^lr*
    e(r.?-l ¤4= olq+). zld¤.Jzi, #g¤.J7P d) BeE Houoel LUMo +9 qlLlzl iI
    (b) olzlolEel olgql^-l +c N g^IE gcq¤ a^ls. ^EEeg
    olE'J + 9l+. gx} +39 qzEgl .zp-
    ^EEHql^J
    (c) olzlolE+ olgql^l +c N flz}qE zlzJ \ zll! o nlp, c2,-o!, ¤¤ .*'^lal + 9lE+. oli {xfz} "lE"t ¤
    ?EF| dElol qiEz}? Bdrl Ezleg -E^lql aol4. HoMo-LUMs ol-E+ u|
    " q t}4ql^J a H4l 5E ^J4eE olSol+.
    [e.lol] e+(o3)ql^l B4E¤q 9|i + &4 g^l+. ^]E seoo 6IEt.
    (a) e¤9 g4ql 4t 7lt[ zlA6J sCq+ +Eq_l7P (a) Nz9 Elq tr-ele+ a H"fl 5= t}4el Mo flzlzf {z}

    (b) seq *B B4 6 6I+q^1, 9B s-u1go1 a6Jg El dllilE;^^19.


    E= Ell E "lH dol tsl="* dz},d-9 aL"I? o) a H4l EE ^JEllq^l Nr! {z}zlrjolzf, qfz}zl.lolz}f
    ^F&qa.
    zl flall r.l-$sllzlr (c) Nz9 #.EltrHql^l TitL *3 qq^l ula= tzo
    (c) q¤ e_ElBol zr d^l-E ul{ullE}a}i ql nmoll,tJ +B¤trI. ol: q¤ sBlB olt"J
    ^l-.s¤ + 9l ^Iolql^Jq
    712
    Yzl?
    (d) s=E z4l9l H zll! zJzltl Hl¤^llqq fl=71-? (d) (a)91.! HoMo-LUMo olFg qlq^l(kllmol)= 2l4I
    6I^19.
    9.t02 +4+old6utadiene, CaHe)g ¤H E7'lolr., +g+ e
    g +^-+^ aEl aol$ rlA+. (e) EE tr'qlg N-N eEle Hlq *qlE N-N A'Jtr+
    ,J6lAEzL .-Ial4lbzi?
    HrC-CH--CH
    - 1.34A 1.4{iA . CHr
    1.34A oI4 rBg Hr-9 EzI -sBlE 6 6l+olEl.
    9.105

    4 t^ flzl9 ¤d-49

    o
    (a) B^l¤ r4^le. q+61j1,
    (b)
    (c)
    g++E s¤4 +e-E 4 r}^E gC+= 'ri-,rle.
    z|gcll c-c A)= gHi4"J c-c +oJ
    AB Aol(1.48 (D
    aql aol(E+r.s4 A)!-4 *4. ol= TtgEll c-c a
    6Jol oJHI4oJ c-c Bg A.JEEI r}6l+= 9"loJz}, (a) ol $x| gHlBg o Mo"Jzt, z.rvrooJzl? E olaS a
    EdIEIE 9rloJzf? *coJ7I. HlaqlcoJT}?
    (d) (c)9 T}eqlel 5}¤ c-c e'*,Jol=
    Bql O) H,-ql^] p zll$ {z}z} +l Moq ,.ll9lulEz}?
    =Z6Iq,
    ¤EEl + 9lb #44ol$q e* E6t^le. (c) Hz- olg9 aq+ r|4= $ulolzp
    =Cg
    9.103 -E4d6orazine, BaNrHJS se+ N flzlzi iql-e. (d)Hz9 H-H A!l+ ElasJ q, H2 E H-H A+g 4
    =46I g + qg a_otr ql^J.q=7p
    E +fl^I rzlol4. 44E Be+ N g4qlb aJ zl|9 HzI
    eqldhl. 9lr. ol B{+ BE +=ol+. (i) trl d-r. rl zlolQ, (ii) cl zJz El ,J6I4. Gii) q s
    (a) EE gz}9 B^l A6171 ooJ -H-411E Lweis 74E f r El o+614. (,") q ,Jn q "+6[+. (v) p$ z3o1e1-
    ?_l^ls. e+ ^'ll7lol4.
    E.= g^Iq ql"ll gdzl +219 "J+61.= 74E zl*
    ^l+717l-tr-4Lg 4*4
    (b) Lweis e.r06 q^¤. E^fe+ olgE-g ael
    r?.1^19-.
    +g6t^le.
    (c) (u)91.<'l lil +aqll1 flzl-S9 B^l d6l+ +9.
    Lweis =+e-tr
    Hz* Bz, N2*, F2*, Ne2
    ,
    oJTI? Be+ Ng d7l g^JE= nq6IE, olE ¤^l d6l-
    [e.107] rJ¤. rHg Eq olflxf $z[$ Mo= EJE- r]l
    ^l-&q=
    E 4grEtz[. olHzf?
    +7tEa E^lt 425

    E6Jg +EU aolEi. zJ rfloll.! flzf


    +lz} eHlB(9]^J ,tl-$oln rH e.46el EBg qeE, HF ExHl^l H zl]9
    eHlgol reld 4E +ag ql szlb r,ro9 a.+E ec MoE ql+g i flbzl? $) (a)oll,tJ 93 tvto 6 H zl]il
    6}^le. aos49 "g^I sHlBr+ E^I stslBE fltr-"q^.] dzITI i]l+lzl=zl? (c) Hs+ FE 3lel4 g7,I eHlg
    ^Iol
    4l^lE Moe+ ag 9l^J E^lE- g ilolb +E6l g+^l HE rs gulBr} pg zs e
    olluJzl
    ^l-8-61^le.

    ffiil (u) (b)


    I Hlg
    ^|olel ^Jg
    zi¤+ +^lg + 914. Hsl rs eElgS
    F9 2p sElB t zlcl4i.J4 ug rs eHlBrl Fg .{l zfl
    9 zp eulgo1 tlg zl+61+ 4B+ %}""tg s¤6I= rH
    g rE^ls. flzl-Eol z+ql 9l+j1 7la4E, ol¤ zp s_
    "J= f ?lbz}? (d) HFq 7I+
    ul$ol ls sHlB+ A6Jg
    gHI4e reql^], Fel Bg E= flaI eHlBg HFE +
    zl eHlg qlq^l +fl Es.ql^l e+ qlLJzl tleltr ¤-zl"J
    E+. olEe.'Hle6J gulp(nonbonding orbital),olEl. ol A
    (c)
    !-E ol+5}q HFel ollulz,l trEE rela. a6J il+
    gle4g qE Ezl+ iil+lrl dzl +9e+ Hlq 9I: dz} =?l il+qlE
    9.108 E 4l4I6I^ls(HlA,* d^l+ a6J ¤.J9 ?zl e*
    qq^l a4(HoMo-LUMo t4, E4l e.104 er E4). (e) HFel Lewis +=ql^] tsla* dzl+ qqql fl=
    =gq
    e)ol zi4. rll4le..1144o-e, HoMo-LUMo t4ol A 712

    +.JEol B slqlE.H+ rqI "Jg + 9l+. "JE ga! a [e.lll] oJ4]+ +i(co)= Nre] f;{21.,3014.
    cd zlFe+ +4 ae^j 7I+7l. gl+H, olr=. {o1 11 3 (a) 9.+lzl-E "J+d+ co9 Lewis +4E r4^19.
    HoMo_ LUM9 zll g tlzlfllzf? coel MoE rr.l7l 9l6}q rH e.46E E*.E ol¤-g-
    (b)
    9.109 ola $-E(azo dy.)E *rJ9 Lil= ar+ Aol, +.J + 9lEtn z|{oll trz}. eh}q= coel AB al+= g
    ^qg
    + ++ql ^l+El= +71 gEol+. "*g ote g-eE + trtoJ7}?
    "l Bg (a)ollr.J :fl Lewis 74e] +qf6l.9-7}?
    71 5e"J o}4{7$(azobenzene, Cr2Hr0N2)9 +EAlol (c)dE4".a coE 7I4'+g qlq^le.l dzlE oB9
    +. +^I6J +ag Eeg dlolE+a{d(hydrazobenzene, MOq qEl= aol .JeJeEl. ol ++ ar+b rH e.46
    Cr2Hr2Nrolr+. ol F EeE Lewis 74i +94 A4(HI ql +El6IEzf? r+zl *+8, Es.E EJE7I fl6}oi
    tl +3E zJEI+ s¤g tzlal.4). qtr +col gea;!z|! olEl+ +ae fH e.43r+ qtr

    ti:N
    ot^.E!tl
    O @11O
    6tolEa[6Eld!
    *tsol glEz}?
    (d) cog zr2p MoE ce+ o gztel flzf gElgol 5+6I
    ,,ll zlq++j1 ql+61+7|? r+^l ?*48, rl t*ol zl
    q6I= gxlb qe aqlT}?
    (a) 4 E4qlr'l N g^IE eCcl+ F9..Jz[? e.tt2 :fl e.r09 .llHzl 391 E-EE 6J a6}9 p e-ulBol +Eo
    (b) 4 geql^l N+ c gzlE Hled+ g^I sElBg H -e 644^l EJ=5 zro35r1- Hle*Cql ql%I6I= F zl]g
    7HoJ7l? tszl sulBg +ElU+. ollp{l(ethytene)"1l,rl F Tl]el +
    (c) 4 Ea"llrl N_N_c 4¤: ql+6t^le-. gz} ,1 eulgql= 6J 7]]q dzlntol gI4.
    ^lolel AEl
    ^4B+ +t}q
    (d) ,
    oI4HIClg 6}0lE+4HIdlE4 dzl-E rJ El¤xflp+ $z.lg g4a1E A6J 4^16 t zllE o,pgl
    o'JE+. (a)4 G)9 $$ zl++ 6Iq olE bg6l
    oJtrliz rJ zrlp EzI sHlge dol^la + qEI.
    (a) olela3 {z} {olz} HoMo_LUMo tolr+E. qBdql
    ^lg.
    (e)ofa{{$ EE g^}E ag ¤Hql 6tolE4
    glzlEJ, HoMO= Ft"JzI?
    ^lE
    4Hldlg A ? E r*zl ?t4. ol (d)ql^J bE'* (b) olelaj az} dolTl-HoMo_LUMo dol4B. qlBHl
    ^l-dg ql^lE LUMob Fg.Jzl-?
    4*4 Pel9bzt?
    (0 oI=HIdg ,J,t Bg e{zlr!olz1u3, 6}0lE4a{dl (c) EE ALEllq^lE c-c A+ol BLq *4ql^19 c-c
    e ,lE r4ol s4. qE Eeol EI"J qlq^l H+ +al A*Hq +6lAZ7l?
    ql
    ^l-8-6|7lq
    q +e7l? ("sHl$r+ qlqzl" +=) (d) c-c el}ol EE: ar-4e+ HIEI ^JEH 6 qL tLEIql^l
    [e.r10] (a) +^ g^|e] ¤+sfl flzf9 alg4 gz] sulgq]g Fl=qrl d&zl?
    426 9a| E^tsl Tldl+^el olE
    =--J

    EEJ OJ+ +4I


    9.1 13 2.to/o9 H, 2e.8%o9 N, 68.1%o9 O.tr. +dE qtr sl6JE g #E qq4b g"I.Jzl?
    rll $erJ
    ol ql+ s0 g/mol9 Ee+g r*=4. (d) c-c z ¤El9 #n olCe dtl9 9gzlE EJI gs+
    (a) ol +ilEE Ezl4g F9."JzI? +EJ qqzl9 *xl-E zll="*+ 9l= P9 zlar zJ uI
    (b) Hzf oql eq}ala 9148, Lewis +4= qETI? ,atg g"I.Jzl?
    (c) E^l,e] zla| fai
    +9.ql7}? (e)(d)9 Bq^l 4+g {z}zl x4eeq ,t^l".}d gq
    (d) N +l^I ++lel eHlB gCEl+ Fq,.JzI? oJTf? ol ar+E +etg .Jael
    ^l4n+
    +fl6}q t+
    (e) ol $zlollE o ¤ii4 z. BBol H zll 9lEzI? 6f^19.

    9.1t4 sFrE oz4 aa6l HI+4q r++ #B "*zl *= Hl*ql q 9.1t7 (a)tsA-ts^ E.J, ol+, $+ aEJE 4g ql$ul(e s.:)
    4osrng E54. E Eli6ll^.]. zr Etl9 B+ SIB{ zlqEE fi i6}^ls.
    SF4(g) +oz@)-oSFa(s) tg dq}ol ol oJql Tlqd+ Hl.gS gE}oJ7}? (b) N-N
    osF4E o gxle| +zl9 r flzlb 6c szl s.ll eil+4. a*q qlql ulfoJ ulr$ 6.I^le. +99 g f 9lEzI?
    (a)ol HJ+^lg sa6}^le_. (c) N2Ha, N2H2, N2E Lewis 74E r?'ln, 4?-+9 A+ql

    ^l e^ +9lel
    (b) E.E flz}9 Bal d6I7IooJ osF4e] Lewis 74E -r"4 scpl¤ aa6l-^ls. (d) (a)4 G)el er+
    gld zI^J ilolde] olffi xllrlalr.le.
    ^lg. =
    (c) ¤t a'* elBEl(s. 8.3)E ol+6}q ol HI*gl ++ { 9.1 l8 HI4l(c6HJq Szlc} HI*ql gs.J AHE 4l&6171 9l6lq
    gqE qlt[6]^1.e. ol H]¤+ gg.J7], Bg.J7]? ¤+ eql $Esl(*. 8.3)E ^l¤:6}^le.
    (d) osF4E dx} ¤99 zlol *4E eA6lr, dz} gEq coHek)-6c(s) +6H(g)
    zlol Tagl zlat 7I+.6J F zll9 +z}el 716| +4= AH/ Hess Bzl9 Eqd <tr+ ol <lg El
    ;r,tl9. ^lBel ^l-8-6}q
    j7.61^19. + atol z4 +E ol+7}+Eol+n
    ^J46I=rI?
    (e) (d)ql,rl 4l^lt + Tllel +=ql^], 44 a tllq pzl 4 [e.l le] r*9 dol ++ g^ sHlEe ++ g^t zldzl.J
    E HJ6J+ + q:7I? ^[o]ql
    "J6*ql aElg ztzlr. 9l+. z+ol -o4-*4 eE-+ol+j1 ztA
    9.1l5 Px3el x-P-x Aql4g EI-S4 eol E+tr}. Eltrx}.
    PF3 96.3". PCl3 100.3". PBr: 101.0', PI3 102.0' (a) 9L 3d eHlB(rB 6.8)0l ++ g^I rtol9 o ?d.9
    ol A6J^Je trF Ee4l flz}9 dzl gdEql 7l"J+trf. Ejl+ ?lE7I?
    "JEL ^]-&g
    (a).5r8 AzI ¤qel a7l7l7Jr+a- 7|C6IH, vsEPR -EB (b) oaaE*rI oja *a.t}C Mo= r;.]^le.
    ee ql+Elb x-P-x 49 gtrIoJTI? (c) eulgq +ltr(phase)oll 4t +os4q ¤Bg +n6l-q,
    (b) 6Jtr4jE dzl ¤.Ce 6rlql qe x-p-x 4e qH old MOql oiufsl ulrlz| 4 ^dzlEul ¤E6t^19-.
    .J+zlt a6JCg 444Ezf? (d) (a)9 3d 9-ElBnJol+9_6f+r. z|{a}n, screl ollrlzl
    (c)vSEPR EBg ol+6}q xE d7l +dEql qE 69.1 s.$E f.E^le-.
    x-p-x 4fl ++g AEJ¤. ¤B6I^le- (e) Scz9 4{} x14Y tsu}oJz}?
    (d) (c)9 Bql 7l:a6il^1, pBrCla9 +aE ql+61^ls.
    9.120 El+. +71 B^}.= Aq4¤E s^l4q q-$z| r=lz| {{}
    [e.1l6l 2-+Hl(C4HJg,t l r- - F {r-. ol.${ fl,}ol e-fa gdE zl qq fl+ Hldl +Ealol4.
    6i +aq Eclz} .J9kl4.
    CHs
    '"\ C:C ,/H LIE=JEI
    ,/\ tea1,51 EllEat{l
    H CHs (a)HId4 olE +6JEel de^19 AA6I^le.
    ^-I
    Eil^-2-+E! (b) ol +tlE 6 6I+7I +qdqE, fl^ E4g F6ll
    ^1.^-2-+E!
    "^l4el p+ql"q^J aE+ HIe+ zJol. olelaf, H+= Hql 7l^1 + qtr 4qlzl qdd "J f 9lbzt?
    ^ll

    E6Iq +B¤ + 9lsq. .JrJg ^l4ql+sdl-trI. (c)¤"J9 +Ce.J +ggfle g4 r8l"l4. L+sg¤lol
    (a) z-PHl9 + +C +4 gzlE g^JsI= +9,"J7I? flc6iq cor(s)e+ H2o(s)-tr q= ++g SA6l^le.
    (b) ol^de ¤tLe +c c-c E.JE plaql 9.ll gq\++. (d) Llegqlel Lewis fte] -s. 8.4q1 flE Bt a6J qlg
    tfl s.zs= +j161-q, F +d +4 gz} ^IolE ,,7 a6J llE ol+6}q LlsBfll$ tsAEkt/mol)g ql+6f^le.
    ol /'.-2-+Hlql^i Eil^-2-+Hjee eld6]} +Aql
    ^l
    (e) Hld, +sgd, ?]EqClg fl{olzlu.l, ql=4tlg s
    d u+q EIE ol.$$ .$$olr.le. ql^l4ol+. olag ol E^lE dlql4.J HoMo-LUMo
    (c)¤t aq]. elBqE 7l+e 6J ql(s. 8.3), c-c z.d,* qlLlzl ilolql^] +Eg 9El6}=zf? (eHlB4 qLl
    ,= =0, =rlt
    427

    7]|" +4) (e) M4 ce.l e-tslg oel. rr qB ++9 AE.


    ^Iolql+ =l91
    e.t2t HIa'JC BzI sElgg 6J Bzlql^J += gzte+ a6J6l-= ol ffiolzlizfr
    ql qlE 5E ++ g^l"b 4"J* d sHlE (0 cozl EEoE 9lg Elle+ tsli6]l^1, M-co +qlillE
    ^l-sg + 9l+.
    g co Bzlq ,,rp e_Elg4 +eg + flrt. oll co A6'Jq
    ^tl7l7l
    qB4l Sxl gl+a|.rle.
    ^l.s.6Iq
    3 d-z' I ?6J(backbonding) o -e. Efl trI. 9.r22 les4LJql oJ-=.9 rhopalql gl= zJ+ Edrql^l olol4^Iol
    (a)y4$ +4sE, x+¤ +¤ oE 6l+ alsE rr,l^le-. 9I& EIE(cu:NCo)ol +=qq 3,800801 +r +a Bol
    gdql ++ g4¤ E^lq+'M¤ lrzl ola c 4+ t}5llE .J fl+.
    zJ
    '/A^le.
    (b) olSl Mq e-E+ x49l EaE M +.9-s 6l.b CoE (a) ol EztE Lewis 7.4.E rq^19.
    Lewis 73E.f4^19. Co p$4o1x491 ?lolohf,4. (b) ol p+ElEq EE ql+ eql4+ +41 +-"+4 Eeg
    (c) ¤,0l ¤Eql 9ltlg ztzl= co zto _e_u1gg rEl^le. rq^19.
    F zl]9 EsE Mg alo]lot.J4. (c)ol szlel E= eql zlol$ {lfa}r.le.
    (d) olxll 9l^J+ 6Jzll M9 d*y sElgg rel^ls. olEol (d) of $zlz| 4+zI E_HIEE 714 4o tr ql^Jqbz}? ¤
    coq rrtp sHlB4 qBal6al6l-=^l trolE7p B6I^le.

    T6J ¤4I +4I


    ol Tql^J= tsz}9 2,419 ul¤zflslc+ EzI eElgr+ a3 4E dolql Ed]] ^J44.
    unoccupied molecular orbital, LUMO).tr.$
    + 4'J# gqB9i+. ul¤zll¤ rAlE zlzly +zlE + HoMoel LUMOq qlLlzl ifolb z-419 ,Jolgl 9¤e}+a zI
    ^qg
    Er4= +71 $.E(organic dy") E"FE olE zH'JE9 S*Cg A+4. ol 714¤ 4+i;l7l +16ll ffi$ ${gol ^lee +qA
    ^ll+oJ+.
    43 dzlzi 5ln d+.Bxt gElB (highest occupied 4-1. zltoll u-z}.
    molecular orbital, HOMO)ql^l Slxl tsld+ +xl lulp(lowest

    HH
    tt
    H-.-azc-'-a zC'- H !E= 37lE^tel Z-\/
    tl
    HH
    7tEt6l EAo=-!
    +EftrlolUoutadiene)

    Z'\/-V
    dl,'.f E efoIUhexatriene)

    B-7ltrEJ(B-carotene)

    B-7fEHg B=E Etg 9-H]^l4g L+Eq= f a EeolE+. E (c) {zl,t1 zllts¤ zl|HS trl
    dE ilAl4+t;l7l+lali 9tr Ez}
    'il olb + qlq^l ellHg(rettnal, "^l4el EIE +3)g Eol+7|zlo+ $ea|fliz|!
    ^Jc6l
    7l flllJ ¤o}iol{. (d) Eal4o14, ¤{}9 ¤zll4 Ag +^19 olq4, Hl
    =.Col
    Ezl-5ol HoMoql^l LUMo.e d+= dol6l+ ql g
    (a) ol5 =!1|6'J Ezl]¤ z.4lzl 71,^l+rd gqql^l .JqLI= d^I
    e* qH dEg r..JB + ^EEHE
    dolq 6s+zlE ac6l7l 916l qq+ d¤g r9l6}d=
    "tlHxl9 "Fg AC6l7l +lqi 9t
    Y7l? zI? (fle: qrlq S= += B4# A+4 g ¤sz} 119
    (b) 2.219 gole+ dol ollrjzl .r.;o19 +417| +zll6lb4= a4 4o14.)
    617l +.l"ll EJlolElE l4 o e qB4 E¤6I4E7I?
    I

    I
    -a

    I I

    I
    ffi

    tt

    t!

    t 7r
    10.1 > 7lille.l=¤ Tlill a+9 CAg "lxllel
    nillel cd4 Eljrdll tsEl.

    10.2 > ga; zlijl "JqE +a "JHr+ s7l +


    $ql q6l-q oJo}trn, zl+E 47lel
    r .Jqql 116I jlel.ll BtrI.
    10.3 > Tlill H=.1 7li]lel ^}4= +q, "Jq,
    gE, oJ5oEEdg+gl+9"Jn,
    '-] H+5,J9 ¤egElEr+.
    ,}] +Al^lql 4%+
    6I= qBl B4g 'l!l
    10.4 > 018 7li1l^.1 ol^J 7l4l^l PV-nRr¤
    +E6Ir. ^I+6JEI. ¤41 7l^ll= ol ^l
    g A+61 qezl= g*zl"J, 'I+Eq
    Q.E Eb 0lH +qi Hmi= otrq-d7t? otal--J sr toit rttei ¤E zl;lli BF9 gEe+ sqq^l ol
    ^19
    +al7l 0H"J olE *E9 dEj-g zsoltp EE EE olLlal ts+=01 ull$ l,rfalzll trlE+.
    = ^]EE ^tl
    ufloft ffi514L|. ol+Eol -Bttr= dEjts ntlollE E EEE +Zl EJtl. tH7l80ll
    10.5 > olcl7lill^lel+7t4?l39 ol{ zlill
    7l^il= +tr N2el02 E^|.e 0l+ol^1 fleq, EtlsBoll el6ll TlEqq
    =x|15l.= %r-¤^lg zlx-ll$ EIEL] Ea=+E 4lt}
    gr+ilollel6H tl'g:d g:do.tr 0lE6|.q HlaJg geTlZlEltt.
    Fr+ Ag +rt4t 4l4}ql ++.JEl.

    10.6 > 7tilt EA=4 +E gal Tlill sqlEql


    Hlgr, +++, +iE, ¤'el B4= zlillg 4E"r+ "Jd+ Sflol 9l
    Hl ,:4E 7l4lzl- dx-il "Jqql rI6H^J
    ^l
    4. at9 szlql ^ll^lg EqlolE= *g rEql^l
    ol q-^"d + rg 'J+ql 4Bq= Sqg zl4l+E
    g ol6fl6ljl ++++. ? E .Jqg^I¤ r
    zls|, zp. ae* +7]171+Hil4l E uil g^Jg+. Ar+E g^Jq r TlallTI ge zfAtr ql r
    =zlldJElil
    TIql^l: ol4.
    E}H.E +E= s00 r<mgl olez]l 94. 7l i,llql "JH
    = ol ^l+
    tlq^l= Tlills.l Eel4.J CAE, + qlzloJol *9qlzl, .JH 10.7 7li1l Erl 8=E B^l +=q 7lillg
    rI gEe-l Ee+tr TlillEol qB4l EI¤-6[ZI q=zl, tsz] +gq^l 4Er+ rl^llE 4^14"J ceg g+^l
    gE= qE 9"lzt 9l=zl .Fql qldl^J rt+rll ¤4. zlzlli Eeol q E+. ol olgql qeH. TliI= +C
    6I= gztq +^L==g TlallE gEql ul
    714.71* +++ tr4olzl trllEql, gz| E: EzlE +d¤ ,lql{} ql6|= B+ SE {luJzl$ r*ii #"Jt
    d.Jill! 4f,$ olallolzl +lql Tlalql qloj o1o1lz| ef ol g{.rla}zll+4qlq.
    ¤tr+. .l++el =gAeE7l^ll9 4Eg g;aj zlill
    aaqldel
    ^I¤ ol*4q"JHI4"J gErlctti zl^ll9 E=4 +^I
    Es+ql q4 d
    10.8 > Ertol
    EzI E,¤g ¤H6J + 9l+. +4= g ql+6171 f.l6}] 7l'I EzI g+Eg
    ^49
    4\ zlAlzl olt}4"J E¤rI qtr +E 45¤ Hol=71-= ull$etr ol+6Jr+.
    ,il trrl C+4"J CtrE gg + glrll g+. +4= E= a"+E
    = ull $"lzl} +84 10.9 > trll Tliil: ol84 TiEoll^1 Hq'J d
    Tlill$ p+ol+ql {l+$,ol Eg6[al {46]fl9 xll zlill E^t= .JA+ +v.l= 7f^llt
    .J ol+6}q ts4¤9 Eel4 CeE +s* ol6ll6J + 9l-rt g^l oJqol trll
    =Cg =Cg ^Iolql =z11617l 6I
    9ir'll gtrt. Eql, "l^J zl^]ql^l B.q\l Z¤¤
    r glgg olull6J4. vanderWaals 4J
    e +e.Jqr+ *g g_E aaql^-l d
    xll zlillg !f,$ Aq6I4l ¤EaJtrt.

    < EL1l0lsts 4E6l'Xl qld6l'b 7l5oe.?Jrll7l Egg +B0l


    oltl. trL1lolEts 3 kmoil oleB =8
    =7le.lBtaJol4E= ,(l+ s00 kmoll olErL
    ^leol
    (0 EmiliaUngur/Shutterstock

    429
    10.1 I Tl"llel fttd
    trFE gEe+ 'Jqq^J zlxllE 4. zlzl g] +ql^l He, Ne, Ar, Kr, xets tflz]
    zlz.floll, Hz, Nz, oz, Fz, Cl, f,$ =46[=
    olflz}
    zlz1lo14. B3 tszI s+.JEg zlz1o1r1. E 10.1
    ql ol= 6 "JPzI +eqq fl4. ol zl4lEg E+ Hl++ gatr +C¤ ag ++6tr+. E
    oJol=e EF Z+oJ Ezl!4 rql q= z+e ge+g ,*=+.
    tr5. tr-qq^J .-qi]le+ r4l-+. EeE, gH}4e-e zlzll $QlE + gtr}.
    =46l+
    ol4g gol f;z!(vapor)42 t+. ql= Eq EA H2o= .-qill.J =4]6J
    E, rAl.J 99, zlill.J
    ;i,zle-
    =4lo.Jt}. ,ll+
    ¤4 zl;ll EeSol +E +EI4 ceg zlzla_ ?lzl"J, Eq4 cdql +EI +,ll+
    +^IoJ 4t¤ _H..J+. q= Eq 4zl9 .J eeo/oz zlz16l+ Nzq ozE A4 +E slo}4 C

    42 7l^la- fl=ql(+ zlzl ^IoldEJg .Hzlal{ ozE oJt ^JHg +z.16il +zl"J, NzE :
    Bxl t*4), +7lE ol + C+g E44 Cdol Ed4 o a ztzl q+ql EE4 oE= ZE
    dI+E 7l^llzlB |filtrI.
    7lillg Eqzl CAe rlzll "l E^lle+ rAl qs+. ql$ Eq 7l^ll= z[${e-tr S+6}q
    8zl5 ill++. a44ee, TlillE +!l= 7l4l7l Eq 9l= .szl9 +qe} zJ4. zlillE .J
    +col Ell+ r+. El4^J ,l^llql .Jqg 7r6IH 7l^llE +rl= aA.JtrL ElHql rille+._4
    ill= S+6ll^l SzlE illfzl fap., drll .J+g + flr+.
    E oltle] 7145e ctsol4 tqzl.J Hlgr+
    ^J*$,ol +"J
    g6J+g Bcq]+. Ell
    =4
    tltlzlzt +e ql +el 6l.'+0l+. E olt}el Eills E= r.illE=g rEE El44 deql q
    + +"J ¤C6I7IE. 6}jz, rBzl 9+g +E 914. ql= EE E4 7l¤fl9 4l-9-E
    =6JE-g
    + E^ll= +49 +9-E tsoI flz.ll 94. olelE qa4 oE, .-qill 9lql #zl*
    =7I]6[=
    7l+fl *zl+. +"J6J Tlal gdJE-3 ¤C6J+.
    zl;ll $z|-! .tle. 94 Eq4 9lq^1, Tlillq +56J 5^d(qt}6}q SzlE qI il+r, E}l
    S "J+Col +sq, +"J e*+g eC.J+)g ,*=+. qE 5q .J{'J +ylel *?1E 4
    +, Tlill Exl+ dill +rl9 aI o.rozoE zlz16}r ill, 4"lzlE Hl +rJol+. trI?+^l 4 E
    zl-= Ell++ +E E{Sol S= ailfl 4rE"o.J+. er+4str ¤el zlilli
    ^Jil +s E{¤

    .s.10.1 tgql^1 7l^iloJ E 7t^lE}EE


    Exl.Al 0l= E1{
    =ci
    HCN
    ^Io
    I
    oJ3Il f t(hydrogen cyanide) ull$ ffi, +/lE otEE Ld^H

    HzS nls] iiftydrogen sulfide) ql+ +5. 4g gA H^ll


    CO "J&EI Ba(carbon monoxide) +c. +^q. +a
    CO: o14lF] $i(carbon dioxide) +^4.+e
    CH+ EllHloJ(methane) +4, +4, ,IgC
    CzHc 9lE{](ethylene) +^4, r+.J +^.j
    C:Hs E-E !lol(propane) +^q, +4, H9l BzJ zli{
    Nzo 41q- o|{A(nitrous oxide) +^4, +9t, *9 zI^
    Noz ol4iE| {f (nitrogen dioxide) +d, 4a^q, z]+c d^ll
    NH: ojeulo[(ammonia) +^4, + e= ts^ll
    Soz ol 4lo] $(sulfur dioxide) +^q. zl+c B^ll

    430
    10.2 I g+ 431

    e +cqq 9lq?+E Hl+6l.7ll 4F+rI

    xllE(xe)= )18 +712 EE-sr Hlg¤ 7l^]|-", EEeJol 131 g/mol0ltl, tr 10.1011 LIEEJ

    7lill= 6 Xe.EriEEaJol tj 7l^11=?


    =

    10.2 I o#J
    Tlill +^l-=rag +e^J6}rll ¤"4o14
    ^Js
    aql E= +7lE qql +E6lrll g+. *zl9 Hgl
    +E=6tE^l g^J6I= +49 qg EtA+ss "Jqql= ES zia}|l ¤4. ?lH(pressure, p)
    2 t1At,tl zIf, E](F)g flol zlall{ EEfl H4A)ee +.i &e-E A9g+.
    p:F [10.1]
    A
    Tlill= d+61+ 5.E EEql 'Jqg 7F;lAl g+. qlE ++ +d +E zlal= +dE
    L}]+ sEq %Iqg zlaJtrI.
    =q
    trt|7loJzl.#J4l
    ai,L!, ei Ezl-E=g E+ zl+E +csE ztzl= c"J +qg Bl ql4. ql=
    ,r.].gr,

    n?{ol ++q^J Eqe 41 zleo6}t +qql e-l6ll +lzl qlqzlT} ++ qlqzltr Eir}E_lH =q
    zl+E 6}6ll Bqzl= +E= dd B4zlzll ¤4 <re (r +¤). 4zl ?9 zlxll flz[ e]
    ^l
    +7tE ul-{z}zlE, +q 7l+Eq g6}9 tsE+. 6}zl"J 4zlE +¤6}= oJ4-==g a7l7l
    Ell+ 4Ie--E.tr ¤9lHzl9l el6.J uHlE g4g(+F qlqrl)ol +qg ++Els_ErAl zlf EE
    .ll +4921 *=tr}. rflqlE +qol zleo6|¤ 4zl zgzllzl z]*.tr91 "Jqg ztoJs-eltJ t
    +l E4q1 T16llzl= 4zl9 E o + {E!= QlzJoJ(atmospheric pressure)¤ BC.J4.
    Ezg gol'+ a*gtrE Bg + 9l= Hl E+^q Hss 4zl.Jg +B6l] BoJ
    =4=
    + 9l+. El H E+= BolEolE $ol 5-94 o-e 4rq^l= ¤t}g E + 914 g+. olB
    7ll
    "J= ++4.J d+ ^JEHE rll46tE, He +^l 94 ^Jqtr
    q5otJ+. E 4P9 *zl
    E Bol-=olH E ql+e-l +71 tszl-= qq, ¤q= +71 E4¤q 96ll BE LI+
    =q=4
    ql^l Hla+oe "Jq4:6Jtr4 4zl 69 $zl $2ffi-ol Bel el+ql^] 716l+.6Jol azl
    ,l ql$ql $$ al:.elzlrI gtrt.
    4zl.J9 a7)Y al to.t9 ol+6}q 4ltg+ 9+. .Jel$ E{q el6ll Ttdlzl= El(F)g
    4*@)4 zllE(a)E =" d (leE F : maol4. zl+9 +q q Eq1 zl-*Egl 9l= Eillql
    ?{zlE 7l+E gE s.a m/s2o111. q+^J 4zl9l el6ll^l zl+ sHql zlull4: +q 1m 1m
    ('llrl9 e"d=)g F:msE Ll4'J + 91tr1.
    olzll zgzlf 4zlflg +E6I=, tH4ol r m2Ql *71 7\# tl^J6ll Bxt(ral 10.1).
    ol zlFg Eilq 10,000 kg9 d*9 r*=+. ol TlEql E6ll ot4 H-6Je-E zlo1lz15 8)l7lz
    EE4 1m2,

    +qe qg4 a+. E=J tOa t<g

    p : (10,000kg)(9.8m/s2) : 1 x 10skg-m/s2 : 1 x LOsN


    qzl^J Ng 6Jel SI ++l'J hB(newton)g EzlE, I N:1kg-m/s2olu|.
    ol zlFql .e-16]l 716114= Sqe, Elg Elol zr+q-= *E4G)ge +k Aol+.
    ol +zl T]*lE +E4e t m2oloE, 611+Eq1^lE 4zl.J3 q+r+ g+. E|lTlg
    ^lsEel
    tojN
    - A-:t Ilm- : 1 x 10sN/m2 : 1 x 10spa : r x tgzkpa
    ', :F
    'JqE sI t9l* rlAil(pascal, Pa)tr, Sqg g+iRE o=J^ 44zloJ stuise arH 10.1 rllTlgelzltl
    432 108 7l^ll

    Pascal(t62:-1662)E olE¤ E 1ol4(t Pa: 1 N/m2). olp} +fl¤ 'JqE ++l= ui(bar)
    olr{(t bar:10s Pa:tos N/m2). tt}at^l *ql^l 4lt}6J 6fl+E.ll^-lel {zlS.J 100 kPag
    1 barE El'g + 9l+("JC zldql^lel drJl qlTl"Jg zla zzSal l.Eql 44 B?+tl+).
    g}qg E +E +9le zll+.JzlB 4g=(psi, lbs/in.2)=,tl-$alzlE .J+. 6H+Hql^JE
    'll
    7l"Jg 14.7 psiolQ.

    (4 qalEel Dlal 9l+el E40l 25 cm x25 cmaE 7t¤6tl E^t. +EJel Col !-lal Pl
    =
    Eh=;r "^)=71? b)E401 100 in.2afE, trl8E"la='Jxl ElET;.oJ)l?
    =

    "*3 4elzl.e} delzl¤g 4zlE *A\zl S,+i1 Efl+. Galileo9 qttolflH


    17^il71q
    Evangelista Torricelli(1608-t647)i olaol Tlrl'Jg +BdlfltrI. ai 760 mm-H-rJ zJ f
    ,l+9 ++ ¤g "+oI +goe 7l+ il]g s, f30l 5q fl= r*ql A+E q]+
    ^ll+l(s
    tr_lzlzl5q7|zl ?tE+ +el"llo}.J+) "JE zloJ4l(barometer)E BBaIg4(=aJ 10.2).
    ol 7l.J4l: +?]+g r* .Jql^l 4+e trll, "JB f¤:ol + +r-e.e s44szl"J i
    ^Jlg
    I zlFS +.Jql r4.e ts:+. rorricellit r*E i9 EEg zl+ 4zlql 9EI eg g
    I El 91i1, +qql el"]] +g T]FE ot4 $l6J.e--E 716|]zl=.Jqr+ +?.1+ utg9 4zl
    "Jol
    zJota rllzlzl 199 fle "Jq gflqr +t}6}fl+. tr+4^l f9 zlE9 tol(,,)=
    4zl"J9 4EolL, 4zl.J9 H4q q+ H6t4l ¤4.
    6ll+Hql^19 dBzl.J "Jqql 6llB6I: sE rllTlei(standard atmospheric pressure)$
    760 mm +olel i3 zl# zlzl4Tlql ?E6J "J4ol4. ol Sqg SI B9lE t.0l32s x
    ros paol4. g= rllTl"Jg 7l^Jl "Jqg szlolzlfl6lq E[7lg(atmosphere, atm)$ "J4ul
    rl i$(millimeter of mercury, mm Hg) Fr+ gg 4. zlzl El SI ++lE B¤499
    ^l=&'*
    4. Fzl9 +flE Torricelli9 ols$ r1,t] ee(torr)4-zE oJ+. 1 torr: 1 mm Hgol+. trl-
    +^l ^.iB6l"= +Ul\e 4+4 e+.
    latm: 760.mmHg:76o.torr: 1.01325 x 10sPa: 101.325kPa: 1.01325bar
    ol tI A^Jql 44 t)z)\ Sqg 94 ztxl ++lE s¤6J 4o14. EI+^J qqEe.Jqg.J
    ++lE+q trI= ++lE A++61= Ell q+6l]4ot ++.

    A 745 torr9 "JHE (a)mm Hg. (b) atm. (c) kPa, (d) bar9 g+ 'Jfle Hl+119.

    r.llTloJol +3 TlEol E0l(h)E olg4l El ETl?


    =7i6l"E Il?

    -]-
    10

    r|1717[+= xEoll
    7l6t= g=

    h
    ..r-
    lO alE^l
    /l6vl rc
    O

    x.Eoll 7[6lE "JaJ

    a.fH 't0.2 +e Tlgrzl


    10.2 gf+ 433

    qHl 10.1
    s+laP$al-zl

    611+Eel r|lTloJol e8 kpag n}|, at++71- #d sr.o m olatloll gltl-E trr++ollzl 7f6H^l= salS kPa E+ltr gEloJTl-?(E. Eel "J
    -Ets 1.00 9/cm3: 1.00x 103 kg/m3, 6al 7[-Ets 9.81 m/s2, 1 Pa: 1 kg/m-s201r1.)

    S}lff P : dhg: (1.00 x to3tg/rrf)(3t.on1)(9.81,yr11s2)


    Eq +q{1 4zl'J(sa kP")4 +C(31.0 m)ollr]9 'Jq 4l^} : 3.oo x los
    k8=
    : 3.oo x los Pa

    "l s+g+.
    m-sz
    ol qq. t++ql .Jqe
    Ilel A++qlZl A"1]zl= dill oJqg 4zl"J4 +"JE tlr+ a6Hal= dal
    a+. +'Je 4 to. t (p : r/a;$ ol-4" a|{ +g + 9t+. Eql Ptotut : 98kPa + 300kPa : 398kPa

    Etll^l *++q4l +q1= il(F)g +qql 9.J zI^-Es+ e olq, olag 3.e4 atm9l 4'J6J4.
    *9 +(r: mg)et +48 + 9isq, s:e.81 m/s291 dl'J F H.6 o4lr{11

    t4. "J.J
    e-l+ gqol lOt kpaolr, +¤¤ ql{6tq E(d:1.00
    Eol Eql E+'Jqe r+s-4 a+. g/cm3)g Tl"Jalel zl5 +ol= g"t"l4tszt?
    ^F&$fl+{
    m (b) 0.760 m
    ,: T:T (a) 0.0ss8
    (d) 10.3m (e) 0.103m
    (c) 1.03 x 104 m

    EE e"*g "JE(d: mlvolss m:dx y)e+ +fl"I 9l > -E5 qlrJl2


    4. Eg zlfeg g + 9leq, +q= *844 +ol9 * aE3 +sH+ EA k3 9s.q1.q +Aqq H3 9r
    (v = A x h)+ +Ll. 4*@ : d x v)\ +irl(y:A x /,)= ql o-qalE ullE9l, lg9l
    Hgl(:o-zzo4 "c)oll.!
    g6ltr +g_4 aol s¤g + gl+. zl$lle zle6J =4]6lzlg
    ,r-l
    ^l¤-6}7lql
    +4le + flq. "JE
    - ms dVs d(Ah)g :ans
    P: dqa:6.0 s/cm39 AEol 7l"J4l9 +als
    ^FSqi E+
    A: A: r o3qol r.s x toa paol4{, T]FE tol= $EITIflA5zl?
    SI O}g 4E6l.H

    ee fl= 7l^llE E-qg +a6F= qlql= +.J"J 717]|* g+. ql= Eq 4olol 4l
    ^l-&6Fll
    zlsoi]. E= zld4 4o199 +rl "Jqg +46171 +16ll zls
    =7ly ^l-&g+. dEd"llrlb
    ,llE Hl+6J 4IE g4E zlzl{ {lxll 10.2q1 $Elfll(manometer)4t: t}zl= ^l-S.J+.
    ^ll^lE
    qFjl 10.2
    oJEl4lE olg6J 71r.il
    EaJ +{
    olt- 'J. d-ddel TlJAlTl tHTlgl01 764.7 torr$Z LlElLHn 9l+. 7li1l E443
    ^|E= ,\l.E6l.q
    oil ill?z -d+ E0l gzJ +p "JaJ/|oil uxx[flr[(.].H 10.3). rlEl Eglel Put*
    ^1.=
    U^l3Jq F =Jel +3 ts01= +d6l- tl. EaJ E +0ll^19 += Eolts 136.4 mmHI, E
    al^3 ?Jq 7li1le[ tr+6hr.9l= =Joll^1el +01= 103.8 mmfltl. Ltl+oll ?t= GPI E
    =-J E
    =al^-=.
    7l^llel "J+3 (a)atm Efle, (b)kPa EPltr gEl-E7l-?

    nllff
    Hq "JqalE + gE f g +ol7| +q47,
    qlzl"J(764.7 torr)al
    =E|^r 'JE
    7lzll .Jqg +6}= Ezllol+. ol {Eq^l igE +ol= "J4"lel ++]tr +c6}a
    136.4 mm

    9l¤¤ f+614. ¤+^r +ql 9l= gq^lE +e gol(r0r.8 mm)z| rllzl $-9.E
    ,*F-
    rl I

    gfl gql^.lel kol(136.4 mm)-H-Q *.9-t:B, ¤+^f 49 zl;ll o3elol rllzloJ-E- 86 =Put* *Pn
    4 +¤¤ g. + 914. r.I4^l +9 TlallTI d+g gtr+El 4
    =4^a
    z1 4g e_ gfl g *olo + +s-g "Jq.Irll ¤4.
    =41re+ arB 10.3 +e "JeZl
    494 10A| 7t^lt

    n|El+ gql^lE tolZ|(rB 10.3E h)= ol+4q 4zl"JS ^l-S617l


    trI$q, tolil-E+El u]-e zlxllc+ 4zl.J9 .JEzI
    ar+61+ zlzll .JH9 .J¤. +++. ,*+ ¤ol g{ "Jqzl= E mm Hg Ei torr E?l-E +Cg + 914.

    Evl Pr61: Pu1^ +h


    : torr + (136.4 ton - torr)
    (a) zli.ff el "JHg 4zl.Jql h= tr1,il 4+ ?Jtr+. 764.7 103.8
    :797.3ton

    zl^ll9 "J49 atm El9-tr ++&tl+. P,a: (7e73wrrl(r:#) : 1.o4eatm

    (b)'Jqg kPa.tr falzl ?la}¤ atm4 kpa z.Iol9 ++ .J 1..O4s atrlr


    101'3 kPa) : 106.3 kPa
    zl-= \ 1atfi /
    ^l-s*+.
    AE al+g "Jqg E 101 kpaE l atm-H.c| a+ El t+. HEiq tr+Hol "J461+.)
    olaol EIBd ol.g! gz|^=- 4+E oJqol qTloJ(764.7 (a) a9.0 mm (b) 95.6 mm (d Aa.6 mm (d) 120.1 mm
    torr:1.01atm)-H.u]. aqs ql+6t*71 ullEol4.
    > in= qlrll2
    =
    >E=qt&1 ¤+^3 4*9 zl^ll oJqol +7t6}jr. gfl ¤+Eql^l$
    919 qzll.ilrl ++^r 4P9 zldlzl B4qq f oJqol zlf$ $olz| 5.0 mm ^J++ a+, Lll+$
    ^|]s
    AA!H, gfl E++ql^'19 +gE tol= g =4^=-
    7t5.7 torrr 7l^ll "Jqg q torrolzp
    9,lzl-slatszl? (fl=: "J+ gq^19 tolE qle SqE

    10.3 | 7li{l H+l


    7lillg Efl4
    =4,4 t4(state)E C96izl +16ll^l= ull zlzl E+zt gsortrL 43s,
    "Jq, +irl, +tr E+.e s'¤q= TlillE Foltrt. olE ql ztxl Hf ,Jel +zlE +EI,ll
    oJ

    zl4 E4Gas law)ol=p.J+. +q= ¤ril +Ag f lIo oe, ¤+g I Ezll zl
    = ^lg Hzlg + 7l^l H+=
    7 ^ll "J{6l{ +^lfl tlE]|ql^1, +ulq q.J 4= eI zlzl E
    nE7l"tsoidoll q+ 7lgr"e 67f61.ts
    +9 aq-= +4U 1o14.
    )l.rJAdl57t? (PE EAIE +^l6tal.) HJ+l
    "J=J-Ssl +t4l: Boyle
    TliJql 7}6l]TI 'J4ol ,L^6J+E zl^ll9 Eq+41 gtrl. EI+^l nETt
    +tl= t
    g++ 4zl"Jol *-olzlTl ql+q, zlsHglrJ E+l gfl zltr *+* +d(.fa
    10.4)g {F^o6J+E S+6}rll gt}.
    =l ¤='9 :+elz} Robert Boyle$ezt-16e1)g Tlillel .Jqr+ +tl ,J9 +4lE A%I
    J 4eE a^t6J 4=el "JEol+. q= 5q r= 7l4lE sqg eHIeE *+rll 5l
    H +irl7} +qE + El]E +7loJ+= ^t¤g ga6}fl+. HlqlE .Jqg + Ell
    =rl qE
    tfl7l=
    tr +71^]17141 +q= a7l +irlE ¤Hls-s g+.
    gaiTE=6ll olfl ++59 gE6l+ =qE4l
    Boyle H4(Boyle'slaw)$ trts=4 rJol
    =d
    44U4.
    "JdtJ gEq^l
    .J4+
    ""t9 zl4l9 +ul= Se.il Hlulql++.
    F zl]9 +A*ol HlHlql6tE, alulzt zlzlH += 6I'+= +old+. Boyle EzlS
    +q4etr ++J+ aol s.dg+.
    ffi y: t+, ; E= pv: *+ tto.zl

    tl+el {t9 8sc+ ^lE L]] 7l^llE .}q E=.J+.


    a:1aJ 10.4 rI|Tl aoil,lJ glE E
    10.59 Pql ql6-J vE r?]lE= "JA.J gEql^J 'JC6J "J9 zl^ll9l +6|q
    al.aoll q+ Edel +tr|= =dol =El
    =71.-drt. 9g +doltrl. v= l/Pq 46lq E^16[8, :zB ro.s9 e=+ql^]e+ rJol dB
    10.3 7l^ll E4l 435

    "JtreJ 8Eotl^i "J8cl ge-l 7lilloll tfi-si P Lnllvq ra|]sts olE Eggzt?

    1.0 1.0

    V V
    0.5 0.5

    0 0
    0 1.0 2.0 3.0 0 0.5 1.0
    P l/P
    a f H 1 0. 5 Boyle E =1 "J I -d gEol |
    gsaJsl 7 l^l I o | +tr|= oJal ql ff H I al I
    -Lrtf .
    ^l

    +al^tg Eg + 9l+.
    HzlS ++6ll BolzluJ, 4+^Hl^l +e+ +lil= ilzl.J+. BoyleS 4
    noyle
    aE 6J TIzl E+= i{4l4_e-E Hs+^l7l= "Jflq dBg E"6Iq 4E Hfq ,l
    il= g6;9;^[6]fl+. ol de5el z]E= de4 S4l.J 'Hzl'g qB6lt ql
    g+Elfl+. J
    +E-l= rllo}4 Boyle 849 4s"ql4. qE +q= S+4 +<+ B
    sBg i
    9l= +rlr+ -du} oI49 ++t q4Eql 9ull zlull= *=+. +aol s+6}r

    t
    ¤4"Jol o}4e g4"J ull E+ol "Jq++. olfl + 7l^l4+o ql+q qE +i4
    -L-
    -.t-ril"
    zl Qzlalt_, q 4+E 7l^ll *qg z;-+,t14. olq^-l qq "J4ol 4rl 4zl"J4
    ,JoI¤ trll4zl qlTloJg ql +ss +7lE "Jq -+=E|. g+e HI'ilE 4tol4.
    ¤,Jg ++6Ir. ¤4Ee fl+eE +4olq, qlg +El= z3a*4. a44e
    =
    E.Jq +7le +7lE q +-g-tr. r1uu4. arH 10.6 +trloll rH-d 8_E Erl

    A EE= 956[zr +rrg rH, +trr71F H,1T;.ErE "JElrEr E7r L1.1^] 7ri1q gqe org4 Er

    I
    I
    n=rn

    s_ E-+tr| zJfl | : Qharles BJ aJ

    fg 10.6q1^i ffio1, ++ +dq +i4= *d "Jgl zlill gszl. g+A


    _H_ol
    q +716Ir,. gETI 4qA q1 z3aaJ4. g=. .r.1o19 $4lE rzsz
    'lill +qe+
    gdl gaqfl4. H ztzl
    50
    Hql s*19
    4qrzl facques Charles(tz+o-taz:)91
    dB4"J Pvl-¤E. zlB= fg 10.7q1 +EI.Ifl+. q+i-J d(dc).l -273"c
    I
    40

    Eor+6t: Ag ++6IE. E+ Tlill= ol gEoll.r.l pulzl 0ol q= aes


    = +30
    el+q= ag +9614. relLl -E= Tlill= ol gEq EB6I7] d.ll .-lp}9zl sl
    (cm3)
    + r.xllplqTl ullEql, ol azl$ Aa d¤g + S+. ' '20
    tsaa"J9l Kelvin 4ol4= +9lE *g g+9 54qrz} William Thomson
    Gaz+-tsot)+ 9-Eg Kelvin zlEE 'JeJd eql s-Eq 4EE zll.J6l-94.
    10 t
    I
    -i-*--
    ol lroll,tl prll $s.(absolute zero){tr al-E o K= -z73.ts'Ce} rJ4 ',
    I

    0
    (r sd). Kelvin aEe-l +Aql{ Charles H=l(Charles'slaw)S +q=r} rJol +l -200 -100 0 100 200
    g_Efc)
    ¤+rI.
    ArB 10.7 Charles E4l "J5-zf "Jalollll
    g4+ Sqql^l g4oJ oJ9 zl4l +i,l= ¤4 $sql 4HlEl+q. g8aJq 7 l^1l0ll rH-zr +Ill= EEoll E le]l-srrf.
    436 10A| 7li{

    ¤4 g_szl + E]]E +7l6tE zlill sulr +


    tri4^J ts]]tr +7f++. +qI4sE charles H
    zle +g+ rJe BEI= H"J+.
    v:,*fxr e.= I:** [10.3]

    9zl! tf9 <1.g zl4l9 .Jqr+.J"ll q+++.

    A EE= 100 "c0tl^1 s0'cE L++fl= q g6aJg 7li1l +Et= ga1 ,Jel truee a46t

    I n=rn
    HJ+l
    "J-*rl9 tt4l: Avogadro
    714lel *r+ +rl ^lolel +Al= foseph Louis Gay-Lussac(1778-tsza)4 Amedeo
    Avogadro(tzz0-tss0)9 g+ Ar+E qsr 9l+.
    Gay-Lussac$ r+E^IqC {AoJ -E-E7}.E EB "JoJ +=6J .JE + oJ 1804H
    q r= ¤zl*E E+.r.23,000 ftvl^l &E*4(ol 9lB3 +d H 7J AjL^}*ol+. iltrg zl+oe.
    fzlqfl4). Gay-Lussacg 7l+E + q g 4?_6171g.16ll Tlillsl cag ¤7aI94. rsos
    LJql r=+q aqrel B4(lawof combiningvolume)9+3618+.
    "Jd Sq4gEql^],
    4E zl4le} El86I= zlzll9 +q= zlg C+Hl +4lE ,*=+. ql= EH +a Tlill 2+El
    zlzll r*ule} El*+q iGz12+irl= -=:r: (1.1p).
    = Amedeo ^J^d*+
    ^}^ Avogadroi 3H +ql, g=g Avogadro 7[fl(Avogadro's hypothesis)g 'Je]d
    zll.Jg glgeal Gay-Lussac$ ++g 6|]46IH+.
    ,J9 gsc+.Jqql^l, zl4lE Pulzt aeE Ae +E E4-= EiI+E}.
    qlEEq reJ 1o.gql^Jq ¤Hzle 0'c, l atmoll^l "J99 zlrll 22.4L +ql= 6.02xto23
    llel zlzll EzI(+ I mol)z| s+Flq 9l+.
    Avogadro E=l(Avogadro'slaw)* Avogadro 7t¤g qgr 9l+. +
    gc6J gEe+ "Jqql^-l ,l4lel +q= 7l4lel E+ql 4EIEI*+.

    v : gf x n E= X: ** r1o.4l

    lzltl n* E+oltrt. trI+^l rel pz| ol{r.3 ull, zl^ll9 g+E + Hfr +71^lvlE +rl= F
    ul]zl.94.

    4 ETloil= H Ee] 7lill7l.=rtl6lts7t?

    +trt 22.4L 22.4L 22.4L


    "Jal latm latm latm
    3s 0'C 0'C 0 "C
    Ttiit EeJ 4.00 g 28.0 g 16.0 g
    7li1l E^t+ 6.02 x 1.023 6.02 x L023 6.02 x 1023

    rB 10.8 Avogadro 7l¤ 5"J-d +tr|, "Jal, 8Eq,(l ,\le tlE 7l^ll= E'J-.J +sl E^l= +^lU, laJ
    3.rle +=rf
    10.4 olA 7l^ll^l 437

    qH 10.3
    P, V, n,7'4 ,Jct7l7l4loll trlilt oJEJ
    87ftrl-71

    E4g + 9l= tr|.^Eol 84r.EJ dalqql7F1l7l urt^lL|.7]-rl PJE+ E E?]E SEHE AA flq-? 7l¤6|.^f ...c,= (5.28, s.3=!). rlSel
    4 flaPl (i) Tliile] gfaJ, (ii) .saJrl LHe.l Tlillel E+, (iii) Erf rJ EE T.jelql 0lrrl-d gBE El^l=^l ,J6l^le.
    (a) g¤Et g+0ll^1 TlillE 7fE-Lrrl. (b) "JtrEj 8Eoll^l +q= e^^lzrl. (c) E-Ee[+q= g¤6l"zl +^l6lE^1 TlnE +7|.tr +
    g-drl.

    6[13 (c) dfl491 71111= +7la +'J.J+= ae dflq 'l]q q


    g^1 4 HpPI (l) Tlillel Sq, (2) dflq .llE 7l,ll E+, "tg Ezlz} =^H.J+= ag 9El6}re, dflcl 49 zl
    (3)Ezt aE ¤+ 44 Fq q¤4 g.}'g ulzlizfp rlzJ ilel
    =i+71
    *zl.* 4.o14. +ul= "JA6I7ll frxl,* zI3
    6I= aol Bs-a14. ql +{-= atlalflzl ol$q +zI Aq ¤+ 4Q= +^
    .Jq Ea}E ¤z}at7l Avogadro H]q trleE, gEe+ .Jqg .JA
    {lEJ +16}q Tlill Hzlg d "ilot,*r+.
    ^l-sooJ+. 617]l +zl+ 4aql^l 7l4l= +7lr +.J6lE dAqE +
    flq 5+=
    LllE Tlxll TlillTl +71tr E"Jq4+ zIZqzl ?*
    q= {zlr] Pulz} .J4al.zll +4qj1 gs.s. u}
    + 946I+. Ezl rJg ¤+ 44= Zl&61-= 4+ :14 ?J =7tJ+. ol=
    =
    +6lzl *+. i"ld zl;ll9 +rl+ql ql6H^l +rl7t +ztalB rfzlzlolsg, "Jqol H6l]ol +trI= 4¤. 9"laJ4.
    IIlsE, +qe}.Jq ^lolq= HlHlBie] +41
    +zI +9 ¤+ Zr]= +7I*+. q oE oJ4oJ +ulq^l 7l Boyle Szloll

    i]9 Eizl ?7}6tE Ezl Aq ¤+ Zrl= +i++. q+ z| llo e(py:tf), 7141= +7la +E4q PqzI #
    716}zl g:=48 .Jqol *zla1o}6J+_r. eEg .Ig +
    ^l
    E4'rJg ¤+ AAYWnql Hlql6J aolEl
    olrI
    -,-^-t.
    E0i
    (a) *4ol .J46tZl +zlq7l qlEql, ol $xlloll.rl *qg H > H.s ql& 1

    fzl s.,* zliJ9 d^]E+:.JC6]41 +zlg a


    o].-14. g5'ol 2s.6oll.! Lg +rlE +dql il]+14 gl4. g
    s.60

    olu|. Charles B4q trl-sE, gC+ oJqg +zl6tE^l E9 9s= 77 Ktr *izl fl"il o-qr]l aiz} +'J¤trtB,
    zlxll$ zlpalH rl^Eol +zlq^] +q= +7l6tzl g +dq +rl= $ulz| elfliz|f
    tri. rII4^l Ezt zJ9 44Y +716J 4o14. (a) t7 L (b) 22 L (c) l.a L (d) 0.046 L (e) 3.7 L

    (b) +rlE ,Ji= .Jqg +71^l7l4lg4(Boyle H4). zl^ll > sd.* slx.[ 2
    atm9 .Jqq^] 35.4 L
    E + trl zlg +rle "J+^lrJ ull, zl;ll9 d7-ll 5+ql= Egql^J
    ^I+q= +AFg 14e.6.JA6L4
    Hclzt S4. trI{^l d^ll g+= "Je+7,11 +zlgq. r 9 +Ia= se-6E fl4. erzl +zlq= aaql
    q+ TlrllTI q 4Lg +rlql adl 9lo oB Ezl rJE ¤+ ^.1
    *qg 1.00 atme.E -ftzltr +7ls oltr^lzJ4H, &a
    445 zf,+6J4. 7l zlz16|= +rl= gtrt7l!4lEzI?

    10.4 I ol^J 7lill^l


    zlltlzl ¤j'lB E4g E+ p, v, r, n ql TIzl E+ +ql^l F 7I4 H
    ^ll7l^l7l^ll9 =-
    += .J46lAl +zl6IE^J += + zlz) Slzl ^lE qBzl g6J-9 +Ezl= +a6}q Ee
    4o14. 4 Hzle Elql +414sE ega3 + 9l+. 'Hlql*++= *9 * +s= ^l-.&6[q
    El-q-rl zJol 448 + 9l+.

    Boyle$4i v*i @,roJd)


    Charles$4: v*T (n,P9j4)
    Avogadro $Zl: V o n (P,T "Jd)
    ol +Al^l# a.J6Iq .J+4"J 7l^ll E4g
    "JE + 9l+.
    ,"7
    439 103 7t^lt

    EIr{
    ^}+E Rol+I 6}8, F^l.$ ++4 A+.
    ,: r({\
    '\r,/
    ol 49 4C46}E, +94 ,Jol ol8 7li{l l(ideal gas equation) E= ol¤f 7li{l H=l(ideal
    gas law)olQl 6i= Eqd+.
    ^lol
    PV : nRT [10.5]
    oltlTlfll(idealgas)E .Jq, +tl, Ss..<1o1e1 +41^lol ol{l. zl4lzl"tr Sq6lrll 7l+q=
    z[re] zlill$ g.J+.
    olt zl4!9 +E6J oll, F ztzl 714"1=4la.Jtr|.
    . ol,lr zlill EzlE=e. tl-E 4}+6lzl ggq,
    ^Je
    . exl¤E d4l +ir]= 7lAl7l itzl6l+ +qq El6il ¤d zlEl.
    olfl ol$E ¤-zl 4.11r] Ezl¤ol zlz16l+ ++g $,+r olfl zlzJe
    x.10.2 qq Ttrl Eg]q 7l4l ^J4'J+. "*g a+
    t+Rel +^l -E oJdl E.Jq= zl3 s-21; 6l+g + 9l+. + q c+q} 41.1101 pea[48. Ex] zJ9l
    Elol
    un +it
    .Jqr+ Ezl9 aTlqt 4"I
    "Jl. gl-s-E ol TtCg trAE + g+.
    =z}lEI=
    ol$ zlrllloll^l Rg zlill!!f(gas constant)af-I1 oJE]. Rg A4 +fl: p, V, n,
    L-atm/mol-K 0.08206 ^l-Sg
    19 +9lql el=+r+. ol{t zl;llzloil^l rel ag 6}t eql gE(dr{ ql{ql a{ee;qop
    J/mol-K* 8.3 14
    pl4. zlxll9 oJ nP BE 5+E +4U+. 'Jqr+ +vl: 4z; at-4 4rl(r)e +4U+.
    cal/mol-K 1.987
    al-zlu3 trIE ++lE El+g xileloJ 4+89 ++q^l=, "JqE *+]tr
    m3-Pa/mol-K* 8.3 l4 ^l-sg +E 9lrl.
    L-torr/mol-K 62.36 +^Ag ie. rl¤-a;r1. E 10.2= 44 zlzl ++lE E¤g Rel +ilE ++r]lj1 ll4. oltr
    .sr ,l^il^lg trll= +zllq^J +q1l p. v. n, rq +9184 oJil6rE+ Rg BEI= dq
    rI9 ^l-&B
    qlot 6J+. ol 6Iq^lE .J4ol f-tr atm +9l.tr' +q47]| qEql R:0.08206 L-atm/mol-K
    zI+ 4,o14.
    = 1.000 ^l=s6J ol$ zlxll$ ollJ. rlrl^lql
    atm, o.oo"C(zn.ls K)ql^J 1.000 mol9 ^J46ll Ezr.
    r'14 zl4l9 +ults +q-ri eq.
    v:ff
    1.000 naol) (0 .08206 L-a*rf, I mo.l-K) (273. I s K)
    (
    : 22.41L
    1.000 atm

    0'C, I atm tl4E E= eE ffi(standard temperature and pressure, STP)ol+I *tl.


    srpql^l l mol9 01,* zlxllz| ilzldl= +q= 22.4rLoJEll. olag srpql^l ol$ zlillel
    E*sl(molar volume)E 'Jel4 9l+.

    a srp 4zoil^1 olg Tlill 1.00 motol g8Eilloil 7l.Fol^l ?lrtE, EEEillE^1ale.l zol
    i = ", E+|tr g'l.7t :slil=7|?
    I

    ^Jeg e ¤H6}] =+. rq+


    zl4lalS +"&"J tlqlql
    ol^J. ql+EE ,l^llsl ol
    =46}=
    t zlillrle dzll zlzllE Aq6I4l ¤H6tzl= *.J+. rl4rl p, n. rzl.JA+ <I* zl4
    cl +ag +q= pv:nRrtr*q 4l4}g +fle+ rl-= + glq(r=J 10.e). {zll Tlillse 6}
    ^J.
    ol^J-4.J 4t¤ 6l.zl= g*zl"J, olt}4 Z5lr+ Hlr.6lq ilolziql* 4zl Ell+ql 7I r
    tL Cr+ ¤+= E= ts+ql^J :. zlolS +^lg + gl+.
    ^llel'J
    10.4 | olar 7l^11^.1 439

    ol! 7lill7l.0lar-Eg 7lEo_e+El 7I.g -pJoI HolkJ=7f?


    30

    22.47
    22.06 22.31 22.40 22.40 22.41 22.42

    =20
    -trl
    oro

    0
    old Tlill Clz COz NHe N2 He Hz
    arc 10.9 sTPoll,(.lel=+rl Hlf,

    qFil 10.4
    oru 7ffilt,lE *8
    Asl4el +¤E?l EJ{t #6(CaCOs(s))3 7l.g-J nt] CaO(s)elCO2k)-+ EdtlEJrl. CaCO3 ,\l-e7l.EdllElol 8Z 0lt]tr|-EJ^= 250

    mL 9JC6IE6[|EJ +,31 'Coll,{jsl 7lille.l gal= 1.3 atmoltl. COzE E ggdlH=71?


    =a|-4=.0llsd6l.fltl. =01

    8}lff
    E{ co, Tlxll ^l-E'7} +tl(2s0 mr), oJ4(t.e atm), &E
    (:r "c) tqe. .=xHaJ+i1+qail, olull r.lE 4 co, z1r1
    ":ffi
    : 0.013 mol CO2

    E E+ Ahlg -e-+61r. 9l+. etr *+l5ol zl¤614 izlqq"l"J, oldrzlzllrl$ {{al


    llEl y, p, T= iqdo o +, ulzl$ n {}9 ol,.J 7l^.ll^los xNuflgslfr. gEI= ++l.e d+qfl+: ag q{6J + 9l+.
    ++ + 91trI. > H6 qlfill
    Hlqdg 25'C, t atmql^J s.74xrc6 Le-l ¤+
    ¤01 Tlill B4E Erll# +46In + qlts.Exllql^] xJ^l Goodyear
    g Atr$$ EE IrJE-r., olq^'l Ai5g. R(0.08206 L-atml g se.4r. 9l+. Hlqd ,ll+ql Eqlqq il= BEE a
    mol-K)9 Bfle+ oJil6i= +f]-E +ItI+$. ttg:rts +f.l-E gEloJTI?
    (a) 2.30xr07 g (b) 2.80 x g (c) 1.12 x
    V : 250 mL : 0.250 L
    106 107 g

    P: l.3atm (d) 2iaxfi5 g (e) 9.39x 10s g


    T:31"6: (31 + Z7t)K:304K > H= qlr{|2
    ol^J zl4lal¤ E q *t ¤q +E= +4= ag Blll^="e e Flq eE+ glEq "JHI4 oE qlTloJ ol
    ^F+40t
    7lq614. *E .Jq-qE *zl4 Nz TlzllE zl]g+. q¤ elq^+gl
    n"ll 4dl=71 +l6ll ol{ zluilzl(! 10.s)g r}]c4++. +:,{71 r44 cm3ola 0.33 99 N2 TlzllE E¤-6Ir. gl+8,
    PV 24 "cql^l qlq.+el ql+ "Jqg goiqlz}?
    n: RT

    fJe t+E rEJ6l'+ 4lt


    ol tr-ql^l= ql Ttzl E+(p, v. n, r)* + 49 ng.rr ti xl{folj1, qE E+Eol +^171+q4 9l=zl= +
    !+61+ ol^J 7lxil^lql *46J q Tlzl 5i^ll= aqB*+. E 8614. 6l+el +il= E ull"t4 EllE6fel. ",jg a+ql
    ^{E =o+ql 44^1, ql 7}zl H+ ¤= + H+ql q6l^l
    "J99 +qal dB#.ss zl'H6I= aol E+ol ¤ 4o14.
    EE+ s-+¤ + 91trI. 2. sEls ?l= EetE s+EE]. <tEol 4¤tL *+le ++&q9
    6JTtzl ol^JE H+E s'EL6l+ EzllEtr+El gs,* 4!L gg qql6l+. q= 5q ol{ zlillalg +4
    ^l=&.J "ll,
    +¤617]1fl6l-q +s-r+ ae rl{g xlloJEJ+. +.q L-atm/mol-K +99 Rg oJqol torr
    = = ^l-+6JtrI.
    *+le +qAqE, R¤ Al&ql^l ^l-so6l-71 dql Sqg
    1. EEEi = ".!=et. Exll= +4 4419]_L qg EfE"l "l atm EI+IE +,il6l-= Tlol ppal aol+.
    440 103 7l^ll

    3. tl TlleJ alol E!+EE glE^lTlI9lElE! Elrl E!+oll Ell6fl r q molel zlu1l=. g6.lop 9ltrt'= Eg 4l+6}r glq. +q:
    EEotal. .lt
    ^lE
    Tlal^lql 46H^l ++n+ ae ^l]c49 ql ol 4l+3 +q=4 ag oE sB6J + gltrt.
    ^l
    f49 -q+.J H4g rl-&B 4o14. n

    PV 7:0.15mol/L
    ,_nRT ,,_rRT
    P: PV
    V,v: p,n:RT,r:r* olg zlzllrlg Sqq 4qlEE,
    4. i]8E4=st-tzt. AltI4Cq ++lE
    4¤. ¤.g." e.9-Er! 49 gHts4l
    ^l--S614. ^Ig
    E
    aE.J +
    ,:#
    9l+. +fl5ol ,<le i49ol=8.=^l=
    96l= E+q +fl ol{, r}e_$ aol El-E + glril g+.
    ^lE olulE
    = =+8,
    alg guf-e4
    ^F$"tqg 1o14. .: (+)^,
    trllqlE q TIzl B+q q6ll +Eql {Ig +zl ?}o}^l +^ll
    44^l n4 ve] llg +zl ?}9trl"J, ol
    49 E + 9l+.
    7I Eg + S= ailH tr"J + 914. atxlEJ olfl a+ql=
    4l+El^] ,Jaii}glFol, s+q E4lE += aql q+6flrl7l
    ge-6J H+5e] Ztg 44i;17\ 9l4q g+g + fl= AHE
    91.il ¤4+ol 'J + 9l= zl* 6ss} 43 u_+ qAp+ ol 1}
    ol +qa aol+. ql= Eq r atg +qzl-r., n Et, v 4I?
    9 "tzl*91 9l= g+ +Zil= ¤q .E-: 4ol+. qTlq^J ¤
    +qxlzl ?+= E4q^1, ol$ zlz{rl$ ^}+6}q sqg +6t B6J a+ zJol. 4l4l4.J 'JHg H+E
    ^l_s"Elstrr{ "*g
    A+= ^J4ui trzl. 6[xlEJ +4lql,t] ',tltri I Ltr] o.ts EoJ6r= E^llE +: ql qq*¤ 4^+e + il.g 4o14.
    =

    oltl 7 lflhlr+, lill Ezlel +41


    zllro.3eq^l ¤B+ 7li] Hzl5g oltr zl4l4g a+Eol+. q|= Eo] n4 rzl.J46I
    =E.J
    zll *xl¤ {1, $ rRrE,rll zll9 d}+= ga}ap. gl_e-E+, _z z}^lle .Jdt a}ololot'J4.

    PV : nRr: tF+ E:. pv : *+ t10.61


    EI4^l Boyle Slol tB*+. n$ r 4o1"JC6IH pe+ v Ake +4 Eg + ?lzl"J, p y
    --. g{6llot 6JEl.
    H49 ^l-&6IE t4ol HB uI zl;ll gulz]-qBril H6l-=zl= q1+'J + glq. ql
    Boyle
    E EH +zlg + 9l= y.l.AEol eI4Ig dflqql 18.5 atm, 2t.cE ozzl4l s0.0 LE il]+
    l.glg rll, .JHol 1.00 atmoE a46L= E.J gE= 21.c.tr. *zl¤48. 7l^ll7l zlz16}
    +qq= qtr E:*zl ",1*t4? TlillE nal rzl.Ja6I4l -,?zlB 41, pv fig oJc6IE-a
    =
    +s-rl e+.
    P1V1 : P2V2 [10.7]
    q7l^J pr4 v1! zz)fiol-2, prc+ %E ol .JHg pzE +hE 4+ +E
    =la"{tol4. ^lel
    yr= trIs-4 ?rI.
    vz: vt"';: tro.orl(ffi) : rrrt
    ol Bg.JHol +^E+ql 4+ 7la{z} S+6}71 rflEql 6Jel4ol+.
    ole+ Hl++ BL4qE oltr zl4lrl"s+El
    "JEg + 7l^l E+, + ve+ r
    (Charles Hzl), rl4 V(Avogadro Hzl), pe+ T =g6l.q
    7Jq +41^lg +Eg + gltrt.
    +fl= 7141 E+71 "JCg rll, p, v, r7l E+ H6l+ tls+.I zl+ zlg+trI. ng olfl ^J
    qql^l g{6lsE, ol$ zl;llrlg 494 A+.

    T: "^: d.+
    gs, +5lE a7l tlqel al6 tlql= 44
    "J9, "14 Bz} 14 2-tr s^16}H
    \vr Pzvz
    [10.8]
    T1 T,
    10.4 | ol.3 7l^ll^.1 441

    olI, ol !g e6l ¤B zl4l B4(combined gas law)ol+i16J+


    ql4l 10.s
    F 8ri HcFt oJqq trlil* B6J 4hFalTl

    0ll01.++ aq 7lill"JaJ8 25"c0ll,\1 1.5 atmolr[. 7li1l7l0lcf 7li]l^lE rit=rir 7l"trdlE, ,.!= 450'c-tr 7I.EBJ q "Jal3 grl-oJ7l?

    rils p,{l 4dl=71 flEl {g 4446}l, +q{ z}EE ql"J6J+.


    E{ zlxllel azl oJq(l.s atm)4 gE(2s "C)7} +qzlr., q
    :
    tg gE(4s0"c)ql^]E Sqg +61+ Exllol4. P2 (1.s atm) (ffi): 3.6 atm

    4q 7l8lel +qel g+E E6fl ?J:-e-Ee, .Jqr+ gE= B3 zl4l gszl


    ,JE ol +TIoJql "I4 $4.1 +7r6}ss,
    ¤+^l7l= +41!g ol+olot ++. gE= a{ 4Etr +}t} 4+zlsB.Jel4ol+.
    6tr, El^l+ CBE s-e qlEE +gq Aq. +et ol ql^ilE+El ql qlqE+ Ag B4E Aaz|
    Eq fl=xl= EE6I4 'J + 9l+. ^46}4
    P T
    Z7\ 1.5 atm 298 K > .H.5 qlH 1

    4l+ P2 723 K Tlgol 3s'c(es'F)oJ qL +qg qEts, EIE B4lol zI


    Eol pe+ 17[ qtr sal^]g r*=4= aa43lH, ol^] zl4l EzI Qolq= 32 psi(xlltfl^l$ ulgE)q S4e_e;|]+
    4se+q E.E-.Iq d4e H6Izl ?*= "*(n, v, R)" e, 4 48, zl¤.ol -ls.c(s "F)"J i3 4gtsq= oJqol psis
    golzi 94lE7l? (*. +a 7lal9 +=ol flr 4
    +e H+(Pe+ r)-ts +q6J+. ^iolql
    = ol99 Pulz} H6lzl 9*=4i 7ICaJ{.)
    +: +: rl+ (a) 38 psi (b) 27 psi (c) -rz.z psi (d) 1.8 psi (e) 13.7 psi
    P/79 El= oJC6F.s > -H.+ qlrll2
    Pt d¤z}^ EzE "Jqol 2.20 atmo -E +zlqi fl4. zl
    T1-Pzr, -ls"c"J q! zlzl& gql, Bz.J9 zl4l +q=
    e-ol
    (¤zld oI4 ez} lr+ 2= 44 ztl tlElle+ al+ tEI= +4 3.25 x 103 rn'o14. Tlgol 3l .coJ 9ql zJ3 *9 zl4l9
    u4). +El= gEi"JTI?

    qlu{l 10.6
    ?EJ 7li1lt4 oltEPl
    L?.ltdol "Jalol 0.45 atmol fl 4ztrl Aeiiltt. SedE 5?l Tlillel ZE=22"C011^] -21 'C
    6ll+E(1.0 atm)oll^1 +tr17[ 6.0
    _+ aa-drl. n|= 7+0ll^1E Edel+tr|= lltbl^le.

    6flH
    E4 "Jqri gETI E-+ Hq+ ,d:qql,r] zl4l .{ee-l .rllEs
    :tuo'r(ffi)(ffi):-'
    +q= aed+ E4lol4. EE {4-' 5J44 e--e tr.J+. 414} 4aql a7l +qql -J
    4lq gE=kelvin !++ ¤+&6In, +qT]8tr= *e "JE
    qEle} $EEI$ +g +6tr 9l= 49 744|4. {+zlstr
    q^l +41= gq E4. oJqol ,J46IE +sl= gETr +r6IE *slzt
    P V T a^4ot,*+. $q47r =i7}6lzl+,
    gExtts_4 Ll a7l q+ql. .Jq H
    z7l 1.0 atm 6.0 L 295 K
    oi9 a4z14+ +El aaql^l +¤ qgg e aoe 714
    3l+ 0.45 atm V2 252 K s+.
    ze gC6IEs, to.8g^l-*E+ 9l+. > lr= qF{l1
    ^l ol¤ zlSlzt zo"C, z2o tor6}9l^l o.7sLq +tl= zI^l'J
    Eot yzql Eil4q 10.89 44el6IH, 4e--4 e+
    ^l +. 4r "c, 760 torroll,tl -L7l7ll7l itzl6l+ +q= got"JTI?
    Vz:Vr*
    P, T;
    (a) 1.4s L (b) 0.8s L (c) 0.76 L (d) 0.66 L (e) 0.3s L
    nri
    M2 10al 7t^ll

    > .s+ qlr{l2 El,\Ee + zlill$ oJfalq +q= a7l +tlE ¤HI9E,
    +zl.J + gl= rl^Eol ,$+B dflqgl o.so motg 4Ia
    zli.ll ill+r. 0'C, I atm9-tr +zl6ln 9l+. olq^l drAl P EoJTt?
    ^ltr.$ =

    1o.s I oltTlll^.lsl?EoJ ¤¤
    ol ¤ql^l= ollt zlzllzl$ *d zl;]9 "JEe+ Ee=J ^l-olE +41= a96}r.
    ^F8-4q,
    olq^J slol H}*ql^l Stqrl'l Atrq= rl,llE +tl$ rJl4l6J 4o14.

    7l*llel "JEe+ E!=J


    oJE= ++l +rlB 4*@:mlv)E ++lE 4=+= 19 zl9al.4.-,.--- (r.s¤). ol{t zlrll
    4r-l6}q, ols{ $;.}rJ +flt +fl +rlB E+E +fl= Eg + 9i+.
    ^lg
    +:#
    E4 I mololl Eq fl: rE+E Aelq= Ee*(/t)g ol
    ^lel "JHql
    +6}.E trlg=q Aol
    -tr'dg+91+-(3.4¤).
    nLlL P.llll.
    [10.e]
    VRT
    g+ 6Jg 4El'J r++E sBq= r,JEq 6llB*+.

    ., g _g
    mol
    L ^-ol -L
    trI+^l zlxllsl ule.i 4 ro.s9 e-E4
    ^letr +qd+.
    - n"0L Pil"
    "- v - Rr u0.101

    qH 10.7
    = 7l*ll "J5- 4lt6fzl

    *z:714 torr, PE 125'Coll,\l, ,\IEAI EJA(CCl+)el


    "JqE gDloJTl?

    nilt ol Ag 44 tsslq.+:3soltrl. olag qlzl"J 3x]ollr.J 125.C


    zl;llel trlr
    E{ TlillE olE, .Jq, 9ez1;q1t}qlql^1, tr TtgE zlzll$ $pe$g.tr, 4at H9 .Jq glo Irtr B
    +61+ Ezllol4. ol$eB+q Eeel 3r}+4g + + ?t g.J44ol+.
    =
    a, 5e+9 ACg + 9l+. > .E= qld 1

    7{el "JEE +6}71 916}q 4 ro.ro.g ^F&.J + 9+. rq o3qol elo torrola gEz[ 2ss KoJ +z]ql
    =rI|6]E
    Ellql

    4 ol al$ dql +q{ "&g 4"JoJ ++ls +I4IB oJ(cH4)el EIE| $u|?lzP
    ^|&6t71
    gs-z} il4.
    "J49 4zl.JgE, gEE kelvin zlEE il&all (a) o.ez glL (b) 6e7 glL (c) 0.057 slL
    oI6J+. E6J ccl4el Ee%hg 4lt6llot ++. (d) t6 slL (e) 0.72 glL

    g0l "Jqg Qu Err)(t atml760 lort):0.e3e atmol4. ¤ > E= qlrll2


    4 9rg ps+273:3e8 Kol4. CC149 E3+g n.0+(4) ecg +lc.J 4olg(titan)g -Etrql^l 4zlg ¤
    zlzJ
    =
    (:s.+s):153.8 g/molol4. trt+^l "JE= q^s=rI e+. A Ea"*g 4o]89 s.H gE= es Kol
    28.6 g/mololr[.
    pJtL a, 'Jqg t.0 atmol4. oldr zl;llala z|{a}2, 4ol+E
    '. Rlr (0.08206 L-affilslol-K)(398
    (0.939 X a-trrf I 53.8 g/mol)
    u:-:-:+.+Zgi t
    K) 4zl "Js= 4l4}6}^le.
    as EdeJG/mol)g "JrG/r)e 4hE r/molol +g+.
    10.5 013 7
    ^ll^lol
    +71!?138 443

    ol zlillel I,JE= Sg, Ee=*, gEq 9=6[= ag .J + 9l+. EA


    ^los+El
    e*4.Jqol zl;ll$ EjE| Ll 44L1. &E7l:-e=ffi Tlillel "JE= zlot+l
    =++
    +. Tlll= +g g.J+g BrJa1x1"j, 4olzl ?+sE E a"J6} Tlill= ul asJal zl
    ^ll
    glql +"JEl. q= corE Nz EE OzE4 Edelol q rEE *71_H-+ q a t
    =q
    "J6I+. olfl ol$tr oJoll Coz Ar+7lE+El tsJ=g CorE ¤¤ 'Jq o27t EA E-
    eql B= ag zI+tI+. nxll coz?l'Eelolololr.'b dgql^J +Hle co' TlillE
    d¤l9Erll, "l+rll B^"ig'qlzfl'({zlleE corql 96l] ts49 EEJS)E +71 +ql^l
    ot4E 6-=711 94(=A 10.10).
    ae EA+g r*= F \l! zlzllzl, Sqg Azl"J gE= ^.ls +E {}Elle +zlq
    n glg trll, Ezg Tlill= zlzl& zlzllBr| "Jszl4otrl Ez& *7l7l gltr g+7[ arts 10.10 0lttEl EJa Tlill= 37lE
    rl "JE7[ 11 ?71 nllEoll ol.atie E=q.
    ,il g+. s4g +7lel +719 trJE x1o13 Ez)+tr-+E goJolr+. E+ +
    ^l7l& OYossawat fangseing/Shutterstock

    ++7I e q 4++ a{zlffiol ^J^dEl= 44 ?ol, 7l+e} +fl¤ trt"}"J ¤t}E


    fl.Jol ¤4.

    A
    zl ro.
    'JA EE9

    rog zlld 46IH


    "JaJ lz0llll

    71419
    +-=zlE N2EtlgET1.

    gd+g +g + 9l+.
    =7'4?7?

    t1o.l1l
    ":T
    tr|4^J q^ll 10.s4?ol, dil4gE=4qI7l4l "JEE^l-s"61{ aTlAl +z}el ¤|e*g
    a4g + el+.
    qH 10.8
    D ,l,rllE BUBI 4ltatTl

    qE 4q.al T.!=i EaJol ts+.s07 g0lr[. 31 'coll^l 0l e-eE zlnE iHP] "Jajol 735 tonTf EIEE
    UEE, :. traJg =af^r=
    137.456 sol EJti.
    =af^r0llEtraJE
    tl,(l Tl8 SE[]E'J= rt8, st 'Coll^l Etr iH+r EaJE E lfl, r EaJP
    =a|'43= =8dl
    1067.9 g0lr(018-E0ll^l EE "JEts 0.997 g/mloltl). 01A| zlxllLl= tttEtl? zl¤alz, 0l z;i11o;EtraJE 4llbl1l9.

    B[l'J 7l-g+.
    s4 TlillE ¤+rl +qE aCB + fl= ABe+ qBq, e 7lzll9 e*e 7lal7} iI+l{ e=*+ 4l+ t}Eilel
    -E(Et'c)c+ oJq(73s torr)ol 7q4r., 7l^ll9 E.e"*g 414I d*el x1o1o14.
    =4^rE
    6l^= E4lolEI.
    ={^rE 137,456 g - t34.567 g : 2.889 g
    olxll, 7l,ilE d*(z.aas g)4 Pul(0.s36 L)= 98, 7l4lE
    +qE 4l&6171 +l6lq
    fitst +7lel il]+l ql
    olElE E=+. Elq fl= =E^aqlEg
    4z}ri zli]= il|g "JEE 4l4I6J+ 9l+.
    4^3E 4eJ3 zl4l9 e+g =+^3EAhI6l-= ql ol+g + 914.
    = d : 2.88e g/0.936L : 3.09 g/L
    ol4t} aisepq zlz]lg EJE= 41416Ir., a1 ro.rrg 4* "J4¤ zl.Jc-E, *E= kelvinoE +416J +. ll ro.rr9l 4
    4q 7li{e] ge+g Ah}-J4. E+E EA"*g Al4l6J+ 1l+.
    dRT
    Eol TlzilE +slts ill9l4l 59 +qe+ rJL+. E ,ttt": p
    =+^r"ll
    I +sl= e?*r+ "JEE+EI 4l&*+. Ee.l A*e Eol ill (3.09 g/z) (0.08206 Y,-a+rfr I mol-I{) (304 K)
    +.141 t}49 ¤4^f9 4S i1o1o14.
    41+ (0.967 effi)
    =el^fe+1067.9 g t34.567 g: 933.3 g
    - : 79.7 g/mol
    "JEql ql+ 4@:mlv)g v9l 4dl x]lufl$a[fl, ,JE +91=ol zle441 4l¤q*r, +6Hd Ee* ae de
    v:;:n (93j'3 o) e36ml:0.e361
    ,,
    ffi: =ilql^l
    Tlills
    =^116'l+
    Eaql EI6Iq t}E-l4t atol4.
    444 tOg 7l^lt

    > .ua ql8l 1 (c) aa.l g/mol (d) a8.2 g/mol


    sTpoll^l EJETI t.er s/Ls +4¤ Elzl +F++AE > H= qlrll2
    3 gutoJzl? =e* 2t"C, T4O.O torroll,r.l "JE7l 1.17 glroJ 4Z +7lE ¤#
    (a) a.0a g/mol (b) 30.7 g/mol Ee+g al4}6l^le_.

    EfrJ u1g1;^1 Tlallsl +tr|


    +4= zl+ p+o,I HI*ql +q¤ TlillE ="+e+.Jql +6|q +dg E+. r*lstr H}*ql^l
    AEqA+ ^JC¤ zlillE +qE 4l&g + 9I+H E+ol g aol+. olel6-J 4&e gE
    ,l]Hr+ +¤ ElqI HI*^lg Eqltr 6J+ @ (:.a¤). +B +ql HI+4E 4l+= Hl*ql +q
    6l+ ++grl ^JcEq tr-Eil4.J "J(E+)g .Jel ol^J- Tlill^lg zlzll9 5f4 p, v,
    =q.
    re+el +alE ++. "J5ll

    qEl 10.e
    7la{l HJ+q el6-|.%}E tredlTl

    xlEil.g qlqEe 0l'x[olE+ 4flsodium azide, NaNg)9 uul= E6ll UB rflEoll 9861.= trA z1x11q1 el6]l tsd6l"1l Etl.
    2NaN3(s) + ) Na(s) + 3Nz(g)
    qlolEqel+tr17136 L011 1.15 atm,26.0'Coll^l trA Tlill.tr. qlqH-q= iH+a18, r=Jel NaN3zf E6tlElol0t6E.)l?
    =
    nfl3 xEl 7l7ll9 zlE(P, y, 7)e+ ol$ zl;llal$ ol+4q qlqE
    E4 0l EAl= ++Al E4lol4. N, zl!19 Pui, "J4, 3e ol gHts4l zlE6tTl ?16ll g^86ll"t 6l* Nz TlillE E+=
    +fli1, NzE ts^J6lE HI+q +q e}*4ol u{^lqq 9l Z1416l= ++ee, +¤ *+ el*49 ol*
    Aol gs6}+.
    =
    4. ol AE$$ ol+4q Nz $^Joll 9&d NaNr9 olg f ot$ NaN:9 E+¤ Zl+6J + 9l+. ulzlu_|e-E, NaN:9 5
    'J ++l.e A1416l+ Ellol+. +E fH +gtr +t}o}ts g+.

    Eot H+r+dgtr+g-r+a+
    7li1l xlE Nz9 E* NaNaE -+ NaN39:aJf

    olr] zlzll!$ ol+6lq Nzg EfE PV (1.1s arm)(36 L)


    n
    aa++. RT (0.08206lt-a*r6/molK)(299K)

    :1.7molNz

    +¤ "*= Hl*4E Zl+= ol+4q (t.zmaNz)(


    /2 mol NaN.\
    : 1.l molNaN:
    NaNg9 E+= 4l{}ql+. ,^r* /
    ulzluJog, NaNa9 5A+3
    ^l-.S61 (1.1morNaN3'(ffiH) : 72 g NaN:
    ¤ NaN:9 g+= r+e-E +I+I6J+.
    aE 4l4lE 4 +4lq^l tglEol 4e6l4 Bql^J EtoJTt? o]$ $:$=E +q= 0.6s Loljl, zlill gEts
    9ulE NaNs9 :zB t?lzl4eeq gq.
    ^4qq 25.Col+.
    > !a.6 qlrlll (a) 0.94 atm (b) 0.039 atm (c) 0.012 atm
    (d) 0.47 atm (e) 3.2 atm
    &+ eg 7I$6IH ot4e} Aol +619+.
    2Ag2o(s) -5 +eg(s) + oz(s) > EE qlrll2
    Ttgqq o.tr. 4 *84 e4I ^llaE a +4= zl¤6J +,ll6rq^l oJEqot
    ^8c¤ O,
    s.76 ge) Ag2O7l Hlgo 711)l7l
    s* &ez1 HI+6lq {o} {ae} f. zl=
    ^JC6}= H}+"1+.
    t_e*ts +zl¤ E-oJElE, oz 71419 "Jq3 g
    =+.rql
    10.6 | Tlill gai 445
    =-BtEr|'+E

    aNH3(s) +5ozGr) +6H2o(5) *alE NH:(s15 q l"Jzl-?


    -4No(8)
    8s0.C, 5.00 atmollr.l ol HI*q 44 Ozk) 1.00 mot4 Hl

    oJiai
    I 0. 6 | 7 l11l +6HFE-1I. ?=.
    al+vlzli- 6J +Cg ++6J TlillE ZE"EI nel6I*EI. + Tlz.l oltlel EA
    Tlzl Eee"J
    e +dg Tlill= qB4l f#olEzt? Dalton ,-.,-- (2.1¤)g +7lE Ceg S+61+ E'J,
    +soJ +Cg +e4q+.
    zl4l EElEsl A{ *qe 7l. ll4 gE q 44 z++6}= SqE qF} A+.
    =4E}
    Tlll e.JE 6 .J 7l^)l7l ElEq .Jqg 7E{lE ?E ffi(partial pressure)ol4
    '}]=
    .7 '*+. Dalton9 =A6J
    +g A+= Daltong +E giH HE|(Dalton's law of partial pressure)ol
    4r t4.
    pE714l gqlEg dill oJqol4il 6}r, p,, pz, p2.,3 g6JEql s6JE 4 zlill9 P
    E Sqol+l16IE. oarton H4g +¤-4 Aq.
    Pt:h+Pz+P3+... [10.12]
    q+ +4ql^l H= azlH, ol 4e gdJE + ,f 714r714E zlxll="ll
    'il6}q +H4sE

    ill9 Ef(r,:nrtn2*n3+ "')4r 6}zt. 4 zlzllzl oltr zlxllal$ trI=+E

    o: Pz: ,(+), * : *(Y),


    ^(+),
    olg+.
    8zl 49 -tr= Tlill= eg gEe+ +irl= zlzlE-tr, rl to.tz9l 4E6IE
    P,: (nt + nz + nz * ..,(T) : (Y) t1o.13l

    ol Elq, ol {g gA.J gEe+ +i{q^l zlzlls-l {ill .Jqg, d4l7} 6J Ttzl Tlillol= g6J
    Tlill= rJ*$,ol dill 71819 + g+E AC¤{= 49 9olEI4.

    s E¤ gs.q +qql,/.l, eJrJel ozE E7loll +g-g r|], Nz 7lr.llel gaJS olr& gd= ,J=71-?

    qHl 10.10
    7 Da[on9 +E "JEl Ei]tttPl
    O2k) 6.00 sllCH+k) 9.00 gol 7li1l 0'Col 15.0 L E7l0ll '-l?tl. 4 7l^lle.l ?E "J471. E719 Eill g'al8 grloJTl'?
    =-Er'E=

    6tlS $0l +d 7+ 7l4lE e+g E+s $4io11op ojr1.

    Eq gEql^l F ++E 71819 .Jqg +6F=


    +oJ6J +Ele+ no,: 6.0osoi,(ffi) : o.188moroz
    +^llol+.
    /l|ej 7+ 7l4l= +849_E aE6IE_E . El= 7l^)l7l ,1cHo : (e.oog¤r1)(ffi) : o.ru, mor cH4
    =7116}zl
    ?*= axl+ ol/d. zlil49 ol+6lq zf zlz)lzl zjl+61+.Jq
    g zl&g + 9l+. dxl 'Jqe + ++ Sqq 'Jol+. ol{t zlxllrl$ zJ zltll! +E "Jqg Ah}+ + 91tr}
    ^l-&6tH
    446 103 7l^tl

    no.Rr (0. I 88 mol ) (0 .08206 L-atm I mol-K) (273 K) xlzl6Fre, 44 o.z mol9 fA.ei 0.5 mol$ CH4E goJ¤
    Po,
    V 15.0 L ol q+ 1 atm$ .Jqq^l ls Lq +q= ilzl5'l+ ae 4A
    : 0.281 atm
    ql-E-oJ+.
    (0.563 mol) (0.08206 U-atm / m.o,l-K) (27 3 K)
    ^ _ V _
    kHnRT
    '-cH,-- - lS"0L
    > r= qlr.il 1

    : 0.841 atm +a 4.0 cr+ =q gli rs L dfltrl7t


    ei 28 gol 9l+. g
    E7l27"coJ uil, gqlEE d4 "Jqg 9ottz}?
    Dalton9 ++'Jq H4(41 10.12)ql 9618, +71 .JE dx]l
    (a) 0.44 atm (b) 1.6 atm (c) 3.3 atm
    "Jqe ++.Jqg *ol+.
    (d) 4.9 atm (e) 9.8 atm
    Ps = Psr* Ps1^n

    : 0.281atm + 0.841 atm : L.l22atm


    > H.6 qlfl 2
    273 Kql^J H2(f) 2.00 srl N2k) A.00 99 EE¤"ol 10.0 L
    #E r mol9 ol.rj zlillz[ I atm, 0'Cql^l E 22 LE +ul=
    *zl"ll 1l¤ "ll, dill .J49 g,telz}?

    ++- oJalr.l +EE


    ,+ 7l4l+ +B4es 7lt.6}tr_s, s6JEql Eq fl= 7l^ll9
    "Jc*g ras_l +e se4
    dzil *fl219 f il o Ire. ol$ zlxllol qql^l +¤.r+ ae +4^lg +Eq+ + 9l+.
    P1 ryRTlV n1
    [10.14]
    Pt nrRTlV n1
    aln,813 7l4l lel E+gol+ 6l.r., xlo-tr +4ur}. EipE(mole fraction) x: gEtE
    + dill E+ql 46J + c+q 5+Hl= +44q, *z}flfol4. tr14^l 714 lq Qla11 r1-g-

    4 rJ"l +EI,3 + gltrL


    xt: zlill t9 5f n1

    dzll g+
    [10.1s]
    nt

    al ro.r+410.ls= aB6rE ffi zlol Eq{+.


    (n'\
    \o :- \nt)Pt: x& [10'161

    *7) G Nz9 EE¤g 0.78014(+ *71 + ei tszl+ 7so/oql4B++). {xll rllzlofol


    760 torr9 rll. Nr9 +E "Jqg q-q-r} g+.
    PN,: (0.78)(760torr) : 590torr
    ol pflf NzE E6J¤ * 78voo1oe diil "Jqel 78voz ilzl6}4l g+= 4+zl?I ^lgr+
    "Jil+trI.
    qFll 10.11
    oJq.d+1171
    ¤sgat +ts
    4E d80ll nlxlE zlr1l9 B-dql aJ-d E+oil qa|E, COz 1.5 mot Yo. 02 18.0 mot Yo, Ar 80.5 mot YoE" 0l+olTl I:Brol r.H717l.

    =J9ap1. (a) tHTlol Eill oJ40l 745 torr! ttH, EBJE 6 Ozol +E gajE Zltdl'119. (b) 0l tH7l7f 295 Koll,\l 121 Lol +trlE ^|.
    OzE H E0l "J9-d^lZl'Ilal.tls.
    ^lPttlE,

    6ilff
    E4 EBEE dll .Jqr+ &4.9 mol "/os+El &49
    (a) 6Jtri.

    ++ "Jqg falf gxilol+. G) fqd pul(r2l L), gE Xlg


    ^l
    10.169
    ^l-&6tq
    ++ "Jqg 4l&6ia Po,, v, T*
    (zss r)4 (a)91,9 ++ +E S49 ol*at{ or9 E+E + ol{t zl;llrl$ ol+6}q oz9 E#E Al^}6J+.
    10J l7l^11E^l3E= 447

    Eol (a) mol %E g+gx r00ol4. :aeioe. oz9 EEg


    3 o.rsool4. zl ro.r09 Po, : (0.180)(745 tor) : 134 torr
    ^F&6lE
    O) +qd HfE ee "J¤r, zl'.l+ tr+1tr H+6lH + Po,
    / latm \
    - (134,ott)\760.or, ): 0.176atm
    grl e4.
    V:727L
    nOr: ?
    n : 0.08206
    L-atm
    _oa*
    T :295K

    no,9l 4al9 oltr zl^llalg EE +gr+ e+ ^,: ^,(.!r) 12t L


    :
    - (0.176
    (0.08206 L-atm/mol-K)(29s K)
    0.880 mol

    atr ++l "t BE +il7f 4¤611tr.J4. > -H.¤ q{t2

    > s= qlr'll1 44zl-==3 voyager 1E7i +d6J zI-E-trP4, EC9 7I^J


    STpql^l N2$ ea3-o3 4.0 L +zle+, HzE s*t 2.0 L -& ?l^J'J 4ol*9 4zl CE¤ +Ad-qq. 4ol+ sBq
    =
    4lug ¤¤qq
    zlz| 9l+. dJtr= gq + rl4l= 4lg trl]. "J49 tzzo torrola, 4olt9 4zlE Nz 82 mol %, Ar
    sq+5 + +^E EEgg goloJzl? t2molo/o, CH4 6.0 mol 7oE +^dqq fl4. 4ol*9 4zl
    (a) 0.03a 0) 0.33 (c) 0.s0 (d) 0.67 (e) 0.e6 ++ 7l^)19 +E Sqg 4lt}6}^le-.

    10.7 l7l4l+al 35g


    ol^J-Tlill^lg Tlill$ol qB4 z]$alEz}"ll ql"l"l ¤Eg + 9lzl"J, Tlill=ol efl f-Br,ll
    4EalEzl9l +6H^l= ¤B.J + H4. TlillE .JA Sq6lql^J 7lg6lE, 9l serolEzl-?
    E= 7l4l= "Jd gEql^l .J+6J ull zlill .Jqe $ f;zlalizt? zl4l9 844 C39 ol
    dl6|qE, .J4ol4 gEe+ ag dE z4ol He+6J Eil 7l^l "Jzlql4l 5+ oJol .Jq+=
    zl$ ¤Eg + 9l= EBol 9961r-}. olElql E-¤ os, 7!i{| Ex[ #E(kinetic molecular
    theoryof gas)9 eI tooEoll aA gd6IS.J., l8s7LJql Rudolf Clausius(1822-ls8s)ql E
    all ulE3: $Cq$+.
    Ezl eEE(Szlol= Eztgl qloJ olEJg sE6tE +¤.r+ e+.
    Tlill gq3 TlillE^l=ol
    ETlel qq AEA-o-eu
    l. +E^tE!# Tlzll= #"Js.ol +e^J6}rll s4ol= "*3 tszle +cgtrx+, +xI= q gzct.
    E zl;ll= +^"i6I= 3ld oJzl-= s¤6J+. qlE ulp,$ zlille| eg q z$l zltll
    I !^ .JzlE zfl$ flziolQ. sE zl4l flz}9l=q
    4+g Ez| +rE"Eg f;alol zlill$
    +zl"Jg.J + glE|).
    2. + t7tE-ilErlq +4 Tlill +^l7l ¤zJe zlxld}E +rl=, 711ll7l ilzlq} d^11 +nlql
    ,'4
    El6]] +^l6J + 9lg AEtr. 4+.

    3. + l7F-Ele zlxll Sz[ rJe] "Jqr] E]gqe +^l6J + 9tg AEol+.


    q\
    qlqzlTl ol+g i 9lzl"J, zl & ,'' d
    4. gEE! BE ¤¤ 0llLlrl tsz}el +EE ql6}] tszl
    ^Iolql
    4l 9sE 'JA6Irll #zlal{ ¤+ +zI +E qlq zl= q4 H6Izl S=+. '\/
    \/
    /
    ^l+ql
    s. EtE-0ilLlrEEEoil Htril EzlE ¤t +E qlqzl= ¤ql gEql Hlql6JEl. e " p
    Eql^]. r.E 7l,ll tsxt= ee ¤+ 3E 9lulzlE r*=+. =a
    "..,{0
    Ezl ¤EEg $z| ffioll,tl "Jqr+ gE= ol6l]6J + 9l4l 6J+. TlxllE .Jqe 8zl9 arH 10.11 Tlillgtai3 LIEIL|1

    H4 tsz}9 fEe .J6ll g^J.*+(-ls to.tt). tszl¤ol got* zt?, 9"I4 ^llrll Eg ull?.1
    L ETI
    EE^I
    449 1061 7t^jl

    E61l "JqE a7l7l aag+.


    =7}ql qlqlE 4Eol+. +q4l gEql^l
    7lillg ¤q gE= Ezlzl r*= S+ +E ^lE +=
    + 7l7l zlrllel $zf5$ E"J6J ¤+ +F z*84(Ex[ +EE sE s$. zlr]19
    "llHzlE
    ¤4 Ss.zi + ullE ^J+6I8, ezlE B+ eE qlqlE + E]lE +7t*+. trI4^J +rrel
    S4gg 9szl ^J " 6Jql 44 ,l4l+.
    +al +aJE +s
    =oo]le-tr reJ6J oll, zl4l ^lE +zl+ ¤+ eE glHzl4 B+ +E= z*zl"J, 4 Ezl+
    rI"&"J +EE +zle+. ¤.zlol= Ezls=g ++lE tsz|e+ 4+ +E6J+. 4 +5ql^l +E
    ele B=Elzl"J, 9¤ a+ql: +56I= Ezt 6 6l+= +EE qEoIT[n, += Bz]
    =
    aE H¤ +E 9l+. 444-qtr .Jgel ++ql EzlES He H+le.l +E= 2144. =
    =
    aJ 10.12(a)i 0
    "cel roo "cgl.,.l ei
    TlillE Ezt +E tssE Hq gETi k¤++,
    =+.
    mI= +E_+ ¤.zlolE tszlg Egol q f+. + 100 "cg r.l-Ez| q ¤+ gluJzlE
    =
    ¤t
    zl4* "J + 9tr|.
    llE$ Ez[ 4s +Eq^l Se +de] ++?-l= ,]* B.$ +^l7l r*= +E= +
    zlxfl
    +t]lrl, 7l* *+ {E(most probable speed, a,"o)il 6llBE}+(rB to.rz1Ul;. ql= Eq
    -r.H r2(a)9 ,l* *e +E= 0 'Cql^l * + x 102 m/s, 100 "cql^l= s x 102 m/sol
    10.

    +. E6J zH tO.l26)ql^l +z19l BE rlE;; +-E(root-mean-square(rms) speed, u.-J tr1


    g g + 9l+. ol 7}e ¤+ +F qLJalE ,*='J EzI9 +Eol+. ¤* zllt* +E= B
    E 4E(r.r",)e| $r.l.arz]uj, ErJE Z.lol= -tr.J+. gl= Eq :B ro.12o)q^J rms 4EE
    4.9 x IO2 m/solzluJ, B+ +E= 4.5 x tO2 m/solr1.
    rms 4EE ahlql s-H(to.s¤ql^l ++al E), 100'Cq A+ 49 e x to2 m/solzluJ
    0"cql^J= s x 10'm/s-e. elt ¤4. erzl +olei= tszl.el +E H+l= +rl
    6Iq EE +dol Hrll El4 9l¤¤ =qErll BszI ?14.
    +E_6J

    1 00 "Coll^'l +E7[ 300 m/s-H.tl- ItP Exlol EE¤ ql*6[^19.

    0'Coll^l= EU 0l6tol 100 "c0ll,\1= trHJ 0lgel u.p: 718 ".JE uav : EE Er[g]
    urms: EI[g] EE
    E^lEol 5oo m/sEtrf E^lEol 5oo m/s-Hr[ EEE'f= E^I E{3.4E 3E qlq^l='+=
    3 -^Ee -9.^lolrl +_E_e E^loJrl. ol -AE E^tol +E
    =

    -Ooc
    100
    oc
    E - E

    ^f
    el ^l
    ol
    I
    E
    e \ E

    0 5x102 10 x 102 0 5x102 10 x 102


    +q(m/s) grt +s(m/s)
    =xt
    (a) (b)

    af.H 10.12 e4 Tlillel E^t+5. Es (a)E^lAEql rl^l= 8Ee] g-BF. GIE+E +rJoll^1 +C ol.aHsl 8L||! E43 ral.J +E= +=
    E^lEsl arH4 EE.= LlEfL.lrf. (b) 7l^ll9 7|¤| *e 4E(u,p). oJE ^_E(uuu). 8A rllE= AE(u,,.)ol gl^l(o1 E4 z;r11q;
    qa a0t+.)
    ^lE:0.coll^
    10,7 7l^11 E^f EEE 449

    rms +E= EzlE ¤+ eE glHzl alol i*(u,^,)',,,'..- (t.4¤)4 oJzl6}E-tr. +


    7l^ll
    gsi 9olE 7l4L+.4e*(m)9 gEq q+ H6Izl g:e_!_s, gEql q= ¤+ +E qlq
    zl im(u,^,)24 *zlb +7i9 rms 4E(u",.el u-oE u[!z]zl.J)E Gzl* goltr].

    A 2e8 K'il^r Hcr, H2, 02 ^rl 7[^l TlirlE r.aiE rrH,,rrl ,rl*,l ?tE E^l-=sl EE tE
    'rlLj
    | ^e Hl-il.6tq =7t6lE +^lqe L|Edl^le.
    I

    +al ¤.EE¤ 7l,.ll "J4lql 4ttH ezl


    ¤E4eE +eg zl^ll9 Ca4 rql qq +Bg ¤4 ztzl Tlill H49 EzI ¤EE9 *
    dql^l dzll ol6llg + 9l+. +¤+ r
    ql$$'l$U+.
    r. E¤ c-Eoil^t +rt7t et4e aailtrt. ga+ gE= zl;ll $zlel ¤+ gt. qlq
    =716tr!
    47t H6Izl Sr. rqlE +zlg+= 49 9ol.J4. trI;+^l olag tszlE rms $e.z|
    H6Izl 9+= 4,o14. rEl+ BulzI+ztalB e56}7l 9]6l]^JE rJ E 44-= olFdl]ot
    ++. A44ee, E9 ^lrJ'J 8zl H49 +Eizl rl 4olzlsg "Jqe rJ46t4l g
    r+. + +zI g¤.s_g F"ll^J Boyle Hzlg ¤Be+ + 91r,il gtrf.
    2. gE +Eloll^l eETt g86lE! eIqE gE tl4"g Ezl9 ¤+ +E qlLJzle+
    =7!E!tr1.
    u,^,4 *7lE 9"1.J4. +q Hslr} S.o,-tr, TlAl Ezl+ *rl rl
    ^lrJ'J 8zl H4
    y*ol +Eol7ll ¤4. cl+ol 4+5ql^l eE%I EEI+ +7lt;14' rl_c-+(Ezl+Szl H
    4 rl ,rllz'll +E*+), ¤elq^l +eg *qel *zE ¤Eg + 9l+.

    ol^J 7l4lrl

    e+q^l ¤EaJ EzI gE"Eq Eli+ 4{ 7}zl 4l+s+El, 7l q]Eol+. u|4^l +e.r+ag+Al^lol CBaJ+.
    ol{ zl;llrl$ Ss.z} z1+."41c1. fel+-ftra}zlts-Qi {zlr.l
    P n mq^" * *^, "'y
    ExI SEEJ+ ol$ zl;llaloll ql6J ac4ql t++4lql ql 1* t1o.17]
    =
    6l]^.1 oJolBzl-. +z}e+ Hol ?E=ol-L tl, "Jq(++l E4'J exlE ¤+ +F qlLlxl l*fu,^),* gEql Elql4sE
    o;, ro.z¤)9 B,l4 rll4l qql +E6l+71(+E = *(u,^")' o T"JS 'J + 9ia, ol=
    ^l Bd6l+
    to.tzgl 4E61] !.z.I.
    ^l
    +4+)e+, 9"t4 zlf +E=61-=7t(6E HIE)9I *dol il4. nm(L!*)' n_T
    .VV
    p n n tlo.lgl
    6E ^l ts^J6l+ ?4* x ?E qls
    Po
    {zloll zl;-ll {}+ Rg 4+6}H trtsr+ ae ol^} zl4lal¤
    rms $E-P +zlol= EzI$ A+, $Eeeg +Eql eltl dg + ald
    +4=6Lg +zl9 +*i+(Ezi9 A*4 +Eg *'. mu,^")a]
    P:nRT
    $dol 914. +5 HIE= B9l +slB "zl4 i@lv)el rms r [10.1e]

    +Eq Hl46l+Ell, ol= ol $q+ olE"6lts Bzt"Jg aBl6t +fl g+ E4: ro.7s, 10.76

    qFll 10.12
    F Eat 3+C ¤-s"6Pl

    a7l0ll STP 9t= ozTlx1|^lE= gE 8Eoll^l trl 4re +tr|tr g+61' .t[. 0lel'Je EEF= tlBoll olE g:d= +=^l q|*6[
    8Et|01l
    (a)E^l'el EE 3E ollLl^|, (b) E^isl EE +E, (c)E7le.l Hr.loz E^lel E?l (d) E7l EE9 'J+l E40ll Et|
    ^le. ^lzJB ==+,
    -d02 5x19 E+l^lZ'J=E#, (e)Etal
    450 10d 7t^ll

    rll*J #tr olfl ++9 ,HHzl q^lqld= +^ls aE6J Bol s.


    Eq .JC gEq^l zlillzt oJ+q= *+ql EzI9FE9 zl] 4. olfl a+q: Ezll= +: r+cg Eel dzHE *"J'J4.
    (e)ollrl S4ol ?zt6l"= 43 Boyle H!r+ "Jzl.J+.
    'Jg 4+6,1+ Ez.llol4.
    4e .Jc gEql^l (a)-(e)zl +q H+ ql+q qBrll g6J > .H.= qF{ 1

    I EEzl p{a}op ajr1. 8r4 Pulz} ee F Zl9 zl4l ¤flqql, aJ zflolli Eg


    Eol (a) o, +ztE qlqzl=gEql 96il^J"J ACq
    ¤t+F 4loJ(cEHJ Tlill 1.0 molol, 4E dflqq= 4El.J(cun)
    p E, ol
    "ilHxl= s+
    q+ql 4+ H6lzl *=4. 0) o, EzI 7]11)12.0 molol Ei
    ++ ¤E + *e ae?
    9t+.
    E B+ +F qlqzlTt H6I4 g:elE-E, ¤+ +E= "Jddt4l (a) c:Hee+cH, $xp ¤9 u...8 7l4:-l.
    (b) c3H8e+ cH4 +zlE ¤+ ¤.F zJ4.
    #zl¤4. (c) tszls=g drl E.J.J ¤+ +Ee q zlg tJql "lluJzli
    .! $zlolpe. E+l (c) F 7l]g ¤fltrJ qql +E6l+ BzfE +E= e+.
    HE4+E=61++E+7l.6J
    ^lrJ'J*zl
    qEql (d) F zl]9 dflqg .Jqe A+.
    +. aaq^l r=.g +71
    ol El xh+ +E=g aol4. (d)
    qrl +E=61f d^11 +E=+= q g}r. 8zl 489 HzJg dB > .H.5 ff|rfl 2

    + Le-E-s, +91 EZJ'J +5+E +7t6J+. (e) +z|71 qql 4q=r+ Ag HEle zl^ll +7lql Nz EzI9 rms 4s,t.
    qB4l H6l+xl q+4^le. =
    +P6l: ¤+ lle "Jc6I4 +zlqzl"J, ++l ^l+'J, B9 E
    4'J +qq= q+71 zo 71617l qlEql "Jqe +7FJ+. (a) &s.*zl O) +ril *tl (c) eggEql^l Ar
    ^lEelg6'J

    10.8 l+alsl {izlqrt


    Tlillel EzI SFEqI E6lE, zlzll Ezrg d$_qe.<l 7l4l7l ,*E ¤+ eE qlq
    zl im(u,^")29 .J4* gEoll^J ag *=+. tr|4^l + zlzl zli\lzl ag gEql gl
    g a+, Heq rJg Tlqe "Jzts +c¤ 714l=, xeel rJS +lt q +4+ "JzlE +cg
    =a6J
    ag ¤+ +E qLJzlE r*=trI-. ue rlE .Jzl-g 4*g Xe ^lE "Jxtg 4ele4 4
    7l^lle+
    q. arl4ge He oJzli xe oJzl.-H-r| rms $E-z[ +otot.Jr]. ol4q]
    ^]dg 4%]49s
    LIr}Lll= !g rlg-r+ Ar+.

    "*,: ,ff tlo.zol


    q7l^l ,ng gzlE ge=*e-tr, EzI eE"Ess+q +E6J + gl+. .Ee=J.(/t/r)ol EEql
    ?lzl qlEgl, 7l^ll +zrg 4eJol zI¤+¤_ rms 4EE q rq.
    f.g 10.13¤. 2s.cql^J H zlxl zlrllsl $x| +E +EE +4u4. 7li{9 ge*ol 4}g

    EEgol 7[8 7l^]lb clL 2^47ft E¤aJol 71"8 lt3 7li1[E qL 2ioJ7l?
    =

    o2

    E
    I
    ^l
    ol
    -l
    E I He

    5x1 10x 15 x 102 20 x roz zs x roz 30 x 102 35 x 102

    =rt+-E(m/s)
    arg 10.13 2s .c011^.1
    E^l+_Eofl 4A BB
    =traJe-l
    '10.8 E^lolE=+Eft 451

    +=' EE +dol +E +-q-tr olFdt= aq ++6i4. TlillErl=ol TEat


    =
    zl;ll $xls_l 7l* *e +E: Elg4 aol +E¤ + gl+
    ^+P
    EEg nll"J ?l+ EZ9E
    +El t]8 E=-g
    + =zee
    ^,: tff
    9lrl.
    to.zll
    -ao'r. I
    300 Koil^l oz(s) ,\Eg u,,"et u,p9 Hlts gEtoJTt? ol HlEe 9.E7t HEroil qat E6l.= \", Ce
    A 7l? rl= Tlillol 237=3t'x12tl? #s* e e

    I o"
    -oU
    o'e
    e()
    I
    ",n
    oo c ci,
    0
    ir'nou a 0

    ¤e*ql 4el ExI +Eg g=Cg + 7l^l .gul 9= Ar+E *=+. a Ha]|= gs e
    e o
    I
    co(,
    e
    o

    (effusion)-E, z)tll $zlzl4Ig +Bg F6Iq E=6I= e^J(f=J 10.14)ol+. F HaHts l+ d


    a
    $(diffusion)e.+., * Eeol +rJ{}sE E= EIE Ee +se ul4 *z].ts ¤^Jolq. qlE
    .J+ E4+ dLll dillE q&gEI.
    =q
    a.Lg 10.14 EE
    hro qFil 10.13
    W rms 4s9 4lt
    8E 25'Coll,! Nz TlrJlE^fe1 rms AEE Z111"-1119.

    6llU +g ?q4l E4b ttsomi/hr9 +Eql 611B++. +71 +zI


    E4 +q4l 7l4lE a.+e+ .gE_E+q rms 4EE +61-= E el ¤+ Ezlelg Nz9 St Ezl%iB4 qz1 trIEq, +
    =zl
    zl$ rms 4EE NzB4 ErJ 4tr1.
    ^{oltrl-.
    4g ol+4q rms 4EE rll4}6J+.
    10.209 > .H.* qlrll 1
    ^l trtg ¤EE H]+g i]]+^le-.
    Eol 10.209 ol+6J q, ,+ ak& sr ++ls +&6llot +trI.
    ^l gE 300 Kq^] Hz Bzi9 rms 4Et Ag gEE o,
    E6J *9lE 4q6l AZ617l +l"]] zlill ^J+ Rq qdl^lE ^lE.
    l/mol-K(-E to.z) tglE $zl.$ rms +EEtrt _ul] uulgq, u.^,(H2)/a,-,(O2)
    ^l-.8-6J4. ul-i .$E z[ +7[Eiql
    T=25+273:298K _.
    "]4
    lL -- 28.Oglmol : 28.0 x L0-3kg/mol
    (a) 4, H6lzl ?*=+ (b) 4, +7}t}trl
    (c) 16, H6tzl 9+=tr1 (d) 16, Ad6J+
    R = 8.314Jlmo1-K : 8.314 k8-m2/s2-mol-K (1J : 1 kg-m2/s20lE_tr)
    (e) ol eEql B6[7]ql 6E+ {-H_z} folzlzl ?+9}+.
    ITRT
    a-r: { , > .H.= qlrll2
    2s "cql^l He zlzll flzl.$ rms +E= 4l&6I^19_.
    _ ./3(8.314k9-m2/s2-mdl-K)(298K) : ^leql^]
    5.1S x L02mls
    v 28.0 x to-3tg7mot

    Grahamsl ++'Jl
    Thomas Graham(t8os-186e)g 1846Hql 7l^llel E= +E7l Eer*g zll*+ql +ulql6}
    ag ga6|HtrI. Ag gEe+ Ae.Jqql^l F zl4lzl4g +Bol *fl + /l9 8zl"ll
    =
    ,+4 Eq fl+i1 7146}] Hzl. + zlalE += +EE 4zJ ,r4 r24n 6lt, ge*g,0r1r+
    ilrqa olE, Graham ElEl(Graham'slaw)3 +-q-J+ a+.
    ';:'ffi to22l
    ol +41= 7lH+ Tlzll.Jf E q
    +Ee +=.Jg +Elutrl.
    uulE
    rH *zle+q +471 9=+= +g'J ,JHg +^l7l +Br+ '?=6rY
    10.14q^JAH
    4o14. tszt9 Szl9ol uul=r=ffi E^l7l +84 +qa E=6J 7l+Col +o}4l+. olag
    4SZ 108 7t^11

    E= 4szt EzI9 rms 4Eoll Atslql6l+ 49 9"1'J4. Rrl r= oJCaE_E, 4 to.zze


    +q +-gr} ee +alE eg + 91trI.
    1: tr:r :
    \ 3RT/lilz ,E
    rz ttrmsz ^Wg Y ,ttr
    : r1o.23l

    Bzlql^l qltr-g + 9lFol, gE+ q EzI+g ,*=


    Graham += Tlillql Hl6ll g{
    =
    uulezil +Hg Edl *zlE BuI4LI.g + gltrI(f=J 10.1s).

    qH 10.14
    Graham t:]sl4t
    E-"1 01fl^l ExlE ol+old 0l^lol 7liil7lEg-d EEoll,\l 02 Ex[7|. '2J= E= +Eol 0.355HH AE-e E=-grtl. Elrl 7li]lel EtraJ
    E Zlt!6l'n, qE TlilloJ^l= "J6l^le.

    6tlU ulzl zlilli 5q olgzl $zle o1-7qA+r.a}floEtr., +


    E4 o,ql 4t olxl ,l!lE tlqlzl += +E7l +q4 flr, d 94= +olot.J+. ahHL ge*e ulzl zlzll sz}=J=9
    ulzl ,rlE$ Ee*4 zl^lE ++= "Jot4E E4lol+. + tsll= 444"e, trI4 7lAl9 flxle}g 127 g/mololQ. r|
    fitA trlzl 7li]9 Ee*g 44t;l7l +lsfl 10.22= ol+t +^] Elzl Tlill= r2ol+.
    ^l
    4. ,& lt Z l]l^l71x'llg E= +Ee+ Ee=Jol4l aiH, ll > H5 qFll1
    10.22Y 4s=4 zJol + + glEI. Tlal ts4= +l6J
    ^l^Hql^1,
    +^e+ ol&+ +d
    pa s¤i6tr. gl= BzzI,l+ *e sqqtr +xl¤ =El+g Brql
    rx
    ¤aqq 9l+. + Er=.EZI7I E"r|6lE trBCE.tl =
    toz !il, E6il

    Eot +qd a.E-s+q ^-l


    +4qq 9l+. 4 zlt:ll! Zzl +oJol s.00 atmol4$,
    r':0'355x16, ol4ls+ +rg ? E$ol 4.50 atmo ? *oldg Ellel +4

    trIE+^J I SEgg grloJz}?

    to:0.:ss:,Fstly (a) 52.to/o (b) 37.2o/o (c) 32.to/o

    tO, n (d) 4.68% (e) 27.4o/o


    "lL,
    32'OSlmol:
    : > H= qlr{ 2
    (0.355)2 0.126
    fr|, Nz 71 4le| 02 7l illE g5' gsul (rN
    J ro,)E 4l4l6t^l e-.

    zl4stmol
    ^,:?#:
    Ll8 rgoll^1 galq EEts gE6l^l"J +tr171Ha[6|.7] Itl|E0ll, 0lAt Tlnl^.loJll1 oliE 4Z0l Hl'+lcloldi3il.?

    F TlillEF Edel?EE
    Ei6H E=6tse, TlqE
    cE 7li1l7l rl +23 olB
    7lillEtrl Eal E=Etrl.
    =

    AfH 10.15 GrahamelE= H.l


    10.8 E^lol E=4+t 453

    trJtrt trdt zl.1+ rdE


    E¤ ¤tlr+ trt+7[4s, q& dt]E +4e Ez]84 z]H* tsxlg Aizl r] m]e4l oJol

    ++. +, BzI ^lolg +Eg rEl6llot 6Fr"_E E=sr| + q ++6IrL


    2l4l+al

    z|{$ $z}zl-+4+ ez}tr4 q Bn}E +E= r*=4= 4I q]+E +axilol4.


    "11{l 9l= alql +Eel +&
    g ol*6}q *,1 9lE +$ql ql6fl aq6]] g + 9lq. ^}d ql$
    ^l¤e
    rodF$ Kentucky9 Paducah elqql flzl6}n {q.
    gzi *89 "J=zl 916ll^l +%I9 ^l¤g E
    ^]2iI ^ll4l4d +q
    aoooi"J9 Elolse+ 75 acreTl H= *Ag ,Iz16l+ +4 *
    =q
    238u(ee.3o/o1E+l gie+, 23su(o.7yo)
    * s.Jd+.
    ^J.ll4str fl*pl C a+g
    +l g^= +El6l]ot"J 6I*+. +q-ts 5l+l g4= +4^l717l ¤zflb E= ¤tlg 4416]]^l gd E4zl5
    ^l-*6}q +4
    96I +lgC EI.JE.J H+^lzla, 11-314 *"]]E(faJ
    uF6-E t' E+l gA= Eil]+4. *zl
    ql oJql^l uF6 +7ls il]g g
    10.16)9 E"n+^la+. +H9 e7l qEql ++6J += r+ce ¤iB aldzl-E +g +qss qd^l7lE "ruFu= cldH zl
    otqzlql, +Bg E" 461= 4sz} 53*ql Bq 9l+= dql zFlql rlol= HlH, "'uFu= 95i9 zlgqlql EIEBI glZl
    ^l= +=E A+e+
    oE t:"J6I+. "'uFue} "'uFu= S+. olull TlxllE g'BJ ',tUFu= EI fld E?-l7lql^l ++ g
    =Ezl
    EAeIE zlolTl- ot+ zle trtr E"+ +Eql flq^lE EaE d E4zle ol5^lrJ+. +¤ ¤ttql El6ll gd E4zlE rI
    zlolg ts-oJ4. *q+ a+, gt 6e *aql dE4o.tr l-Ep+7I zl*tJ
    rzrs_ h<t ot ^l¤g a¤B + 9lq^l 49 9lHzlE rHl+4. ,J4 +^
    rzze Vffi: 1'0043
    oll.<J ol$oluf $slol ole+ rJ+ q^ldg ol+6}q
    4flzl4
    q-4^l aTlqE q-+C +"l]Ee] aj4q1 23suz| ++6tzl"J, szl.4.ll rFsE 23'u 5+l gA= +4t+= ql¤¤ d6}fl
    +a dg Hlqdl-q q-*c t}qEg Eo4rlzl= +ag E6ll I Xol4.
    + 5+l g^= 719 SqdIZl Er-lB + 9l'I. +?l g^= 4 +H g+ E4l: 1o.ss, 10.86
    ed +El6l+ qlql='1l+ {4 r}4lz} gs-6}!-tr, Tlzll +
    zlHE 235uro
    Exl= +zt
    238uFu
    ExlEcl TlaEg
    uutell
    .zgl TIO I
    =rl-e}trt.

    23suFu Exrzr
    a
    a a a a ts=E 7lill
    a a a o a a a a
    -rg: a a a a a a o
    uF68A l.o o a a a a ao a
    #
    aao a a a o oooo 23suF6
    o a a
    o
    o a
    a
    a a a
    o o a
    a
    a
    a a
    o a
    -El,sEJ Tlill=^t7t
    o a
    - o o a a a

    I 238gpu I 23sgp,

    a.r.B 10.16 7lill +{t= ol8-d ++ts ts+ 7l.q3 "uuFuP'38uF6-E11' E] uule7]l 7lsEE E;6H E=Eq'.
    E gfal^PlE== gqZtl. q7l HE Eg rtd ts=e ¤E= 9]6H tt^ zl8glfitl.
    ^lolel

    Ag ¤e aaol^l + 7l^l Tlillel ^Jql q& +EHl= Graham E4(^l 10.22)1+ +^16I
    4. :H 10. r3sl +¤+9=e+q tszl.9 &F 4sz} tr-'J6l +g "J + 9l+. q]= Eq d
    gql^l N, Tlill Eul9 rms 4.=-t. 515 m/solr|. ol^lH +E7l ml"=qlE B76Ir, oJE .J
    + ¤ql^l 6J+Bg gH, ql+ q E 4E9 ^ltol 6E +qlot %IE trIE +ql^J 6J7lE E
    e + 9l+. ole+ Aol zlillg qt +E= Ez[ +E trfl$ql +r]fl +EB+ ¤d :44..
    .6J+7I %Ig Fr+61+ +E= +7i7[ gE TlgTlel ^iB9 9+" e .J6l] gE]+ 3 4q4 9l=rHl Bq 91si. olel$ nQJ
    9 E*qlE 56In *g E"r+61+ rll|.rms +s.EJ_qe ql+6J aH+ gt eq aflr+.
    454 to5l 7l^ll

    olEl6J zl4l +zI +Eg ^J'J6l ^l+ "Jq+=Ell, ql7l"J tlEllql^l Ezl.el +E=+= ,Ha'J
    * ro'094 ¤4. ol4 zJ9 SzI6E=3 {xll zlill #47194+ +4E z*zl ullE ll "Jqt+.
    ol*l+ Ez| +E qlEql zlzll $zlsl +F ,.L.Jg 44 u1fl4. tr|+^l 6.J 9.liloll^J 4=
    +lilEE B^IE qte +471+58 oll"tq +a^J+ HJF6Je_E *e 4d +Eol .Jq*
    q(fal 10.17).
    +E+ + trfg +Eol "J"l4zl $7lz\ $zle) ¤J olF 4?]= EEt rtp uE(mean free
    path)4-r. dt=Ell, "l= .Jqql q+ EgI6I= $o14. +4zt dg+g
    ^l+rJ+r ^J^J"ll
    Bz|. .t|6+ol Y+g++(a"J), EIE
    ^[*+ +q6l{ *r e + 9l: 44= Sg 4ol4(#
    e ¤+ ^I.fr 4e). EJE a¤Eol .J&6[trtE(2.].J), rt= 9+-z. tr 44=
    ^]*4 +q6lzlq.e=
    EH IAl Eil^{
    a + ilg aol4(zJ ¤# zlf 45i). 6ll+Eql^J +71 ezlel ¤J zt# "J oo nm
    015-.J lrll lal ol+. +zl "JE7I gd q *g E 100 km rtrql^l ¤# zlfr d.E= * ro cm-tr, olb zl
    rE 10.17 7lill Erl-el q + sHql^Jel 4sE4 * uI"J ull q ,Jq.
    ^t E+6lxl Ll-EfL|1a]r,871 gr.
    oil ?1= tl'= 7l^llE^l= LIEIL|I^I
    gl9,trL +3a[ eP Ea[7[ 7li]l IE L}| E^1.9 -JE BE= 2loJ7l.2JL^14 2ioJ)1.
    7joJ7l?
    ^tf, =71^14
    olLlE of+al B:dE El^l^l "eZ
    (a) ge (b) 8E
    =7[ =zl'

    lo.e I I4l zl4l: ol^J4 4t-e.E-+Ei Hq'-J


    {zlf zlzllz} "l^J4 4$ql^l H.q+= AE=, oltr zlxllrl$ ^]|C46}q s¤6J n Aketr_
    oL -r
    .A' ol rL
    e. ,\l"-1.

    o' : n llo.24l
    RT
    oltr zl4l r molgl 4* pylnr atg g= *qql^l lolc[. to.18q pvlRr= p zizl d
    =aJ
    rll zli{el I mololl 4E} ps.l 6J+s xll;.la}flrf. ,l^lel ++ql q4 +.e.a 6}zl"J, ullzll 10
    atm ol.!-9 +g.Jqql^.i oltl4 zE(pvlRr:1)"tr+q r*.1 H.9t4. +^l "J6ll, {41
    Tlrql= rsq^l olt4 0 e 7l*6}z1 9*=+. rqLI 10 atm ol6[e] *g sqq^lE ol^J
    4 4Eql^l t*ol H,"l+zl ?*=+. q4^J 3 s-21 s.ol olt} ,l4l^lg ^l-e"6J + 91trI.
    d^il zl4l7l ol,lJ.! zl:aog--agEl H,q+= ag gEqlE E=_+tr}. 4 &uty 4-^o6J+=.

    >.reJ 10.19 gialol E 7l^l ! 2.0


    rll Tlille.l ZEoil El^l= EE CH+
    EE 3? zlxll 1 mololl tH-st 1.0
    E" Nz, CH+, Hz9 3?E 300 ^l
    K 1.5
    0ll^]9 CO2E 300 Koll Coz
    ^[e0ltl. COzol
    ,'.1 o-{ofIlaE. 39F 0 1.0 2.0
    313 K0ll^lel PV 0ld 7l^11

    ^f.E.olrl RT

    0.5

    0
    0 200 400 600 800 1000
    P (atm)
    10.9 | !^ll zlxll: ol8+1 TlEoe+El flGlH 455

    v dfl71, zlE7l: E4 zl;]|= Es.zl.g5anl qalEtr rl 01.3 7li1l^]B 7l=Arq


    3
    200 K

    500 K
    I

    2
    1
    PV 1000 K
    I

    RT
    o18 7l^ll
    1

    0-
    0 300 600 900
    P (atm)

    arB 10.19 eEq gelol EA Tlille.l 7.180il Dl^l= B:d

    lzll zlxllg ,l+e oldr zli{e} +^l-6l]Tlq(ral 10.1e). .JE}4etr olg{ zlge_e+q {
    qBe 9ETI *g++ e7l6la-.561 --qgl6l= gEql zltl$|e e lTl ar+.

    7/\
    +3 6ql^1 -dE 7l^1171-0184 7lEo.-++E1 7l.8 .pJol XolLl-= ,3++?
    ^A
    (a) 100 K, 1 atm (b) 100 K, 5 atm (c) 300 K, 2 atm

    zlxll $z| +.:EEE zlts4 zI¤9lrl ¤zll zl4lzl ol,!l4 zlf{l^.1 H.q+= ol+= tEE
    + gtr]-. ol$ zl;ll EzlE +rJg zlz16}zl ?+j1 Ezl ^lolql "Jqol S.qr zlz$oJr|. :r+l
    r+ ¤41 Exl+ "JC++irl= tlzlt_ g9.q, r.l-e oJ{oJ 4+++. :1910.20q1^.lz.lH ¤
    zll zlxlle-l 4* Ezl-=ol olFts + 9l= Hl +rJe ¤-zl PEe4 ErJ q zI+. Hlr4 *g

    "Jqql^l Tlal e4.g +rl:*zl Pq"ll Hl6ll +^lg csol4. ul+^-l ts4¤ol ols"Bi
    9l= zI+ +vl= Ee4sE EE +7lel Pulol4. +e .Jqql^J zlzll $2ffi-ol zlz16l.r
    9l= +q= ¤-zl9 +qql Elql q oltl +^l6J + sg dEE 44tr+.
    TliltErPt Eill
    dzlls tltll $zlzl zI+EAl ol]Eo6J + 9lE Hl +rJg ¤.zl9 +qH 71i.il Er[7[ Eill
    +trlsl AtP +E= +Ele.l= +E=
    + q 4Ig ++r-ql Hq. q+^J olq'* eaql^l Tlille-l +rl= olt zl ^[x|-.JEf. ^t^l--Jtr[.
    zll^lql E6ll qltlQ] + 9l= {ttrtr} ErJ 4t1r}.
    r clql zlrll $2ffi-ol jl"J aaql,<Jq zJol Tlvlo) Eq fleB, +
    z[ oJeol z]¤-tJ4. .Jq qlEql *zl H4 +ztg +E
    ^plql "l+l6J
    g aioial ¤4. "JeI 7lillg szl.Jg +rJ azl^la+8, .f.rJ 10.21
    o
    I+ Hl+.J rflg eg + il$ 4o14. q4 +H71qE Ezt= ol*o-J
    Bz|9 "Jqg +^lq !-vJq. olel Ag .Jqe BzLEol E4 +qzl o
    Cg Ee+^l7lzl 9, e, "Jqg ol$ zlill$ A+Bq rl zlolzlzll
    =
    gr+. q+^J :.H ro. 18r+ 10. rsqlrle+ zJol pvlRrE olt4 oJ <i ot *t
    J
    4e 4^614l "JE+. rq+ "Jqol +E6l +eH, *ql^l ¤H+ + !"'

    E E47I zlull!ol qr, q{^l pVIRTY ol^J4"J A oltl-e.tr. +7I


    6LtrI Lrq orzi Ee ora{

    gE= *g'Jqql^J 7l^ll +zI oJqol gEtt+ a44"JzlE


    arB 10.20 7ti.it= roJolt^iErt otd4oe
    ^Iolel
    ad++. :zB to.teelzJol Egol a00 atm ulElolH. lxll zlilli u$ Z=6Jtrt. ^loJoit^l
    456 109 7t^tl

    :dol ,Jxf7l oJ+oil^]


    trJqr E^ia EJgqetr Hlt!r]-E. 7liilq gajol olExl Ezt?

    e I
    c e e
    4 e e
    ()

    e
    \-_
    I

    e
    e c
    oldl 7lill drll Tlill
    .fB 10.21 !^11 7lillE 23+.8^t2J -'Joe ?.!611 018 TlillEtl galol 'Jtt.

    4B++ oltr-4 4fql^l H.qt+. zl^ll= ts461fl ¤+ +F "llHzlE Aa6[= H]Eq,


    $z|;.p1q oJqg .JC6lrll frzl¤4. trl{^l Tlzll$ B46tE Tlrll tsz}el "JqsE+El
    H.qqE ull $eoJ qlLlzlT} +4_614l qn, a44o-tr Tlxll E4¤ol ^ls +E6I7]!_E|
    qEzl o-+ zlzlol gq flY 4*zI r,l t*olxlz]l 84.
    = -r.B 10.le= e.ETl200 Kql^J 1000 K-tr +716J ql pvlRr alol dd trl olt}4 4*ql
    71r4fl4* _H_ttrI. gql^J t+6J azlB, rgql^l ¤zll TlzllE ,l+g +-a E4¤E oJa
    6J +rl En+e+El $2J4.

    A rts 1o.1ee.l Nz7[ 3oo atm olatlotl^j, old Tli.tlel Hl-il..tq ag gqsl zE itol= Hol
    or+= dedt^re.
    | =

    van der Waals {.1


    ll$ql^J='g8l Tlille} ol'* zl;llel 4Eol itolE EolE e, r.oJ Tlxll= oleo6l* =o4
    zlel4qlzl-= 7li]g $q-+q ^"ie q+ql=ol^J- zlr{al$ + s+. {zll zlzlle_l zl
    ^l-8:5J
    t¤ ql+6}-lr ^lEeL Tlai ++qL ll zl.*rll 6|+: LllE+Eg 4elx} fohannes van der
    Waals(ts:z-tsz:)91 96l] rll'J¤ 4ol 4.
    dr{| Tlxll= ol{ zlille} ulla}$ Bztt .J4ol z}*a}q *g "Jqg 7V]14, o}+ 4zl
    "J Bvlz} =Q. van der waalsE zl;ll $zffiol
    ilzl'* "Jd+ +rle+ Tlxll EzIrJ qlqql
    q6J trCg 6tE ol1l Tlill^lg ol+6lq d^ll Tlalq 4f,$ seg + 9l+g .J^l6lr,
    Tlal +^I .Jqg Ed6l= ae]- z)t:l\ ts^IE +q= Hd6l+ bel + ztzl !-c t}f
    ^|olE
    EoJ 6[q , 4+r+ ?3 van der Waals .l(van der Waals equation)S +B 6]9+.
    =
    nb) : nRr
    \ . *\v
    (o
    vz) - t1o.2sl

    nzalf!.Jqg +4.11= olol+. EzI qlqgE .J6I "Jqol Ai6}s.e, nzalf*


    ^fole-l
    uJalq Ez] .Jqql 9q].Jq +AE trA6J+(rB 10.21). Bz]zJ eqe +9 +q
    ^[olE
    B Ezl-ig xllt-((rzlv)r)gl ulflla|:_-tr n2alv? EzI aJ t ^lolg eqg +EluEl.
    10.9 dxll zlxll: 0l$! z15og+E1 HqH 457

    naE ¤zll zlz)llzlzl Tizl+ "Ja=6tel +r1= s'¤'tl+(rH 10.20). dzll Tlill= nbtrJ
    +E +irlE ilzl6}J, llo Er-tr ol{ zl;llz} ¤-zl.J + gl= zt+ +rlql 4oll rzb"J# ei'*
    zl+ +vl$ r*=trt. a4 bY vanderWaals ^Jf(van der Waals constan|{r d+ql, ¤e
    4etr +Cqb oJg alolq 7l7lql q+ r+7]|qe+. E 10.3q1^l a4 b 4I=o.JEI4es
    Exlelol +7].'*ql nl;+, :r-4r gz]. $$rjol +ztErgl trI+ 4dtri. r olf+ tsxle&4
    a7l7l a=ffi +rl= rJ zlzlr, EzlzJ .JqE c) zz) ull+ol4.

    X.10.3 7l{lErtslvan der Waals f4


    tIl
    ae a(L2-atm/mol2) b(L/mol)

    He 0.0341 0.02370
    Ne 0.2rr 0.0171
    Ar r.34 0.0322
    Kr 2.32 0.0398
    Xe 4.19 0.0510
    H2 0.244 0.0266
    N2 1.39 0.0391
    o: r.36 0.0318

    F2 l .06 0.0290
    Clz 6.49 0.0562
    Hzo 5.46 0.030s
    NHr 4.17 0.0371
    CH+ ))c 0.0428
    Coz 3.59 0.0427

    cc14 20.4 0. r383

    qBl 10.15
    Van der Waals {.1 o1g

    mol9 0l'3l7li]l= 0.0 "Coll,\l 22.41 L E7l0ll ill+E 10.00 atm9 "Jq='fEtrl. E 10.3r.[van der Waals
    10.00 0l86l.q
    ^.lE
    0.0 "C0ll^1 22.41 L}ll illE 10.00 mol Clzk)ol gajg Zllbt,\lg.

    6tl? +el 10.26 atm3 EzI +qe BCg il.Jg ++44. ol At


    E{ "Jqg 4&ofl"t 6l.E-tr. van der Waals ^19 olga}zl g olt}4 {}(to.oo atm)s-4 ell+6}E EziSol zlrerEL
    =.4.
    4¤* tfE 9"t I aJ4.
    +1611
    zll *4"lts +El= +zl *-t4Qz.st r)-H-Q rJ zlTl Eil+oltrt.
    trl+^J Ezl-E=g *zl H4 trl 4+ +Eollo} 6.ln "Jqg ¤
    4ct ro.2s= Pq ql6ll ArlqF[.
    ^l zll zlzfl$ aB+ +trt. t.2e atm {lg +z}rJ llql ql6].q H}
    S0l n: l0.00mol, R=0.08206 L-atm/mol-K, T:273.2K,
    rll %F6Jqs tr{'* aol+. +zlA .Jqql {aJ tsAg E +
    V=22.41L, a:6.49 L2-atmfmol2, b:0.0562 L/mol9 4
    -rn, q{^l .JH a.sz atm$ olt Tlrilql^J ++g aH+
    "J6IH
    4tg tlol+.
    ( 1 0. 00 mol )(0 .0820 6 L- atm I wol-K) (27 3.2 K)
    P: > !a5 qHll
    22.47L - (10.00 rnol)(0.0s62 L/mol)
    10.00 mol)2(6 .49 Lz-atrn
    ol{ zl;llll$van der Waals !g ole"o}{ 300,0.Cq 0.7500
    ( lwolz)
    (22.41r1)2 L 9lY z.szs mol dA ^ltre.l .Jqg 4l&61^l
    : 10.26alm - l.29atm: 8.97atm s.=4^fq
    +E +zl-= J.EE Ell, ol^J Tlzll^lg "J49 44¤zI
    458 103 7l^ll

    6I=7L 4aB7I-I-L7I? r*48 BpI4 qEzi? > H6 qlr{|2


    (a) 17 .92 atmsJt n+i¤ 7h $) 2r .87 atmtrJ# 44 B zI 1.000 mol9 cozk) 0.000'cql^l 3.000 L +q +
    ^lB7t
    (c) 0.06 atmEJ# 44*7I (d) 0.06 atmuJ* rt4¤zf Eq ilQl.
    zlql
    ^J46]]
    trxf. q¤¤ ole"o|{ zl7ll9 "J
    qg 4ltl6}^ls.
    (a) ol^J Tlal^l O) van der Waals
    ^l

    E6J qFI
    F -+.ul'7llL{
    o H -[E

    A'Jet Tlill?! ,(pl0llt!(cyanogen)? C 46.2%. N 53.8%el trBlHle 0l+ol^1 9ltl. 25 "C, 751 torroll^l 1.05 s
    =d ^l0l0|l{!
    3 0.500 Lg +tr|= ilxl-dtf. (a)^l.ololltlelE^t^.l3 +qfl7t? E^t?^=
    (b) q|46l^le. (c) l!$ ql=61'^le.

    =2.00014. Ezli ¤Erl-H.+ 2HH+9 .gzl¤.7lxlEtr +


    '}l'J zl43
    E4 94 +4 zlBe+ raE ceql ql6.J zlE-E+q zlill9 CzNzol4.
    Ez}4g aad+ EElol4. rq+-+ztE +ae} +^d9 ql O) 4q +4 +a= 442;l7l +l"]] Ezl Lewis faE BC
    9-e-21914. 6J+ cre (8.s4). 1r-|e-9E VSEPR tQ$ ols-"a1q 7
    "B
    (a) z{E 9+BEE 4C EE+g ol+6}q dql^lg 414}B a= q+6J+ 9l+ ocr (e.2¤).
    + 914 (3.s¤). :aelr. +^l d!1ll%ir+ Ee"*g Hl Eol tsztg flzlzl44 dztiE z(s)+z(s):l8oltrI.
    jil6.J e sr l Ex}4g +g + ?i+ ,:3r (:. s d).
    ^14
    zls= Zzlq 4!o|{ r8z[ flx}z} {z}el Lewis 73E, 4
    Eol d¤4g +6}zl +16ll, e+qlE olol 100 col4a flzl-b $dzl¤ r*a, ¤^l A6l= B + 9l= qle zlg +a
    ^lEE
    fl+s-l s=+E 4l^l6J+. -e q-s-.4 a+.
    ^lE 6 4
    7146}7.
    :N-C-C-N:
    c9 E# : <nu.rv">(ffi) : a.ssmorc (ol l-aql,rJi -E= g4el 60^l d6t7t 0ol+.)

    Net E+ : irr.r u*y(r*-H) : 3.84 mor N 9l Lewis +aq^l 4 gxl^= + 7|]E dxi ¤99 z*E4
    ?+?+9 er= + zll9 Hl="# dzHr4,* zl9 c.+ aBg
    F fl19 gEl= 7lE4 o-tr 1 : lol,E, dE^lg CNoIEL ,*= ElE, +A=,* rl]E c.+ A*r+ 6J rl]E +"J aqlg
    E}d.Eq E?"*g +6t71 +lEl rl ro.rrB ol+,*tr}. ,*=+). u+q^l 4 gz} ++lel dz} ¤qq zlal *aE d¤
    .. dRT (l.0s g/0.500 Z)(0.08206 Z-atrri lmor-K)(298K) olq, dzll E{-= d¤ol+.
    P ( 7s't 1760) afin
    (c) r{tq Ez}E +Cg 44t;l7l +lot{ zi]H aq}E +Cr}
    : 52.Oglmol +zlel dill4oJ zlat +aE r,E6llo} oJ+.
    dE^l CNq $eelg 12.0 + 14.0 :26.0 glmotoltrl. E+*E Eol EzITt CEolo-e. +a-ai Aq+el +dql 96ll ^JC
    9 EA+g dql^le*g-E ++E (52.0 slmot)lQ,a.o g/mol) 9 F zll9 )rt+^l7l ^lE ^J4qq +x}e-l +Cg fl4.

    sE "J 6e tq
    7li{le-lE¤(10.1$ dgql^J Tlille +4d+ Eeg gee}ol z} ql 7t^l H+("Jq(p), +rl(y), gE(r). zliil9 oJ(n))E B^lsllot
    g EzI EdoJ A6Jol gl+. +E N2e| o2-a ol+q11 e,*gt * 6J+. +q= .JH]49E ?-lEl(L), gE= AHI(K), zlill9 oJg 5
    7ly +471"J+E zlat g6J Tlglol+. 4. zlz]| aqille+ ilrllE (mol) E9l-tr+A"J+. gfl(pressure)¤ +9 E4'J 6J eE Cel
    =7t
    (vapor)e|-l 6l+ 7l^ll rlql-e + 91tr1-. TlillE "J+g + ?l ql, sI +91= trl4g(pascal, I Pa:1 N/m2)ol+. +¤ ++loJ Hl
    =zltJ
    -r., $zlpol 4e B4 894 gl" oe EE HI&E.SoJ+. (bar)t tOs Paol4. plolql^l E= rfl7lE(standard atmospheric
    ga;(to.2tr) TlallE E= 4ag s.^l6171 916ll^l.= +E^l
    pressure)$ 7lflJ(atmosphere, atm)4 torr(i9?9 mm Hg)E C
    ^Jql
    +a Eq 459

    99 trl
    ^l-S¤4.
    17l"Jg rc132s kPa Et 760 torrel zJ4. zl"J g!+ dill "JqE E)e+ rJ4. f=e(molefraction. x)g gqlEE
    4l= Ellrl"Jel +C{ ^l¤-6E. "JqAE eq 9l:7li-lle.l .Jq + dill Tlill g+ql 4"J "J ^dEE E+9 Elol+.
    aql ^Fa.'J + 9i4. Tliil Er[ (10.7tr) ztitt#.=(kinetic-molecular theory
    Tlill g=l(10.3tr) S+E Foil A+"J Tlill H45ol Blqflq. 'J
    --E Cdg ol:.j zlzllzp.
    rl8lel
    =r]
    zI46Iq ¤B"JtrI.
    of sas)e
    "l zl4
    A6J gEql^l "JA=*E Tlill +i4E .Jqql Hlul4laJQ(Boyle E g rJ+61 "J:.18 q+r+ zJ4. tsxli #gs.ol +a^l6}7ll ¤+6J
    4(Boyle's law)). "JCt "Jqql^J "JA=JE Tlill +qE ¤ql g 4. ezlg +irlE 8zl9
    zl4l B9"ll Hl6Iq +^l6J aEE zI+.
    Eql 4Hlql{}4(Charles's E=l(Charles's law)). E"J.J gEe+'J zlill ezl+
    ^l.e.
    tql tq E= Hlgqol S.4. zl;.tl B^lE B+
    { az3q1,t.1 F"JEJ zlAl +rlE ,*: Tlxll= t'oJ6J Ezl.+e 6l .sE 9lulzli ¤4 SEql ulfllalE-e.. gETl oJad}zll ]?zl9E
    'J4+ eEeI *
    frqlE}(Avoga&q zl'll(Avogadro hypothesis)). H6Izl ?*=+.
    q adq^l zlill +ul= Tlillel g+ql {ulflls}c}(Avogadro E4 zl;ll$ zllp +zlE=g qE * +Aql E+ 5.Jtl gE qlLJ
    (Avogadro'slaw)). ol4,J3 ,l4l Hlg ol$ zlxllrl$ A ,*7]|?+=+. q4l EzIg +E= He HgE EE6Iq, f.
    =++ ^1=
    +q ql"J6JEl.
    +E= TlillE Ee=}Jt gEql El+ H6J+. ElElTtEE(rms) *
    018 7li1l^.l(10.4tr, 10.5tr) ol8 Tlill^t(ideal gas equation, PV : 5(root-mean-square speed, $gE llffiql ABI
    u,-,)!- ¤4
    nRT)* otg Ttilt(idear sas)ql qloJ tr4 BCal.l4. ol zlel Rg zl ql6tir, EAEJ9zll#ql HlHlql.J+. 4 u,^,:t/Tfrlfrol4.
    i{lt}t(gas constant)olr}. ollt zl^{al$ 6}+ E: + 7lrl4 4rJ 7l* *? 4EE u-p :Afrlno1r|.
    ol Hg tsg 4Ael H+E 21416l+ Ell
    "l ^l-.e"$
    f 914. ro atm Ertel E=rI q+l(10.8tr) tszI gFEe-eP4 zlzllzl
    ol6IE.Jq4 213 Ks.Y r ol4IE gEql^J ql++g zlr,llE ol (effusion)ali-(zle +Bg g=6lt-) +E= SeelE ==
    E6ll
    ^J
    Tlrll^lg ^J'J6l p ltrl=tr+.273 K(0.C), I atmg sagE=t q HlEl4ltEl(Graham El4(Graham'slaw)). zlx1]q1 Edl ^ll;g
    d+¤
    5 ffi(standard temperature and pressure, STP)ol4n "JEJd 9l *A_g-E. qE Tlillzl- *l^-(diffusion)d+ ag +^t olF +Ee+ +
    trI. olt Tlill^lg ol++ e.E ++q^J 8E= HIE^I ¤4 8s
    d glE E 4= ¤tol4. Tlill Ezl-=r=g ^JE +E6t!-tr EEtr[P
    (atl aE)E ++. UE(mean free path, +E ,J ¤t olf 44)zl $rf. gz1 ,'.1o19
    ^l-8:6llot
    ol$ zlxllrl$ zl^]lE "JEeI EAelg +Hzlg + +Eg Tl4lEalE +4I+EE xllsl{}4.
    ^l-so614
    9l+(/t: dRrlp). EEI +qt H}*^lql^'l HI+E E= d¤Ee
    dr'fl 7lill: 0184 7]Eo.E+E1 Hol'J(10.9$ dzll 7l^1171ol.i4
    4 7lAl7l +q6I= E4l9 a+qlE olt} Tlill^lg ol+tr + 4Eq^l {qLI= cEE =.71.=.J4ol ?z}i}91 q4, r?]n g
    el+.
    E7l a4'fl-ql 44 ?zl.J4. ellLF6.l-E (r) ¤xll 7l^,ll ts^t= "Ja
    7li1l stlEE
    dall Sqe E'J
    "Jq(10.6tr) 7l^ll + +i4= tlz)q, Q) Ezl-==g ^Je +E=g EI .Jqg ae6}rl Ell
    =-dErl+E 541a3 ql +41+= ?E oJ{(partial
    6J aaql^l 4 zl4lzl ¤-e eol+. van der \{aals *l(van der Waals equation)3 ol$ zlilll-l
    pressure)9] aJ4 zJ4(oalton9 EEI E=l(Dalton's law of partial oll {xjl zlxll$ Pyl$ Ez}zJ ES E{qL 4o14.
    pressure)). gaJ$ql^] 4 d+ 7l^llE Y E g.HS p':X'P'(EE

    qt+ tal ot B= a+-d +0t qalgg trtEE g + e,toto[ Eict

    . "Jqg 4&6fa torre| rllzloJ$ "Jq +91= B++trf(10.2¤). +¤ S+ E4l: lo.ss, lo.s7
    e).
    +¤ g+ E4: lo.ls,lo.l7, lo.l9,lo.2r . ,lSlstlEql^l ++ $q "t d4l sqg 4&6Jtrt(10.6e).
    . ol.g zl;.llrlg ol+6}q p. v, n, r= Zl&6J+(10.49. +H ¤+ g4l: r0.7, 10.61, 10.63
    +B 9+ +-41: 10.33, 10.39,10.43 . tszl ¤+Eg ol_Lo6J TliJlg "J44 &=, Tlill Bzl, E= +E,
    . Tlill H4r+ o16r zl;llzlel +41= ol6ll6ir.. Tlill B4g oltl 7l q-41 $r{l
    46}q dBql4(ro.z¤, 10.8e).
    il^lql zl+6lq 4&++(10.3e, 10.4e). +H g+ E4l: 10.9, lo.7s, lo.79,lo.8s
    +¤ 9+ +-41: lo.2s,1o.3e,lo.4l . roJ E: zlgql^J {x] zlxilz} ollt zli)loft 4E 7l¤¤ Bol
    .TlAlE EE "l tsz}*¤ 4l4}+tr1-(10.se), ol+E +^lrJ.Jqr+ Ezt +iilE ¤E,ttrl-(l0.ed).
    = g+
    +{ g+ +.41: 10.47, ro.sl,lo.s3 +H ¤.41: lo.8e, lo.el, lo.1l4
    .slqi Hi+q]^l SrJ¤ zl4l9 +tlE ,ll4iElE+(r0.s
    ^EqZ+
    460 108 7l^ll

    z o Hl-e- -il
    OJ-r- L O
    ' PV: nRT Iro.s] ol{ zli{al
    hvr Pzvz
    Iro.sl eql 7l^ll Hzl, p, y, Ie+ g+ ,9 t4l
    rt 7)

    .d: P"t/L
    [ro. ro] zl;ll9 EJE E= Ee*
    RT
    . Pt: \+ Pz+ P3+ [ro. rz] sB zl^ll9 dill "Jqr+ 4 +d CEq ++ "Jqr+e] +{
    (oalton9
    +E "Jq Bzl)
    .Pr: ( llt Pt xi, [ro. ro] +E .Jq4 gEgE +Zl
    ll1 )
    'a-,: VBfr a,l.
    Iro.zo] ,l4l gzlel ¤t <llE(rms)+EE eel

    ra tfr;
    12 !
    l----a Iro.zz) + 7l^l 7]|414 E¤"J4 B¤ +EE ^JS+41
    "tt,

    (r.#)r-nb):nRr Iro.zsl van der Waals


    ^l

    oJf +41
    tso.E-H= 7llLl (a) ¤3 f9 tsxl¤ s+6J aol+
    l0.l cl^JE ¤+ 4zl'J9 o.ooz atmol4. sldql^l EqE F61l O) eHIg .Ezl-= s¤,6J aol+.
    ge+E trId ql, zl+tlql^J uloll rJ dSzL cl "l4SzI? (c) + HllE Bzl-= s$g Aol+.
    (d) B-6Irlql 11tr7f ?46ItrI.
    ¤B6I^le. [ro.z¤]
    to.2 :floll Hol5 a4 Ag olE zl-tst q^Eol 9l= +7lql r0.4 HI* 2co(s) + oz(g) ZCoz@)7} "JAql &Eq^l 'J
    7lxll ||f,71Eq 9lqr 6I^t. [10.34] qg ql. ¤.zl -
    49 q^Eol "JaEI "Jqg +^1617l fl6ll g
    (a) 9C oJq6}ql^l Tlillel gETl- 300 Kql^l s00 K-E +7I zloJqa tr-{r-ql tr^I. H}+ +rlel Pulz} ?ol Er} r1^o-=q-

    6J A+, +zlE EoJg El^l r4^l9-. 6lHrlE, q¤ EI*E Ar+ql e-l+ at^l ¤H6f^le.
    (b).J4 $=.op1,r.1 q^EE E+ Sqol 1.0 atmql^l 2.0 [ro.s¤, lo.4e]
    atm9E +716J 4+, +7lel Eo.ig El^l 14^19. (a) s0% Pul 6zI (b) 33%o Psl 6zl- (c) "JCoJ Pul -,?ul
    (c) .JC .Jq6}qd zlgl9 gE.zl300 Kql^l 200 K-tr +i (d) 33Yo +rl A4 (e) 507o +E +i
    El a+, +7lel E-olg +^l rEl^le-(+, zlollrl "ls+q
    lo.s .JA=*g ollJ. 7lAl7I gA +qs glElr 7IC6fl EzI. +q
    ^l
    9*=+r. TIAt+). 7l gC6}rll ,?zl9= tEilq^l 7l4lel .Jqol F El]s ¤t7l
    6lE gE:984 9Yzl? [ro.+?]
    10.6 trI.S dQl zl+ql= Tl,qlz} a}]+lTlF zll9 *zl4 el-$zl t
    zllzl 9l-e-4, olEe +ol BJ +¤ ¤A+ql ¤Aqq 9l+.
    \.)
    7l^ll7l "JA gEql^l 4lolrll B 41, 4 *zl
    "Izll= 9q +
    ql^l g^[e] EsE q$r,ll 94}zl-? (+, F +rlel +q=
    EroJ6} ae-e. z].{a}1. ol- ¤a6l= gA+.el +q=
    r0.3 E|g fH+ zJZ zl4l ^lEE {4611 trzt. "Jqg *e-e 6 +^16f4.) EITI]E g + qL 7vl171q ++ "JE¤ zlxl
    olzl f.lall 7l4lE +E6l 8146J oll, +Ele+ gETl "JC6tq =
    AyTl?;r0.0¤1
    E:zBe q¤ E.+g ElzI? [ro.:d] a a
    o o ao a
    o o o a a

    ooo o o
    C o
    EA Erll 461

    to.z El-* reg 47]|qE. 4 7l.^l ,l^ilel g!+E-g 441J 4ol 10.12 ol-4 :H¤ t L +zl .J9 Tlill ^l.e l mol9 gE +7lql E|
    EI. [10.6e] E Sqel Hq¤ Bq +q. ql ,||E 4de { zfl$ ol{r zl
    (a) *B oJqol =o7l.6l+ +^lqE ^-ll 7I^l C¤¤ +g6i^le_. ille]. ,l|E dull zl;ll(co2, N2, Cl2)ql ql"J++. [ro.s¤]
    ^ll
    0) gql rl4l9 drll oJqol 1.40 atmol uli. 4 71419 ++ (a) t¤9lrJ EE 81 419 dzll 7l8lE olt 7l^lltr+ *g
    oJqg al4}6l^ls. $ES zt+14. dzll zlz,tl9 .Jqol q *olzl7ll qi g
    oo o 6Jg += tszI zJ
    'Jqql ql*61'= van der waals *i*

    () o g o
    a{71, boJTl?
    (b) -S. 10.3E van der waals tiE ol+6lq zld e, s, c
    o o(} 45
    q 6]lB6l+ zlill(Cor, N2, Cl2)E s^l6l.^le.

    10.8 (a) -s0"c9 Kr(8), o) 0'c9 4


    Kr(g), (c) 6'6el erk)oil -- oldf Tlill
    o E r4^le.
    Tlill A
    sI BzI +EE 6}+q {/jzi lr0.z4l 40 - 7lill B
    =.Eoll
    - 7li.1l c
    l0.e +g rBq^J, (a) Ael B +dol +.J gEql^l ++7I rI= -
    itlzl zlt;ll He4 oz9 4# L|4U aol+E, qH +dol ot
    35

    Hegl dlBal.b A"J7l? 0) Ae+ B7l + 7171trIE gEql^l F al


    .J TlillE 44U 1.14H, q! aol q be gEE +4111 ,a 30
    tr
    (!
    Y7l? k) 4 +dqi 46H TI^L ffio1 ke +E, B+ xil*
    25
    ¤++E+ qH +E7l7l* mlET].? [ro.z¤]
    =+E,
    20

    E
    rl A 300 350 400 450 500 550
    ol 3E(K)
    E
    B 7lill ga{10.1E, 10.2tr)
    =c,
    10.13 rJ+ ¤B + Efl ag gg a.Jz|?
    (a) zl:-115 aq4BEl "JszI B{ 44.

    Erl +E 0) Tlalb ""4iIB+ gd "*ol *+EI + 914.


    (c) qill t}4e-l E4 E4 tr-Ellg ccla! {olxl *71 qE
    r0.r0 4+ TliI= ^J46|]
    7l^l
    -H_z|.
    ^lr7l EF E"J+gE.ql
    ,r11
    ql, +7lE 4olzl g=+.
    +4oJqH (a) d4l Sq,0) He9 YE "J4, (c) "JE, (d) (d) 71819 +E= +719 +ulql E6ll eag+.
    .Jzl-59 B+ e+ qlq^l 44ql 4ull ol5
    ^lEE +^JE r0.r4 (a) glmL, g/L. ks/cm3 +91 + zlillg trJeE El g .J +
    +g6l-^le_. [ro.od, 10.74]
    dlL -, oo

    I
    ,(:-

    oo ulg ee o 0:He (b) N,


    -I
    + qtTl.Jg s.frolzloll 4et B+lE?
    pa, atm, kg/m2

    e
    (i)
    .)
    a o
    (i0
    fl
    (iii)
    !r c O:N, d4
    (c) SEel .E.E qlTl.Jql^l
    3 Fz, Brz, KzO 6 qg a'JzI?
    zlxlt zlf,rjol tl* A 4

    ro.rs i16.1 130lbolq +g ++E 4lg q"Jol fzJzl"e -s.


    l0.u sg +?_l+9 ,JolE r -olJ., I atme] Ar TlillE illgl4 E ill+g ++ dgql db+I zlcdl e4. +FE H4ol
    9lE|. ot4ql^lE= HIe+ ,Jol, *9 "J¤g +B 4' ulzllE 0.s0 in.2oJ a+, sBq z++d+ "JEg (a) xll+?lil* y+

    "-le fl+. +E ++ gql^J= HCttl/lzf


    rsEqr, 5^lql SE (a) kPa. (cb) TloJoe 4t}6I^19.
    tr|E'J+¤ql^]=NH3 zlillzttEg+. +7]|^ll7l +B + 10.16 4+ol a,r1ez]. ujl zflel r]ale. BE+ ts]q sEql +q gi
    ufzfl$ f;aN q&qq SIB EI g^49 n?] EoJol
    ^J7lEEll,
    ol= NH4cl(s)zI Bdrlzl EIEoI+. t9 a, b, c 6 9:9 r 9lq. 4*olel *q flb 49 *.ga dill 3=*3 zoz kg
    ilql^l j1471 ¤CB 1o -e el+61-b4? [ro.a¤] ol+. HIElql d6lii 9lE +r]$ql T16llzl= "Jqg +^A
    ++]s 4l.t}6}^le.

    HCI
    il $' *,r.
    462 tg5t 7l^il

    10.17 (a) 371^llE $ol zoo mm *9 +!--r+ FoJ6J.Jqg +4 TlillHEI(10.3E)


    .liEE q ulrl$ $ol{ot 6l+7}? (+, "JE= ro.2s zs 'cql^l -S4"J + 9l= q^E dflqql zli.llz| $ol !ir|.
    =El^ll$E E++ + qE BEql 9u1l zl4l "Jqol + ufizf s]fliz[!
    1.26 g/mlol4, +gq "J.E= tl.o s/mro14.;(b) ql7l"J
    ol 7s0 torrg rll sfPzlE9 sEos+El ls ft oHqj gl (a) g.e= +^loJ iI +q7I F uI qE+ q^Eg Eq gB
    r+8, +++E *.11 zlollxlb "Jqg? (+. EE "Js.E t.oo (b) +ElE sxloJ xll zl;llel $e$ 2s'cql^J s0'cE 7lgl6J
    glcm3 :1.00x r03 kg/m344 ,IA+4. 69 itiL s.at (c) gEE +zlt ill PvlzI tlol qE+ q^Eg,llg
    m/s2o1q, I pag t kg/m-s2ol4.) 10.26 oJA*q zltllYzt"Cql,\17s2 torrel ojfl$ +4lll-r., s.12
    10.18 (a) +6JE- I -olol gtr tr Ell 4l oJ (1 -iodododecane)g Hl fl "JC Lel +qE it^l6J+.
    o-l4le., gEzl 1.20 g/mlol4. +gq "Js= t:.0 B/mlol (a) &EE +^l"Iq oJ49 t.ss atme-tr rtzlx1z;
    "JC6Irll
    4. *zl9 oJ4ol zas torrol ull, l-oFlq tr trEll4l.Jql zl= El], 71817} i}zl6l-= +rlE 414}6}^ls-.
    .JC6Irll
    +.Jq41 T]FE +ol= gotzl B aos ql+61-=7\? O) 'Jqg +^l6iq ¤EE tzs "cE ?7f^la ql,

    (b) rllzloJol T42torroJ rll *iPzI fH ol4 2l ftql flg zl 4lzl- ilzl6k +tl= 4l&a}^le.
    4*. 4zl9lrl t++q Eql zlollzlb.JH¤ g,I.JzI? tozz al Amonton H4g.JqrI9e,.r.;o1e1 *4lE 44H4. p
    Eu.r.rt +(2s.028 ft) At}el 4zl"J3 E 26s torroltrI. ol g- 4 r 4o1E El4 +41= +E6I7l 916ll^t= Hzl4 tr"J B
    49 (a) atm, (b) mm Hg, (c) Pa, (d) bar, (e) psi E|91E i} 4¤. 0) 7s.Fql^J zl+il4olq $qol
    -10J9,t}6i^le-. ^l¤:6}^ls. =c¤
    32.0 lbs/in.2(psi)oll. +d +ql Qolol $sz| 120'Fe +

    10.20 trI.gg +9lE ++416}^le. 7tEl9E}H. 4olq sqg g"Iqlz}?


    (a) 0.912atm9torrE (b) 0.685 barEkPaE 10.2s a^e++i 7l.llE Hls"6Iq oJEqoI rl4lE Bd.J+.
    (c) 655 mm HgE zl"J9e @) t.323 x los Pag zloJg-tr Nz(g) +3Hz(S)
    (e) 2.50 atm$ psiE ECQI gsp+ .Jqq^l r.2 LE-2NHs(8)
    4rzl t.elg Hre+ Hl*6J
    ,o-zl "l-+ql^l .Jqg "JHI4etr +gg .J^lE 44t4(rn. 4. g= Nz4 u,zl4Eqfl+H, *9EI3-sc+'Jqql^J
    g"toJz}?
    Hg). Chicagoll^l q¤ qE Bql g'qol 30.4s in. Hgol4. ^JCqE Nu:9 PqS
    (a) ol Sqg torr-E +4I6I^ls. G) ol Sqg atme.E S ol.g 7lfll^l(1o.4E)
    116}^le. r0.2e (a) srpel oJzlzf +4111= 3ag +E.J7l? b) sTPql^l
    10.22 200sHE 6l?,141"J wilmab 4^l"J xlqql^l TIT rlq6J ol{r zlxll$ E+q= gu}oJzl.? (c) ¤¤¤ gal 2s.c+n
    q 4l oJgtr zl E9 *brll, zl zl
    -..1
    "Jol 882 mbar(millibar) I 7IAt4. 25"C. t atmoll,rJ ol* zl4l9 5+q= altl6l-^l
    tr|. ol= (a) zloJ, @) torr, (c) in. Hg-tr +416I^19. s. (d) 'Jqg atm 4dgl bar9 Bfltr +A6In^l g Ell, R
    ro:l qlzlEol o.ees atmol4B. rHql s^l¤ a+ 44ql^l I <tg L-bar/mol-K9 +91tr Al4}6i^l-s'
    ^il
    B4+l zlill9 .JH¤ E"l.JzI? (+. sl^4el o-qill+ +gol 10.30 +E¤ ol$ zl;,llaloll,rlb Tlill gzf+ +^I9 +q= +^l6J
    4l ziXa3r1.; + 9l+n 7IC6JtrI. Lllgg g^l tlzlEol 6.6e [o]:r flxf
    6J 4E *-Atl snlltg ql, srpql^l uJlg z.lEollEq fl=
    Enl
    Evt
    Gat
    =d
    nnl Gal Eol .JA
    Ne flzl¤ol ilzl6l+ +L7Jg gELoJTI?

    T T + zflel r L Eol ¤.q^rz} glbcll. E.J gEql^l ol + +

    I
    _T 4= + ge=J"l
    h 7flql= E.4*ol :oql zl;llzl 9la, THql=
    h
    h -ro:r 60oJ zl4l7I llQL z14a1z1.. A "J43 x atmol
    i )l^11 rL ={^rE
    -r., ¤4^rqlEq 7l^llE gE
    e%Lg 1.2 gol4. B ¤+^

    :
    rq $qg o.s.r armola. 5q fl= TlAlel a
    h: 52cm h: 57 cm h 10.3 cm =+^rql EooJ zlzllE gB
    q! ¤qr-3-7153=Jol
    B.ol 1.2 ColEl.
    (i) (ii) (iii) 6Ir. 9l:zl? rEr q- Eq4a7l Ee*ol 60t 7l!l=
    10.24 ¤ol gil +e $qalr} zlg$ zlllel -$zl
    qlzll r0.2ql -EE6li19lEzl?
    ql ¤eqq fl4. trl-Sgl 4 *Elql^J BA4l zl4l9 'Jqe 10.32 + zll! $frl:zzf glErll, Eg SEql^l ol + + 419 +
    torr-+. gEloJzP qE z roll, r+= {} 4el +q= 3 Loltr}. 2 L Eol
    zlillq g?E ge.l gq il= =+
    4.s g9 zlr{E sd-6}n ?lbcll, f. zl^ll9 oJHg x
    (a) ++g 471(0.e85 atm)oll
    aql^Jtr+ mm El ++.
    15.4
    ^l= 3 L 5ol
    atmolr|. o.:o 99 zlill$ E6}ap !l
    (b) zl4q1 flag gE +eg qlTl(o.ee atm)oll gej 9l= .f 7l illg .Jq=4^r5
    EEll, g 0. lx atmol 4. F 7l ill= 5'J"J Ee
    gl=71? rc^l ?*trtE, q- E4^=71q 7
    aql^1trtrt12.3 mm *tr}. "d¤ 7t^lr.
    EJ
    gxll 463
    =*
    Eg+g 717]|t_ o)+71? 10.41 100 Kq^l +El7f 4.0 LoJ $zloll 3s. r g r4l co2(=4olol-
    r0r3 q-^J Tlillql ql6J +g sE $c6f^le ol:) rlEzf Eq 9l+. +71 oJg -E= Tlill= xllzlo|-r. Ej
    P V T
    Ho6J
    F tg(r:2e8 K)os gEE g*.trlH, nill CozE
    .J9 .J43 g"t.Jzl?
    ,1
    E+ TlillE EI+1S.94? ¤:zl
    2.00 atm 1.00 L 0.500 mol ?K
    10.42 EI+ dQlql
    ^l-.&.J
    fi4 mL dflrl"il n "CE 4t s.zzs g
    0.250 L mol 27C
    0.300 atm ? ol Eq 9lE|. oldr zl;ll ZH T}AoIHq ql, Sqol 7s atm
    650 torr ?L 0.333 mol 350 K _e--e. eiqriH, q4E q *=qqo}
    col al.bzl?
    ? atm 585 mL 0.250 mol 295 K roz: el= +FE A+e+ +gt EE Hal
    ^I+¤+.
    895 torr, 24"Cql^l 5c Cl,
    ^+q
    TlillE +ul7t 8.70 L4-7.
    10.34 ol1l zlxllq E]]t trlgel 4 oJ¤ 4l&6|^le-. ^le
    7l4i;l^1. (a) ,rlE ? ctr: H :-ts"Jzf? (b) sTpql^l clrE
    (a) &E -6'cql^l oJqol l.2s atmoJ zl4l l.s0 mol9 P
    PulE guI.JzI? (c) .J4ol s.76xto2 torrg ull f +ul7l
    El(L ++le)
    1s.00 LolE, egE gu}"J7l? @) SEzI se.C"J trll +q
    (b) 3.33 x l0 3 molg zlillzl 750 torroll,rJ az8 mLE il^l
    7l s.00 LolE, oJqg gEloJTI?
    6Ij19Ig ,l^,ile] ¤qi gE
    "I 10.44 Etg l"J *zl9l 4494. 23.Cql^l 16,500 kpa
    (c) zlill o.ooz4s -o1ol 138'Cql^l 413 ,n1$ zlzlap !l 'l4lEg
    g rll atm ++le ++u E .Jqetr oz 7l4lE gaJ6|-r. il= +q ss.oadel ,Je
    "Jq
    (d) 126.s L7I s4"Cql^l 11.25 kpa9 .J49
    zl-¤ 4l mor E Bz=. ^J46ll trzf. (a) B=ql Eq fl= ors-l 4="+3 9ol
    .JzI? (b) srpql^J Tlallzl zlal6l+ *Elb E"t.JzI? (c) 9
    +le LI4B Tlillel "J
    ¤ gEql^l 839 .Jqol 150.0 atm4 erl q=71? (d)
    +.6' &E 4zl4^I +lE BoI+q= Goodyear Hl4cg ql 24.Cql^l +q7I s5.0 L"J +7le 7li-ll7| olEo6lE. 7lillg
    4 rzs,ooo ft'E AEg d-z ?l+. 23"c,1.0 atmglrl Hl4 oJ43 El+]tr gtrl-7} qA=71?
    -ro-rsdql t<Pa
    Eq ?i: gEg e=J'g gtrloJTP
    +nI t+ql -u-rlg dBql^J +a HIilH4E, 4}l rulg
    10.36 qH LJlg^IoJol, 4* xlEol 2.5 cmoli 2o121 s.s -oJ
    +C6L= E9I44 +E +Ee e+ 7l+.J qgtlr-ot
    +rl+gE. "JEqA4. ol Ql$,<|olol 3s'c, 1.78 torr9 oJ -roes(treadmil)oll,tl BqE+ 61fl+. ^B
    1^lt EoJ 0.08 km/hr-E
    q6}ql 9ltrIE. H r+9 !l$ol r-Jl$,r.|oJql
    =xlld}=7|-? Bq= B+4t EtflE4l= 24"C. t atmq^J all+ I sEJ 0.8
    (dilrl9 +q= rlhol+.)
    mLE O2E 4Hl6JEl. (a) olelr'J 4re gz1o1- s.2 gel ul.
    ro:z f"l ;ll$(:z "c). ns torrg oJ49l^J.
    ^IBol
    t Hql ,Jrll +lgeil= l^lrJ Et ozE H g 4Hl6l+7p (b) olel Eg
    Eol El-.tl 2.2s L4 +7lql +46l-= 82145. alt6l-^le. + Hl-llEell= *of t qt +^Fql ';fi.E|. g+61+ E'J HI
    (b) + C+6J +E 74E ql+rlg s.0 x 103 1olu.|. Szlz|
    flHqlrl5gg;7e_e zl+4.J gt¤ 6t4r. 7l-cdlH.
    olt4 "e, 4E"++r z|{a}-L, 0.0.C, 1.00 atm9 adil r HfTEell= 48^lrJ E$ ol+ 7P"+ ozel2oo/o oltlg 4
    i14el qlq sqlg +zlel +rll(E+ 53=J9 zs.se
    ^l +E Hlg + g)Zztl? (t, +7lE zto E *t7l +xl]{}trI.)
    g/mol-tr 7lA 6J+)E 4l4}6t^l s-.
    10.46 gF d+=e] 4l^ll4 4.JCg'=14 yo,'E ol
    +416f= s+(oJql 96l] ^J7l= oJEol l.o x =AqiEJl,
    10.38 (a) C+flq +6I eE(elE Eq Blts "14D rla F"J rr.q5 alrg
    r0-3 atmoltr, e_g.7l2so K4E, qq'J 9= Ezlg += =
    el tI4 +rlol+. ¤t4.J Bcq 4rI vo,Y 4s mLo2/kg
    Erl-.JzI? (b) ol&s+ +iE ^l+ 4zl9 qI0.0a7oE 7d6f E-S4l/mino1r1. rq+ ¤+ d+EE 5l
    n 9lq. trls^d ol- *(zz "c),.11+EE S4(r.oo atm)oll ^ll4lzl'J ++9
    4 vo,i 88.0 mL ozlks#*A\lminol4.
    2.0 L9
    .r..1 i]lf*+H, 4oilts co, Ezl- H 7l| (a) ffizllz| l8s tboln 47.5 mL 44 Vo.7l ozlkg E-AAll
    ^lEE ^le
    7I e4l6l+zp minoJ Bt4oJ H:rdol l^lrJ *oJ &^q +q
    ro:s *++E tlEql= 23 L4 Puloll o.zs kg9 0rzf Eq 9l ^!.61+
    5 mL$ +9e 4l&61^ls.
    4. (a) s"cqlr] F.ll+E Tlal $qg 4l4}6l^le-. (b) 26'c. (b) ol tsrdol 20lbe.l E-+4lE u4n. ¤+¤ ¤l"ll al4 yo,
    0.es atmql^] ol .lftz| ifzl6l+ +qE gEltTt? E os.o mL o2lkg $fzll/minotr +71^l?r+4, r^lrJ
    10.40 2s0 mL *ul9 qlqs¤ ,Jg +d4e seqloJ Eq] &^= E mr,glzh?
    ^'E4ol ^qEl
    zlxll(cgHJ z.zo g& -EEI6Ii gl4. (a) vlol23.cql ¤7}]6]. olg 7 li{l^.lsl +7t4?l 3E(10.5tr)
    E, ,J.ll+g .JHg gol"Jzl? (b) srpql^l E+qloJ Tlill 10.47 1.00 atm. 298 Kql^l COr, N2O, Cl2 + q! 7l4l7l7l*EJ
    7l- i}'{6t= tsslE gotoJz}? (c) r30.F ol*9 gEql^l} E7l +e7p ¤Bd}^le.
    zJol el? + 9t+E E+7l +uJql 44 ?i4. ol $Eoll,rl
    10.48 1.00 atm, 298 Kql^1, SO2, HBr, CO2 TlillE ITJETI TieL
    d 4+9 $43 9"1'JzI?
    Pga+El 7l*= aE +es+g6}^le.
    464 103 7l^ll

    10.49 El-s + ¤E zl4le iH9l4l E6J +col +71 6ql^l trle_e. EaE Eaelg E^ll lo.s3q^J ;jgal Dumas-bulb
    10.s4 +lg:C
    b ol+E 7l*4 ¤B.J ae? ,JBstr +A++. olxl f,zlsl ?=J3 o.s+6 g, bulb Pul
    (a) ¤E-P +gzt 7li-lloJEll, 4a+ 4I^e+ Ag +715 +C E 354 cm3, oJ43 ZSZ torr, gE:' 100'Col+. ulzl f;zl
    6I= Tlel EE +zl-= ol.A^l7lAlol4. 9 g.gelg 4l&61^le.
    (b) gE 71819 B+ +58 +71 E^Ig B+ +E_H.4 f,q, u1:.H1f,3 4l=o+9 'zllrlGette.)'E, ulxluJgE tsg orc+
    +Cq$el El +E +E l-+dg +]e tL4" 614l +4. Hls"g Ell .JHl4 os :1 ++E Ed
    =
    (c) BE g^I= ¤+ +71 Sz}tr4 +e a+3 7l7l7l vlB -.55EE r.lEq^l-8-¤4(trIrLl+g
    d+= E6Iq 7tg+tr}). 27 "cql^] 0.4s2 L 4
    ql gE zllll$ {zl!-ri "Jgzf H *+. trl-+^l gE +
    ++q^l oz9 *E gqol 3.s x 10-6 torrg EL EI^g EI*
    d9 A*e d4 +ulr} *7lE qi'lg *deq arr1. 4ql qr+ E}9"61* trlrqlfE A"*g gtrioJTp
    (d) E$$ E+ +71 Ezltr+ 4e Ee+$ zixlzl {l$ofl 2Mg(s)+oz(g)-2Mgo(s)
    gE gzl-= q !Dle4 *zl.JtrI. olE BEE gETI +
    zl 9s-E-4+EI= ag 9ul,{}4. qg Tlil+ rlee.E
    10.s5 +^El rJf(caHJ3 Er+ Hl*6lq ii zl^llE B^J+EI.
    CaH2(s) + 2H2O(I) Ca(OH)z@il + 2H2G)
    a6}ol 91trI. ol +¤+ +E Er==- +E4E rll .''.f$s.l.irll, f{ol
    EIe
    El-* + Srp aa6l-ql^l 44 tlAlzl Xe-Er| 'J=z| 9g o1
    10.50
    + ole+ +^I¤L aolE, HrE g^J^l7l= ,J+6In zle ,JB
    -,?E zlat g ¤B6J ae? ol gg'J q 2l.Cql^l Hz9 "J4ol 825 torroJ ull,
    Elgrd EJqLil= a6,Jol ^hsoaJ+.
    (a) Xeg TlalolEre^ xe sxlzl
    ^l.e 14s LE Hz 7l4lE g^J^l7l7l +16ll ge+ CaHzt H :rH
    Eat{, zlzll*qlql^] q ="J614 +g + 914.
    "J7l?
    (b) xe flzl* N, E^H-trI d=Jol rJ r+. sTP4ql^] F 7l
    +q +ql^l= 4rI &q¤ F6|] co,
    Al= +91 +sl'J Eg"J i9 E4-E zlzlss xe zlxll =+?/..(c6HrzoJ9
    qlql^l TlalE rtle'JE+.
    E
    9 "JezI trl r-+. -rosz ^J4l6Iq
    C6H12O6@q) + 6 O2@) .+ O COz(8) + 6 HzO(/)
    (c) xe flxl* N2 Ext!-E+ a7l7l q E-e. 7l4l7| z|^16l
    = (t) 37 "C, 0.970 atmoll,rJ 2a.s g4 9l H]-&ql^l
    b +7Jol q r4. dEg ^JdqE a=+co,g +ElE 4l&a}^ls.
    trll, =+?/-7I
    (d) xe flxtb e*ol q = =-? ad6i +491
    N, +zI-H-+ (b) 1.00 atm, 2e8 K9lrl so.o g9 EF=^E $d6l &p+^l
    +. trl+^l olEg Tlal *zl"ll 4oll zI3 tf,49 zlal- 717l +16ll ge_6JtI^E +irlE 4l,t}6}^le_.
    r, 7lal9 kzl -H-oJ+.
    "Js.z111
    10.58 Jacques Charlesr] )oseph Louis Guy-LussacS ¤zl**ol9
    10.51 (a) 0.e70 atm, 35'cql^l No2 zli.ll$ El=$ 4lt6t^19.
    |acques Charlesg rel a Eleql^l
    trI. l783Hql oJ gt,tso
    (b) 68s torr, 35 'Cql^J 2.s0 gol 0.875 LE itxl6h= 7l;qq
    ge=+g 4l&6}^19..
    LE +4E gEJ6.J gzl+E
    ^l-&619.+.
    rE en+ g4IE
    Hl+g ol+4q HzE Es^lfi.4.
    10.52 (a) 7 07 ton, +9ile} {{suttur hexa-fluoride)
    2l'Cq
    ^-l
    q^Ls=
    Fe(s) + zHcl(aq) FeClz(ae) + uz(S)
    zlillel uls,$ 21416I^19. O) 12 .C, 743 torroll,tJ EjEzl- - B^J^l7lzl 9lolldY H kg
    22.cq^J olBl6J +qE +dE
    7.r3s glL9J 67lE Ee+9 4lt}6i^le. 9 aol gsdJTI?
    10.s3 El^l "li{E gA=}g +A6h= Dumas-bulb 7l¤g olall o}¤g +tol Hlgo 6Iq +4 zlzllg ,354.
    ^l
    trE E-6:Elql^l ,06 .6 ola|-tr #q +g^l7lr.. bulb(r? Zn(s) + H2SOa@fi .+ ZnSOr(ail + H2@)
    +3)E xll$zl floll geal 6z19 e+g +AEIEI. rl.S zI -ross#zlzl 9lE H2 1s9 mLE 24"C. 238 torroll,<l +t} gdB
    Etr+El 'lzl EalE Ee+g 4lt6}^le. Elzl +7lE a ql, H rBq Tnol 4ulr]i7l-? (EE 671 "Jqg ++ Bql
    *3 r.orz g, butb F4t. tsa.^', "J43 242 torr, &E-Y 91trI.)
    99 "Coltrl. ol^.llBfl Tlal(crHr(s)):
    10.60 a+ TIElolEe| E9 Hlg"g_e zll

    4,*4.
    CaC2(s) + 2H2O(l) -- Ca(OH)2@d + C2H2@)
    AHIEIE zlillg dill oJ-qol 7s3 torrg ull, 1.52a g! CaCz HI*91
    ol^l=EB
    itlflT]
    9oll zl'cq^J +4- sdg + 9lE crnrq +sl= 41416I
    ^ls(EE +71 "Jqg ++
    Dumas bulb Bq 9l+).
    ?= g+(10.6tr)
    10.61 rl+ rHE de zlffi rjz-|a]l trzf.
    o
    (a) F *zl ,tlolel uj-E-$ EI tlAltl 6l-8, N2
    Tlalzt +nl= gElL+ =ilqE+
    H6]-E7I? E6J F Nz9
    ^I^16l+
    EG E^lt 465

    +E.Jgg g"toJzl-? to;o 32 'cql^l ea zl4l zeo torrzl zll?ld 75.0 mL + tql s.ls
    (b) 7l4l# gE]6J oll oz 7l!19 +q= gtrl+ E6f=7|? g9 alsl g(Asro)ol Eq gla, +ol 320 "c-e. TlgqH
    ¤EJE 6 oz9 FE "Jqg gEI'J7f? p+ ee g-e.E Eilllg+. *9 Pulzl oJC6IElr. ^! 7I
    (c) Tlal gq} + +7lel dill "JBg 9"l.Jzl? ^i4e+ 9u}.Jz|?
    C6fE, +.J4¤
    +6' zso ft o}4ollrlE *qg 8.ls atmol4. e-+¤- Tlill g.
    qlE + 1I4q +E oJ4ol o.zt atm4 I atmoJ 41. ti&
    -1s:nTl,llql^.i &dE g EEgg 4+ gtrloJ7lz

    10.72 (a) 02 1s.08 g, N2 8.17 g, H22.64 CE Tlill gqlEql^J 4


    2.0L 3.0 L dEE SBge golqlzl? 6) gEI+g ls'cql^J ls.s0 L
    1.0 atm 2.0 atm *zl9l 8fl48, 4 CE9 ++'Jqe atm EglE guloJ
    25 "C 25"C
    712

    10.62 EJqIE 8zl"ll Ei


    9l= F zlill A, BE ^J46ll trzl. 4l3q N, Tlzllb g4l 26 "cql^l 1.00 L +7lql 5.25 atmoE E
    zlzll c 9a*ol F"J6J gEql^l FoJ +7lql +7l5j'Ll. 7l q 9l+. ol4g zo.6ql,{ rz.s L +zlql *A+. fl4 s.zs
    41c4 +zlzl trl-g ^t6}ql qtr ¤6}.9 ulzlfliz|! -10J3 atm,26
    "Cq^J s.00 L +7lql Eq il: 02 TlzjlE *e] E
    (a) zl;11 AE +e "Jq 0) *zl9lrl9 dijl sq #a+. ^l]e+-*7lE dill .Jqg gEloJTl?
    "J.'J+7lql
    (c) zl4l B9 gB¤
    10.74 94 21'6oll.rl s.00 L9 +7lql 5q fl.b 3.00 se] sor(8)
    ro"ol H.9 0.765 mol, Ne(g) 0.330 mol, Ar(g) 0.110 molg -E* z0.cql^J 10.0 L9 +7lE *rJ4. g4 20 "cql^l
    al+ g*Eol 2s "cq^l 10.00 L *2191 E9 il4. ^lEE
    2.s0 Lq +7lql Eq 9lb z.:s cq Nr(c)
    ^lEE.ErdJ6J
    (a) E6JE +4 7l4lq ++.Jqg Al4I6I^le. 10.0 Le] +7lE *a+. (a) rl +7lql^J Sor(s)e.l ++
    tqg = Nzk)g
    .JHg go}.Jzi? (b) ol *zlglrl
    (b) s{}Ee] dzll Zl4}6}^ls-. +e.Jqe g
    10.64 C6ll +++= sr.z 99 o2q 32.6 g9 HezI .tr*E ro.o I oloJTI? (c) 8zl9l,<l d4l .Jqg g"IoJzl?
    Pq9 zl8l5¤ ^l-$6Jtrf. Tlillg gETI le.coJ 4,.4 z1 7lill E^l8EE, EEal sit(10.7E, 10.88)
    AIE ++'Jq+ d^ll oJqg 44161^ls. r0.7s trl+el Hele. zl;ll E^l7l +7]1qg +E6l-= +E7l +71
    co, TlrllE qlTl .r-o-E= 407 ppm(B4gl zl=dfq part per 6l+^1, +i6l+xl, olq$ g6Jol S=^lE A46l^l:t.
    million, + 106 Lq qlTlql CO, 407 L7l +zll++olEl. Ell (a)8zl Pul9 6zI (b) gEg a"tl G) rl4 ge*E +7I
    -10.6szlql^l Corel gBgg got"Jz}?
    10.76 ffi +^i gEEql +oJ 7l+ ¤= #* 1g ;r=;.19.
    zl;-fl
    10.66 ¤+^nl-^ril TVql= Xe, Ne, He Tlill gaJ¤e 4lgltl (a) ?91] gEql^J zlAl +zt +qel B+ ¤F .llHzlE
    fd z1l9 zle ¤ol ilq, d"Jg 7l6IH qA ultlE Hg ,'/'ql HlBil6J+.
    *=.J+. SCqt ¤4lo} ^J(0.e00 mm x 0.300 mm x 10.0 (b) zl4l Ezl==g *=
    6Jol zlso6lzl age rlc"J+.
    ^lE
    mm)S dill .Jq s00 torrglrl I : I Ne:He E*E9l 4%o Xe (c) fol 4l gEq^l EE B^l^= F"J6J ++ qlq zlE r*Er+.
    E -s.e-6}r. 9l+. ¤ql 9lE xe. Ne, He flz}el +E 4ltI6I (d) 7l4l Ezl-z}4l9 FqE zlollzl-sElqq fl= dal +

    ^le.
    Zl4Ig 96|]
    ^|.s"e
    TtAg 7l+6}^ls. qq EI6IE +^l'* AEol+.
    ro"oz a=J.l s.s0 goJ r.ill E+olotol^(ar,ll oltEl +^) a4 (e) EE 714le^I=rEol E"Jslgrql341a34E 5"J

    I70s torr, 24'Cq^J olEl +7]E EBd to.o L +7lql 'J 6J+E-e, olE"t4.
    oltlEl e^zt Sd6l zlE+6J + z4"cq +71 Ll]ql^l wrug "Jq4j Tlall ¤ zy* F4g zli1lo14. :oo rql,rJ
    =trt.
    coz9 *E'Jq4 d4l oJ43 9uI'JzI? wFo9 S# zllE+ +E= gEE E+ zll#3 4s.5-4 I
    10.68 s.00 mLE +olqlBqlEl(C2HsOCrHs, ,JE:0.7134 glmL) -rolz q -fl7}?
    "I+
    rlEE 0.oo Lel +7lq .+fi.:q, ol +7lqE olul N2e] oz 10.78 d=Jg 9r flE gA +qg d* *zl9l, 4e*9 "Jjl ql
    9 gEISolSq 97, olEel ?E oJH*p*,:0.751atm, 7l^ll +E6J4. 9C Ss,ap1^l a4ql q
    = ^lEE ^l,J
    P6,:0.208 atmol4. egb ls.o.c_tr +xlqHn, 4olql E oJqg +C+ EL EBaIE'Jqe aAq B"ld4. zl
    BqlEl= sd6l 7lslqfl4. (a) 4.lqlgqqE ++ "Jq illT} ill9lrl 8zl9 d=J9 +a6IE. 3e** zl4l4 *zlE
    g 4l,t}6}^ls. O) +71 "Jel d^ll oJqg Alt6|^ls. clf, <tol qq+ 6Iq, 4*e A!+q q+ HEi6I
    ^lrJE
    20o.Cql^J ++6J +zlql ol4l+ fi40] |fttlzl 3 : lel g zl ?+=+. olel++e Aq¤.¤B6I^ls.
    Ele Eq fln, oltr]lE + "Jqol 2.00 atmg trll, +7lzI l0"C L9 Nz zli-ll gzlel s.-E7l 20.6oll.r-1 2s0 .cE- rttl
    s.oo
    -ro-osE
    B4q9n ++7lY EF .-qslq94H, ol&p} Ea9 6}fl+. Bulz} oJCaI4l -?zl¤4E, olelq} Hplr} E|-$ql
    .J43 go}.Jzl? (+, .lsiB EE +sl= +^l6l-ul.) -ro;g qBZl g6}9 ulxlizl Cd4eE ql+6}^le.
    466 10d 7l^lt

    (a) +zlE ¤+eE qlq^l E¤qE+ 4q+. a- 71^ll t.o L7l +¤61+ 4l rosazl
    0) E4q rms *E E.J6J dil aaql^l 1.0 LE 02 TlrllTI ¤+
    ^sqflE+.
    (c) ¤.zl Holl zlollxl= B+ EzlE +E
    ^-ll7l
    4* 3r= e*q. ulzl zlxllsl Ee+9 4l4l6}^le(E
    ql
    (d) Ezlzl la'J qr+ +E=6lb + 9+ +E7t uBl¤+E- 1.0 L ts.eql gs+
    = ^lrJg 5r.t4l+.
    10.80 + t L E?+La7I 9ltrL 6J 4ql= Srp6l.qlrl N,E
    7Il9 + +Ee+ ^l+g HlElfll +41+= ag 7lq4+).
    E+I6l-r. gln, += 6J 7l]b STp6I-ql^l cH4E EQI6LI gl Hlolg4?.! zlill zlH10.9E)
    4. olE 4lE tr]--gql 46lq Blr6l^le. r0.8e (a) zl4l= ol^J4 ZEql^J HqLIril 6l+ F zlzl {fl 3
    (a) tsx}el+
    dg +g6l^ls. 0) zl8lzl ol*4 4fql^l {q+4 6}
    (b) "JE
    : F TIzl ol-$$ u|$o|.r19.
    (c)B^lel ¤J¤E glulzl
    r0.e0 ECql qCg sE 8ETI 140 Koln, d*3 zl*9 :re
    (d) z+g +Bg F6il 4lqL}zlb += +E E]]oltr|. +Cg -gH eETI600 Ke+ 766 x ,r.l.ololn, {E}
    r0.8r Co zl4l= zs "Cql^J ¤t e^t
    (a) Ne, HBr, SO2, NF3. ol o.ostsllolr+. qtr 4dql^J ilzlzf o1.g- rlal H
    +E7l- ?7I6IE +^l4s Llg6f^ls_. (b) 2s.cql^J NF3
    ^l+9
    49 cl * II}gAETI? ¤B6I^ls_.
    9 rms 4EE 4ltl6l^le. (c) SEzI 270 KoJ d+flql^l ro.sl ,*
    e+ ezlE 7l* *? +EE 4l4}6}^le.
    der Waals tf
    ,4 bq ++ ¤Bgs *g ag?
    (a) a4 zzlY tsx}g +E= +44E HlE. D= E^I
    ^Iol
    10.82 (a) Co, HBr zlillE soo Kql^l
    SF6, H2S, Clz, Bt
    +^I E sHg +4U+.
    +E7I67l6IE +^lqle +g6}^le_. (b) 300 11oll.! co a9
    =zl= ez} ^Iole] EBg +4rllE HlE, b= ez}
    (b)
    4 ct, gzlE rms 4EE 4l+I6f^19-. (c) 300 Kql^l CoeI I +qE +Elu+.
    cl, Ealel 7l* *+ +5,¤-4l4}6}^le. (c) ae} b9 r7l= +qql 9=+4.
    * ¤B + Sg ag t Zl oltl rr = ^ls. (d) ae| bq aTlY gEql E++Et.
    (a) oub Cl2-H-r+ mferll +¤t4.
    t0.92 4rz|$ van der Waals tF+E TlEo e flg ql(E 10.3 +
    -rosl (b) g=q +&g eg 4aq^J 4E 810t4.
    a), * Sqq^l Arr+ co2zl ol^J zl^llql Tlzlal ¤FE+
    6Jf ez}=ts=4CgErI'JdE 7+ qTVJL+.
    (c)
    aol+ ql^J6J i il&71?
    (d) EJs.zlk9 zl8l.Ji+ Bt Aetl*4. ^|-ft ro.s3 q4 lo.r6ql^1,0'cql^J 22.4tLq=461+ I motg clz
    U0.84loJC "Jqql^1, 7l1llg ¤# zI+
    BE(^)E .gEql CHlql ol^J 4Fql^.1 44 Hq,++= Ag
    "JgitrL 2s.cql^J
    t4. .JA gEql^l sqql HlHl4++. F.J6J gEe| =
    s.00 Lq 1.00 mol9 clrql 9"ll g^JElb Sqg
    sqql^J + 4E E+=^= TlillE ul-u.;J4B, l= Tlill .B^f =416t=
    4l+16}^le_.
    zlEel H}Hl4t}r}. olBl6J Hlql t}
    ^{Eql ^PJg ="r}a}{ (a) Hxl old-7lill49
    ^l-s6f^le-.
    i(ol^J ,l4l t[+e+ ?o] R-rpE BB)z] e*9 zl4l Ez] (b) trIe-- e-E van der Waals 419 Zltql ^F*6},rl9(van
    E ¤+ xl-S 4e9l 4ql 49 ".IE:a, R*+5 494^le-. der waals Ag s. lo.3ql 914).
    ^J+
    +AE z|g{e-e ^JC¤ + 7}^lg rHe+,H E+l fl}E (c) olt ,l4lql ql+ ¤44 van der Waals 49
    ^l-s"6lq
    ,*a gl+. g+tr xlgzl oe F T}zlg 3sclg 37cl 4l4I* An+gl ilol=, TlallTl5.00 LE xI6Jqflg EilTI
    -loss t'gl g4E r*n gl4. trI4^l ^J^Jg
    B+ili,H35o. 1H37cl. 22.4tj. 4l+9fl9 trltrEl q ay+. a ol+=+q.J7I?
    =o+ EaI BqlE r*4 gtrt. olE Lll
    2H3scl, 2H37clg ql
    10.94 ccl4 1.00 molol 33.3 LE i}^l'g r+| 80 "cql^J ccLql e.l
    TIzl ezL= E= +E9 +71+\e +g6}^ls. 4 g^Jq= Sqg 4l&6}r.le. olql EI.$e] F TfCg ^l
    10.86 4l10.8eql^J +E a4 aol, *+ +?+bg uF69 Tlill +,6J+.
    tI +4Iq el6ll ^lla6J + 9l+. qtr +Aol zl;.ll{ f:}!. (a) CClai oltt zlSlal9 ElEtrI.
    flxt u(g)9 +4lg 619"6lE+ Tl]gqHqjl Tladl trz}. (b) CCl4* van der Waals 49 ulE4(van der Waals {Lf
    23sue+ 238uel
    +4I +EHIE Zlt}6ln, rag UF69 Hl¤. Ite _*. 10.3ql 9lE+).
    !+ tsli6}^19. (c) olela3 4aql^l olt[ ZFql^.i q Hq+E 49 ctrp+
    rosz ++ ul4(IIt)(arsenic(Ill) sulfide)E dal 4"+6IEql, d^l ccl4 + qr l"JzI? ol..'$$ {so}^19.
    q= +Ed 320.C olqql^]E a"46J4. +El Hl^E ?71 Bf!- L/mol9 ++lE r*=
    10.3q]^1, van der waals b

    ^J Ezl+
    zig +Bg ¤l6fl F.J.J 4AE gEe+ .Jqql^J +. olE be+El gz}+B^lel r7l= al&B+ il4= a
    galel -1ro.ls1-*.
    Ar e= +Eql Hl6li 0.288]le +=61= aoe Eld I9"1.J4. Ag ol+6}q xe g^lE HI^IE
    xeoll 46J b
    d4. zlill*oll^l +sl ul^(rrr)9 tszlrlg *9,tz}? g 4l&6}.11, r
    t}r+ 1.40 A(rB z.z)$ ulaalrls. +9
    10.88 B^lelg -Ee.5 7l4l= .J4 .Jqql^.j zle +Bg E6Iq P4Y @lz)#99 zl9oI4.
    +7lE# E^ll 467

    10.96 s. l0.3ql^1. van der Waals b Hf* t-lmot9 El+lE r*b b H+E+q 4l&oJ van der Waals HlzlE3 7.33q1^l b
    4. olE b H+tr+El gzlq Eafg rzlE 4lt+ + 9l E"J A+ EE *A6J H}zlEyi "Jd6}rtl E+qq *y7l?
    4= 19 9,laJ4. zllz.3¤9 EqE +a6I?+. _E 10.39 ¤B5I^le.

    ryl oJ+ +41


    to.e7 7l"J4lE BHEJ Torricelli= f 3ol "Jrz; u119- +71 Ell ol| zlzll lOe molB I molg Ni(co)4zl ¤zll*48 ag
    Eql +g-g ^l^SiI+. ol| pEz| 49.lillE zlge-tr 9ultI4. 24 "C, 1.00 atmel ={q,r1 12 ftx20 ft x 9 ft
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    oJol r.or x los pag oll iq-?21760 mmE +3q= a
    10. I 04 1l* E+.a71ofef zlillB ^ll9lzlE, r eelol
    g ol++q ++E EJE.=| +dtl tr^lg-. =
    3.224 g6z}4J4. F"Jt g4^r7| +^l 1l+str 9q
    10.98 orqol 3.0 atmoJ sf9 HLqql^l 1.0 mm3 *ul9 zlg ol^l gaelq 7lilltr ill+lzlE, d=J'ol 8.102 g 67]-"J+.
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    ol 730 torroJ E+ EHql Eg6J EllE +qE 41416l^19. +6}^le. (b) Bg Ezl 9lai4 qq6J TIcg alflEzl?
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    oz P Eol
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    ^J+B+ 9lrl ¤4.
    Tlql
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    E7l 37'C4H, 4d corg EiE Brlt^l 41416I^l
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    .lill EtrqoJq E+= 4ltI6I e. (c) olqql "J9 corg {^J6}71 +l8ll^lE
    O) ae +qql =+n^
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    ,<19. olql qil E_eqloJE "JEi o.sso g/mlol4.
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    10.s7 +4).
    S TlrllE^f ¤E"Eql zlao}ol
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    gBg
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    ql 3lrlle -d+q= bE: +Eltr. 8^la E.J I ppbol4,
    ^IAE
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    9lq-. rBql^le+,Jol, ol43 ul4 4l+eE +Eqd tt zlr,ll9 TlEql 7I+ *B6J ae q! a.Jzl.? (c) io-l
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    trI. *+ +zl7l gqE 7l8l= Elol 9l= E $z] geE. (d) 7l,ll7l ilzl6lE *rJq
    dal +zI9 Pulzl zl-6r
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    (e)
    = q!
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    =
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    '-Jol q ^IolE
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    l0.ll5 ElgC zlil + 4Etr+ ol^J4 4Fql^J ,lat dzl H.q
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    33e.854 col S+. *zlE tl*,tlzJ P, Ne4 Arel go35


    7l4l4lol qd6l +E6I+n 7IA+q).
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    10. I l2 -33.Cq^J zl;ll ,rlEz| 914. rms +EE + E}]e +7I^l 'l+qfr.+.
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    r0.rr8 gu3 uf;lxlle 1I4e+ +41 10.120 olE zll=rllz| c, H, N, clEJg s.¤,6fr. il= asE +
    ^f+6I= ^Iol=.EEeullt
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    9l t.s0 gol 1.00 L +{E i|^l6J q, mr¤ ^J{t4. E +g +4ql E6}8,
    ^Iol=eueqloJE ^lE= 16.44 ms
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    ^l ^ll
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    mi=7t, q \=471? r0.l2l cao4 Bao gqlE +.00 gB oJq 730 torr, gE 2s'c
    ^lE
    lro.llel STPqI^] +At oil+g("JE:0.8s0 g/ml) 25.0 mL
    eq^l 9l! cozE c.ei6lr. ?lE t.oo L +7lq '*8.4. cor=
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    9 Nurgzl, += 6ILI= s.oo 99 HCI(s)zL Eq 9l+. 7l= aol+. 4+gg #=dol 6s.colE.+ B4 q ¤Al
    Bezt 9H¤ trI, 6l-+7l.Sd6l 4!.9 Ellz-^l TlillEol g+g g + gtEL 4zloJ. zs.6oll.rJ 10.7 x roe ft39 Bl
    Hls"++. (a) HI*ol $e¤ +ql 4ql tsE zlAl: q! ql"Jg 4tsge &e}^l{r}r 7l4i;14. (a) cH:oH9 E
    4!zl? (b) HI+ol SA¤ +q 4E 4l+'J49 gst.J E7l0.7e1glml4E, ^Jdq= ,ll+gel BulE E"IoJ
    ,l? (5, $C!= gc}.JEtsg +ElE +^l++.) (c) d 7l? b) qlql.Jr+ ql+gol co2k)e+ H20(l)E 4}slq=
    Cq= gE+'JEtsq e?*g gtrtoJTl-? HI*q rllt +B *= ELq Hi*4g 'iA^19-. 10.7 x loe ft3
    qlEll"JE $d S^el, Ezll @ql^l Zl,tlg,lltsg
    "JE Sd
    gaq qE d,il elgq trsffitg 4l&6t^le-. (c) ,llEl.J
    NH:(g) HCI(g)
    g .-q+ElE ,,JETI 0.466 slmLTl g+. 2s'cql^l qlegE
    "JsE 4el.J4 "-4iI ,il+gs.l +91
    o.zgr s/mro1g}. .-4ill
    o o q-g
    5.00 t)
    2.00 L
    5.00 t)
    2.00 L
    +i'l'J ¤Aq flgrl HEI¤ Hli6}^lg. 9lHzl rJ+I
    25 "C 25"C +eql^1, qts ESol +91 +i'l'J g^ tgqT}4 a_zl?
    10.123 qel zlgoll flfl2|:(qlqe, cHrE+ [ 10. 126] SlE}E=+9-fl a]
    ofole{(IF) zl ;.llb Lull o}ol9-Br+ +i
    ^offigEl+I.il
    +6I= ql ^l-*84. srpql^l 6}+ql 2.7 x ro,, rg dfl +sflg Elgo ce+El xll=¤ + 9lEl.
    zf:.z} **84. ol oJq ClEll.Jel ¤^q ql6J + tBq I2(s) + SFz(g) -+ 2lF5@)

    HE+= 4l4l6l^le(+el: d4leb ol "JE+ 49 "JE Ell


    ro.o 99 IrE .E.6.J6J s.00 L E4r-e7I 10.0 cel F2-tr +
    elloJol ,l]oJ g^¤EI. gBJg Tlilq g?E +E zlqe dqq flI. Hl+g 6J 7l]E
    ^lEol
    trI iEg ullzlul {4
    e dgg+). ¤rl. El¤.ol ¤t + s_EE t2s .col4. (a)
    g4.r =+^eel
    4ql^l rFsel ++ "Jqe g"ftz}? (b) ¤4^
    ol4lE| Sa(clo, Tlifl=
    ^JE4.J s.Ez]E ^l-SgtrI.
    to.t24 ol

    4IsIlL¤¤ Fdll Eeg EEqI4. olE EI* Aeql^l


    rq^l rFsE EEgg goI"JzI? (c) rFs9 Lewis *3'E
    =
    Clo2 zfillz| ggg+. (a) Cloz9 Lewis T4t FloJ
    rZl^ls. (d) E4^=.ql^l ll¤¤r+ ^JcEq d4 e=+
    7l? b) cto27l drll ggq= ol ff L F9.oJzf? (c) cloz
    g g"foJzl.?
    +zlzl- d^l-= gg EI olg4,1! olg(chtorite ion, Clo2-) uo.t27l$41u|:uJlf,$ E^l a+E 36JE o.s: gol 4*9 ¤.tI
    ol B^dgt}. C1O2-E _s_E i-l4ElitE+. Hl¤' 4t] t.zz LE ol4lEl +i711ll7l
    Lewis *3E rq^19-. (d) Clor-
    olgql^l o-Cl-o 4*43 ql+6}^ls. (e) clozE xlla 28"c.743 torrgl^l ^JC9fl+. (a) 94Flg,*EE 4d
    6l-= 6J BlBe g^el olg^& Hl¤-^l 7lb aol 4. + ^Flql gq+E HI+q 4.J t¤ *= clq HI*4g
    cl2(g) + 2Naclo2(s)
    ^E¤. ,(;.19. (b) olg !lo"e-EfEl ol&af tscq d
    2cloz(8) + 2Nacl(s) ^J^Jq=
    - gi
    NaClo2 ls.o gol 2.00 LE zlrlle+ 2r 'Cql^l t.s0 El E+E Zl&61-^le. (c) HI¤¤ol Sa¤+i1z|{ap,
    atm9 oJ4 oE HI+tltrIE, Clo, E rgol s*Eq^J +4I "frql+E e* E+¤-3 4l&6}^le.
    ^JCq=7I?

    I6J ¤41 +all


    olel+qrll EIHJ^ICq a$l zlzllzl Eq 9l= dfllz} ?9zl H zll9 +-et *g qB aE?l7I? (b) trlzl 7lx]
    E] gs-6J
    r., r 7l4lE Eg=Jg aa6lr, r 7l4l= q.J6l+ %LHES =
    el Ee+g acg+ fl= dqlol4, "Jflel d¤g z.lloJo|,rle.
    .Jolqlts n+x]l7} +qaq. qqEol + 913 zlfei, E
    ^l*g $flpol ^l=$6t{ I 2175, Al$=, ,i4$$ zlfafr.le. (c)
    9g ql zlP" zz)E- ot.Jq +d(.JHI4ee +E6J +
    5q+= {4Eol trl tr}o}"J E4 zlzlE¤ ^l.s"g + 914H, .ld ^}E9l
    9l= +dl^ +drrtrI EI.J+ +d tl9 zloilzt q !441 ts¤6J ^l
    Ellfl.H qH d,¤ *HolE
    ^l^.8-6l-q,
    Tlill= q.JB + 9l=
    +), +4 ^Jg, r?-ljr. a7171r+e +4 ul4(100 mL, 500 mL, %lB.=-g zl$alrle.
    2 L)Eol 914. (a) 9¤ zl;lltzl +.J6I7l +14 ga=Jg aci'|
    7

    I
    7 l ;
    l
    J

    \
    T

    7v

    I I
    r.illel Ert HIE B^I +
    7li1l, o-4ill,
    dq^-l :zxll, o-qiil, zlxllE Hljr'6J+.
    gEe+ +zIrJ ilol -Eeq EEzl
    ^J
    q= aA6L= ql 9lq^J +-sEI Egg
    6JtrI.

    11.2 > ExlZ:d r-Jl zlzl ¤4el gzizj a;g


    +^iq, ;g.qx|_.r5rlzi +E 4+, +

    Ei{ls} Er F
    4 At}, olg-r*+xl {lql ql6}q .J
    olB+.

    o4ijlel=E'il gtr dcEe+s.E +q


    r+ ee "-qilE Ceol 9gzll tszlzJ
    C ql el 611 {+!=zl$ ol 6ll6'J+.

    t,=- :== t6. tsl6ull^1 ^ r=JLl. otal-d EJeo{t^J got


    'J7l EE9EEe Eoll E 4^l ?Jtstrt. at+^lEe 0lal ¤E= TlTl EE
    +l6t| SHtrl zlxll, "-lal q aill ^J4 +E
    E'*^+.5'0lz[r "JEtrl. EEgg *^#!o+ oJ6H Eofl rr] ?lE+ qtE+ ^}H+e+ rq +ElEl=
    qlLlzl Hs+=
    &ElBtrl
    ofLlal, r ?l0ll EolT] Ee EHJ- 0l+ol EolTlrl.. E"JE= EalTlE
    =a1
    Exl= +0|.LHol E=01 Te T.!E E=0lL[ 6+ Eao{l^1E g0l
    ^l ^lalE
    77fl
    gq 94el:19 7l8l ^JE]]
    l+61-Zl SxlElE= --Jtl. 0lal
    ^[^11 ^]lE
    7|ts tttlEoll qa1 Eg EEl3oll^l= E =71
    ololl futlali E4 ¤Eg go|tsj1,^l
    ==
    ++-Etsl SdeE 84-dtl. erl .Jqg 4'Jg E.J+trI.
    8e.r z1411, "q^i^J, -Lxll{,t1o1E
    g*gol Eg rBrllE s44 o-e Elg6l4 6l-= Eg Fgtzi? ul ¤¤g r4etr +4U,tE.s.E: -u=
    + ol 4Eg ztall ^lle bqe +a tr EgI .Jrlri 9lflzlEJ, r s BS ul]¤4.
    4= rszo¤4ql +^r dzr ¤trla(sElr)og 4r1 g EEg H7l 4 E8 ilxllel Eillel +rJ tlEI.J aqc
    vl,.l+ Cqq 0161]g f flfl4(:al 11.1). Aa sEol Er+ gq d tlql ql4 gqe+. ._!Atg nalle+
    +g 4ae}6l= EJI E¤-g s"J olqel s4 trzl9 d+E al^ ?J+ +44 e^lE EJ zfxll gog
    s+6lq EzlTI gr-l+-zl =++. .lille+ gg xitre+ *49s. zlzl
    Sr| ^l
    r 914.
    ffi
    t
    \

    .ffi ru t":
    ttt-

    a:18 1t.'r E=g EEsl=gEql r.H-d EElrS


    ^iTl

    < sEoJS E0ll g lrl ?J7l nfl.8oil, g +19 E3 g x,Ealel E=g E|^al6|-
    7l ?l6ll^i oJE eglol Er[
    471
    4EE zliil ^JlA Ce4 ¤+qE E +E +s+ e_i= g4 Ee_l +zI6Col+. g
    ol
    -9 B4+4 tszlE 'J.l glq E +zlql *=trI. t 44, E tszl-E=g 4E 5 Ezl
    =4zl
    tr EElr+ol= 49 rl daoizll qq g EE]IE d+¤ al^+^la+.
    g* E4E r+q}^l¤E 6lq+ aA+C eEg ¤Zl4q, zlxl ,J++
    ^lld r?4er.l+
    5f "Jg= rll SzJ$ +fl+. S* E4e+ += E^lle+ r.xllTt +q6I= EtI$$ olallolzl
    +l"li^l= ts4 ^Iolql oJt +xpf tJ(intermolecular force)$ ol6fl6llollrJ el4. ol
    fl'J9 C44 rJlzlE.JoloI"J. Eeel a^d4 +^71ral E=.-4^ll ^Jqql^J r EAq
    =461+
    E4zl Cd!+ qBrll g+El=zlE g + 9l+.

    r 1.1 I Tl}lL o4aL r.4lsl +xl HIa


    rllrozjglrl ts}le ar+ aol. Tlill Ezl+ al+ +4I+14.J e#
    +H^J .!e. E4 trq4
    gl4. zl;ll tszI gEEg 6s6J 7lc 6f+= BzI
    ^IolE ^JE 4¤¤ +^l6J + il+= a
    ol4 ,,0,.-. tro.zd). E^lle+ -r1illq^lE EzIrJ Eol ,}]* z7l ql+ql, qile+ j1rllel ¤Ag
    olelql zlillE Cer+,|]+ +e+. 7lill, o-{iJ, rillE Ceg HllLrJ 4ol stt.til 4p* 914.
    "Jeg 4+ rJ6Iq E4-= 4E_zl44l #ulqzll .Jr+. q4^l
    ._I^ll9 tsztzJ o_4ill:7lill
    B+ +lt q "JEzl =7, E "J+g+. "-4ill= Tlille+ 84, .szl9 azl u; s.oF+ ++6t
    ,11 .J46J +EE 7l4Ll. rq+ slillE .Jqg E{¤ol o|Eo6l+. ag Eg
    ^lE "J+ ^llzl
    ?++. q+^l eq^{= 6= + glr, ._qi{ E"Jol ._Iijl= E}: +719r E-oJ4 a4 g+.
    = i1^llE EzlzJ .Jqe oJzl-$ol ,rle tl*Al g gql olqq aIrJ6ITll ¤-
    =zl]6t7ll zlallE ^lE
    Alg AEE EztzJ "Jqol ^Jl+. r.xllE Eillz]H Sqg +r1: zAl ¤zlg*=El.
    q]+6IH r.ill .gz[3 r= xf$trs +rJg 44 7l^la_ ?lzl ?*z] qlgolr[. lx]l
    ^[olq]
    + s4^llel oJzl-=g Tlzllql El6Iq ,l]+ 7lt7l q+ql, rxllLt Erll= f,-i$(condensed
    phase)olrp ojr4. lxlloll ql6ll^l= rzzJ9lrl ul]+r]l ¤ aol+. 14 "Jzl¤g d-44 eE
    g 6J
    "J+ z|ffizl *zl ull$9l, -z4l= ++6t+= aEI.Jg +E6tEl..

    s.11..t EE trEflel gl Ttrl+{


    7lfll Ei{l l.ill
    *zl9 .+qq E"J-g q=r+ *zJ*zl9 E"Jlgr4E4. 5zt4ql +rle+ eo.tg zltl
    tri.

    'J+6Iq SzlE ill34. SzlE ,]]+71 96]] S+6I^l *zlE xll$zl *tl6l^l
    .$lall
    ol-LrL oLLrL
    l5='1 . L6="1 .

    "J+¤trl. ,lE s+q4 ?*=+. zl9 "J+qzl s=+.


    dr| s=+. dril 5=tr1. aezl g*b4.
    g4 q4I¤+. aA6l q^}S+. ,1]+ Aaq q&94.

    ral Eieq ^ll zlzl tr-q]= tslI6[_]r. 9t+. EeE t]EI= Ea](gz], tsz], ole)
    11.2=
    E +E' "ilHzle+ oJzlzJ "JqE +Bql EI4 ¤4¤+. 9F glHzl5 gr.fl E=6Ir, oJ
    z|$ r.JE g?-l Bq4 ¤.zlolz]l tI4. .JzlzJ.Jqg oJzFS solzl ,*+. tl-gql^J 7l
    ^lE
    ,ll"J Eeg tr-gql^l Exll"J Ede+ gzlrJ 'JEol 'JaI4. "-4ill"J Eee rSlt EeB

    .r.ollE g4==g 4lE" oJ + ?Itr}. i141E gETI g+a+=. ol dF 3+ol 4gd1lEl


    472 ^.ll44ql^l
    11.1 I 7l^11, s{^ll. r^119 E^[ El-il 473

    M olE EEol .-qi{ 8Efloil ?lg trflsl "JE= r EtrE aill _Ets 7lill 8Efiel gE 6 ol! +q q TvEDp
    Erlz ?!4
    =71.

    F .i- \
    C D

    I l

    \
    ,- .,/'
    lI

    7 lill qill e8d Tlill

    I t. \
    t' / \

    E4(Cl2) H +U(Br2) 0l0lgE(12)

    oJ^f=o1 oJrlEol 7lrlol 91xls1ggE ,J:aFB g^l-=01 +.l4oJ Bllg0ll qal"Ttzlol


    Eal Eol^1 "Jol^] Sddl :df6l-n
    3t$ -.JEl. ?ln g^l= ¤G ?14, +.1^l= rdElol 91tt. E^t
    ^t+eg "JIt=elEE ^tgE7ilE^l?ltt.
    oJ^tl oJale.l 0ilLi^l
    011L1^l >> g^[2J Eajel 011L1^l E 3= 0llLJ^17[ z "Jqel ollLl^l >>
    grlEel EE
    e+ Hl+6[rt. ollLl^l

    .lts 11.2 7l^11, Eitl, -r.nl 84. tr+trJ. 0[0l9Eg -?+ 3+ Lf=GlT] 0lg^i E^[0ltl. rejL'f E^lZ Ce-l l1l717l'Ja[^l 88. +
    gtaJqlll ill TlXlol tl= AEfl, Cl2= tlL)l.Brzi =-sree
    s4^1| 12= -Z^ll,+ +IH-Lltf. ORvkamalovsmail.com/Shutterstock OluYaso/Shutterstock
    = =

    4 oJzlzJ .J4ol eIal4. tr-gql^l tsEdlol 4E r"r4-olole_Hg nill, E_-+EJg "_!ill, g


    Tlill-E _H-ol= 19 rrq;,q Br2= 44 ct2g rJ++ +^l7J EE ¤qE: a
    ^=
    ol zld4"J goJoltrI.
    ^ll7l7I

    Egg zlg E= 'd46Jesnl 6J t}4ql^l += ^JE.lts HIE + ?14. ol43 9zI9 ¤


    + +F "llHzlE uI+-L. 1014. qE tr-gql^J ailloJ Naclg lTloJql^l= 1074 Kql
    =q
    +r, 1686 Kql^l #=+. "lel HlqlE, ^Jgql^] Tlill?l cl2= lTloJqlrl= zas Kq^l "+
    ^J
    slqr, 172 Kql^J a4le+g+. zlzlle-l $EzI *olaq 44 zlzll Ezrg ¤+ +E qlqzl
    zl zl^al/ .JzI zJ9 .Jqql E6ll ,\a 7144) qq .-441= ¤c6}r, olol flzlz[ i14q
    q ritl= ¤C.J+. 7l4lq "Jqg +71^1714 q^l .lill+ ti{.E H++6J + fl=ql, ol=
    .Jqg zt6IH EZIT| .<le zl*A\ +zlqI, 4+ +47J ilol +7lE)71 rllEol4. qlE E
    q E-EEII"J(CrHJ I{l9, tz1Eq1^J TlilloJ ql EI{q, q+ Esuilql(liquefied propane,
    474 113 o-{^llef E^l,J e

    11,2 | +zlt 3
    E3 ECoe E,\lE! H-Ctol Zal= HCt E ,rz
    Eg EA9 a"#rI4 "JH+16|zll += ^ll7l= 7l^1^l
    .$:|zl(intermolecular)
    ^tLH
    H_ctst Zaletutr;;;,"i**=r,i olg e*, ="f, ¤6J, ++ a6Jr+ Ag gzlql(intramolecular) aJ-H-uli
    "J,
    aA E^[t1 oJal(A? 3-d) gd E6trI(raJ 11.3). tr|4^J ++ a*g #= aE+ .lxll= 7lo+^1v)41+
    axll= +ol= ql q 4e glHzlzt gs6|+. qlE 5q "4zll Hclql^l HCt B
    H zla "Jqg #9 zlslrl? ull Ezl 16 kflmolol g,q+ HlH, ucr ++ a6J
    -C g #g ullE +:r k|/molol gs6l+. tr|4^l HCI zJg ¤zI Eeol -r.illql^J
    ._qzll q.= 7laltr
    H6J trllE $z[ z[i]li rqlE $zl¤4.
    otSt EtTtTt ota{
    #=dg E'J6Iq, "-qiJlE qel TIzl E¤g +^l7J ts9 rjlzlE 3 +El-U
    arH 11.3 E^lZdE r+EztErllti,8E 4t +. .-{^ll 'H+ql^l zlLzl ^Je "L "-4^ll= #=+. $zll $zl5ol E4qq +
    .e.
    o 7ls q4E EzlzJ.Jqg ++6l]ot'*+. ezlrJ oJqol ,Je+=,.-q4E #
    olel+^l6}7il rillel +=dE +^l7J eol E
    =de++.
    11.2q1^l E= aAe, +o+ A+ql E6l]^l Ezlsol +q4 9l= EeE +=dr+ #=de
    ==7Ig++t+.
    EzlzJ 6Jq E6]] +q4 il= Eeq Hl6ll gd ++.

    Eol #E rrtl, ZB3 F10+ 0l+01^l=71?

    4214" e +^dqI $z].,r.p]q15 TIzl ¤49 EutzJ qlqol gl+.


    . -rl_,^la
    rr-r1-
    ^ll =zlld+Z "Jq4
    . $-z[-l5;+z[
    "Jq
    . +4 A6J
    *E Eg Eol^l van der Waals fl(van der Waals force)olrll 6}=ql, zltl)zl o1
    tl-tlEHE+El H.qtsg qla6r= ,,*-" (10.e¤)g g++ |ohannes van der
    'lrjl ^Jql^l ao+9 .Jq.J olg-%l-+zl.
    ol#
    waals(t832-ten)4 B aolq. E +e Eg +.] d-el
    ql^J ,]]+ +,q614.
    ol E= EztzJ .Jg3 ol$ pafoll,rls.l- ulalzlzl_e., dzl4 oE .Jc"J siql+4 gde
    slq+^Flql qlqol $46l* 44214 Elol4.,,-",. (8.2¤). re ql EzlzJES olg dtJ
    !-+ ,gd "JdJt4? 8.49 EE, CdTl ^JE 4I¤+ $al! azlzl ?zlal$ zttflz)tL. A
    ^l
    4zl Eq4H Eqlaq. EzlzJ Cg "JEq 4= AdIeJg olg aql E+6JEql^lE A6Ie*

    811.2 4s4 E:Eel +ts84+tsE


    olTl=9. -ExtE 6l gxl
    H,'l=E EHL E
    == +ts8(K) BtsE(K)
    qq ea
    olg a.J els,(LiF) lllS t949
    f-4.2a1 =+seJp+
    E- Hll-JE(Be) 1560 2742
    =H
    n"f ?6J +olol-gE(c) 3800 4300

    EII2J fl
    +4Iq ai(N, 63 77

    ffiz|-{fz} ^JE 4}+


    gEf +^(HCt) 158 188

    44- A6l 190 293


    =+seJsl-+^'(HF)
    11'2 lE^l'2J:'J 475

    H+ gd ++. qlE 5H ucr EztE .u;qzf s_Hlegl! +rs+ gA "J+ql +0. rza4 -
    o.rzs9 d6}%Iol 9l+:/ +Ae+ f ?14(9lxll a.s *=). 49ol E{¤ 4?-l= EIE
    ^tolel
    AQlql 96ll +oJ gzl-= 44Hrl trl gEt.
    ^le. ^l-olE
    Ir--rla{
    _ri_A

    4j214" e +Cola ++C"J gz} E= $z| ,tlo1q15 442]|4 ttE zlSol +4]6t4 S:
    rJ46Jzl EE+. rel+ 95, olE*, aie+ rJg ++^d Tl4lE.lclE ilzl oll f
    =+n
    Eql, olfl oJzI qE a.+E qlqol il4. ol4'J.Jqel rs:oE
    ^IolqlE =116I-r.
    ql +"J41 trl+oJ E4qtz} Fritz Londonql e.l6ll =gg
    zl¤-_q__q. zll"Jqqq. LondonS Ez[4 fl

    Lilq gl= dztE szl"Jol 623 ffiz| EdE(instantaneous dipole momenoE #ts*
    ^l
    += ag.JlI+.
    ql= EJE flzlE d'Etilql^l 4 gE e ++l dzlE ¤+ +sE:aJ 11.a(a)oll,rl lr
    =q
    a/fl 7¤ 44o14. gzl+ ++Colr, g+ tl+zi EHIE= Tlzljr_ glrl ?++. rfl
    = +rJ dzt +E: ¤+ +Ee+ rl-= + 9lq. qE EE qtr +rJql gE gzt
    't 49 dz}
    +4"Jg C^l'*+n 7Id6fE, F zH dzlE qE q!.J+ql E"J + 9l+. Hltr:z +rJql
    r g4+ rB 11.4(b)^.tH ++ 6r-=-z[ EHIEE 714q. il flz]9 dz] +Eg .Jd flz]
    9 dz} +4"Jq g6}.3 qr+^l el fl4.9 +rJ^d+zl.= ol* gzlql Hl+oJ +?J4
    r5l:z-4f +g6J + 9lr, =+.
    rH 11.4(c)7lH ol* szl-E EqBT]E tlg zi+ol .Jq+
    ^lE
    4. olc+ rJg .Jqg 514!fl(dispersion force, London E&q E= +g,dizt-.r?ts 4*
    zl q]q)ol+r *4. olfl E3 Ezl-$ol "}|+ =d6J
    Ell"J 6e6}q.
    ^le
    E4lqE ^llzl= + Ez[ q]ql^l +A4oJ ,.5l-]2]-= +E6[= A6] tsEq E+.JC9 8.1
    Eql el=.JtrI. EzI 49 dzl Eezl g"Iut drll +¤ol vl,A + glEzl6l= aE.E r E
    zI9 E*=(polarizability)4r 6.Jq. EzlE E+EE Ezt dxt +Eq '9:4d',9 4E+
    lL ^J46J + gltrl-. EzlE ¤+E7l q drll Ez[ dxl +=ol .JrE]rq 323 ffiz]
    =++
    E "J=+. EI4^l 4 Bol ¤+q= +zioJ+E E&qol rl rEl.
    .JHI49E flz}4 Ezlq d49 fzt Bg++ ¤+E7I ,lrltrt. tr14^J E4Iq
    ^ll7lE
    flzl4 Ezl.el a7)7144++ ?zlalE a.Jol 9lrt. $x| =zle| e%ig oJHI4 os ^lE
    tr-++417[ tlz] ullE9l, +x]e]ol ="2[s[aq. E4]qe 4d+. E4}qol +"J.J Ez]rJ ql

    I{I{flxl
    ouz t- olai
    ui
    .e- e .e-
    t {,-
    t .¤
    offi|z[ oJz]
    Estl+ a-
    o e O
    ae-
    a *o a-
    e
    o "' .e- o
    e
    o¤

    ASII B ?rt A g^l B ?II A flII B ?^t

    ¤+t+ o a o o o o

    Ag^t B flrt AflII BB^I Afl^I Bfl^I


    (a) F EE flrl-EF EJ+ol golLtrl gg (b) BBrloll+z 8=rt (c) Aflxtoll?E 3+^f

    A rB 11.4 EtaJ )l^l 2S?g eE g^l -d Alsl E6f E+9 '.,\91'


    ^ll
    476 113 a4^llel E^lZ -.J

    m ell 4 +710il^] -Je{!slgbEol H gd Tlxllsl#bEe.q *?71?

    Ne K)
    2
    F (8s K)

    Ar
    3
    c12 (239 K)
    T
    7l
    KI
    4
    Brz (J-rz K)

    Xe
    5
    12 (458 K)

    0 100 200 300 400 500


    rldg Er]-x.E4ot z^l s=E(K)
    =^t
    /.lole.l E+01 SolLlr,
    a.fB 11.5 ge{lrt Hlg.s 7li1le.l#=E E^PJo|67lEt0ll qel#=E0ltsol^lts ri= 0lrao]l^l g
    -q la{E r.l.rlrt
    + 9ltl. 0l?i3 Etalel e)6p I nl|Eolr|'.
    ^1l7vl

    rv "J
    gEtlr+ ul$r6r zlzlle.l 4*, Ez}+rol f;z|$ffi #=de 7lA+(fH 11.s). BEdlrI
    ul$.! zlzlloll^l= +Tlgsql^J oI4+e_E
    'Hqa++ +zte} E= flzl"&ol 6zlaJ4. ts
    ^relol
    t+E 49 ts+Iqol ,J6I+-r. ^J4g + 9lr, :L Aal g=dol to}4i Ar+=
    L
    o.l rL
    Ii i-:"1 -

    Y
    r-EJlEll"J(CsHrz)
    bp : 309.4 K
    A ccla. cBr+, cH4= #=E0l 671.61= +,(lE H||g6l/.l9.

    +zr EoJE E&qe-l rTlql ¤+g ql= 5E n-¤l4l.J(n-pentane)*4 ulle-¤lrll.J


    +E Ert-EE4ol Atotll =+.
    (neopentane)g Ag +!zI^](CsHrz;(=e tt.o)g ,*^1+, n-Slr]loJ9 #Edol tlls$lql.JE
    E^t ,tfolsl E+ol Eq=r
    Et+E #EdB+ 27 K q ++. ole+ ag ilol= ^JE Els + E^19 5-oJstr+El u}g 4.o14.
    =cl=tl.
    EzlzJ .Jqg n-Slql"J9 A+ql trl r+. ell+6l.E 7J 7lE EoJ tszl+:a dzJ ,Jol= F
    7 4q ^lE d+6J YEol *zl qlEol+. trtrt "Jdqq flr Aq +¤.J Llls$ql.J EzI=
    ^Jql4ee d+ zl.L"d zl4zl44.
    {l*zru*zl ^JE TE
    +C +zl+ + r${^I Eql E 7t 9l I rl g+xt-.$=-{ tFe. rl$(dipole-dipole interaction)
    g

    7 g gsrJE+. ol Eg el Exl9 (+)*4 ol** +E +z[9 (-)+ ¤++ol 7]z]9la ql


    ^J
    aq. (+)+(E= (-)*)5214 zlTl$)zl$ E}tsqol ^Jaq. /'5}+zl-r5r-+z| ^JE I+e +
    zl¤ol $fl zlztlol919 4l"J sqol 9l+.
    ffix|-r$fzi ^JE 4+9 Aflg -H-71 +l6}l^J, +zlelol Hl+oJ + +E.89 #=dg
    L1letrJ!E1loJ(csH12)
    Elrdll gz[. o],r.llE+olEg(CH3CN, Mw 4l amu, bp 355 r)$ EegloJ(CHrCHrCHr,
    bp -- 282.7 K
    Mw 44 amu, bp 231 K)g 4*o14. o}^llE+olEgg ffiz[ l-HlE7t 3.e DoJ ]C Ez]
    a fa 11.6 E^tEg3 Exl-zJ
    -doll B:d= Ec[. n-E]Ell?.] Erf s, ^5r-+zt-.|Hz[ tr-n er+ol +Zl]6.J+. rqL] EEqloJg dBzlql ++Col+. ol 9"1
    =
    LlleElEllE E^lErl. Etl 11
    tls zi*ol s+= ag F.J4. or^JlE+ol-Eg4 iEsqloJg Ezlrlol
    Lro I E^f=Dlal tr+EJrf. qaf^l =,45iqzI-^5I+zI
    n_trJlBloJg E^lrJ --Jol tl =n .z-{l4"J"ll^l nS normal9 Eztol+. normal +sl+^: Ba. $zf5o1 6J ¤aqE+ tsllilg +q+A= "Jt}+
    EEE= 115r1. , r: tl.9rJ). =s
    11.2 | E^la -d 477

    HJ"J6lts 3=rt-3=^t dE AtE


    d"to. tL affTLil=TL
    EnlElTlE o1..t o-..t ll= _o
    o.- ^l-Q.

    :
    :'
    {1)
    Ss"....
    I
    It
    6-
    .J
    +
    6

    14 ZiIICH3CN EiICH3CN
    a.LH 11.7 8=Il.-8=rl.AtE 4r'E (a) ZE dellcHsct't,
    '''
    (b)o-4^llSEtlCHsCNslE=^l-8=^lSEAtB

    ulfalEE E&qE HIt6f+. q4^J o}^llE+olEBel #=dol +e ag;F4;^F


    zi
    ^Js 4* ollE.l4.
    ol olollalzl +16ll^1, cH3cN +^l7l rill
    eg tr+ * Eq fl= a+
    ^Jqle+._qal d-EIs
    S46ll HzI. trll tq(rB 11.7(a))oll,tli 4 ts4¤ol gd6l-= E AA $z| g4g4
    =
    ol*ql oJd6l-= E 4e zl*4l ullzlgEl. Eill(rH 1l.7(b))ql^l= +c
    -cH, =:++ol
    +7171^Je zl+E;7il +zlq^l ezl¤g El]gg q +e^J6l]114. ol4,ol *61= ae" qtr
    +qd +rJql .Jq4 Hlgqq .5.az1_.'g.qz1 ^Js 4l+ol 1o14. f4LI Hlg
    q olqE, =4++=
    gqBTl: ts4¤ol ,!e HIE:.I
    ^Jn 4s"E+ "Jq tr-E 4gol = s"J ^Js
    ts4¤tr+ rJ "*g ^ltg tl.4 E4¤ EU+. dHlzl.J ¤60}9 ._qijl ^Jq"il^l
    = 7l4l7l q: ag "Jg "J+ ++.J "J4ol ¤4.
    =7lq^J
    ^lE Bq4^.1
    cH3cN Ezl-Sol
    ql+ El++ A=*.rl a7l3 TItl +zl-E=g rA 11.8q^J trq +E A6JilH, +tol +4
    alB EztzJ "JqE =o7td4. Xr-iz| EHlEzt ?zlaJgl q+ qBrll #tsdol ?7161+zl
    g 74ale|.

    NI otull ril^lE ExlEoll^J g+0ll^'19=.+ee 7|E^'lE4lalol zJa}|^l=71. sfofi^lts7L olLlE


    tflillB Hl*¤171"?

    Eefll9l trtolollg ollEl 0flllE gtrll6t0lE 0I4lELl0lE=J


    cH3cH2cH3 cH3ocH3 cH3cHo CHlCN
    MW: 44amtt MW : 46 amu MW :44 amu MW:41 amu
    p :0.1D p:1.3D FL:2.7 D FL:3.9D
    bP:zsrr bp:248K bp:294K bp:355K

    _=71
    =/q
    g=xt--g+i &a-',t+z | t
    ^1ri =7
    afH 11.8 H 7l.rl ZE-d +71 EEel =rEf, S=^1"EfllE, *=E
    478 113 o-4illsf E^l'ZJ -'J

    fA zStt

    f.al 11.e= L4-t7=ag4e+ +i_a "JEq4l olCts e+EtEE #=dg ++8.+. 14+ gi
    E egal5 EIaJE(cs+{l^J snH47f^1, E+ ++C)e.l #=de +g q+ 44zlg +4
    4eE +7l6-J+. olag Ezl.=.tol +7l6Jql qE ¤+E, s&qol fizlalzl ullEql qltr
    g + 9= a6}ol+. zllls, 16, t7+4 +49 g^5E gg =
    A6Jg trIE+. -r.Bl+ NH3,
    H2o, HF= q^Jsl= aH+ #=dol .Eld k+.
    ^I¤
    ol= EHIEe Eli6.J Ezle&4
    ^ll
    *
    C9 zlzli El= Ee=4 +Erlts qq += CAg z$lt- 9l+. q= 5E Ee +e +
    Ed, Elg, =o899 ?lAL+. olfl CeEg E9 tsztzJ ¤ol uldtr4 eE rJ6t+=
    =
    ag trq =
    =+. .Jqe
    'J6J +4+ +4 ABg.E+EI 49 ¤4.14. +4 AE'
    HF, H2o, NH:9
    (hydrogenbonding)* dzl *Cs.zI g^(oJHI:loE F, o, N)ql Eq 9= +A gzt
    =
    e+, q]=q +E exl+ Et+ 4*zl"ll 9l= d7l +cE4 g^ zJ9 .J4ol4. q4^l
    + EzlE H-F, H-o, H-N Aqle E += +zlq flE =r, o, Nr| +^ aqlg Bc6J
    + gl+. ql= 5H fH 11.10q1^J .Hq += azlH, +i aqle H2o Ezl-el H flxic+ qld
    + Hro EzlE o flxI ^Iolq ,+49 a+ql +A Aqlql flE u ilzlzl El="#
    \ =4loJ+.
    dzltl'4 tln zl¤¤ E-ql ++6I+.
    +A '2lEiE Bd6t7l +16}l^1
    b eEroll Elq6|'* Hl+A g +A aqlg 5E.J ="#g ,{-=z}_rg=_z}.Jqes g + gltr}. F, N, o flz}E dzl *
    xl(N, o, F)b +xE 7f^lr 4E7l ull$ = ug, ol= gzle+ +a flxl-^|ol9 a6Jg +col ql$ =.-n +4 94 +ql
    old6l-= trlrll .J+(,}H4. Erlel e-=4ql flts +sr.l= }8+z}el olaq¤ q= +g +
    ?010F 6lE7l-?

    a+u-l +4 eEt,
    4U+).
    E^lr[ Ert?] + <------+ <-------+

    N o A- o
    I I
    N-H
    F-H O-H
    +a flzl+ 4* dztzt s.+. trI4^l d+zlE oJ+ ++9, +^ g^Iqql 4E d6I7I r.
    H H

    H-F:.....H- F: PHgel AsHg9 g=E xtolE ¤86[|9.


    400
    H H Hzo
    l e t71
    H N: .....H-
    I

    N:
    I

    350
    o 16+

    o
    I I

    H H
    15+
    300
    ,s
    E
    HF
    H E
    xl 14= H2Te
    H- N: H-O: K
    250
    sbH3
    I I NHa HI
    H H
    SnHa
    200 i

    H
    GeHa
    H-O
    I
    H-N:
    150
    siH4
    HH I
    I

    arB 11.'10 +4,J--J +4 CHo


    H g^l7l -er E^l0ll,(l 100
    =-Efp 0 25 50 75 100 125 150
    N, o, F 3^loll ?,1=
    =-.JElcl EixPJ(amu)
    nl], tl= E^lsl N. o. F grlelt
    ol /.fOloll,(l
    "Jcl-J + ?lrl. ArC 11.I 14-17I fl^=e.lA+8 +AElEq --:S=ErFJg -d+eE |6l'fitl'
    11.21 E^S1a1 479

    q 9l+. "Jd6l.= il= tszlE flzl $$uzt gzlel +a6}q ¤qal ¤4. dzl
    zI E-a S,= +4= ,1]9 4zl qlEql, flil $$Etl= gzlql E\+ 711d4lr+7l7la-, :L
    =ilql
    4+ ?ti'J tlE z}+g.Jr+.
    =
    +a a6Jg CEqL4 +sCg zl4. 4** EJ6ll^l "*e slq4lq,<J fet q.Jg +
    +. ql= +4 a6Jg +EeE Tlbq 6s'J alzl-?l +3= oJae+^l7lb Ell E¤¤
    =H
    =+.
    +i a+3 EoJ DNAE +d4 7l+ql +soJ ol+ +d +aE BCotZl ,J+.
    qH
    F +a
    11.1
    ,3sJg E^JEI+ g{ {7l
    rtB Etr e +4 e--Jol Eal4 dEE n|l q-gE -g 4.,J? Etre q! A17l?
    =E--J =e-.J
    Dl I El I
    oJ(C Hr, d l0 | E z|.[!(H2 N N Hz), EFsaJ a[ ql EJ(C
    H3 F), =JEl. +A(HrS)

    T[l'J HH HH
    .84 ql TIzl iIEJEel plol^lol +q4 flr, :aEol +a a trtt
    :N-N:.....H-N-N:
    i+ql +q.J ol5 E=
    4"J71, olHTl-= ql+61-= E^]loltrl. tt"l
    HH H
    iiE zlzlz 9lq. rel+ +a a6Je EE +4
    zI N, o, F4 !"fr 4aJ.9-E ¤aE q"J .JqkI+. atr. "JHl4 o + fa9l r"fr Ell+ n, o, FE rQlalizlS
    4 p++4g +46Iq +a7I N. o. r flzle+ 4e ad.
    AtE] Eq-e 6Iq, +^ Aqlql +qd-= Eeg +Hts + 9l+. {-
    g 6tr lltszl gotts+. +z}el Lewis 7tE:aflg oll .J E z}+q 4¤I Lewis +4= r4E aE ql+g dAd+ %I
    +g Ezlql flE d7l ¤.tE7l gzK.JHI4 oe. N, o, r) Eol ¤4.
    I Hl++ dzl4l-E +^ aqiql =9_eap1. > "H.* qlfil1
    Eol N, o, Fql a.J+ +A= s.¤-6}zl ?*E cHop* nrs +* + rJgql^l ._q4.J ,Ie.^Jol7l..t Eeg?
    ol H+ql^J 4lelsl+. Lewis *391^J +d c gzlE (a) *gqlatol E (Hrco) (b)
    = oJ(cH3F)
    =
    rzH9 H flxle| rufl$ r flztE EEt CH3FE (c)
    =+e-EEil4
    +a(HCN) (d) r+&3rt +a(H2or)
    ^llel+tr}(+ ^|o1o3p1
    a= aJ^J 4rll9 aqlg ^JC6II, +ie} ++sflg 44 *p}+^(HrS)
    (e)

    lzl]E eqlg ^JC6J4). ol +zl+ rzl]9 c-r A.Jg r*n, > s=qFil2
    H-F e*g 17l]E SoEe +c A6Jg SC6Izl ?+=+. q+ Ee + +s+ +4 eqlg ,*E Eee?
    :44 HrNNHz9 Z*, N-H AoJol 9i+. rglil Lewis * Ecl "ilEHl(cH2Cl2), +:-¤(pHJ, g+ olEJ(NHrct),
    aq 4 N g4ql Hl++ azHrol E?l+. tr++^l +i e6J oi,rJlg(CH3CoCHJ
    g dlol=ald $z[.r.[o]ql,rl 6J + 9l+.
    =z]]6J+lt

    6J Eg "J* +4 A6JE Ar+= g¤.r+ E9 "JE tslrql^l *2 izl glq. q+E


    TIzl
    E E¤g .-4ill ^Jqtr+ r1^ll ^J4ql^-l rl aujalzl +"J+. :14=E jlill^Jg E4I^JE
    4 "JgzI rl rq. ElEq o "c9lrl g*E "JE(o.et7 glmL)i o "c .-4ill EE rrJE(1.00
    g/ml)-E-r| z++. trI+^l ggol .lill E flq E+.
    g+E "JE7l Eq "JEH+ 4e ag +A ¤6Je*tr ol"llg + 9l+. g*ql^l H2o E
    4f f.H 11.11i]e e^J 9lrll ul]ggtrl. olq6J H]lgg E EzI ^l-olE +c eqlg slzlp+6t
    q, r+49 E tszt7}47Hq +E +^ AElg ¤C+rt. rq+ olE +a AEle -r,H rl.rl
    9 z}*91'll -Eol= Hl +rJg BC6J+. ¤*ol tAl 9E EzI9 +E EllEql olfl fazi
    +rlg+. "lillql^Jg +a a!+e r.alqldB+ 4 z}#Ezll .Jolr-[zl"J, E4# Tlvlo]
    9l tolE AEq rJlzly zlzla_ 9l+. trI+^l "lill Eg 9*-E.+ "JE7I=+e= 7l4]-Ll.
    ol= eruiol eg ql, Eol g+E+ z+e +rl$ zlzlaf,r]3 49 9ul.J4.
    480 115} "-{^llelE^l'J e

    m H--Ots g3 eBolli, o...HE +a eBolal.E. E30ti^1 H-o."H e-d4g qlaj gtrloJTt?

    G ,.....3' (} ..-.3 1.0 A 1.8 A

    a, t" .....4 o
    1..3*
    + .....3 I .....A
    \ -..-..'

    Q, +-,..-.Q, e eg
    21al
    =g

    I
    u O -..4 G .....3

    aral 11.11 gBoll^le.l+4 eEt g3 +40il ?l= HlGl ?,1= ErJ nflEoil, fill=0lo-qillEHr; 11 gdE +4= oJ=^l=-drf.

    gB^l Eol "Jala]+ 4(=e 11.12)g B¤6I+r ¤2zl= "*3 z|¤ d{}g floJol
    *

    I
    .:f 94. uJtlol Eql Er, Br^l7t +glzlE +E+ol Eld+. 9*.9 "Jszl Eel "JEql
    El6ll 4L+= zl+^JE
    ^JBillql ^JB+ ¤olg
    ,lrl4. ++ Bql 9*ol EE E
    ^Idg
    E q++g Hil Eq g i}+d+. "JE g+ol EH+ rj "Jgzt u+8, s+
    _.,/
    ,i =Eg
    q+Sq g+e Htqql 7[+g+ot Ef dx]lzl _zi]l gqe 4o14. ql++g ++ ^J I
    Ee olfloJ adgldE ^J=.J + Hg 4o14.

    tr E0l="=|oi71 ?l6H^l +=6H0tdl-= ?lajq +E


    :dEH=
    +1?]7|.?

    w
    a rB Eot gol gSEj
    ol¤--.r!'+r,f
    olt-g+r]
    EJ

    fl(ion-dipole force)3 olgr+ *C EzI ^Iolq


    =2il6J+(re
    tl.ta). o3'o1

    m
    11.12
    E4
    !H efl Hzo9 s +Eiol Na* 013= B6lE7l?

    6+
    t!
    Ii
    1?Q
    cl-
    + i.a*

    +d E^tel oJI6t "JEol 3d6f= +d E^lelBd6l "JEol gd6lE


    El -qnl9.g:6i6lrl E "J013= -dEttrl.

    AfH 11.13 ol8-8=-^[e


    11.2 E^tz -d 481

    gg ,r*+zlE gd6l
    "J+ql gEr,
    "J+q gflq. olg d6led,r} ^8+
    ¤.o1¤-3 old6}
    x| efle.el a7l7l4e++ ol "J49 a7)Z 6ri++. ol$-ffi2| Ee E+q Naclol
    +oI gl= +"_qr+ ?ol, *c ._4zll +ql olg Eeol EoI gl= +Eql^J ull_f feolQ .-,,=.,
    (4.13).

    P 6 EEalEotl ,t folotl 013:-Af+^l --J= gZ-Er + ?t= ,tg?


    rl=
    =-cr=
    E+oll cH30H7[+ e?q E+oll ca(Nos)z7l+ ,J+

    szlt 6Jol Hla


    qtr Eeql zl+6.la 9l= tszla E¤: Eeel at4 +z¤ rEJdIq oJolB + ?l+.
    E+qe sE Ee"il^.i ga¤+. ol "Jqq ^ll7l= Ezle} +rlql qq +zl-6rjr., EzI E
    oJqlE 9=6J+. +C ez}g A+, lA}+z|-,ts+4 {}E 4L¤+ E&q Er+q trl6l]ri ++
    4zlr}. E&q"il El6l] BzIrJ .Jqq= rl 4r)l 7lq6J+. qE HCrg A+ +&qe E
    z|,r.|ole1 + oltl.¤ zlzl*+I +4qI+. HlE, =E
    .4dl-+z}-rd+z} .Jqg r +q
    "Jqel 807o
    zlE ilzl6}+. ia At}ol A+, d4 +4rJ tr-E 4+q1 zltt 6s-al g6#9 vl1]Ll.
    =4]E
    "JHI49E E4}qql 6HBq= qlqzl= o.t-:o k|/mololQ. ol+rll $$ olluJzl 7zJ
    qI
    g + EzI ¤+E9 +oJ* +E= Hi¤++. f.q El6ll, {--z}-{r-=-zl. ,!}n z}¤.ol+ +A
    A6Jql qlra6}=qlHzlE zJzl2-15 kllmot4 t0-40 kJlmolol4. olg-4+zl Elg g}^l
    t+'J EzlzJ 6Jtrr| A6J a6'Jol 9lq, trE 50 kl/mol oltol4. olfl EE tla zl¤+
    fu4 kJlmot9 qlqzl= 7l7l:_ Eo+ AoJol+ ol¤ palHrli ^J'J6l zl+.
    fg 11.14= 5A'J zlloll,rJ $zlzJ 6Jg aa6}rll 6l] += +z1g +4u 4.o14.
    olElqI E= .JqE E4L +6]]4^J trqd4= ag oI= aol +sfl.{. qE EE oi^ll
    E& (CH3COOH)4 1-Ee+g(CH:CHzCHzOH)3 ao amuE e¤. +4"+g zlzlt- j)t-,

    m F E^t^t0l01l^J qal Tt|el E4Jeg +a e-d-E"rt ollLl^l7l rl


    =
    + ",naz?

    o-{i{oil +ot
    OH,NH, HF OH, NH, HF =c
    flE o|e8.afll
    flrl ++c E^l g.t7l7l s= +8 Er] .lt7l7l ll= +d Ert ql:Eoll+3
    EII'J OJqq ffl: Ne, Ar ql: BF3, CH4 qI: HCI, CH3CN ql: H2O, NH3 NaCl
    =+
    EL/\tal

    (0.1-30 kllmol) ,/ ,/ ./ ,/ ./

    8=xF8+rtaa +E
    (2-15 kJlmol)
    ./ ,/

    +4 e-J
    (10-40 kllmol) ,/

    olE.{'+^t 8E AtE
    (>50 kIlmol) ,/

    fts 11.14 Erl2J oJaJE e!6|i iil=.a;r= clttJ tl"g-Lr E^l2J oJqol +E6lr ?t= + 91t1. EdqP E=
    Eloll AfE-.Jtl= ,ioll +olblel.
    =E0lLtE-stEoll= =+E
    I
    482 113 o_4lletE^lrJ -.J

    4 E^lE ol?6t= 27fl9 E + +4 A'Jg.J + 9l'1. rqq o[.r]l-E4} Ez] +t[3 zz11E +] Aq]g 6J +
    +a eEt= TtTlrf. il= cll HI6ll, l_E_a+g tszl t tle rzl]9 fi ¤*"J9 aJ f gl4(=al 11.15). r
    p$ olr11e41E #=dol rl +El. olfl Er+= EHql qEl 4E 8+ztc+ +^ aql
    g {+ 4*zlE 7l^l+. +EIe4 Ag aq.J i.d tsz}9l,tJ= E]]+ E$ol
    =!s-6J
    4. olfl Ezls=$ Q+e-l "Jq ql$ql +"1 tlqlql^l E+g Ctre ,J6IZ] ^lE +a
    e + 91tr[.
    0[^tlE1!{CH3COOH) EztzJ "JqE l}ql4 Hlig trll. 4+ ojq];.p3-o1 rEl9qoF +trl-.
    ^Jl7l=
    MW: 50 amu
    bp=ssrr 1. + ErtTl B^lE! sgEl ETFJEi TtrtE!, + EEoil^1 EEqe lsl ,JEl. olel6J
    =Eel
    tszl-591d tszlzJ "Jqg r7l ilol= r&*zi-rL}?z} .Jq ^l7l zlol rll+ol4.
    4 Exlts 0l?6t= 17l|el
    +4 ?j-Jg 7tctrt. EzI9 +Col ?7IE++ Ezl-+ eol ,J6l-t, +^ e6Jg 6J + 9l= +^l7l7l
    tI rJ+ ^JE 41-¤¤ ei+.
    2. + ErlaJol *lt"l6l qe;. +A egol AE u:ll, EdqE olE! ,"!E! ErPJ ?!

    4 =E9
    EIE 7E! e86tXl6l| Etrl. gHI4sE +^telol
    =Eol
    Ee'J++ EzlzJ "J
    'tl
    qol r+.=EErl= =

    1 1.3 | o+i1lel +"i6J ^Jt


    1- u+SJSCHgCH2CH2OH)
    MW : amu zllnlzl EzlzJ .Jqg azllflzl
    bp:370K
    60 trllEql, olxll $xllsl A zlzl a+.J +dg oloJla|

    a:18 11.15 ollilE{jTl 1-Ee.EJEel


    7l +lg 4,o14. ol Aql^lE EillE
    ^ll
    zlzl 6sq} SC, ACE, ** 4-q, e.,(-ll

    + ++ql 4"ll .Jolts4. =


    +l,l-d 7lE-.J +A +71=cl
    'J++ EIF=O1 ,\]-+ tl=--Jel
    ?.1617ll=Gl'J7l

    ^1#=Eoltsol,drl.

    F qHl
    Erlt
    1 1.2
    oJaJeltq4 4Ple+ ++ qE

    EE BaCl2, H2, CO, HF, NeE B=Eol +,\1e LlE6l,\l9.


    =716t=
    6ilff H2(Ne<CO<HF<BaCI2
    B4 +gE Eee_l +rl}.Jg +e$lq r- C.trE #=d9 aE Ef,ql^'l #=Ag *olEB H2 20 K, Ne 27 K, co
    a7l= 4461+ rJl +4. 83K. HF 2e3K.BaClz 1813Kol+. tr+4^l ql+.J 4+*
    ^l-s"
    4te #=Eg 4 Eeql^l Ezl¤ .Jqq ++4 0s 5q"*=4.
    ^Iol9
    E=*4. += ++q BztJ "Jqol ,*= dlql4 ^I7lql q > s6 qlrlll
    4 ol Ee# 496J Be-zl ?14. 4* EA Ar, Cl2, CH4, CH3CoOHE tszl7J'Jqe] ^ll7l
    Eot olgc Ea ^IolE glqg EztrJ ?lqB+ q ^ll+. 7l+7ltft +^lE +g6l^ls.
    ui4! naclrT} #=dol 7i+ ++. tsot 9l= E¤9 tszt (a) CHa ( Ar ( CH3COOH < Cl2

    a Ee Exl*, +c, +^ Be
    914. ExlzJS H,
    a!+ql (b) CI, < CH3COOH < Ar < CHa
    2 amt, CO 28 amu, HF 20 amu, Ne 20 amuol4. UrE f (c) CHn < Ar < Clz < CH3COOH

    +cola 7l* 471uIEq. #=Eol TIZJ *oI"F


    Ez}%iol (d) CH3COOH < Cl2 ( Ar ( CHa
    6J+. co, HF, Ne9 EzI*g 7lE Hli6I+. HF= +L 4 (e) Ar < Cl2 < CH4 < CH3COOH

    Elg 6t7l qlEq, ol ,rll zJ-zl +ql^l #=dol zI* +4. + > .!a* qlrll2
    *9 coE, "+rJ +Cola Ezlelol 7l* aLl. ulzluJ9-E, (a) cl-s Ee=q EzlzJ .J49 ++6}7, (b) #
    NeL **C Ezlol4. EIE^I rjl+ #=d"l TitL *"t"t,* TltI te =46.t=
    Eeg dq4^le_.
    +. ql+q= #=del +^J= +g+ a+. =aol CH3CH3, CH3OH, CHgCHZOH
    11.3 I '-4^llsl=E-.J dtr 483

    a{
    E04
    l tr

    B"Jolq e]{ s-.Jr+ Ag "-qill= trl]+ L4rll EErt. H}Eql, Eol+ 7l¤fl ?g "-4^ll=
    dr]l 6=+. '-4illE EEql Ell6J ,16}9 E¤E(viscosity)41 '*+. a4illg dCszl.
    sIiI= q L4Zl 6=4. ddE: qE "J4"*E 9xJlz} zi= +g Fn+6I= =++
    +A6t
    q g=+(f=J11.16). dcE= arEI f,$$ol eqill= E"+6lq 4Ele= +E= +a6}ol ^l+g
    44617\E- '*+. d^"rEzl lffl arql ++Eg q Aad tl4gq. 4.gs.oll 4lt sr +
    I
    9lE kg/m-soltrl.
    dcE= 4 "-4ill tszl-5ol ^Jql4eE drll s4"J f ?lizl6[= ar+ sflol 9l+. tr] I
    4^l dcE= EzI ^lolE .Jqr+ E4¤ ^le +q ¤ "JoJ +e(ql= a +zl= .:+
    ,llElzlH =E
    ga f 914)zl-9lEzl, s.Ezlql gBJ 9l+. q4^l s rr.sql{4 rJol "J¤ SAE 40 SAE 10
    ^Jtr +^lg+= Ate +xl"J+=
    =
    9 Exl9l 4aI¤ dCs= Ezlelol 6zlaJ9l rlel *z}C4. Ed-tzl =;r, EdETt^ln,
    ts861¤ott!trt. Eel+otdEt.

    E 11.3 20'Cq^1 EJEt+a 4lolel X65 a f.H 11.16 EdE HIE !l+
    3+^f
    Eql(Society of
    gxl
    a= Exl^.1 EdE(ke/m-s) ^lE^f
    Automotive Engineers, SAE)ts

    fl.'.llol(hexane) CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3 3.26xlO 4 xlExf e? EdE= LIEILH=


    ,\;l-= trl-=Glrt
    T/\t- r i=^iLt.

    dBlgl(heptane) cH3cH2cH2cH2cH2cH2cH3 4.09 x l0 1

    $elloJ(octane) CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3 5.42xro a

    1.uJlol(nonane) C H 3 C H2C H2 CH2 CH2 CH 2 C H ZCH ZCH I 7.11 x 10 1

    Ellz.ll oJ(decane) CH 3CH2CH2CH2 CH2CH2 CH 2CH2CH 2CH3 r.42xro 3

    olgt o4*{l

    oJolgr+ zJ9 zla;j zJ$zl .Jqg ql++g olg a


    *ol9 a7l7l Erl rzl"J. qla^dg
    CH3CH2NH3+= NH4*-E-E+
    6J pElEol tr-gql^l .ke +Ed4 #Edg,*E+ 6}0l n q ++. "JHl4eE olgC EAql^l= olgel aTVl q
    ill tI{= +z16111 6]] rfl+ olg ed-c+6JEE r--L ffi, #44"J ¤45 zl-¤i*, olgd sqillE BC6J
    cl =
    =trI.
    d3 ol¤ d6l-rlol ul-f =.zl ?*zl* *ol8-+olg 4al7I + 9= ,lplE q * r*A\ ¤r+. Etg ololgol olgC "_4ill=
    +Eq gqzlr{ qE *o}e + *+. qlE o}olg++ ec,J + glzl"J, 7l* * "J3Jd a +9 6l-+= sg^I +
    ol$ol Ef =q
    4gzl olgoJ us+No3E +=A-s- 170 "C d nelE+q Eqd F gE 'Jol7I4E r-BB-l-ollBolol
    = q qleg}Ets "}
    "JE "Je.5 "3,o1e-o]| a7\71g{ =
    oltrI. El¤¤i oJo|g(t -butyl-:-methylimidazolium cation, alx[.tr
    ol$(CH3CHzNHT*, ethylammonium cation)99 7l+g bmim+, ral 11.17n+ g' 11.4)ol+. ole+ eg 5C9 bmim*
    +E h=de 12 "c.s *otzlr., tr-gql^l A11 qlESEts 7t #zl4"J E.Jg 6Ia, lill tlqlql^l +zl-=ol 6J
    '*41
    (ethylammonium nitrate)
    "-4^llE "JEEi. A&
    qlg'JEbg 4l+r-l= ol== ag qB4l "J=E+.
    olSc g4(ionic liquid)g ql ql olgC 'l4q[.] ffi{ gs gaFl= +olgg pF6-, BF4-,
    ^Jgql^l "_qill tt-Eile] E.J
    ol+. Btr{p+ olgol+.
    olgd "-qill= H zlzl ++.J CA
    H +
    I
    F
    I zlt14, ql+Ee.l +zld "-qille+ trI
    HaC .-CH2CH2CH2CH3 F,,,, sZl, olSC "-4ill= HlflgC(4 ol9
    I
    .'.trrF

    ,t\ F \- t, [,-'i- F
    C E^11= 6ts921 |*Y4)olzl rllE
    ql El.Jsldg TIzl= a6}ol glI, E
    LF 400"c gEql^JE Eijl tr-ql_E
    1- +=-3- oll=o lo ltrt=E (bmim+) PFo BF,- 6J+. 4+EE +alC Eeg,l]+=zll *
    o!nt-Q
    3018 9ntq g gE, qlE Eq Be a+ql flq^J
    100 "c E= r ol6lel gEq^'lEI o-qill
    arB 11.17 013¤ Eilloll^1 gzqts rl|E4oJ olE
    484 113 o-4^llelE^l'2J e

    E 11.4 Lil 7lxl I-+EJ-3-0llEJolEIEt=.E(bmim+) gel +:E4 ol+. olg^J "_qll= ",*3 Eeg +g $uflolzl ullEql, 4.J
    Eafl 8s + +s"4 +?.lql ^F&g + 9l+. ole+ ag ce qlEql, ol
    gC +,]]= P+e tl$ r+Aql*] flBC *zl +,ll= 4t6I=
    o!nl-q
    O-lL EOIE +ts¤(c) E61l tEfc)
    ,llq4t qlal Eeol+. aF4.J fzl 8,ll9l Hl61] tqlzl_e_
    bmim+ cl- 4l 254
    tr olgc aqz]l= +q aA, q "Ja+ zl4, +13 zllrl-&9
    bmim+ I_ _JL 265 z1;'Cg zll+e}+. ole+ ag ol+E, &84 +qL n+4
    ^.lel
    bmim+ PFo- l0 349 q^l +aql trlzl= g6}9
    =q =+.
    +fl ¤+ +xll: u.31, tt.32,tt.B2
    bmim+ BF,l -81 403

    qtr E4e.l ddEE 8ETI ?zlaJ9l 44 zJadJ4. +qeE


    ?* oI44 zJ4.
    0 "cql^l x r0-4 kg/m-s
    7.06
    40 "cql^J 433 x rO-4 kg/m-s

    E= EE E^lE3 014+ +g gEq^l= Eztg ¤+ +E qlLlzlTI 4rJ tszPJ .Jqg d


    oe EJTI= a3 +
    gl+ee.J7l=
    Af^fl--J ,ll ++6J + 9ltrL
    91=, Col
    fl71 ql=oll dill4o+
    nll ol4i+o+ trJ7l= f,OJ TAJ
    ='Lzl'-q HlqrL
    Eg EHg +q fl: ul+i]H 4E"6J4. "JP E*ol E +l='a
    EL"l.
    -E =

    g + 9l='bqol ol= oJao6J4. olel6J A# qitl sEql^J E


    zIrJ 6Jg E+e qlEql saq. f.al 11.18q1^l E= aaH, .l]+ql

    {.JU \-) UU!) gl: Ezl= E= tsJ6*ql^J +aol EgBzlE qlBql, g.E tszl¤
    g.ll+tr E9BzlE e"J E=E}. olel eol oJ+e-E 6f"J E* s
    E ts4¤ LH+E- gqBzlr, olq 4+ .EE4ol -EHql
    g{¤ol zl4Al Eol|l g+. =qEq
    9l=
    +Bg +qd +i{q 4ol{ z]-at 4e sfl4g zlzlzl ql$ql,
    EEJge +¤q zv\& -Eo&g 7l4L+. ¤*gol+ q^= .r.}]-tr ?
    Lll+ol E^lE3 EtrU HJEoe ql zl+z} EE4 Aol ++C Ezls ol+q1l sBq^], Eol 'EJg
    8^|1El7l n|1Eoll Gl! "Je =al:
    fl=01
    oeq ^lE
    EJTIE E= 'L771^l P-dtrl. E*'g ol+Al q= A6J-g ol4ol ¤Eoll t4.
    sqill EBzlg ts471 91611 ++6llot 6l+, L}]+E 6J* Eg EE
    a:1H 11.18 Erl+Aql^1EEE 8aJ 8al0lr a3r|. EE! S,El(surfacetension)S EillE EEg ++l H
    7l tt|Eoll 4=80|ts E0ll usl^lIl ?-fEtL =e]EE ^Jqol+n
    Onuacno/shutterstock

    4"J+ rtzl4zl Ell gs6t eolq. ql= 5H 20 .cql^-l E9 EH


    +qg 7.2exr0-2llm',")4. + "JaelE E9 EEzlg t m2 "J=. ?lql,t]= z.zsx
    =471
    10-2 Iel "llulzlE =o#dlot 6J+. Eg zlal fc a.J ql+ql
    =
    EH +qg ritl+. +g
    9 eE tlqe trl r+(4.6x l0-l tl^). "lA? +g g4 ^Iolel ++ a.Jol 4+ rJ-6r71
    rllEol4.

    A 8E7l cf¤i6l-E "-{illel EE SalP 67l6lE7l,7JL6!E)1, olLlE rqEoJTl?

    E^11+ 1r'+
    Hliql Ezl# 6J, + E9 +i a.J ae ag +dq(cohesive
    ^lE +q +b tszla
    force)olela .Jq. qH EAg E.Eq +q ++ +z].rJ 'fl9 ++qGdhesive force)olap
    11.4 I 8Etrl 485

    uqr rJq LH+= E^e a=JEltlE, sel cllr_l.t7i,^.el "JHJ4E _Eglol EErTl? tSel slll-l^il^s| gEJ4oJ Eglol E-Er-rl.?

    .-E
    E r
    I

    H2O-gal
    H^lan

    a
    o..

    ,"
    -q^ tan _q^tal

    ++al >8Ealolo+, Hzo SEaJ > +ar+olEe, ?al


    E^l: l=7)lal.Htrl= +4 9t =JE Hg E^f==g qql ts
    tl E^t7+atEt.[. rqal,\l9+
    011 Erl "J:rl. qatll
    :e(ux161x.Eg ==el(Fl
    Cd:dtrt. d-d uxle)sE= B5-drt.

    arg 11.19 +eltroll +Pel qlLl-\z^ EoJ


    = =71

    +trt. E4 +4 ^IolE p44ol E EzI ^Iolg ¤-dqtr+ vf azl qlEql +4+ +g E


    g +rl+q ++++. tr14^l EE 4q^4^(meniscus)= u^l¤ol+(rH 11.1e). r*l+
    +e9 a+= t}*ol +g+. +e g4-E=g flzl¤zl4E a6J5J + 9le+ +4e+E aEt
    g + H+. -L 4+,8d4ol ++qH+ ¤d zr, 4q^4^= yld.J uz}¤ilH g+.
    7I= +el+ol+ E^ll+g E+ql B-g-H Eol + +etr g4rJ+. ._4illzl. ,H* zlb SS
    Foll 94zlE 49 e{lE Ef8(capillaryaction)ole}l E}+. al^lle-} +9 q ++q
    ^}olel
    g "-!ill sE4g G,7l^l7la-, oqill .EE tlqg sEzJg ¤olEl= A6Jol 9l+. rr++^J .-!
    ill= +E qg 4.z +]tr g4++. .-q^ll= .-qiilql 7l.6l]tl +eJql E"l] ++q4 8d4ol
    +Bg ol$ ullzlzl g+rJtrt.
    -E^Jl+ zI¤+ ts4 ul4 914. ql= +ae "-qill= ¤+6r-r., ,Ja ^JEIE +z16}=
    =q
    6J^J z.lEg r_^ll+ q¤¤ F6l]^l ul+E+El ts¤ x{4aJ4. E^ll+ +¤+ E4 +6l]9 g
    oJtsol +l+sE ol56i: Ag E=trt.
    ^lEE

    11.4 l#JEl
    +?-l&q +4& gqE il] +otE .-4^ll Eg +B6ll tstfl4. q*+
    +olE gg oJ a %r-ql
    4g E?-l ++. r.al co2(Er-|ololol-':-s +q]qgJ= tr-gq^l ^"q+4. 4 01131
    ill ^J4ql^-l ule zlill ^J4E E.J+. "J+4e.E Eeg 4 d-Ell(r^ll, olill, zlzll)| r|g
    + ^Jq + oJ tI4-E EB + 914. =e 11.209 ol{ EE}ql u}E "lEg ++U4. olfl H
    sl¤ tltlEt(phase change) E= tq He](change of state)4-L *4.
    486 118 qilel-E^lZ e

    3E g Sret EsE!4=0il^l otBzlqq^l7l'J=El qlLlal ,JEl: fJE:l¤ EHJtltrf


    b7l? 449 ^JEal= 419 qlqrl HplE EEI++. ql$ 5q -z,ll
    glrJ .JzI(tszL olg, flz})Eg,rJ-+9) qldl qL CE .Jd'tl
    7 liil
    +lzl= zlzl6p, 9lr, 4lE 9lHzlE :i{iE+6IE+ zlttlol a\
    gslq 9lq. nillE gETt +7I6Jql oJzl.]==g dd rl
    "|4,
    {!zl& ef$ 6Iq ¤¤ glzlql^l drE"*+. -r.illz| }$ ,ll
    5Hl
    o= ral= +^.16I: oJzlE ,r1tr91 ql6}oi z[+Er]l ¤-zlol=Ell,
    K
    5 ol= trE .JzI9 ¤t 44zl +7I6t= 19 9rl'J4.
    6
    ol-
    eit ,^.1=
    -= ir-4\71+E 4Ag *&(fusion)ol+r .Jq. Ezl-=E +
    N
    s4ill
    7|g +EE zI+E: qlqzl= 9se. 6Iq, taE(heat of
    tusion) E= ++ {Bul(enthalpy of fustion, AHr,J9l 9dl
    - B?(gB)
    +dgt}. ql= Eq ggq ¤+93 o.ot kflmololr|.
    rill HzO(/) AHru, : 6'01kJ
    H2O(s)
    -
    Exlltlg gETt +rtElql u].4 .Jzl¤$ EEI 4E6IA| +
    EE U3oilLjxlTt EEoll 7t6fltltrt.)
    - cE EJSEEe+Ej ollLl^l7l HJ=EE|.) z1?lr}. +71fl SEotr. t6l] E+9 "Jzlzt Tlilltle-e mI4
    -afH 11.20 8E6l.el.8EEl.9 ol= +g+. Aq4sE o-qill EH +lql 9l= Tlill^J oJx|el :-"rz|
    gE +7lql rl4 6zl*4. Tlilltr- "Jz}ql 9ql .J49 ?zl
    oJ{(vapor pressure)olap 6JE}. 4lt1.sAql^l +71
    "Jqql
    4aI9 9o|B 4o14. 4#e *z), Gzl.JHol "-4;ll +FE e]+ .Jq.J 4zl.JllfoJg tr]]
    Tlzl $E- *zl4l ulet 6zlaJ45 4"J "loilalB 94. "lull aqzll= #71 a44l q
    ^l+6rq
    ql Tlsz| ¤dgE|. +qd oJel E^ll= +7le d+t^l7l= rll pet qlqzlE EEJE(heat
    ofvaporization) Ei =.9 {Bsl(enthalpy of vaporization, AH,"o)z}-tr q}q. E9-l +gg
    * qo.z kf/mololc[.

    HzO(g) AHuup : 40-7kl


    H2O(l)
    -
    f.al 11.219 ull zlzl Eeql rflall.rl AH6,54lA""oE Hlj/+ r'tg +4'd 4.o14. AH,"p {}3
    AHro,-E-4 a6}ol ?14. ol= Eillql^l zlxJl {rrlle Hs}c oll, "Jz}= tse4 oE E=
    =
    EztzJ "Jqg #qqot 6l+ ElE, -'L4lq^l '-4ills + trll= olel6.J "J4ol 4PE #zl9
    7l trilEol4.

    E0 I rio loll=JollEiHrl ¤igEo I c 0 l?s-?


    90 Q9Cq

    80

    70
    tr -E
    oe=
    rc{

    o50 tr
    tr
    ),
    J
    so
    il+o 81
    oI
    Sro
    ?o 47
    58

    20 36
    4t
    29 29
    24 23
    10

    0
    Hdlol trfololl= oilEl ..]-
    (CaHro) (c2Hsoc2Hs) (Hzo) GIg)
    afB 11.21 EEg, +itE
    =gE,
    11.4 l8Etrl 487

    -r.xll otxlz[ 44 ^JqlE d+fB +E


    z\4] gl+. ol d*]gl gs_6J flgq Esl¤ A-i[E
    (heat of sublimation, AH.,u)ol4I oJq. rH 1 l.20ql ¤E.J uf4 rJol, AH,,uE AHru,9l

    aH""pg 6JolEl. tr14^l Eq 4aJ la,,o:. E 47 kllmololtrI.


    tr-Hel+ g^J^Jgql^J +sp} %l4se +ElkI+. E^ll +EE +l6}q g¤¤ ^t
    ^1617l
    +61+Ejl, gg9 ¤+gol .-qzllS it^Jol4 q+ ^t+ltr-ql.<J $reE r+g trllE ^l
    ^la+.
    g6}tr|r1 :_4L1. ol= rl+s+el Eol +g6J trll +es+El E9 6ts¤ol EE}4+7I71 ql
    Eolrl. +4e_l Ee 5q qg gr{ql 4gq} +5¤ e a+, 4+tr+q EE +gg F6}l i{
    gg adoJ+ ,,,.=. (!.5¤). tstlrE +Bql q= ts4 E!+e+ *dol 9l+. qtr "Jq4ql^J
    "ls+6J + 9l=
    gqg TliIel olag ,il4q=:9 +¤ol 9l+. Brr-r7t al+6il^l gx{= 6
    g^laql gg ¤+6J+. rCAl srg-eal tstlr 4S9 9szt *o|+14.
    "++'lill=
    ._tsill
    ts,]lzl. +g6J *ll ++g gg qBZl 4}-zl? gEo+ zllrBzl ",,,-, (5.2¤)oll "l?+
    g "-q^llql E"]] g+E gg TlillTt "lillE f,jE o]] *=qqo}.Jtf. ol d-Hslrt gq
    ^l ,J=q=
    "
    gg Bliil flE ts4 7gg 56lq 'J=Etrt. +q{ Eeql
    B trl] 'il+ 8+g
    (heat of condensation).] ?BE4 aTlY er. +EEJ +Ell"J a!e, +qd EAq qlfl
    gg r+A'J 4¤9(heat of deposition)g Sg rldq] ^"3r+9.!+ ,J9 zz1o1g^l +s.7l. H}
    4o14, Bg r+Ce eo-L$(heat of freezins)3 gg rlC'J ¤+94 zJ$ =zlolQ(:2fl
    11.20 +a).

    d=q EEor e*r,?r Etr H*g q gorLr= d*a', or=e +roJ7r-? or r*e
    A zruuzl, =erEloJTl?
    gE =
    | =
    z[o{ -!J\{
    'lA-rU
    g+g -zs"c, t atm $491^1 7tg6t{, i]+.1 g+E gE= 6zlg4. g-EE 0"c ol
    6rE +zl6IE g$e r.il tlqltr 94. &sz}0.cq EE:ot
    H g+g gzl ,r.121o3r1. ¤+g E:g rlcolse., o.collr.l
    TfoJ ge g+g "lzll Ee HI+E rll .tl$ap, 9*ol 4 * ctr"lDtr qrg r|Eol goil.-ltsTl?
    ^t010il^i
    I 4zlzl gE= "J46rrll #xl¤4. ggol \g +, gg q H2O(/)ol H2O(g)e
    =g-E=
    716ll +H EE gE= ^J+6}zll gEl.
    "-qill tlE]]el
    E nl]rlrlSE: E6lxl ?j=rt.
    gEe+ 7l-6ll gE +41 Eg.E zl¤ *,IJ(heating curve) L25
    ol+I.'*+. lH = ,t1.2y F
    -2s"c g*(uro(s))9 rzs.c a
    T6/ I

    100
    ¤:71(Hro(s))vl^) TlEi;J 7Ig +dol+. 9ol "Jct +Ee E

    Tiolldql ul4 ztg +dg +EEl= +rJ# Bc++. 75

    . d AB: TIgg g*E gE= -zs "cllrJ 0 "cE tl+^l .9


    E 50
    vJLl. OC 0-4^11
    E
    . d BC: zlgg o "cglrJ gE Es+ g{ol H2o(s)s+El 25
    H2o(/)E EpI^laq. BC EE-s= HrO(s);1 H2O(0e
    . d cp: zlgg Hzo(/)9 gE= o "cgld r00 "c-tr tl-+ 0
    q-9. E ttllzlll 3E= E6l^l g=tf.

    .d
    ^la+. -25
    )lg
    DE: Tlgg"Cel "JA'J g.Eql^J g.E EsI S.ol
    100

    Hzo(/)9 H2o(g)-tr Hsl^l A+. LaA 11.22 Esl 7tg +,S 0l E_Ets E 1.00 motE "JE UaJ
    (1 atm)oll,^] -25"Col HzO(s)E 125'Cel H2O(gDt^l7lg-g tttl
    . d EF: 7l-gg Hro(g)9 gEE t2s"ce
    ^J+^lrJ+. gGlLlts E+= Hq rallf g= 4l+6H^.1 7l6GE + aol
    rJlst _Eol^ilE/Eq,\lr =+.
    Tlol QEE tl;LTl oJErL
    ,Ig +dq ,+ +rJql q'J Alel flE l EEI¤ 4lt6J + |=olvl|L\ilLl/.|l-|L-!LIv|/!|6L+|.
    488 113 "-4^llelE^lZ e

    gltrt. c AB,cD, EFE6JTlzl qts'[]gEql^l q=eEETig6Jag+E[


    tq ql6ll
    u 4o14. zlls.saile, qH '* EaE gE= ge q gs* g"+e Hlg, aeJ, gE H
    ffi z"A aFl4(al s.2r). geE Hlgol =+=., "Jd 8s= g?-l= ql q *g ¤9 z|.ll
    oF -J+. Eq Hlgg g+9 Elgtr4 az) qEq, C cog 7l&7lb d arg zl¤zl-H-4

    zi+. 4Le zl&z)Y EE gE= t.c gg trll ?g.JE g+g 1.c 94= aB+ trJ Bg
    E9 zlollot qi+= 49 9"1f,4.
    d BCe+ DE: "J4ql gEq^J 6l+9 trol 4E ^Js.e H+g ag .Hq olfl
    ^J
    =+.
    HElzt "Jq+= E.J gE= "JC6.tZl .+xlg4. ell+.tE T}oll gol B+ EzI gE ql
    qzlE +7!^lvl= lol otrl4 EzlzJ E9 ol44E cll .r.f$slflzl = ollEol4. g+ol EE
    H6l+ !+Ag +4LI= d rcq a+ tlBvl H+= AH6,,E$rl 414}g f 91, d ore-1
    ?.+ AH,"pE ol+g + gl4.
    trJqr 12s.Cql^l iGzl r motg gzJ,rlTlB, rH rr.zzglrl ts_Fol 9-Eu_ql^J g+e-s ol
    Eo
    B f 9lrl. 7l¤. HzO(g)9 gEE *+r,ll qE(r ----- r), 8¤9q(E ----- o) olill H2o(D7I
    EE}.
    EllE=EillE+q ¤9zJl4o[¤ a4l7l "J=qzl^l 9*et[4ql^J E4l=q-L.a o]6]E
    +rJ4etr ^lg + girl.. olfl ¤tlg 4B4(supercooling)olzp ++. rlB4g ._qille+
    rl 9ol ,]]+ +46}111 {4¤ ull .Jq+^J, E^l7l "J rqlE rllE e^J 9l= +aE BC
    aJ;.lzjo1 sg trll g^J++. 4ts49
    "lill= g.Jc6}q +"_qq flzl olzlz| 5qrt4+ E
    617ll zlq+7]"J 6l]E +^lrJql rillelg+.

    oJZl
    SEq oJZl "JaJ
    zl4l= 4¤+eEql^l .Jqg 7t4q Eril-6J+ 9l+. 100"c iGz\zl q^E"tr E=d 9l
    E ¤ilcJql 9l+11 t;lzl. +-=ozl9le.l "Jqg +71^lvl4 zo0 torrgl^l Eillt E.l ^J^dg
    Lo14. rflLI gETl n0'ColE, .-q^ll^Jg g-qol r07s torrT| $ 4lzl-zl ¤dlzl ?+g
    Lo14. 374"cql^J E^ll^Jg l.6ssx rls torr(217.7 atm)oll,tJuj ¤Cg+. ol gs ol^Jql^l
    zlaHE rJCHzl *=trt. ql4lql oJflol f;zloJffi z\t:llzl zl44-s--e. oJ
    = "JqgE^ll^Jol "-!xllz} 9l= 3lJ. gEE Er{!tE(criticaltemperature)4r.6J+. g1l
    +¤+. ^JCE +
    ffi(criticalpressure)$ ol "J4l gEql^J "lqlz}'Jq+: ql ggEI ali "J4ol4.
    .JAl gE= EillTt + 9l: all gro14. .J4l 9s ol^Jq^J= Eeg o|+?-l
    =all6J 6llE
    ^ll4l "J+4q
    E4# ?l1*A' Ezlel +E qlqzlTl zlrll# "lxJ ^JqE olrT= oJ
    qtrq r+. +zla flol EeE .J4l e=21+7I++.
    =++
    Yq ql4l 11.3
    E gE-e+ tl$rip{l Eil6J AHel 4ltJ

    1 atm9 g8-d gralq|A -25 .cel E3 1.00 molE 125 .6o;ffi71-tr HEJdlts 7l¤"1 fll=Jril Etrl-= zlc6l. lg(g8, o-4i1lE.

    45zlol Hlge 44 2.03 JIS-K.4.18 J/S-K,1.84 J/g-Kolr[. EelAHr,":6.01 kJlmol, LHuap--40.67 kUmololr[).

    rll3
    E4 -zs'cE gg I mol¤ tzs'c9 ailltr H+l6I= ql 4lEl !+CE SIB]'I EEI= 4ltl6l-7 r-
    4 E+ 6J6lE.
    gsoJ + geJg 21416l+ E4lol+. + elgrl EE+E AI4I6J f llc|(Hess Bzl, s.0$.
    tr01 rB t.zz9 C A8ql^l gg9 gE= zs"Ctttl I tlgrl E+ 4l^lg g*9 Hlgg ol+6J + 9l+
    g.4zl9l +E+ g=Jg ,Ilt+. zs.c9 3s. HpI= zs LH : r.oo mot) ( r8.o
    AB: g I mot) (2.o3 I I g-K) (2s K)
    : :
    1

    KE gE Ep+el A+= 4¤ zl9a}4. tr14^l ol r+C 9r4J 0.91kJ


    11.4 AEol 489

    a4 t.224 d rcq1.rj5 0 "c ggol Ee B+Iq*q. q BC: A,H : (1.00 mol)(6.01 kJ/mol) : 6.01 kJ
    7l^j g¤+gg zlB ol+B + 9l+.

    d cp, or,, nrq qlgq H4+ ee *BsE 414}6J + CD: A,H : ( 1.00 mo1)( 18.0 g/mol) (4. 18 j/g-KX 100 K)
    : 7s2oJ -- 7.szkl
    91trI.
    DE: LH : (1.00 mol)(40.67 kJ lmol) : 4o.7 kJ

    EF: LH : ( 1.00 mol) ( 18.0 g/mol) ( .84 I I g-K) (2s R)


    1

    : 830J : 0.83 kJ
    d4 $gj4 Esl+ 4 +419 Eel¤ E+ 6Ja aolq AH:0.91kJ + 6.01kl + 7.52k1+ 4O.7kJ + 0.83kJ:56.0kJ

    Atr :lH l.zz41trol: +¤dg aole+ Blig Ell, dxll (a) Tdl¤ (b) +gg (c) 6994 H,o(s)E Elg
    9lHzl HEI9 4 t+9 t44 zzlE El44oltrt. 7l* (d) 6994 Hzo(/)9 ulg (e) +6l]gr+ H2o(/)E Elg
    =
    CEe ++6IeI. > H.6 qlril2
    =gggg
    F E* qlr1l1 s0.0 "c E roo.o gg -30.0 "c gggE B46l= +4ql
    6 r00 "c H2o(g) l molol 80 "c H2o(D-tr H:*B trllg
    trl-s qlBul {a}= $u}olr}? (ql4 1r.3ql +qd tr-Es+el
    ^J
    tlgq E3rI Al&ql ge6J Eql 4+ A.E.= q - A"J7l? qlgqe+ Hlgg 0l+614.)

    9.zlzl geq
    gsc+ "Jqol E1l.sq
    941 +gqq 9lq. E^IrJ.JHol sF*, ++Col
    -r. $zlsol 4ig Eeol, +colr tszlelol Eetrq gEcl .Jqg *+ 4
    *g .J4l
    oJeqol' zlt =
    ql ++6I+. e.oJ Eol+ EzlzJ +4 A6J qlEql qlq4es * .J4l
    gEel "Jqg 7l4Ll.

    eH HzOsl gZl SE9 gZl gtajol, +Al-d EE?l H2Sol oJZl PEelgaj-?tl Et!+P
    7t? (E 11.s)

    EAE 'JAl gEe+ "J4l +qr-Eql4l ,I]+ +s6l+. ell+


    'Jqe TlillE ++= ^IEl-olr+
    6IE ol 941 gsp+.J41 "J4"1 7l^l)7l.lslEl= z4E dlJ= zlldialzl ullEol4. trlltr=
    TlillE "lq}6}a dg qlE ?ll, zl*ll$ "ls+6}r dzl e+9 qlE 9l+. EJoJ TlzllTI .JZl g
    E. ol^Jel gEql 9l+8, 7l6l]^J 7li1l= EpI6IEl= ae ¤ Ell s.= oJol+. qlE 5
    "Jqg

    x. 1 1.5 El 7t^l
    E¤et oJ4t
    &_e.el
    oJ4t oJaJ

    EXt g4l8.E(K) oJzllS*(atm)

    ar(N, 126.1 11 5

    otE*(Ar) 1 50.9 48.0

    4I^(o,) 154.4 49.7

    ,ilqlql(CH4) 190.0 45.4

    +e(co,
    ol4}3r} 304.3 73.0

    s^s(PH, 324.4 64.5


    EtrElloJ(CH3CH2CH3) 370.0 42.0

    +E++4'(H,s) 371 s 88.9


    oJEqol(NH3) 40s.6 111.5

    E(Hzo) 647.6 217.7


    490 11aJ q^llelE^lZ e

    E or9 .J4l .gE= 1s4.4 Koltr|. ol ¤s ol6le. *+qot "JqsE.tlAE.-4sl^l? + 9l


    4. olcl +qls, %lEL-lolE "Jal gE= 40s.6 Kol+. trl+^l oJe.qol-- dg(E 2es K)ql
    ^l
    +E.J *qg zlsreE;rl Ee+g + 9l+.
    e-Ez[ "J4l gE ol{ro] rlr, .Jqol E4l oJq ol^J-ol 5lflg trI, Eal+ Tlill t}E]]=
    ^-l
    s +E6J fzl $,zll q:ql, olBloJ Eeq ^J4E ig7{l*i{l(supercriticalftuid)+jr. ++.
    a.J4l +ill= (zl;ll4 ?ol) SzlE ill+E+ s+814. rel+ E4s=g (s4ille+ ?ol) ot4
    ^JB6l
    Tlvl# 44= +zloJr+.
    sqi{e+ zJol, a.J4l +!l= He HglE EAg +ol= +,l]e} rJg
    ^dpg r}d+. a"J
    4l +4 +E(supercritical fluid extraction)¤ ol+6}q, ¤'JEE dEg ^'le E46J + il
    +. agll +ill +=g slql, ^l*, 9*, 9lHxl 4}Eql^l +tJ s,*+g $d6l tse-l6i=
    rll
    ^l-*Elq S+.
    a"J4l CozE Hlizl 4e6}r, 4zle9 Co, u16g- + 9lo oe.
    zI? ol*¤4. ="J

    I l.s zoTl oJrEi


    I
    tszl* 6B-+ .J6ll .-4^ll -EEeE.+q m}4*zt zlill ;'jr]l-E g + 91trt. "JA=*g qlBg
    (curcurou)g 7146ll ez}. ol q+ge
    =e 11.23q1^]el eg Hl "Jql *zl9l Bgtqr
    ql+g Eijl 99 Hl +rJql ifl+ld Gzl "J4!_ Gzl
    ^]4ltr 1o14. 4+.
    +g617l :a
    =^l Eg6l+Ell, olag Eeg
    ^l4B 4,o14. +^l + 7zl4 "Jqe "JC+ ilql
    617l
    =7let4
    {l oJ4.
    (vapor pressure) ol
    qL ++ql, "-421 *E9l fl= ql+g +zI9 "J+= "l* +zig "JqeE+q H.qB +
    9l= +E glulzlE 7l4L+. rH oE zlilFje-tr m}4+'ZJ + 91tr|. rEl+ Tlill^J +^l+71
    "*g++:H rr.z:9 e-=q S4^zrle zlill^J +47l. qi1 eBql +q:d q;1 +E"ll
    B+E-g ffio1 ,lTltrl. a+ql= +4¤ol qillE Eots: +Ee+ rsol .-4^ll tr-qlql^J
    Hq+q= L-Ezl Cq6}rll +eot4lr+. ,lill ^J49 ExI.i= .JA.J <t91 sBa}rl, olfl
    tl{ql^l 6zl .J49 .JA6IE|.
    + 7l^l Hiqlq= r+Aol F^lql ,Jg +E_e "JqLl= 49 El¤l(dynamic equilibrium)
    =+
    E= ++61 ¤¤ol+l-L ++. 414.r¤9lrl Bgt'J E+q+ *lBe ^1tr +4q= 44.1 slqr
    HI+"J "J+E F4 ¤¤o14.
    +ts4 ffio1 ,Jg +Etr .Jqg EL Eillel:9 zl^jlE 54 ¤¤ql +q 9lrll ¤4. ol

    >rB 11.23 9lsl=71 gal


    "-4i11
    fr
    .4i.ll
    0llEJ=

    P e)l
    P:0 D 471 Olal

    dIEIE
    wlue= 4l7l EEql
    -Eg:dtr1.
    --------------->
    rl \ >
    {

    Hlcl ?1= ErtTtAg6lTl E^[7t o4!l EEg n]Llts +Eel


    =efai,
    oJajol 00|tr|. gqol o-4illdfoE eolg= +E)l ,JLI_
    ^lstr,
    57lPitrl. otalq olxl6l ltEHnll EEl6lrt
    11.5 491
    =7 "Jz-1
    fl ¤¤ ^Jqlql^l= 419 Eslz} S.zl rilE"ll ol+fl .JE .Jq+ 8E71866!E Er|.7[ Tliild:eE uutxlLfTl= +E
    zl 9*E aTlH H.J +E 9l+. rBlq dTll_tr= +^l7l #"JBt 7l A7I5I=7I.,JL6E7|2
    ol zl;ll r"rrlltr, 7l^ll tlEl]ql^l Ezll ^J4E +zle
    "_q^ll ^JEllql^l r-l Llq -QE
    I

    +. q¤ "-q4E 671 "Jqe "l4l tElle} zl4l r}4z[ E4.J B


    I

    f
    ¤ql +q flg q, +7loll el6}q ¤Cg .JHol4.
    I

    r.l .t'-q 9E
    I
    E

    +l"J¤, +71 oJei, gE ^l


    T
    I

    |-- uutxlr-tzlts Ell .Jg-d


    i a+ EE oilLlrt
    r*ql^J Eol +$ts $fl Szl9lrJ +gol .JqB ql,
    ollz.lfl, I

    +7\y._qalq^J uts|41[e] gqd+. Eg Eill eEql +^l +61


    zl ?+=EI. ¤Be a7 .JqLlzl gr., .-4ill7[ E+ trl¤ qlttzl
    35 0llLl^l

    gq:
    Gzl "Jqg zlrl E{(eld s"Jr+ A$)E+ gfl +tsJ
    +E^{ L+e EE0ll^l
    *? + ?t= oltLl^l=
    q. ¤Al +ga}= "+ill$ flHJ¤(volatils)ol glQl +4. ="J--J
    TlTl Erl+ =E-d

    s4+ Eg zlzl+ Etr+ E?-l +E6J+. e{+6l$ 6zl .J4 Eq^H


    aL-
    qG + Ea^fi GCq
    Or ' E- O-
    g gETl-+g++ e.71c;17) ullEol4. eli olfl t4z} "Jq+= :tse SEq^l + fl=
    qq^E TlTl
    ="J:g
    Erl+
    zl 9zl 916l]^l o-4ill E^l7l ¤.4eEl= =E*d
    't"J-6.J+E._tr ^IdE+
    El ral 11.U+ + gEql^l "j;1 _xBgl 9l: E La"J11.24 Ei1l0fl^18E0il nl= 3E 0llL1^19 Es
    ^141611016Jq.
    4¤9 *E 9lrlzl EsE ++U a"l+(+Cg ro.z¤9lrJ9
    zl^lle+ Hl+6}tr1-). &uzy +ofef Ezls=$ 6 rl $Bolzll ¤
    zlolr, Bg +E +zI7I ol* =
    E4-E=s+El dr]l m14u1s-L zl gDl"
    E8 8ts80il^l oil=Jal "JaJ8
    illtl-s--+ gle EE zlills.l oJ{ol 6z}at4.
    Eqa + oJTl? =aiolEsl67l
    ral 11.25= flts^dol rzl += rll zlzl EAs.l 6zl S4ol I
    Eql E+4 q¤41 E6I=zl= Eq !-= a+ql 671 .Jq
    =+.
    g gEql u|4 HldB4 o.E f;zlaJql Tqalat. s4allql^l Ezr 34.6"C 78.3'C 100'c
    "+.J++ ez[7] q drll m]4L]g + 9l+. q+^l +q
    800
    + 6Jol 760 -\---*----
    A gEql^JE 67l"Jg q 4d+. r1/\l 4r-9!

    A
    trlololl=J
    !'ooo
    9 oilEl
    25 "C0tl^1 Ccl4elCBra $ cl. Etrol ti +lg.50l EI 0llE g?g
    =71'? o! (0llEJg) E
    po +oo

    -=.71 ola{"1f1_'--al
    o'I tl --l EL E

    "-lrllel #E(boiting point)g


    qi1 +E9l zl+6}: E+ .Jq 200
    oil=ill
    4 *zl sH"l ,J9 trllg gEoltrl. ol $=oll.rl= EzlE gqlLJ
    zlz| o_{zll .ll+el +zl¤ol ol*os+q Eq^J +e} zlxll$ee 0
    0 20 40 60 80 100
    Bs}4zlql +86i4. rrt4rJ "lill qlql zltzl ^JA+. el+ "J sEfc)
    qol ;rzi6tfl #:dE +7l6Jr.l.l atm(760 torr)oll.r.l "lillg # 7l.rl Ei1l9 671 gel
    A.lH 1 1.25 SEfl -Er+e EE-d L1l

    E8 #E(normal boiling point)ol ell ++. re I l. 2s


    =dg
    E+q, E9 4tr-#=Ee 100'coJg 'J + 9l+.
    #E Ee glg sfl6J tr}, EE gEql q4,q4ql gsoJ
    ^l+ol
    g+tltt. gq 9l=
    #=
    ¤:zlollr.l:. gETl 100 ocolzlEJ, trl +g gEq^l #zl 6l= EJHE gl+. .Jq +rJ
    7171Y +7l *qol ol4 acg tqg'Jq¤ 4"J Gzlzl uE|4qrJ+. tr14^l E 919 "J

    49 4zl.JS ar+B + 9l+. +e .Jqe Eg +e &Eq^l #Zl 6tr, g^l+g q E7l


    9lzlrll 6Iq sqTt rs?-l qzl .Jrf.
    492 113 E^llelE^l,J -d

    q
    "Jqol #=d9l "lzlE g6}e, aETl kg zlgol Et*7i_H_+er-l .rlz3o1 + aflq
    ¤H6ll a4. tuzl +g *3 4zloJ"l qo| r00'c-H-+ *g gEql^l Eol #
    = ^ldE
    trl+^l glg sflotE ql gHI4eE eq aflq.
    =+.
    Clausius-Clapeyron {.1

    :fl r4rzl-+H+ Eolg 7l^lY 4g ++6tr.l-.


    rr.zs9 Ei--Q-ol
    u=-
    z7l ol-el o -a6L r olrl
    o't Hae te I A-t ,

    449 Eee 9ETI f;z|$ffi ?zl 'J4 +dol +4q + +¤ ¤+ ¤i4l: 11.84-11.86
    TI'J+. +71 'Jqr+ gEel +41= clausius-clapeyron { 7
    ee +qd+.
    # 1-
    mp: 11"0*c j. 7lz7l : - LH,up/R
    t11.11
    RT 6 +--+---f j

    olr|l pts f;zl gt{oll, r= eql gE, Rg 7li-ll t}+(8.314


    l/mot-K), AHu"pb 6g Eelgulol{, cE 999 ti.l4. Tr-
    ol 49 h p* rlr r4sq l$ zl$zlzl AH,.p/Rr+ A+ lnP 5 +
    ag Hq r4 o + *4E ol +4lE ol+6}q Ee
    = =+.
    E +g qlBq= ACB + 91tr1.
    t-
    AHu"p : -zl$zlx R 4

    Clausius-Clapeyron 49 q$ril ol$olizl golBTl +l


    6ll. rB 11.2sql +el9l= q+gq ?71 .Jq <l9 h p ii
    a+ lr #ee. :4=::IaI¤ a
    =a 11.26q1 +4H+. 4+
    3

    zld gql zlezl. 44*-r., zldE 7l&7l= ¤-(-)o14. zl 0.0028 0.0030 0.0032 0.0034
    1./T (1/K)
    d9 zlgzl9l^'l qegg AH""pE TalE:a.se kf/molol $
    +. E 4dg ey$6[E xte-e io]d eE H9l +tql^lE ql a .f H 1 1.2 6 0ll EJgoll rH-d + -r o
    I I galTt 1 /rel rell E
    ^lE =7

    qH 11.4
    7F *bari trl 'Jq *41
    ral 11.25= 0lE6tq q+ gajol 0.80 atmoJ trll tlolollEJ ollEl(diethyt ether)9 #=E= 4l{lo1^19.

    6tl3 o* 0.8 atmzfzl *ag.e,{ tlgql^l ol E^ll= #"J + 91ci.


    E{ gEe+ ?71 .Jq ,J r4s= 6J Egla, .JC .Jqql^l > H* qlr{l
    eel #=dg aA6]+ Exllol+. *=de e7l .Jqol el+ &q^1= q+ + qB ql ¤fl 8zl9 Eol #ts7t?
    $qrt zJ.tzl= gEol+. (a) "J4l +E7l ds-g Hg Ell
    fl|4 r4gq .JH
    t?lzt torrolEE, 0.80 atm9 torrE s (b) +TloJol 4zl"JJi aole ql
    f4sql^-l r.JqE 9.lzl= ql+6]rr., +¤s
    +Iollot aJ4. (c) ¤Ezt loo.CoJ ql

    E +7\.Jq +deE olstJ ffi, +zlee Lilq7}tr 8E (d) ++ aqlol Bqa + flg cEs +E+ qlLl4TI *
    +g + 91trt. #¤ trl]
    = (e) 99 q,- a+E olH.
    Eol oJqg (O.SO atmxzO0 torr/atm):010 torrol4. lB
    tr.2s= HH oro torroJ rll #=dg dg"ll zlzl9, o+ 27.c > H"E qlr1l2
    ol4. r.B 11.2s= ol+6}q 9lE9ol 60'cq^] #g trIE 9+
    oJqg +6}^19-.
    dB d+ EE¤ ^l-8:6tq +olqlB qEl "q4 +lE 'Jqg
    11.6 aEE 493

    11.6 | ^JEL
    .:44le+ :7 +7]|^Iolel ¤Be EaE ^JEH +ql + 9l= +.J+ E4 ¤Bol otL-14.
    qE 4¤+ eEe+ SqE azJal{rJ rall= =4g
    tA4 a4itl t}4e}, dzl9= ?rl
    ^JEIe+
    E BBg olEi 9lq. rilltlr+ "-4illtol ¤eg ol+q =o+6}= *uzy rillg +Ed
    (melting point) E: .-qillel q=A(freezingpoinool4. rillE zlffi i *zl4lE"ll ?zl
    ol-d o TlLrL
    H i= l<L-l .

    SErE(phasediagram)i Eeq ^ls tl.= ^Jql ^Plql ¤¤ol 44& sE6l+


    =7}l6IE
    E!4 ,J$str, +qd gEeI "Jqql^l 849 tr-g e]+'J + 9lrll "]]
    Tlzl + 9l= qtr =4{+ =+.
    EAE tlEs= rs 11.zql +4Lllfl+. ol rIEEE
    ^)l ^Jqttr
    =zl]6J
    +s+ ^ll 7llq 4dee +dqq, 4 +de {4 z1]9 tol ¤B tl4ql^l t^lql 346J
    + 9l= gEeI'Jq aag +4U+. ^.lEEq sTlE 'Jqe 4lql 4+g "J4.144 E4
    z|^llql Esll t^dEl=.J4o14. +d$e q*r+ rJ.l ¤H¤4.

    r. s34 +de .lzll9 6z1 g.q +dol+. olaS .-4alt}4 7l^ll^J ^Iolel ¤Bg r++
    utrI. ol +d +lql^J ?zl "JEol I atmoJ ullzt E49 c^J #=dol4. *zl "Jq +
    dg e4E(c)ql^l ¤Hrl. ol ae 5e9l "J4l ssc+ .J4l "Jqg "Jd+. 94ld ol
    ^Jql^l "_4ille+
    Tlilltr-g +H6J + ssq, oltrllel Eag a.J4l +al4r .J+.
    ^1tr
    2.
    =+^4
    +d.J 4" Er +dg 714t}q^l rillt}-e--E EE¤ trll= trq +q, ?frf += g
    Eql^J +3rl6J ql a^ll +rl "Jqe.l HEIE ol +dq 4 de rillel 7lzll9
    'tqu+.
    ¤B ^JEIE +4U+.
    3. +E4 +d'J +4 +de rill^J+'l4l d-g ts46ll +4, "Jq ?z|"ll qE rillel
    +Ed E+= Ll4UtrI. ol dg 4zl] *4ol ?71-*q q+ ErJ sE.u__qE 7l&Ll.
    olag q++q Eeq^l ull B4zi .-qill ¤qlB+ "JszI ull$olr|. q+^J "J
    =zl
    4 6zlE trJ ago.J rill^Jg dE'JEl. r4^l +g "Jqql^l r^llE +"J Ell tg g
    E7I 9,S-6Ir+. I atmoll.lsl +Edg Eg*E(normalmeltingpoint)olep ajr;.

    m rgoll^i r1^ll8el galol g8-d 3Eotl^J ,JAEltiI 8tl6t^le. adl7l4?' AEtElE, 8E0tl rt|atl^its +301
    ^l.dE7n

    Y, Y. V. Y. V
    lllla

    V. Y, Y, Y. Y. Y
    llllll
    Y. Y. Y. Y, V, Y EgZl+ill
    lallll Y.
    Y. Y. Y.Y
    lllla
    Ei{l
    -^.
    6ir C
    ot Lill
    ai
    -4Ht
    OE

    T
    lt5xl )lrll

    'i=

    3s
    qE ++-dEEe.l"JU4?1.sE_E *E^l Ne+qt+d. +E^q N=EE+d,5¤^4 Ce6Tlgq LfElLJri.
    ^agfi.zl =CE
    494 113 al^llel E^lZ d

    1d d T=,rll zfl {-rjol E}+= dgtr, SBE(triplepoint)


    ag4 Pi{ ol+r atq, ¤zlgl^l=^Js zlzl .E.s t.l ¤¤q EBoJr+.
    le ^Jl
    7|zl +d +lE += E= de + 7v) * rlol9 ¤¤g E
    Ei{ lrtxl
    o
    ^Jl
    trl+El. d +lql ilzl g*9 szJ oJ zlzl tI"J
    ^JEE ^JE Ae
    10 (374.4'C,217.7 atm)

    ol +4U+. *e "Jq4 +g gEql^]= Tlill{-ol oJ


    a{r =zll'*g
    Ce+ql ++61+. HlE, r,^16o1 ql¤ql 449- *9 gse+ +
    ? rijl g.Jqol4. "_4^llE "Ja H+l= rille+ Tlill glif.
    H 10-', 7li{ ^lolq
    10-2 H2Oel COz"l tl'El-
    10-3
    f.a 11.28* Hzo9 tlE.tr= +4U 1o14. "Jqel Hglzt .J
    (0.0098 "C, 0.00603 atm)
    ,l ql+ql "Jqg Er Zte_-tr +Elutrt. Hzo9 8"li +d(+c
    10-4
    -200 0 200 400 600, 4 d)g ol4lzlo-+ oJqol 67t6J++ g+sE El^='61 7l
    EEfc) 34. olE oJflol f;z|$ffi $q \.!{ol A^d.g Eq +
    arB 11.28 H2Oel d|E_E e-E+e dE kE01r" "Jel+e er 4. xllrr.z¤oll.r.l u11qca 44 zJol. E9 Li1 ¤q.J qH+
    e4^ll Bq.J ull rl9 a"J6J 5ag 7*Y E4o]|71 trllEql, gil
    ,JoJoll
    +e.l6l'al.

    se 5ag Bq
    =+.
    "J.J "Jqol I atme.P lldg+fl.
    ,(olseq.q lr.xll*q^J Eill
    103
    Exll
    ng4t.?ilt
    tlg 4a zlill,<]ee olE"6IE 43 9r9 Eslq Eql 7l+6}q,
    *4zl .J^Jql^l E-g d6lE^J ,lqq= ¤4o14. Hzo9 ++A
    lo2 ?ill g Hli/4 *g Sqe 0.00603 atmoE Eqd+. ol oJq6lql^J o-4
    ot trt.It
    gol +q^lE g¤-ol 7l4l /Jqe
    o

    e
    210 (31.1 'C,73.0 atm) ^] ^J49 Eg "JA6Izl ?+sq,
    tr +Elg4. oleloJ Eq CAg '84.-42(*eeze-dry)' *44 ge
    ql ol+++. g^lol+ gE+= s.6 olaloll.q tsFgr}. -f. +g +
    (d
    IEAI

    (-56.4 oC,5.11 atm) Tlill


    1
    3 .JHd(0.00603 atm ot4).ll +r q-F6l-7ll "ll +E tag Eol
    ^"E}9I. B+¤ g^14 goEoJ Bfl ¤+.
    10-1
    coz9 C-E.*= :=J tt.zgs+ aEl. ¤.6ll +d(+=4 Og, "JHI
    zlse "J4ol f;zlsffi eE4oe Hl^E61 7l++ ag HoJ
    10-2
    -200 -100 0 100 200 4. olde coz9 .Jqol +zlg++ E=dol ?zl5J9 .JEl
    aEfc) +. i}+dql^lE "Jqg 5.11 atmoE tslr4 +71 qtEql corE
    =
    afB 1'1.29 CO2e.l d-E-E E-=43 dE ts=01r, "Jal= r atmoll^l E^lls *=+. ol= r^ll corzl gql Edl +
    P e-,J"Joll+E6[a[. ={dlzl
    zl ?+= q^j s}6t= 4.9 9"laJ4. lBlIr e CorE 8tI +d
    ^"
    * 7l^l^l ?*='il41, A^J ^"+d(-78.s'C)g 7l4Ll. Cozi EFel "Jqql^l gg g+6J
    rll Ezltr4E +s+6171 qlEq, Iill co2(E4ol ololr-)-L- E4qI B4zllol4.
    qFll 11.5
    F tr.EsE l,fiq

    I f=J Lte[9]= 0ilEil?.!(cH4)e.l.sE-E.= 0lE6u rh= trEoil =Jau.ls.


    11.30011

    76|.^le. (b) d5¤0ll^19 EEet gajq


    I

    | (a) flZlE0l^lel SEet gr'ale.l PJ= +6t^le. (c) 1 atm. 0'cg ttl| DllElloJg
    qL =^PJ= =
    I -r,^ll. o4i1l, 7lill 6 SElloJT|? (o 'Jqt 1 atm0il^19 a8E galoil^1, r.ill SEllE 0ilEilEoil gE 716|.zl EIE trllEll?]e +A EJnl,
    I 0lLlE ;aE,nl? (e) 1 atm,0"Cel ollEllfloll 'SEll7l Eif:g qzt^l
    o-t9t oJ4E 7l-dtlE, oltr SEtlsl DllEllflol 'J=olErt?
    l-
    Bllff +¤6|= E^llol+.
    =zl$
    E{ t}Es= ++¤ +46tr., a*g
    TtzljL +s6'J zllel tr=.eq,! ++dr+"Jaldg*o|4olaJ4. E6J+C g
    q 54 "J44 9s H*zi 9{$ ufl, qH rl{plzt ^l-S6t
    g^J6I Ee+.Jqql^l qE tlqlrl ¤^l]6l+4= .JotU+.
    11.7 I sI8 495

    (d) "J"+ P :t atmoJ ql, rill gqql^l +¤4s


    ^141-El^'l
    103
    40JZl+itl e olEo6J+H($4ol H6l-^l g=+), lgql "-q!1 ¤qg
    zlr-|z|{(r- -180'c), r +gql= 7l4l ¤q oE
    lo2
    Eiil =q
    7I4 g+(T: -160'C). :zque Till DllElltlg E-qol
    1 atmoJ ql +r,ll
    ¤4(rllql.J.l ^oc}9zl +16fl^]=.Jqol
    10
    ot t+d.H-+ *olot'J t4) .
    ai
    1
    zijl a2 (e) ¤ z(t atm, 0'C)ql^] +zletr tl+6}71 +l6ll^J= zl+

    trrllz| zl;llo1l^'l a.J4l +ills Ht+lqo} 6J+. olqsl ^J


    10 1 1
    Tlil ql
    Hq+ 941 'J4(-so atm)g'JqoF"J "Jq++'
    10-2 'JE 'J4leql^lE Sq, gE= rS+dE Sq, 9ru4 5
    10-3
    I 4c.-e qt}EEl. qql"Jg d¤z}^9 fdEol4. ul4rl
    I atm, 0.cql^l ollqloJol zlzll-E 4ol B4zl o e -u_
    =461=
    10-4 "J+.
    -200 - 100 0 100
    aEfc) > s= qir{l1

    tlE-E(rH u.30)ql TlHI6lq B ql. Eilq.Jol


    qlEll.Je.l
    a.lH 11.30 0ilEil?](CH4)el 8E-s SE=e CE ts=otr, g'al
    10-2 atm aaql^J -2s0 "cql^] 0'c-tr 7lg¤ Ell qlql"J
    +P +-#g0ll+el6l-aL
    ql q qal H:rlzl .tlzl dtsz}?

    Eol (a) .J4de sq^ll, 7lill, a.J4l +4 {lqTI E^lql (a) e+ -zoo"Cql^J
    ^oEl-6J+. O) E -200"Cq1^l ++.
    4lolE dg "JqL+. oli rlEs.qr] d toll s^lqq fle
    = (c) E -200'cql^l #=+. (d) E -200'cql^l ffi;j4.
    q, 4+ -80"c, 50 atmgl +li.l6E 91trI. (e) oJ "cql^l
    -zoo i}+dql
    EB'Jr+.
    (b) A+dg r.ill, o-4ill, zlz11to1 5r^lq dg "J6J > H.¤ filrll2
    ol= =461+ qlqlqlE tlEE= ol+6}q ++ Egql B-6I^1e..
    +. tlEsql^"] B lql s.^lgq fleq, E -r80.c,
    0.1 atmoll flilo}_jt glq. (a) rllell.J9 AtF#=Ag ¤rtoJz}?
    (c) 0 "C, I atm$ als= d 2ql E^lqq il4. ol dg tE (b) qL.Jq H+lE H"lzl"F n8l ,ilEll.Jol z,offiitl?
    sql^l 7l^ll gqql=qaq. (c) 9s gE oltlq^l .-4zll qlqltol ¤^]]6}zl ?*Ezl?

    11.7 lo4t
    1888LJql 9-^E4oI9 4E+rI.J Frederick ReinitzerE ¤+ +ql H]aqo1e
    (cholesteryl benzoate)4E:, *ol+l .ol'q} +¤g zlzl:L 9l: =ql^qlg
    p+.J+g gA6}S+
    +71
    ¤9 zl.ltg trll, a^ll ^JEllE ol Eeg 14s'cql^J ddol qlE
    (=g tt.et). Eillg
    .-4^ll= =3qL
    l7e "Cql^-l +^l7l glol^14, rzs "C ol^Jq ¤.sq,<] ol
    ¤4tr +=4. +g ^JqlE
    +^l++. Eeol 4sE "Jottl "_4zll= 17e "cql^l d^Jg tlzla_ +iqeE H6I= qr+

    < rg 11.31 Eillq o-q8 arEt|


    sl =J El4oll 0 lE
    =all^E1l

    145'C<T<179'C T > 179"C


    oHIl?\t .4rl18
    496 118 q^llelE^l,J -d

    Col BrCaJ4. rflr ++4 elxll= t4s.cql^J *r¤+.


    ¤+: o4E(liquidcrystal)olep 6r=, -qi]le+ aill
    Reinitzere.l ^JEll +?Jq ddol :lb
    ++e+ ee tlElql ql* ill4l4"J Er^Jol+.
    4lae_l
    ol fzJr](intermediate phase)S ErJg nrllE +ael EJg
    "-qil$ ol+E z}+^dg
    r*
    +tszl oE ul]gg +40171qEql ql+ .ke d^dg 7vlq, rale+ "lillt|el
    =+. "l4e 7l4Ll. olqoJ
    +rJ Cag +^dg LlEt.ll= gEg Reintzerel ql^lH, EEaJ dol gEe-
    ^l Bq{rll +4t4. r,rll, o-4zll, Tlill^Jq u[lz[z]-tr, E{.$ r.rs.eq1.<1 +HEl= ¤q
    o-e .tr^l¤+.
    s5g ECe gr-q "t gE U^le| QzlB .tlzll, rv, A+qs+ zJ? 4zl tlzlel EA s
    rl {rl(LCD).E Hr] .-4c qF"J Ez}zJ qlg gE, .J4, dzltr9l
    ^l-*g+. oleloJ ^J4ql^le.l "J
    +6}rll ¤6Fg Ezl ullE"tl ${ol e
    +tr ^l-Sg + 91tr}.
    oHa{ol -4_E
    i o-l oTr
    EAg "JE= EAES trE +a ++6J, Eq EoJg +zle ol+q4 9l+. .lilltr-ql^l=
    olel* szl-=ol +e^J6}zl El]gg+. olali qle4_q_-e, E¤^Jql^J +4Eg f.B 11.32e+
    zJol 54q}'*4sE tsllgg+. ul]gel c4ql q4
    "14^Jg ullutq, A, c,
    Eql^qlqeE ts+6J + 91tr1.
    ^Eq ^elH
    HEFf e{¤(nematicliquidcrystal)ollr..li Ezl¤ol ++61 {Eq{ tszl-59 7J +ol 7J
    g uJ-ajetr uHgqq *zl"J r (._q4 +zl¤q) ¤g aEqq qlxl s4. ^Et4 A E
    ^JE
    8(smectic A liquid crystal)r| ^slEf C o4¤(smectic C liquid crystal)oll.tl +zl-E=.$ qlulq
    aaql^le]. zJol 4tdaE6I:1 +714o- E +9 BEl]g tsHgqq 94.
    .latlg _H-ol: + Ezl-= f.al 11.$ql +EI.llflrl. ol +4+ F41ql uloll,rJ $sol zlr|.
    ol+ aoFl Hl4l relb dlaJg q6l] rqr
    BE Hld r;]= ts4¤ol ^JE +ol
    =rI.
    : ag 5=+. q+ol +c.J -ocHrzle| -cooHTl= ffiz|-{-lzl. ^JE 4}+ qEql
    EzI ul]Eg +tl.J+. trI4^l Ezl-e=g .^..^,.8 olf z[$^flril a +g u]4 ullE*4. E
    zlf ffi
    q+ qd6Er,
    ^JE
    ¤686lal olF6J + 914.
    ^Eq
    .-qcql^1ts Ezla e(E4I
    {, {t-=z}-{r::r-z} .Jq, +4 At.J)ol Ez}E ,lzqdg "Jo} i4.

    ulotElEES loilEt a oH:{ } DllEl r- oflx{ t Ec


    Eiil8 --- ^ -oo =41^4a-lqal
    E^l=o1+E^16t711 Ertsl z+01 ErlEol Er[!01 5oe E^l=01 Tizol
    HllgEcl ?]trl. oJ4]doP HllEElol oJoq,.Erlel
    uflEElq =-oe ullgElol 9loq, E^fe.l Eq fla, Et =o+ gtelE^t=
    r E3 z +3 uflE= BEoil z Bflg= EEotl el z +olr = 9l=elE^l=
    9JoL[,
    sllgEl^lg=rt #4oe olEtrl. =e
    EH6ll71801^1 ?]tr[. I Z +ofl r|]d|l g5 4E=
    == ol+q allElol ?]rt.
    afB 11.32 LllEtEl. e48e.lE^l.HflE EtrE o-4i1180il^1=
    E^PI E^]glol HtlgElcl ?eLt, o-4840il^isl E^l-=8 +E4?l
    ?rf. =ail^qlal
    E^l= 7[^E HI]EEIo] ^EEl,
    11.7 .-48 497

    016 oJ6H
    l?6ttl flltlra15 E^lEol fll|
    =EteE gg + ?1E= 6ll=trf.
    H
    :N C+H 21-47 "C
    /\i ------t I
    +d7lE3 8+^l
    EOllEe 6l/\lslr!
    ru-a oouLt,

    tir
    il-
    I

    cH3(cHr7-o C- OH 1.08-1.47'C

    1
    a rH 11.33 + s48 EEoil rH-d Exl +6el- E8 EE Egl
    =+ol

    tszl¤ol q Bl +99 Hl] gElr, 4


    EEll^Ell4 e{¤(cholesteric liquid crystal)oll.r-li
    Ell96.Jql^l= ts^lel A +ol ?Je + oJg ol* tsxtq 868 s-E Hllggrl.. 912"4
    oI4+9 Ezl¤$ 54 4E= ol+q qd4q, Ar+4eE +dB +H= olE+. 3

    olfl "_4ael olE¤


    =ql^EilEE
    y*3-fts.rjlzl ol +== zlzlzl ullgoll ¤qa+.
    Eql^qlq Edql^lgl Ezl Hilge 7|^loJd ¤qq^l Solq| 4 ¤Eil= Hql+. g
    E+ Sq Es+= uUgg EEI^l7l.a, qq^J qeE Hp+^1a4.
    =ql^4q
    ._qAe
    !'

    )
    J
    gE Hn+= +d6J + S= *9 gE EslE A716l+ EJI
    ^l-8.qq *r|.
    qlE 5q
    dz} ElEql^J gol += ++g azl6}q Ezll $-gg .Je + 9ltrL E= tl^Jo}g
    ul-? 3s= +4617]191p gr4lollE =
    gq1l4l4 .-4C q^Eqlol:
    ^l-*g + ?14. ArE 11.34 drl'5ol(epaper)q )14
    ,l]+ +g dglg .r.l-eo 6}E$ "J5 + ?lzl ullE9l, dzl. +olql ol+q= *Bol fl7 o4E 7l=0lr|.. I^l60l
    = =e1l^Eil4l
    9l 914(:A 11.34). oltsl6.J ++59 7I6H^l= dzl*ol gr.r EzI9 ,Jo;-g ul#1, ts
    E5
    (4!0lLl
    grol
    Ar^lol trllol^l^-laJ) 501 glsl
    oJtH -dEH= LfEfLJrf. 0lri3
    olql 4+ szlE +E4 SCql ¤6&,9 +zl trllEql zhb6ltrl.
    q=01:.J tl/.=all0l, 5^f afB. ralr
    dllE,\l trJE7l- E-sf-s} tlg-Lf $I||
    xl -9Q rLl,\lnlolrL
    o-,loovl M"l.
    -
    qFil
    F ollr(lol
    11.6
    Alnl
    i ci-l ci e

    rlB 6 EEel dEE 7l-8 E LfEILH= Etr3?


    CH.

    CHs-
    t" o
    il
    -cH2-cH3 CHz- C
    -O-Na+
    (r) (ii) (iii)

    TtlU Eot tszI (ilg ol+ aoJol+ d.6 ?Elol Hq ++6171tr+


    g4 azzl += +zI + qL aol 9c Ea"Jzl dcal A ++4a 4oloE .-4aol olE 4o14. Exl. (iii)g o1
    ^ll =
    Exllol4. gcoltrI. .JHI4qE olgc EeE .tse qlEq, ol +d
    = q+ +=4 +ag Eaol E4.J 4,J^ly ?*4. Ezl- (iil= 5C4.J zf, 1$
    Ate. ?+ a+ql^l "-q4 ceg +4421
    ulsldlot tJ4. zlzlL !lr, "ldql^l g6l trol= +44 5^dg troJ+. ol

    -=4^qq ._stg 4 Eql *= E l-Eol LllEtq "-qar+ +^l+ Eligg 617l EllEql T}olg ullu|fl(chiral nematic) tlol?+n
    s. aJ4.
    498 113 q^llef E^l'2J A

    +zl+ Erll 5.o$$ zl-xl{, ol+ aEF+ {d lelz1 aag (d) Qzlzlzl Y*g Ez|
    g +e, *CoJ coocH:7li ld+z| EHIE= 7l4Ll. (e) "-14 E*E +zI
    > _Er.= qlrlll > .H.= qlrll2

    "+atr-e 4.s + qL a o s "JEq4=7I? 4* EzI rllzllol(decane)ol


    "-lC C49 eo1z1 ?*E olf
    (a) *z fr¤tJ Ext 4loJ6l^le.
    (b) E IrJ H}]gol d-d S.ts +zl =
    (c) $zlzJ r$zfft| ufl$ol 9l= +zI

    E6"I4lr1l
    o tl -?HL{
    -4.8t ll E

    cs2=+Eol -110.8'col-tr, g=80146.3'colr[. r


    "JE=20'c0ll,\] 1.26 g/cm3olL, flzllEolE=rl-.
    (a) ol Et-etE9 ol=e +EoJ7t? (b) cS2 ExlTl7E_ + 91= Exl'leE L[E6l^le. (c) Ezl 0l El--dEg EAoll t}|-d E:d
    =0ll^]
    *= HJa^lE lr
    le(7El7ltsdol tlEl'8dE0l +1?l^l -Er). (d) CS2ol gzl EEet g+e 552 K, 78 atmolrl'. 0l 'J
    =Hlr.dE, olal-d =86ll0t
    E E 11.50llxll^lE Cozel "JZmq ilol7l87l= 7l'=-d 013= Ee]dl^|g.

    6flff (c) ¤iE alB cozel SorTI


    ^J,H¤ Aol4
    ¤6= (3 23). q
    (a) ol ElQlES ol++ +ie} ,J3, s. 4= olCE +x[ s[.J E aaql^.]= sorz| 8,139 is fl4l.zl"J, 7l-btg 4
    Etr. ol+E+ E4.(carbon disulfide)41 aJ+ *re (2. 8 ¤). +. trIe+^l ¤^ HI*^le +-gn+ A+.
    (b) H gz|71 $.zl rllE"ll, ia
    Ellol 9lg + fl4. Lewis CSz(/) + 3Oz(S)
    -Coz(g) + 2SO2@)
    +a= fE BE, +^7I 44E +rl ol+ ABg d+ (d) CSrE 9Zl ¤.Ep+.J4(ssz K, 78 atm)¤ s. r1.6ql +el
    ag .J + 914. 9li cor(:oa K, 73 atm)9 A+trq E+ ++. g4 g
    E7l +6] zlolTt utrt. CSz9 941 gE7l +e 13 cs,
    i:c:9 +xl7| co2ql HlEl^J Btqol azl rllEol4. $xlz3 o.1
    vsEPR -ES re
    (e.2¤)g ri,(J, $zlz| dBol4, .!s+zt qol t ag +ol {lAoll ula1,r1 zzlzl zt_, ¤+E7}
    .srBlez} fi4r AEzlg + 9l+ re (e.3p). trI+^] ]d} trllEol+.
    rz}-r8-=f zI ¤ol H4. ++l4"Jol cs, +zt rJql zI+.J+. =.71

    s"J "J 6e tq
    7li1l,Eill, nillel Erl HIE(^1E, 11.1E) ^Jgql^] 7li,ll+ o-4i,lloJ "l +7I+q rl4 Ezf9 EF-E(polarizability)z| f;zlafiQl, r p
    EeEg 4Y E +zl.tr ol+q! 914. zl^ll ^Jqlql^J ez}rJ "Jq r+ E4}qol +7I'J+. Szf$ EoJE ?eal elzi ¤El. .HzI-
    3 tszt9 ¤+ {Llzlql Hldl +^]ts nJ6l.El. tr}4^l E^l¤g Eq
    gq4 9lr, #"JS= +A^l g¤¤.J+. "-qil ttEHql^l ErEtg ¤6J3 o-H. N-H, F-H allg s6J"I= sl!+Eql^l +Elki+.
    (intermolecular force)$ E^l-=ol T|zfol EJA611 9141 6J
    "J+ + +4 aqlg .JH]4ee 4+zl-r6.E^I a;o1u| $.1!fl_H-trI ,JdlE+.
    tsdl rEi. rHqE E+6Er. ts+=g += E^19 g6j o}4lql^J ole-gE-4B(ion-dipoleforce)$ +C +4q olg er'J rlEtEol
    zI+EAl ¤.zl.Jtrt. r.ill *qlql^-l Ezlz3 o3qg E^lE g4"Jg +5Hq q fl.= +.-4 ql^l +s6l-7]1 zls" 6J4.
    xllaJaln, oJzl-=ol +ilg dlgql^J 5a +l^l= iI^l6IE+ g a o4illel ¤tr(11.3tr) tsztrJ oJol q ,Jg++ E¤.E
    Etr. +Bdl r+. =E:d
    (viscosity),+ "-qalE sEql rI+ zlajflol q 4d4. ".lallg
    ErtrJ e(11.2tr) 6C +zt ^plql= ^ll Tfzl Bqlg SzlzJ'J. I EE tr-qE g^lt aJg 4lzlzl rttf$f* 6zlaJ4. EE! 84
    54q(dispersion force), g=+ g=rl E(dipole-dipole force). * (surface tension)¤ 4l46Jg EE4g +zl6leJts +"lE A'Jql
    4 ¤xll{}4. +4}qg EE E^}(E6J ql6J zlEolE|. E^-ll+ qql EH'J
    EB(hydrogen bonding)ol "-qillE dz+q4 "-lillg +dqe
    He, Ne, Ar4 rJ$ EflzI849 Sxl¤) ^Iolql 4L+6Jr+. Ezltt E{Et Elt(capillary action)$ ¤8611
    =E}.
    E6 499
    =^l
    88a[(11.4tr) Eeg + z|^l oltLE Ee E:'r.rs-e. ¤:4lB i + ^J ^lolg BBg +4u4. gH}4etr nillTl o-l1lltrtrl "JE7f
    914. HlEl(phasechange)] + ^]eE+q +g ^]-q-e.q Hol¤ q r7l qEql, +=eg LI4.llE Cg "Jqol ?zloJ9l tri+ EIl:
    9olel4. r.illql^J qalleE trs+(-&5l]), :il.,llql^J zlzll-e.9 Hp] 9E4o + TlgqTlq. I atmoJ ulel \5f;o1 6t$$fl(normal
    (^"e+), "lalql^l 7l!1tr9 Eel(+"J)= E+ sg 4col4. r}4rl melting point)o]{. {lEsq^l Bltg trll, ¤¤ t}$ql^l
    ^il
    71]

    EallE(heat of fusion), *EtE(heat of sublimation), EEJE(heat of E tlol E+ +461+ d9 ¤Et(triple point)olefa "Jq. gXtE
    vaporization)e .tr+ "JE ,Jol+. r E+C(+n, 4e, ffi)g (criticalpoint)g'J4l gEe+'J4 Sqql dr-+.J+. "JZlEg He
    gg rlA"l4. E, Eee aoJ4l +all7} gtrI.
    gEzI gll-eE(criticaltemperature) oltolE 7lr,ll= "Jqg ,l o4E(liquid crystal)* nzllE E:d oltr$ $sollr.l
    qlE o-qq¤ + s'I. oJal gEq^l 7l^llE aqsl^l7li rll peaJ "48(11.7tr)
    ai4 olt9 tE"l ul]99q gl: Eaol+. L{lu}ef o_{[(nematic
    oJqg grfl ElPl(critical pressure)ol{il ++. gE7} oJAl gE-
    liquid crystal)ql^l} +zt$"i +Fg %l6Jg tr+4 'JBtr 8E
    E Hn, .Jqol "Jqg .Jg trI, .lal^F+ Tlzlld-g jEg4tSi{t
    "J4l 611 9lzlE} +^f9 ¤ol c¤qq flzl: ?*tr}. 4EtEf o-{8(smectic
    (supercritical fluid)E ¤Calzl 9ldl qlA{E}. liquidcrystal)ql^lE E{¤ol +9 BC6I7l 916ll r ¤ol "JBtr
    | gal(1 1.5tr) .l ill
    E 5zl tfEl(vapor pressure)f +zl zf q ill e+ Agqq 9lq. AEIEJ A o4B(smectic A liquid crystal)oll.rl| $xl-
    =7
    5{ t!fl(dynamic equilibrium) ^}{ql ql$ ull ?zl9 ++ "Jqg el a +ol ="r} fzloE aEElq fl4. ^utc c e48(smectic c
    Ll4u+. ¤¤ tlqql^l olxllzf f,zltr HaI= +E= +7171q4l liquidcrystal)ql^l= +zI9 zJ +ol *¤ rl4 zl¤"14 914.
    =4t
    _e. H6|= +Eel aE|. qallE +71 oJqol t-qe++ sla{= q fl Aell4 s4E(cholesteric liquid crystal)g +xl¤ol Lllrlq sqA*ql
    4l ="96}.l., rfl Eee fl"J8(volatile)ol rr+. ?zl "J49 9s ^l 9l= tol. +
    7) qlq4 Hllgqq flE +xl¤tr
    ^Je B63614l
    7l-+7f6Jql u|4 6zHl4. +71 "Jqol el+ "Jqr+ ,Jg Ell ._qill ol+q4 9El. r;l+ +dB +4= BC6I7] 96H^l EzlE A +
    7l #=rI. Irl-4^l "_q^llE #E(boitingpoint)9 "Jqql q4 qe ol ulgqq il: Ell6}g t:"ee+q r gE 4E ?eE qd6|
    4. AS S#(normalboilingpoint)3 6zl "J4ol 1 atmoJ 419 Fol +xll6J+. "lag "JE= Eeg +dTlEol .ntlzl.-ffi2l. {r
    9-tr olrL g zI¤¤ 5u1l ¤zlzl ++61 cgg + 9lE+ Ee+6 s olq4.
    rll+*6t-r a ¤49 Ezle o15q4 1q-.
    8EE(11.6tr) gEe+ Sqq ++e^.1 Ee9 nill, olill. 7li'll.!-
    ^l.olE E¤ S4lE ts*lphase diagram)q +4U4. dg qH

    ql'+ Tel ot Bs a+:d +ol qalEe q-BE s + elqor Etrt


    .E^Igl ad4 *=91 el"l], Bzl¤ E= olgE
    ^l-olql
    +46}= . 7Ig +dg 6ll^16}r., tl{s}e+ +{!: gEel ql+ul 7tg 4l
    ExlzJ oJH *E z++(E&{, ffiz}-nt-iz}, +a ¤B, olg- 4Ig + 9lr}(11.4¤). +E g+ E4l: ll.4s, r1.46
    .ri'^+z})g a96EL, olE Ezl.rlolol $e"olf eE tI44ql ..J41 "Jq, g4l gE,6zl "J9. A^J#id, C^J+:d, gZl
    ^ll
    7lE Hli6JtrI(1l.2¤). d. a}+dg aE6'J+(r1.4¤, il.s4. r1.63).
    +A S+ E4l : rr.17,lr.l8, 11.25, 11.26 +H g+ +-41 : ll.47, u.48, ll.sl, ll.s2
    . E+Eq zlls$ {$a}a, qBrll B&qr+ +4lq=zl= ¤E.J . {-E-E= 6i,!6}:il., rfl+. 5q t}E.E7l4E geEr+ qBzl
    trI(l1.2e). +¤ ¤+ S4l: tr.re-1r.22 Eleq. r ol-!f fQolzl ¤B+4(1r.6¤).
    .+qE d¤Ee+ EE tlqE ,llH¤ ¤E6Jtrt1rr.e¤). +a s++4: lr.s7-1r.60
    +¤ S+ E4: n.3s, 11.36 . HlofH, Eel^qlq .lael E^l- Hllg Saol 7le9 E,ll
    . +Eeq EI"J* *tsplE olE¤ ga6}i1, olEol gg +Aql ^Eq,
    e+ q$rl {E^l ol6l6JtrI. .-l{tlg Bd6ITlq +4+ +zl-=
    zl, gg 4a"J^lE z1!aJr|(rr.a3). 9 5ag olaNflu|(rr.7¤). +¤ ¤+ E4l: lr.6s, tt.6e,tt.zt
    +n S+¤!41: 11.3e,r1.40

    oJ+ E4l
    tse.E H.= TllLJ

    u.r rl-¤-:H3 ¤CC n4, E^ll, 7l4l +"ll^l F99 zlat


    (a)
    es¤61-b A"J7l? 0) ¤E6I^le. (rr.r¤)
    500 113 o-4^llelE^l'2J A

    800

    700

    600
    =
    !
    ot
    soo

    fi +oo
    ?
    tt.2 (a) rf$ age 44 qH ¤i+el ezla .Jqg +Elu a.J 96 soo

    200
    7l?
    100
    H
    0 -S..... [] (ttile""'g fr 0
    -30 -10 10 30 50
    EE('c)
    O *u*
    (tt)O.....O,rD...4 fo I 1.6 trl-s F E4+ ag E^l^l(C3IrsOE z*zlq} #E¤ol +e+

    O) ql zfzl .Jq +ql^l zlar o+q}


    ffis
    ag ql=6t^le. [rr.z¤]
    # oe
    oj'.
    o
    rr.3 (a) S44l=Glycerol, c3Hs(oH)3)q AdET| t-ge+g
    (-propanol, C3H?oH)-H-+ trl 49xl 91tl$ f glEzl-? Eeu1g oll=J oll=J ollEl
    =zl,
    (b) ¤E6l^le. [rr.:¤] (a) f^ a*ql +q.J aeE ^84qE ae q! 4oJ7l?
    p-x| EEIETI rl I {ee qL A"J7l?
    A \
    (b)
    ^J4qE ag
    (c) ol E + 6l+E a^J #Edg e7.2"cola. +E 6I+=
    t0.8.ColEl. 4 #=dql 6fl'j6l-= E^F= qL 4oJ7l?

    Y Itt.z4, rr.s¤l
    tr.7 Elzlg Eaql ql,* d.E.s7l trl-*4 aq. [rr.0¤]
    L-Ee-rqg
    =allll=
    1.0
    tt.A 1 atm, _170.Cq|^l EAI qlql"J r2.0 ggl 42.0 kI9
    ^lE
    gol zl-tl4l4E, 4lzl BB9l .Egllg ql qlql.JE 3l+ tl
    44 ¤s= +8fl71-? (++1tr ¤ol ¤d9zl ?*914.2 zIC ol
    al
    +q. q4"JE A^J #=dg -161.5'coltr. qEI.J .lal ? 0.5
    e| zl 9 El gg 44 3.4s I / s-K. 2.22 | I g-Kolr]. ) [r r. a¤] (g
    ^ll

    P : 1.00 atm

    0
    0 100 200 300 400
    eE(K)
    (a) E?9 #=dr+ AtI qEdg +A6f^l_e-.
    CtL
    42.0kJ
    (b) El^s ad6}q^l gag E44t
    ^J4b *t"JzI?
    (il r: rso K, P:0.2 atm
    (iil r:1oo K, P:0.8 atm
    32.0 g CFIa (iiil T: 3oo K. P : l.o atm
    :
    AII,", 8.20 kJlmol E¤9 ++dg gEtoJTI?
    (c)
    - T: -170"C
    ll.s cs, ^l-.E.E r4s= ol$all,rJ, (a) 30.Cglr-l csr$ f;zl oJ
    ll.8 ,r.ll zlzl +E gE Tr, T2, T3ql^J "-q8lt}9 +zl+ q-sFr+ a
    g *4sE a¤t+. [rr.z¤]
    q, O) +71 oJ{ol :oo torrp rll9 9E, (c) Csz9 4{l #
    lrr.sdJ
    =Bg+6f^le-.
    501
    == =r1l
    E^til e(11.2tr)

    llll 11.15 (a) sE ts^l¤,tfol, +C E^l¤,tlol, (c) +d A'*g


    Q)

    ($
    6|r. 9l= +a gz}e} *zlql fl^l6l+ d7l gdETI zfg
    g^f qH Bqg tsztzJ .Jqol 4+61+7p
    ,ilt ^plqlb

    lill [It r1.16 (a)'JHl4eE tsafA ttn +s" + S^l-Lll t}g 4+ + qL


    1o1 q zj$z|? (b) o_4;.llz|7l^ilq Eg ql #qzl: ag I
    elE6qLaoJTI?
    ++ EeEol E4ql^l zlalE Halzl +lo1l ++ollot 6I=
    T1 T2 T3
    B^IrJ Elg ¤B6I^le.
    (a) .lc ^Jqlql 9l= Ed9 9s E= gE +rJg "J6I^l -rr.rz(a) SOz O) CH3COOH (c) HzS
    e. rrl6-JgEql^1, qtr BEIIE qctol 444izl-? n.r8 r-i+ 44E zloldg qtr 849 BalA Eg ¤H+ ae
    (b) gE +ql^l 7l+ 5g $-rE?
    ^ll 7l?
    z lr{1, o4ill, r.illel Ext HIE.(11.1E) (a) CH:OHE 6s "Cq^-l #'n, CH3SH= 6'Cql^l
    #=tr|.
    n.e Eeq TIzl t4E
    Ez|9 -74.qsz[ ?7]61+ +^J
    (a) (b) xeb rfizloJ, r20 Kql^J aqSloJ *H, er* ,Je 446l
    ^Jl
    E, (b) +^I+ qlelol f;zialE +^ls ag4rle-. (c) olE ql^l 7lilltr4ol4.
    849 tiqlzt 7l* AAI.J+qEzlr (c) flzlgo1 84 amuoJ Krg 120.e Kql^l Br., +^l-*ol E

    u.l0 (a) -nall, Eill, Tlillq^l ealE B+ ¤+ qlqalE tszl ^f 71 amuoJ C12:.238 Kql^.1 #E+.
    olE B# qlq qlLlxle+ ol${ u1;1a3 f ?lEzl? o) gE (d) ol.,r1gg s6.cql^l #-a, 2-EllBg.gql"Jg -12.cql^l
    7l +7l1+_ ql ilalql^J ol4l, 7lilltr n'll geol HslElb ol #=c|.
    f.b Fflqlzl? (c) ,ll9 +g.Jqql^J gE= 7I6fH TlillTl- o
    il
    "lB2l ¤zt? CH:- c-cH3 -CHa
    rr-rr *+ ag ++ol +eE, (a) gzl-=E ¤+ gE glulzlE 0t^llE 2-o1l=EeqloJ
    qB4 qi1. (b) gzl-= rJE BE
    "l¤zll ¤zt?
    zl4i I 1.19 (a) 9¤ E^l¤ ¤+E7I ?zlaf= +^JE +¤6}^le.
    ll.l2 ¤gql^l si= ni-ll, ccl4E o_qiil rp-l-lt Are zlillolu,f. ol GeCla, CHa, SiCla, SiHa, GeBra
    E Eeg (a) E^lt "JH qlulxl9 +71 (b) #bdE 67f 0) (a)ql^l Eeq #=eq +^l= ql+61^le.
    E +^lql q-4 +g6h^le. I1.20 ffi Lll$ol &.Jzl. zl1lq,lzlg $a|.rle.
    e.+ gEe+ *= "Jqql^l cl2e} NH3 ,lillg g+q= 44 (a) $zlefol Hl+6J ts^Ie] a+, ¤4}qe +zl¤ol q E+
    -rr.rr(a) f
    22.06 L, zz.+o rol4. ¤i4 cl ,J"]lrl+.
    zlzll$ tsxf*, ,,F1I E.HIE, E^l Eolg +E4, cl] (b) +TlgEql^J +E ol.=lls rllflzJffi Elgd 7l4lE #
    g+q= 49,J?zl? +t}q3 rJ^oJ+.
    ?z}6}ts HlE,
    LJ4^lag EI + Ee EF r.ill eag B^J6J
    (b) 160 Ktr =dg
    (c) d^ll ?lqq +Hq^1, $lz].-nt-izl *E zI¤+
    "J^J
    4. too Ktr B4ElS.g ql, EBolzI TJrdJ^1, +716J E4}qtr+ q aEl.
    zlg fl$alr.le. (d) 4E -EE s.^71eg ql, dB E^l
    ^IolE E4lqe a
    (c) 160 Kollrl cl2el NH3 EC9 "Js= 44 z.oz slcm3, e.l +¤g ol,= b E^I,r.l-ol$ $,11fl-H_4 cl =4.
    0.8+ g/cm3ol4. olEel g+El= +61^19-. (e) flzlzl- q trl ¤+s+¤trL
    =++
    ^Jqlq^'lE E.+q*
    (d) adl 714 tlqlql^]q E+Ee+ Hl
    I l.2l +g 4 trql^l qtr Eeol q ¤4iqg 7v\Y712
    io}TI? ¤B6f^le. =
    (a) HzOq H2S (b) CO2el CO
    (c) SiH4el GeH4
    (e) 9i-ll
    ^J4ql^l E+El= nill ^Jqle+
    rlill ^JEllel g+ul
    11.22 Ll+4 ttq^l qH xol q 7l^1y71?
    6 qL \oll zlTl$zl q{}6J + 9=7}? (a) Brz9l Oz
    =E^l-rJts4lqg
    tt.t+ d4&(benzoic acid, C6HsCoOH)g tzz'Collrl +E+. (b) CH3CH2CH2CH2SHg} CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2SH
    t30.Cql^l ._qill {}49 EgE r.os g/cm3ol4. ls.Cql^J (c) cH3cH2cH2cl4 (cH3)2cHC1
    J.xll HI44l9 "JE= 1.266 g/cm3ol4.
    tr.n +7J il]¤. EBql^l zJol.
    #ell.J4 2_Eliegsql
    -H_= Ete+
    (a) ol F lJ.El] + $z| ,r1o1E 4t A47l EJ ag q! .Jg E r+ ++dolj1, ag E^I^l(crH,o)9 ,*EEI. rq
    =
    *iltl? + +ql.Jol q +g #=dg ,*=El(_o.s.c= _11.7 "c
    (b) E8l 941o1 rill-e d+qB, aal= g4 "lillB4 +q
    el Hlng+). ol$ {$af.rle.
    7lq A^lA}-7l, AqEAYT|?
    502 118 qitetE^te a

    \il 11.30
    ^igEI
    E^(ccl4)el
    =-ee+{cHcl3)g
    g6J $zl $u11o1
    +. ^IgEl +4e+ Eee+EE A^J #=dg 44 zz "c*
    6l.colE|. 4+ + ola$ql qfl zltl 4Af, d{e?
    r (a) E-E-EE9 +^ eqlg g + 9l= +H, ^Ig+ e^=
    .r-+zl ?+4.
    vl +i=
    =-e-+9.!-+,'Hzf
    EHIETI trl 14.
    (b)
    ^Igp+
    ^I¤sl +i= +Es+HrI ¤*pI¤4.
    (c) rl
    +Ell?.l 2-ollEs-e4l?.1

    t1.24*7J zlls EBql^l E= Hle+ aol, eeg gng


    rr:r A-^lgillg rlgzl.J golg(BF4-)g -s.6J6l+ *3 Bg ol
    gd HlEql, q ol+ so4r-E EEL6I
    "-lzll.l+. C^IE4I
    (cHrcHrcHroH)$ olol4 rE-e.g oJig((cur)rcHou) =
    ge olgC ._qill$ BCalxl ?*E+. ol +A Ar+= ¤B
    e 44 ez.z'ca+ 82.s'cel #Eag +=4. E r+ ag e =
    6l^19_.
    zf^](crHso)g 717.1+, eeg .JngE #=eol El * ol
    f¤ ¤B6I^le. 11.32 l-oJe-3-ollpolulrl$$ *lgE .JHI +a4g El-q=ri 4E}.
    +
    H
    I

    HaC

    gi= - cH2(cH z),cH, "Jz)zlol EI. I -.Ja-3-ql g


    ¤ zl gl,rl Rg
    il=El ol=9
    =!= 0f0l^E+EJ
    -=
    olulQ$$ "Jolgr+ pF6- $ol.a- gE
    rr.2s (a)+ +zI= ee a"+9 +E EzIe+ +A eilg ql^*6lzl ^plq^J BCq=
    +l"ll^lE qH 9zl-8.trd.ulotR}6l-=zt? 0) El-g tszI +
    +=ag +s-r+ 44.
    qE aol ae ++q trlg +^Ie+ +^ ad.g Bc6J + 9l R: :60 "C), R: CHzCHzCHs(m.p. :
    CHzCH:(m.P.
    :
    40 "c), R cH zcHzcHzcHt (m.p. : t0 "c),
    EzI? cg:r. CH3NH2, cH3oH, cH3Br
    R : CHzCHzCH2CH2CH2CH. (-.p. : -61 "C)
    11.26 4 tlql^J #Eae.l il-ol= ¤B6I^le.
    (a) HF(20'C)el HCI(-8s "C)
    "J?zl9 7Jo17l +7lz4J++ +=dol +i6l+ ol+= +l
    oJTl?
    (b) CHCI3(61 'C)e| Currr(rso'C)
    (c) Brz(ss'C)el ICI(97 "C) eqfllet=E=d ctr(11.38)
    rr.33 (a) sE +q+ gEE +Al= +E'J7l?
    11.27 +5Eql^J +g EA"J qlgql
    =4olg(HoCH2cH2oH)
    E CtL #=dg le8'coJ HlEql, ql¤ "Jig(cH3cHroH)
    (b) dcEel g5.el +alb +t.J7p
    (c) E9 sH *qg TIzl= Eag +g dCaE Tl?.l+ 4
    g qrl"J-"Lq 78 "cql^] g=+. qlg{l 4ol4g
    qIE](CH3OCH2CH2OCH3)= a^J #Edol 83 "Colq. ql
    =4olg il:^l r
    6}0l ol+= ¤¤6}^le.
    B qlB qE](CH3CH2oCH3)= A{} #.beol ll'Coltrt. tts4 7+7+E 3Cr+ +eql 7la6}q, c[2ctz, cH3cH2cH3,
    (a) cH3Tlql^l 4Id g^l= +4 gzt-e qiill6l= aol #E cH3cH2oH¤: (a) EzIrJ B9 6zL 0) aCEE +71, G)
    Ag *+= olffi {go}.rle.
    ar+= '+4ql= sE tlqE 6zI trl"ll trl-4 '+g6}^ls.
    O) + qlElTl #=eq^l ilolE +4q1= +¤ e.Jg +E rr-rs aaal= -E^-il+ql^Je+ u|{z}zlE, *¤E} EEi}E t}g z}+
    "J7l? g] + 91tr1. ._44 qsl +dqg._{dle+ sE49 *dqB+
    tt.28 4 Eeql^l +zlaElg ¤elE¤E6Ir,4rd}+ql^-i qts q aAL+ zlg+ 91trl-.
    Eeol rl +3 gydg r*=zl dq6}^ls.
    (a) s.-tr Ell oJ(C:uJ4,z-*Bl t(C.H,o)
    (b) trIolqlB qlq (cH3cHrocH2cH3)el
    I -+ts9(CH3CH2CH2CH2OH)

    (c) ol4}El +(soJ4 dl&4 ¤r(sor)


    (d) s /-.d(ct2co)+ +"JEJl6Iol r (H2co)
    rr:s Hroe+ H2sE 7 a{} #=d4 a{} +dg Elil6}^ls.
    H

    EE4 deg ileJi{g 4 olQ Eeol q ,}6J e^}rJ f,g


    7l^l+71? 4 Exlql= qtr ++E +xrrJ eol ¤4161-L-7I?

    (i)
    E# E^{ 503

    (a) +"J +7171'g+qg. e_e"J g^l.e. H+4.


    H

    (b) +s SE +ilq^'l otole-E ?3ol 6B d^lql^l


    ^I4
    d+.
    (ii)
    (c) ¤fl *zlollrJ aq+ oJa¤.ol aaq ^t7}41+.
    +3+g-ol zill $a1og gAq.
    (d) El4}ql^l
    (a) fl9 + rH +, Eille+ eE49 *dqol .-4i] rtlE *
    491 dl35l+ ag q! aufl
    rr-+r t"l 849'¤+g'ql dlBoIE tl{e+= +E'Jrp O) -o--f,.
    dqtrq rl
    (b) +lE + rB =+, Eol gE{ +H91 flg A+q 6il86} E* egqlz}, ge.J7I? (c) 9E EAE ¤+gr+ +gg
    ¤. Hli++E, "JHl4eE qE aol L1=vl?
    4g 9:= 4.'JzI?
    = rr.rz ¤El qlB(crHscl)g 12'cql^] #:+. oJqq-ql^l olill
    (c) fl9 + rH +, Eol +d EEql flg A+ql 6l]B6F=
    ag q! 4"J71? czHsclol dg(2s "c)ql^-l s.Hql E^i¤ trll, r sHg ^JtrJ
    6l B4g+.
    11.36 6|olEr+T!(UrNr.rUr), rl4}cl +A(HOOH), E(H2O)g Hl
    (a) ol *3 erle c2Hscl(l)+ El"rllg ull, c2urctgg u1
    ++ +zl+3 zl^l+ EIE EeE4 Hljililg ql, qlgl4s gql +"ll +9.9 "J6H iYzll
    tr. *¤ sE tlqg 7l4Ll.
    (b) -s.Ee-++q ge gol gs+ qlBql el"ll trtlq9+r
    (a) ol ,$l 7I^l F+{}Eg Lewis d +44oe rp-l^19.
    TIAdl trz}. s.Hel 4+ eEE zlt}:IBlr.J+E q¤
    ${$ol +F4ee tlzl! }a! Cee +lol]i,
    (b) ol
    r4ol qB4 * EE +qg ¤BB + 9lE7P flgq= r.elalo[ 6l-=7[?

    E ] H. tlzl "Egg #bd, eE tlq, d¤s.y rpe--;; rr-as -qu ^l7J


    FoJ ¤*izf trJ+ 7l+ql^-l ,JH]r-EE EHol
    ,JLI, + a+^dol E*g EEq .EHee+q +gqq '94qfl+.
    -rr:z rlEx{ IrtH rta{ AT JE
    60 99 Eol +g6J-e-Er{l 3s'cq^l 20'cE B4E + 9l=
    4U
    ELE
    (c)
    O-

    0lm2) (ke/*-') Eq e*g? (ol 8s H+lql^J Eel +gge z.aklls, #


    2
    el Hl¤3 4.ts l/s-KoltrI.)
    E(Hzo) 100 7.3x10 0.9x10 3
    ql+g(cH3cHroH) u.44 ccl2F2e+ ag ++Eg s4g 7P-(cFC).tr. oJ44 gl+.
    78 2.3 x l0-2 1.1 x l0-3
    ol s++Eol B4zlltr'*ol ,<l-&99.zluJ. zlf,.$:+aql g
    u-g*¤i(cHrcH2cH2oH) 97 2.4x I0-2 2.2 x to-r
    6llB+i1¤4zlE s+*+E=E 4ilqflr+. CclrFre.l ?tsg
    n-FEg(cu:cH2cH2cH2oH) t17 2.6 x l0-2 2.6 x l0-3
    qefl t97 4.8xt} 2 26xt} 3
    * zts 71g"1r+. ls'Cq^l Z7l E 200 gol gzl f.l6}]^.i= I
    =+olE(HocH2cH2oH) I Ea q rHol +gqqo}"J i;lY7l? (E9 *Sts3 ss+
    (a)9lE9"lld E-e.+¤, ,z-*ts9e a++ #=d, *.E tL f/e, E9 Hl¤9 +.ts I/s-rol4.)
    q, dCEE E.F +71-++. r ol+= F9..JzI?
    rr-as qteg(crHsoH)g -114'cql^.i +-r., 78'cql^J #bEI.
    o) s-e+¤.4 qlBHl tsxl*ol Eli6l-alEJ(60 ql+gq ++ qlBirl= 5.02 kJlmolola, ?g $lBq*
    =+olge
    amu'. 62 a-u), {lH{] {CEE se+$tr 38.56 k)/molol+. qltsg ilrllel EillE ul$$ zJz-| o.ez
    El rou114 q rq. ol ={ol¤el
    qBrll ¤Bg f 9lbz}?
    ^ldg I/g-xe+ z3lls-Yolr+.
    (c) Eol TI\L +e sH liqg TIzl= ElE, ,ltl *g d^J
    (a) 35'C9 qltsg +z.o go1 zs'collrl9 +7lt}-g--e. B617l
    EE ,*EEl= qBrll ¤Bg + 9l:71? gg gEl-oJzI?
    ^HJg 9l6I^J gs_6J
    n.38 (a) r-¤l4l ql(curcH2cH2cH2cHJ9 d dsz} n-dlrll oJ9 (b) -lss "cq flb Ag .Jel qlEgol 7s "cE rtzl$eE-
    acEB+ q +gzlE qld-al^le-. (b) LllsslqoJ H6f7l 9.16ll^l gs6J g-e- g"IoJzI?
    =^1,
    ((cH3)4c)E ddETI n-¤lEloJ9 ddEtr+ q 49 rr.46 +qlE c2cl3F3= 47.6"Cq AtI #Ee.g
    zl {.}a}rle(ol Ez}el ¤4=:H 11.6 +4). =^1, =+sEtsi 'z*
    EE+. C2Cl3F3(t)r+ C2Ct3F3k)el Elgg 44 o.gr llg-re+
    gEel(rr.aE) 0.67 llg-Kolr+. ol p+6J89 +ggg 27.4e kllmorolL+.
    u.3e trl=s t}+q 46I rldolg olE¤. "J6la, sts 4cqlzl ts C2CI3F335.0 go| 10.00'Cq E^ll ^Jqlql^'l 10s.00 "Cq 7l

    ts 4C.Jzl +Elr+^ls. 41tr H6J trll, g.g6J gg +6}^ls.


    (a) 9*9 7lg6IH EE H+E|. lLa7qg 4+tlq ,*, a1g El6l^le_.
    (b) trl-E/.6J q$g 49*ol olE4. (a) 9E 5eE .J4l "Jqe r Eeol tgql^J Lxlle HE
    (c) ?9 agB +Eql ^1"-17| 4ilE1. q9 sqolq.
    (d) zlzl¤ E+ aqlE*gol
    ^JrJ+. O) qB EaE g2l gE= r Eee4 Eilltlol E'J + 9l
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    g r+coJxl +44^ls. (c) 9Hl4 s-+. qB E4el 'JAl +E7l-+¤++ 'J4 "Jq
    504 j13 a{^llelE^lA -d

    e *+. (a) k3 &e El]+ aa6}q Eol E4 +BqH^J Ag ts4


    (d) .JHI4 oE qB EeE tszlzJ Elol zFfffi, "JZl
    gE
    ^laq.
    e+ gzl (b) +g 4Ie Et*ol r*ol E"l Eol g?-l +gElH^l Ag
    'Jqe +EI.
    1r.48 Eedl+ qlel'JEq 'J4l gE(K)s+ 941 $4(atm)e q-g ts4^lrJ4.
    q-44. (c) tsg 4}ql^]= oJqol t 44
    atm.E-4 *o}^.i Eq #=
    it-dE ccl3F cclzFz cclF3 cF+
    d.l ollfBe4 *4.
    (d) +g 4}ql^]b $4ol t atm-H-r| rli 9o1,t1 EE #E
    EZIgE(K) 471 385 302 227
    dol 6ll+Htr+++.
    941 *4(atm) 43.5 40.6 38.2 37.0

    g^J6l+ +^IrJ eg +El4^ls.


    rrss :g tt.zs9 6zl .Jq ndg 0l+6}^19-.
    (a) 4 cl6JEE
    ^Iolql^l (a) 200 torr9 el+ 'Jqql^J ql+gE #Edg 7z$alllj1.
    (b) cl.Jg=E +qql^l EzlzJ .Jqol +7161+ +^1, + 3l
    (b) qlegol 60'cql^l #g Eil, q+ Sqg +C6I^le-.
    i.flel =lrNzlz)E +^JE qt}6}^le. (c) 400 torr9l,{ 4olqB qlElE #Edg +c6}^le.
    (c) 919 sq +e+ 9li a6}g Hl'Joe., ccl4E oJal g
    (d) trIolqlg ollelzt +o "cql^l #g Ell, e]+ .Jqg +a6l
    Ee+ gZl .Jqg ql+61^19. CRC Handbook of
    Chemistry and Physicse| Ag zlEE ol$all,t'1, {fl! ^lg'
    rr.s6 ++ BE +of* E+ Sq6lql^l Eq +71Sqg L+EI.lln
    ee eaB ccl4E oJzl gEe+.J4 oJqg =^l6}^le.
    "Jil9zl ?*= eql 4dl ol*E
    9lE+.
    xll,<la|.rle.
    (a) PS Bq glb ^l..E'E +71 oJ4(torr)4 gEec)9 r4
    s.-e, +El4^19. qqBE :1H oE+q zllg 37'Cql^.]
    =7lgaj(11.5tr)
    u.4e q+ 44e "-H4lel +rl .Jqql "t+Zl ¤.}.g nlilizl { Eq +zl oJqg +C6f^le.
    H6.I^le. (b) 760.0 torr, 100'Cql^l zlE dg EE= ¤B6l-^19.
    (a) 9xll9 P4 (b) sE4 (c) SzIrJ.Jq (c) dlfE gl9 sooo ft ntrql + E^l= 633 rorr
    (d) &s. 9;ll9 "Js.
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    =7l]61+

    11.5s of.{'ll$(H3CCoCH3)g #=dol s6'Coltrt. rB 11.2sql + Ezlzl gg Tldlot 6l+7p


    q4l zlEE ol+6ll^1 2s.cq^l o}^-llEol ql*gtr+ rl (d) 6I+E o|=ll s00 ftel nEql +46l-b + E^l= 774 torr
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    6rl .Jqg zlzlizl, trl zig ?71 .Jqg zlzlbzl qltl6}
    E4zl gg 7l-611016l+7I?
    ^lg.
    rrsr t"l trl-g Ee=¤ fltsc"1 +7l.6]+ +^'lql ItI4 Ellg6t^l cfE_E(11.68)
    9. u.s7 (a) *E-Eql^.] .JaldE 9"lb F9..J7l? $) .Jaldql^-l
    CHa, CBr+, CHzClz, CH3CI, CHBr3, CH2Br2 ,],]e+ E819 ^Jg E?-l6L= dol ¤t ol ff +EoJ7I?
    +lEe5el Bbde 984 HEzl?
    O)
    =
    rr.ss (a) ti-=*.q1,r] ++dE 9"lE F9.oJzI? (r) 4zloJoiql,H
    B^l+.Jel +Eql^l o)9 Bg ¤E6l^le.
    (c)
    i?zl,._q4 E, ggol EBg ol+r 9lE r*ql^.i gE=
    ll.s2 q+ 48ol *.Jzl, ?]lqlzl g6}^ls. +cqlsEr,i E9 a6dg +aB + gl=71? ¤H6i^le_.
    (a) CBrri Ccl4tr+ fltsrdol El r+. :.9 11.289 +=d-q. +gg 4 4Cq^l "Jqg + ?l=
    (b) cBreb ccl4-H.tr}#=dol q +q.
    EE *HEt= ¤B6t^le-.
    (c) cBrat ccl4-E4 B4zJ Eol "+61+. -rrsl(a) ffizl| fl4 o.oos atm, -0.5 "Cq^l gE= .JAdl4
    (d) CBrats CCl4-E-r},J9 es.q,q trJ +g ?zl "J4i= z*
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    =q. gtrl.
    rrsl ro F zllg E'JHI7I,'-eH9 +E ElLl +lql+q fl+. 6l (b) Eg 94 100.0 "c, 0.s0 atmoll,rj "Jqg 946|7il +zl
    +E 48614 #n 9lb HlE, +E 6IL}} $f61 Bn 9l s-E7f -10'c7l- ¤ ql4zl B4g+.
    trl. +.JHlql^19 E9 ssql ql4^J +lol4n "Jg + 9l ^l7lE^.1
    rr.60 -r.B 11.2e=i +a6}q, cozE -s0.cql^J -20.c.e 7ig
    ilY7l? (b) + +7lE En+ 4e 8zl9 Eol ee eEq 9l El41, (a) 3 atm9 'JC 'Jq, G) 6 atm9 gA 'Jqql^l ,t}
    +. F +7lq^] Eel t'-44"J ?71 .Jqe qal.Jz}? Ee+(EqI re+ Ag A^Jol "JqqE gE)= ¤B6I^le-
    n.s4 &q g+ il¤ "J¤71 +lElEg g9+. 6tzl+ il-= EJETI rr"or ,-1gq tlE-s.= 4*r+ e4.
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    4e?
    EAEII 505

    .49(11.7tr)
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    "qill, TlillilH EAq E += ^Jol+.
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    11.62 "I+
    (a) Ct#=Bel *e rI+ $nltzt? ll.6s + Tllel 7lg *d e. Bql^J E+ ld zldg r4l^Jol+.
    (b)Neel er9 oJ4l7i(x. ll.s +=)g zlHloe., Lllgr+ ol-
    e*ql^J 4 E4zJ 6Jg 4dl qB4 ¤Hts +^llTlql
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    Eol ,r1l zlzl ^Jql(rill, Eill, Tliil)tr dal g
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    E.
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    4= er+E {} ? Eol+. .trCel 7f^} +ldql 4ol+g ql
    =
    7l +ql *"Jt.Jel
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    B rr.:o)E tr9lg trll, ole| ag =ag 4ol+ql^l rill,
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    4l6dr+b q+ gE+.
    ,lEll.Je.l A
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    "ilEilqle
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    7l-H6lr^l ?+=4r rt{ilg EEsE+E gqdE} Ell,

    H q¤ *HqE g + 9lg lol4r qltlq+7|?


    11.64 a.E+ 2s.cql^l EJETI s.el s/cm3ql nillol+. aEel + -9.
    E
    Ed* zs.s'cE, AEg +eE "JAg q gg + 9lg "J
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    I il (a)
    7l-d
    B

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    g

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    (c) B r4u9lxl 2-t +zql ql"J6l+ r+49 +9..JrI?
    (d) A r?.flEql^l 3-4++ql 4"J61+ 449 f9.qlz}?
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    (e)

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    rr.zt EzlzJ ql43
    =zlgl
    ri4 ?zl*4a 6J q, +.s 449. z (a) .f olrJ{ill + qL 4.ol cl 3 6t-=-z}-6rlz} 6Jg r*=
    zl"ll aI4 rttlalzl. zJaa3x15 q^J-61^19_.
    (a) 671 +gg'Jq O) (c) #bd (d) q=d (b) zlxl oltei.il= #=dol 60.3 "colz, 4= 6I+=
    ^"Jvl?
    6-f,

    (e) dCs (0 EE *4 9419s G) Bbdol 47.s'colq. qB olcaillTt qH #bdg ,*


    oI4 .EqlY I atm 4d9 qBl gEq^l orE EJE= zll^l o
    ?"1
    tln!
    11.74
    6I*.4. oz9 AtI+Edg s4 Kol+. 11.77 E++ E: Bsdt+ EalE EE4 deg +4uEl. ol a4
    eE(K) tsE(mol/L)
    7l* $ ¤H6l-b 4l¤e EI.S + q! A"J7l?
    =
    60 40. I g=^lEEIE
    70 38.6
    o4i1l
    dE'J(D) x{/\} llExl/..\ U/
    OO 6LE\

    80 37.2 CH2F2 1.93 -52


    90 3s.6 cH2cl2 1.60 40
    r00 0.123 CH2Br2 1.43 97
    120 0.102
    (a) njqzl sHlETl-=++ BzIrJ oJqol ,Jal]zlE E 7l*
    140 0.087
    rdi.=._zI EHIEE ,*i
    tszlel B=dol 7l+ *:-l.
    (a) orzl -741"J 9E +rJZ? =
    gE +?Jg o) ¤4}qg F, cl, Br +9e rJ lltltrI. #=dE ol +4e
    (b) orz[ "-4i]l.J
    67I6IE-e. E&qol {qx}-4rlx} flqB+ Ez}-rJ .J
    (c) s.o'll.tl o27l- 7lill?l gE +rJg?
    qql 7lq6l= ulzl-¤t rJ r+.
    oz9 Atl-#=dg ql+6}^ls.
    (d)
    olg
    (c) dzl +CE= F > cl > Br tol4. El+^l 7I*
    (e) oz9l= qts EzlzJ flol zI+61+71? =
    4o3- #=dol 7l* *a.7I+ ="+
    5|tif$(cH2F)ol
    r1.7s F TIzl +4 g^l-= 7I^11 9l4r TtaE q, 6J Ez}e] E
    4g 5|a]$(CH2Brrol #=dol 7l-t +trt. =
    Edg -sa.Coltr, +E 6ILl= 34.Col+. E 4 4zl.Ja} (d) oltsl6J ++^J e^Iql^l= Ez}"d.ol ?7I6IE #bdE
    ql^l ¤xl]'*4. Ei+E E+e *3 4qtzl? *zl t*48, *
    67l6JEl.
    7ll+a6}^le.
    u.78 oI4 -E= Hl4l4 HI4! +E,llEgl A+ #=Ag +4U a
    (a) #Edol *
    "141= #Edol *g
    q8ltrtrI d8l Ezl
    ol+.
    ,J eE trl r+.
    I{At +r!xl
    (b) #Edol trl *3 "-q8lE ++¤ +z}tr +dqqo} 6J+. OO 6LE

    (c) #Ydol q *e .l4ltrE} BxI itaE 75 fc)


    "l4lE #=aol cl k3
    *ol q +4.
    (d) + "-441= r=.q At[ #baq^] EgtJ 6zl $qg r*
    c.H.(HIU)
    O 80

    =trt.
    (e) -8a'Cql^J + "lrll E+ 760 mmHgA 6zl.Jq¤ ,* c6Hscl(=Ee.u{1) t32

    =+.
    u.76 BE clElE t,z-4ol=-a-eqgqlE + 7l^1ol^deiI= EI
    Br
    +4 Aq.
    H
    \.
    c6H5Br(H +EHldl)
    d 156

    a/ c6HsoH(Ell5) 182
    cls ol.SEill trans olEA^1|
    +7lE+ F^11 507

    (a) ol5 +ql^l +&qol z}+61-b ae H 4,"J71? 4. :43 ol$r.J olillz| EgCg't+,JE+ "]+ A+g
    (b) olE +ql^J ,5.qz}-,td*+zf t}E zl*"1 4+6k Ag 7fxl4 +4. ol$.! e{;llz} ql+eel tLg t'-Efle.l 9zll Ext
    H zll9-lz}? ql *Z ¤zl.JHg zlzli olf* Fl.Jzl?
    Hl6H

    (c) olE 6ql^l +4 a6Jol zl.8:61= ag P 4"J71? I1.83 (a) 4¤alzil g¤¤ 6tH Bol qE4. olaS +9
    HtrE{d]g g=dol ^lg6IE
    (d) El
    =E-e.HldE+t+7f? + 6l+ q qB4 Effi f.izlr O) Eol 5q fl= E4^
    (e) 91 4lE9 gtseol olE 6q^l 7l* !--g71? r= {+ gEe} geqq il+. EgTt 486}n 4H Eol
    t1.79 gz} ++ql^.] oNa o16 +d(rH za.:o)g r.oJ #71 P E +E Eol g7l ^lz}+4. ol 4Col "J
    ^i+r.li] ^14.J+.
    H tr?]trI. E+ '+e +4 +^ a6Jg olf ll 9l q+= ol+= ¤E8l^le.
    ^I+?-lE
    ..r4
    Ezls +CBE}. "J&zl= ^t44E +89.1E4. rr.84 trl--g s.= gEq III= a1;.1-==g9trHlti(C6FJe.l 671 .Jq
    =
    .14 ql otql H-4o1 ul(er) +aq' g 7l tl. q- +ol'd -^Iol E
    I44d X"14.
    ¤ zl"dg +EILil fl+.
    ^l(GC)q 8E(K) 6u lS4(torr)
    .....H
    - 280.0 32.42
    300.0 92.47
    -H..... 320.0 225.t
    330.0 334.4
    340.0 482.9
    Etol"J 0lrll'J
    (a) 4BaJ %LBe-e ol zlEE E^16}I, Clausius-Clapeyron
    H zl(rl rr.r)g qeb^1, otHzl AC6I^ls. trIEqE qBl
    N-H..... Eol :-fl f.Bg CoHo9 AHu"pE aA6I^19_.
    ) (b) ol
    ^l-S6].q
    ol*6iq, +d.E.elBbdg a46f^le.
    N.....H - ^IEE
    rr.as *EeE 671 .Jqg+ TIzl E}EgEql^.1+a.J+ 9l+

    o.....H- r. TIAdl H^I.


    (a) Clausius-Clapeyron ll.1)g ol+4q +71 'Jq
    ,,{-oltru +olLJ (p,, pJ4 +A¤ ¤ql^l(^l
    gE(rr, r) ,\1o1E +4lE +E
    qBl¤e F zl9 +4 Aql-qE BtE er gTlrAlrl, 7ll 6t^lg.
    ^'il
    el +4 ¤Elee. Bc¤ cc ¤zl,l}g E + 9l+. oltr ¤zl _ Pr
    - R \i-I i)1\
    LH,^p/
    Alol gql EJ .JA+7t?: ol*E? 'n Pr:
    I1.80 qHfl ¤lHl.J(csHrJS ^}3, o) 7l+fl9 qql fl @H3CHrCH2CH2CH2Cr1CH2CH3)o] +^d
    =4olE(HocH2cH2ou)4 Eq+^qg!lEol4. 2s"cql^l +el"Jg aoTl oJq
    tL.Jql^J 94lol4 Ezl*ol .,rJe. rJ4. Egl
    (a) olE + 6f+= += atr+ gd {CETI tq. qL a 3 r:.ss torroltr, 7s"cql^l+ 144.78 tor¤i +48+. +ql
    oJel="ggg 4l4l6Pl +16il +lE zle$(a)9 !g^l-S6I
    !tl?
    (b) olE ¤! 6IL+(36.1"c)b +E a(rss.c)ql Elql gd c ^ls.
    qe A.atl? (a)9 (b)q Tqal zleE ol+6lq +ql.Je-l 4+#E
    ^J #=eol *+.
    (c)
    ^lr+
    (c) olE 6 6ILI= Ql{ P59 oe. qL Eg 4l4}6f^le-. EEI I.8rql^l Eqrl <lr+ ZI4I'J itg
    ^l-FiI ^l-+94. Eli6|^19_.
    (d) -30"cql^l +ql"JE 671
    "Jqg ZltI6I^le.
    olE +
    (d) ^"Jvl? 6I+= fltsdol $e-l^elolfl + rlla r+
    zloll,rl
    aql^l 'g-Exll's ^1.*E+. q!= aJvl? 11.86 trl"+ .Jqql^l +ol=E-eqlqloJ(cHrcrr)
    ^|.e'b 5C ?71
    1.1- ololeH4,llB(curjol +4qlE gEE +EIU aolq.
    I l.8t +g CtI #=dg ^l-.&6}q, $e|oJ(crurJE C+ #=e
    g +44^le. E+ #=dq a6Jg ¤B6I^ls. E7l $aj(torr) 10.0 40.0 100.0 400.0
    E+qlql(c3Hs) -+2.t"c cH2cl2ql ql6J T("c) 24.r
    -43.3 -22.3 -6.3
    BElgl(c4Hro) -o.s'c cH3rql qlql rfc) -45.8 -)a') -7.0 2s.3
    slqloJ(crH,, 36.1"c
    dlr]l gl(cuH,.) 68.7 "c
    (a) F Ed +ql^l q s {+zl-.'$fzl Ag TVl=. Ao E
    qAlgb ag? E&qol q aqa
    ^J4qE ae
    qL
    dEloJ(czHrJ e8.4 "c
    4oJ7l? ol Bg uleJ:e-tr qE ElBE.ol trl +lgdg +
    I1.82 .lgc sq4le_l olq4.J 5a +9 6l+b *e 671 .Jqol 4qlEzlE ql+61* 4ol 943 olr8¤. ¤B6I^ls.
    508 113 q^lletE^lZ -'J

    O) qts e}'*Eol q +e #=eg 7I^l= AoE ql^Jq= 4. rcotl *g gEql^l zlf$ zllrllE 6}zl .X6l+ olrq¤
    zl? CnC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics9j ,J+ + ¤B6I^le.
    q^l B'g q-oJ6l-^le.
    -lt E^l ll.8e 5E6J EA Eee r+g rg+ Ag ^JEEE 7IdEl. El._q
    (c) gEzI6TIElql qq ol F p+d.E.g +l"J^J +^J= H6J
    c E.eq tlE_tr= fi idl trn, 4 +Eql^J LIEI+E
    qi6J
    4. ol4 ag B^Jol 9"lulzl 96ll + Eaq^J Eof "J t}g +oJ6}^ls.
    +9 .JE ^tol7} 9lqo} 6l+7I?
    (o G)q qlql4E6Jr4ue r4 !-n, Bg+B6llH^le.
    11.87 +EBHI(C,6HJ$ df4ql o}+zllg
    fltrolr+. olael is
    at +EEg 8l'colq, a^J #=dg zrs'coll. 4I6d P
    3 rooo paglrl 80.col+. ol EllolEl= ol+6].q, +sBHl
    E ^JEs=+^"i6}a, rHel 4+Eg B^l6}^le.
    I1.88 EC q.Sqlol(LCD)E: TIzlE ^l4l= ts+ qlqg qe6}
    5.J *g gEql r.eg ql :a 7l*= zllqitr 6}zl *6J T
    =

    56=F "J+ +41


    11.e0 -tr ll.3ql^J "Jflel +++i p+6JEel dCEzl84"*ql q ¤zIrJ.Jqol rJg+E ACE= rl1l+.
    (ii) ol;.lloll,tl
    4 +716]+ 4¤ eg1r+. 6-e}. E^lql uloll ro_94. Eutb I l.9l of.rllg((cH3),co)e 4IE gull_E S "J44 9l+.
    4el 2tsil * acE= trf,+. (a) ot^]ls $z|el Lewis +e¤ rr]n, 4 tsA gzlE 716I
    (a) 8-84 p+6JE.J +el.Jg ololzl+qloJolat= ol^JAill
    +aE ql+6}^le.
    r*Etrf. olol^+qloJg +qlflEr+ ddETI k¤zl. (b) o}^llE
    = +fzl+ +rdoJTL ++coJ7l-?
    ' *g^l qtl6ln, r ol+E "51^ls. (c) of.t15 +z]- qtr ++E E^trJ oJqol e4l6}
    ^Iolql--.
    H cH" cH3 Yzl?
    ttt"
    HsC-C-C-C-CH3
    (d) l-i.e+g(cH3cH2cH2ou)$ o[.ql5q- r]9 ag g^t
    ttt
    HHCH.
    +g r*zlEi, ol^.llEE
    #=eol s6.s "cql HlE, r-=E
    S¤¤ sz.z'cq^J #=trI. ol ilolE ¤B6I^le.
    Elg sE H zlxl +rl slfl¤q LI4u a
    2,2,4- E e:lo lil,l=JEJlEll oJ !E= 0 t0 laqqloJ
    rr.92
    'l]+ ¤.="ggg
    ol+. ol ++q^.1 5A ql= t+6IE^j +ggol (a) EzI
    (b) s. ll.4el Bo14o sltlEEE #=de] tlq4 rzl= (b) E^l-EoJ, (c) EzIg +d, (d) +^ e* {}n zl+
    ql^J6}q 6zt6l+ #ee. qgql E^ls. "J,
    q q4 q$4l E6l+^lql 46]] ¤B6I^ls. g^IrJ Eel +
    (c)-*. rr.a9 ts0144'lAlE s.E ttqe dl^ll.Jql^l qlrll
    Eql^l olq+ Eli= ¤H6}^le(ol1o1 4 +qlEq +34
    oJe-+ a++ +61 +3 Cst zoyo* 6rBlq(eCE g rrl= Ell E+9 aolq).
    E + u]] +rl{ HIE). trlg + ol ol B^Jg ,I+ A ¤H =
    + ae? El-dE EHE(kllmol)
    (i) ezlel +¤dg EH +qE4 35s,91 gt g6J CH3CH2CH3 19.0
    g 6trI.
    = CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3 27.6
    (ii) dCE: E^Lelql"J q+61+ HlH, EE +qe g CH3CHBTCH3 31.8
    xl*4EzlzJqlql E++E+. CHsCOCH] 32.0
    (ii0 ts^Ig++ trl *gg Bd6ls.E EE tL CH3CH2CH2BT 33.6
    qe q *+. =.qi]
    =
    cH3cH2cH2oH 47.3
    (d) r.u1gg 20.cql^J 7.rtxto-4 kg/m-s9 ecEE ,*=
    4. n-48 oJ7g(cH3(CH)zoH)3 +z}*ol A,4,Je ll.e3 ql+g(c2H5oH)q +rl "Jqg le "cql^l 40.0 torrol4.
    Lql.JtrEt ,Et rl d^JE l.0l x l0-2 kg/m-s= 7* t.00 g 91ts9 o-lill
    ^l-E=
    le'cq^'l 2.00 Lel +7lql '+=
    =
    itrI. trl.g + ol ol dt¤ zht a ¤B6J ag? 4. *zlE Be + ql+g.-4ill7}9lES 6zle+ ¤Bg oj+
    (i) o_44q1^l EzlzJ elqol ,J5J+=. ddE= z|old4. *E+8, q rflg qltsg o-!i-llz| $o1 ?l:71-?
    ,* 509
    =0,=x1l
    I r.e4 o-qill se.e.q rl-&s] zl 916ll dfl q ql B+
    #41 oJ(c+H,o)g Elg 4l4}6}^ls.
    qq flq. +Ell.Jg atr"#Ede -0.s"cE z1E90l 914. rr.s0 flBC ?zl .Jqg .J:1 9l= g-EeI zlololl! o$
    "-4419
    (a) Fol aH ol4ql llrlz| $=z| 3s"c7l qfl+n 7l.186l]
    9lb zldl9 +qql Aaq 4+ol 'JqLlrll 6lq +lgC +
    tr^I. Br oJ9 zloJol 4zl"Jeq 4g^1, qllJ- sqq E"4^la
    =zlE "qrl acg + glEI. dEql^l N, zlill 5.66
    3.I^19. L7l26.0.Cq1^l o-qill Hl4l(CosJ 2.2146 gz E+fl+. d
    (b) Eq g-E-71gq^l H 4ElE trll"J"l unfe4l BofrJ+ ,E
    +ql BoL *b *93 s.r+s: gole. zl;llzf HIdl +7lql
    -r. TLAql tr^t. E.Jq Hol gi= +q].J +"_qE gEE ealqflr. dall TlalE *qs+9s= gcd}rll+zlB+a
    tBzll¤zl .U46H !--a. ¤B5l^le-. 7f4{i+. dtl9 ?zl 'Jqg H torrglz}?
    (c) 6S901 21.3 kllmolol4H, +eit zso g9 G.'lJ^]|7]|71 tt.e7 +7lE tql4e +E= +71 6ql fl= EE +E "Jqg a
    95ll gg6J gq "Jg g"l"Jz}? ol +qloJol 755 torr. g gEql^l EE ¤B +zl oJq_q._E qb +.9, r007oE B
    3s.cql^J
    ^lzld++rl= gEltTl-? oJ ltol+. +7lel tlql4t +E7l s8o/ool-r., gs.zf 6s.po1
    ll.es ++ BeIcql +el 9l= a-H-E 0l+6.I{ -zo.cE gg 4. tz ftxlo ftx8 Re. +Aq= +rJ ?]q= E Ext H 5
    s.s0 kgol 7s.cg E4l E.e H6l+ ql g-s-6J gg ++6I ol +xH6I=7t?
    7l g16ll^-l ¤agqot al+ ee.{loJ(c:Hsk))9 44+9 e

    t6J ¤41 +41


    B^lrJ'Jg qH Eeq E.?_14 5cg q+d+ Ell 9lq 4+ + ql^l Tlrllol^l+ I atm, -6.4"Cql^l olq¤ + 9l+.
    -s_6fE+. 6l-zlEl ullE; o1qal ^"jeEel a6}.3 ql+6l7l7l qq olrle dB<lg ol+6lq .Jg.-loiq ql?olql +ql^l q ,J*
    8ql. ol= 7l-Eo+ Ezl7J e=.ol E^lql +e"6'J g"J olq4 ol E^lrJ oJq dlE 4L¤¤ r*b ag "lu a.Jxl oJolu|lz, :z
    4
    E d-g z}¤¤q qLlzl gqol oI+ H7l olEol4. SEqoI Eql EE.6lr{ B ol+E 4l^16}^le_. 4l^l¤ ol+ql zl$a}{, :
    (NHJ= I atm,25'Cq^] Tlillol^loJ I atm, -33.s"Cql^J o-q+ z|{$,r.1{la}71 +16ll olE. +z} !E= ts+g E4¤¤ ole-"o}{
    ¤ + 9l+. oJgqol +Eillt EllgolEl(CH3NHr-E 1 atm, 25 "C qtr += del# B f ?l9z|?
    : \t
    G)\

    I
    12.1 > r.flelE+ flzl¤¤ ^ls ¤¤-n 9l:
    eB tla 4+e] ¤4q1 qE n4l9
    E+E +EI.H-,EL ol E+.b aiiE 5C
    Eql ql+ "JHl4 q+gEg aol+.
    12.2 +r
    -r.illsl acc rilql^l= gzl¤
    ol +zl4olj1 HI+4 o-E ul]gqq 9l
    eq, Ela4c r4ql^JE s4¤ol #
    4Col4 HI+Col S4b ag HI]+EI.
    I.iIIgI CAIH 12.3
    aa^J niilg 5e.J Ei+4"J qlHg
    cE6f= 4z}e+ ++l ^llEE HlleEl.
    E+8 rill ++E qcr++aq 46I
    q +EEl. "*e ++q^l flxl-=e 4l
    a"J *.J T=e ulgg;1-5 ag El]+
    il, +oJoJ a"+E !t;:ql ql6}q +E
    Z+E1L!. +EH dtrtq ae a^l )t7t=? 0lB --?r Eat4 dEE +. 6J::.g F z]| oltr9 giE s+6}
    ?*tsrillE+El EJEqTlq.. qlE Eol ";3 E^t )lilA CB q--JE 6t: d4 n, ++ n+9 +Cg q44= EA
    ol+.
    trlE= + el. e= BJEill, Talq ee B+, t6l'dtEEnl eg trE^lle+El
    12.4 ++ e*q 44q CE 9l
    'JEqTlrl.. =+ =-cr' dzl tsI4 -E_¤r+ gx} eEl
    ,ll 4+q,
    E gB o-s ^J*6I= #+E ql
    6l ql44-s=E ¤¤61-E %IHg=dq
    E]]$trI.
    4qrx1q =oql^l:=$ z}4r+ ulflzl EHIS ffi(alloy), 4oJ dzlc+ Azl 9HIEE aaee. "Jq+= ++
    g'J +ol9=* Hls4lGemiconductor),st}+r+ 9+qL4 +8¤ ql^J trlel BC +Aq 4oil ull+4.

    +l+ +Ef4(polymer)e| ee, Y+e 7l+ Sotql^J 4E d4 "E r 12.5 ol8d -r.i]l oJolg+ golg
    ^holel
    d-
    ill Eag .E oJqql q"l EEq 9l= -1!19 +
    +16[q
    ^F8-6171
    d+6]r 9l+. E]qrzF=e Ez.rp] dz\
    ae+ 5dq 46}] trIE+. olge-l d-ql
    4, tlzl4, "Jo|4 u+ zlAl4 ,*= Eeg 96lq
    =Cg ^1lzi'l7l 4oJ zzls+ olge-l pl+"JEql q4 ol
    ^l].E+
    Eeg gB6}rl+ El olul
    ^IEql =46I=
    Eeql 4+ ^ll gC nill9 +37l.qBzll B4zlixl
    ,JHg gar+ ,Hgq E HHE+.
    -pg 7l-+
    'llg:.I= F, 4lEe9 '}l* r*9 zl
    q= 6ll *4. ol *ql^J= r;llel +ael ql6}q tuJpq. r 12.6 Ert¤ r.ill tszlz} s++ EztrJ'Jql
    =Cql 96ll ¤=q glg ull BcEl= il
    e4l 6171 91"|9 f,z}l dt zl¤"ll ^l-&qr 9l= q zlzl ull ${ ^JE ,J+6I4
    illql ql4q tsJ$tt.
    ql q6}q +E+.
    12,7 8Pd r= +r ?ill ++ e*9 +
    +g rE +=q Edl $zlz| r..l-tr. E
    Erj 9l: niiql ql4 ull*r., HlE-4
    el dal +4el .+col ++nI qBal
    +g^lE ull+trI.
    12.8 E--Jill 4lgEzfT].E*ol HJ49"l "lil
    a ^l¤!fl {rJ Ez|oJ 6*{E gul
    e+. +qlillg soJ4 +6Jall ^l-= ^I
    olel
    ^JE 4+ol ?t}^llE 844.J =
    c9l "lxli g6&3 tqB+.
    12.9 > Ll.kEtr ¤rJol ,ll* zlolzlzl B rll
    'JqL+= E49 Eq4. +q!4
    H+ql 46Iq +q$q. p.49 zz\zl =d
    l-100 nm CE9 azloJ EI olel Ag
    Er+71LlElUEl. xJilg *4 EiilloJ
    ¤*]fl], Ea ut:.Fu, r4¤ Fq 4
    < SxlE trl^=*ilo| g+ HDrv _"g0ll,\l rl^EHlol alEg Eg01l 91b g 6llAslEtI.
    Ll-st ?1: 7|aolrL 0|9t eP q/.EailoPl B-*4 883
    ^l-83
    01tr ^t80il ^He3
    tl^=ellolelHlr6tq THdEl*tL l-10 nm 37l0ll
    "J^lE8
    ^lltfle.ls43 HJEitl L[l.e80lr.L
    nt= EdE 7[^l=
    ^1.371011

    511
    12.1 lrillsl t+
    r^{: 4olo}E=4H ++6}4+ E^aH +g6J + 91tr}. 4zl¤ A F6l+ Eeol 9l=
    ElH, r+zl Eql aE fl+. qH ri]: dril r E"Jol H¤qzl"J, q= rill= s6lel
    t\zlzl dfl EoJq HBol qH+. r^llsl +e= EE EE]4.J 5Ce +rJql^l Szl#
    +5r 9lE eqlE ¤EIq E6l] 7l+g+. rel eg 6Jql q4 ri]lE ++'J + 9l+(fH
    12.1).

    El4C zlll(metallic sotid)E dill4-s-tr ++g ul¤4]E]¤ flzlz}


    dzl¤9 'u}4Gea)'91
    el6l
    ^]tr.
    E=zl :14. ol4 +e Bqlg a6Je_s e61t 4++g ++e dzlE E++. Eil
    ++el ++ol zllzlzl gL ^Jql4etr zlal {E ol trll$ol+. 0|E¤ zi{(ionic solid)E oJ
    olgn+ ¤.ol9 rlol9 ts Cdzl4 tqq E6I] .,.1e E¤4 ?14. ol8 A6J4 ++ a6J
    e-l ztoltr
    "Joll,
    ol8c4 ++ ¤6Je.l dzl4 "l 71414 Scol oll+ +e+. olgc
    ^JE =
    aill= 4z1E g E{zl 9+_z g ilE a,r{l(covalent-network solid)E *
    "t{trl.3gg =E
    + a.JE +tlg rE +aq 9"} ^lE E=q gl4. ol4 Ag a6J.el ¤Ell= E49 4ol
    oI+Ee+ ?ol oli* +++4 El5 + ileq, HIE^llel 55+ 5^dE ol ullEol4. ErE! z
    r{l(molecular solid)ollr.J ezL==g zllllt}ql^l +E +ztrJ e(+4}e, {fz}-ffiz}
    ^}s
    ++, +^ A6J)ql e.l6ll ^l.g B=4 914. ole+ Ae Ce tlq4ee E6Izl trilEql ExlC
    rill: +sq, ${ol {4.
    *ql^] 7l¤+ ++ql EEI^Ia + fl= + ++9 j1ill, + +,*iile+ +kEeql qldl^JE
    7l¤g 4,o14. EE!fl1(polymer)E *f' A!+ql E6I] ,<1-e EE4 9l= rl]+ zJ flzl¤9 rI
    +E +^JElq 914. ole+ Ag ^l¤Ee SHI49-E "f* EzlzJ eql E6I] ^]E E=el ?l
    +. +q+al= "JHI49.g +zlc rill-H_Q ,J6Iq, \if;ol ++. E* ++c -r.^ll, olg
    C nxll, ++C rE +a jrxll!-+ +Sdl-4. uEEE(nanomaterial)9 ,l]E eAE zlg
    (dimension)ol 1-100 nm d-EoJ l;llolQ($z| f; A}zlg ACql^l oJ+ oJ6}el a7)qE

    > a"A 12j e=crol BEfloil nl=


    _Lillq EFe1q1

    ziil ol38 r.i{l


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    B+ 96fl 1e EE4 ?i=
    qBE rE 76(cu, Fe)
    =-Etoll
    flrt=sl 91= 018=9 +8E rE fa(NaCl, Meo)

    r= ?r zill Erl"tl zitl


    =8C
    A+ el6fl Ale EEal fl= E^l2J eql el6|l EEq ?lts
    ?xl=sl +8E rE +6(c, si)
    =-goll 7||g4?.! ^18 H,o)
    prf!(HBr,

    512
    12.2 I r^llsl+^ 513
    ol H+ql +LEeel +4.llEE, aTla++ "J+491 +q qlll,
    =H
    z}flol4ts +qE -+ =^Jg
    a.J). *etr ¤EJBllzl"J, ?Col ol {E_+ zlotzlz,ll g
    ^F.8-6-J
    E g+4.J Eeq H++.
    =dol

    12.2 | _?.i1lel +a
    t
    ,j¤¤ r_{lel ulzj{rJ _r_ill
    ilal= t** 94-3 E6J6J+. qlE Eq l7l]H.el 4ololEg= Pulzi s7 mm3oli, E
    A gzl r.o x ro22zlz\ E+qq il4. ols+ ,Jol Br3 f9 flzI d+g gBzll zl¤6J
    ,395 7i111gp4(FeS))
    + glg A"J7l? +4^BrllE, "*9 _r,^19 +a: d,iig4se ++61 Hl+q= iIH O PH0T0 FUNiShutterstock
    $ zlzla_ 9l+. +ae HE¤ol +q4 dE9 Hol "J=qTl {$ u}4lz}zls, 4E1
    I
    +4zlol7 HI+4.J flzl-59 tsIg 4lHg ,*= rill= Ttgg ri{l(crystalline solid)
    4r, +4. gHI4eE olel ee rill= ^le gA6J 49 oliL BB.J EE.J tr ,l
    {."-ku
    l
    (face)9 r*=+. ole+ ae E9
    4tJ e"Jg A=q(rs 12.2).
    "Jg= 9zI9 +44t ul]¤e
    gEl4E1,
    oJ6ll rill='l]+

    49, +ololEE Fol eAC -:r.z]1o14.


    +4 il
    F

    H!=!E¤ zlll(amorphous solid, rel'-q.tr. 'BEll Sg'gE+q +;{)ql^J: 44d Hta¤d nilt(=eA( 70% sio2)
    re
    :il.illql^l tsaq= +4col +^}]6t^l 9*=+. gzl +=q^l Ela4^J aallel +a= O mahirart/Shutterstock
    LazJ 12.2 e88 rillel Hle88 n
    EillE +ae| +^t6t+. rq+ Hleac r4lql^.i Bzt, g^L olge Eillg oll z[z] illq ql _rilloil^-1= fl^lEol +
    ,ll q= eEql ql6J zt+E7l aqqq 9lq. HIa4^J riil= g aHg ecEol+ =gd
    +7l5oJ EEI|E EJ=ELI. nl
    ^l40lr
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    e= El=!d r^11
    trJ+l ,J4 ^ll*-stt[.
    011^l= olef=e4r[
    eS +4dol g.rl.
    ^11+ef
    4^l
    acc ral Lllql= Efl {ts(unit ceu)4j1 6}= ^}El]4ee 4g e}4 *9lz} 9l+. +91 ^ll
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    dli;?lE ,rll uJa;'eE is.ol +q a{E +471"J$qd+. trI+^l aa^J jlallel +a=
    (u) EI9l aTlel !_oJ, 6) +91 qlql 9l= flZl¤E +lilql E6I a4g+.
    ^JIEE ^llE
    tgl rllezt El]gsl= dEE ,I6IEI4 rIHg 3g 4x[(crystallattice)4]'*4. ¤xJls
    44 4z].: AC +aql 4ql zlt9 Eol4. +d 59 oJ]q=tr, Ag g^i+ ?lzlt_qtr 4
    4q ++l ^llEE il]¤.e_trA] gd'* 44 +z= qiE + 9l+.
    r^llel +48 7l+617]| dql, aa 4zI9 Ecg ol6llB gsz} 9l+. E¤dlzlzl Q z1

    +6171 qlEq, +ilg 4zlH+= olil-g 4zls+q


    ^1461+
    lol E4;t4. .
    :lal 12.3q1 4r1E(latticepoint)el olzlg Hl]gg +El-H+. ?+ 4^14? E+6J a
    b
    a
    a
    +a¤ ,*=tr}. 4zlaE glzl= 4rl4E{(latticevector) a4 b4l E6l] agg+. a

    quloJ 4^Idql^l ulrl9 E trIe


    ^l4L6Irl4E, + 44 4full= trlg}-e--+rA,l o a .4r[E
    lzlfietr_ olE6l+ 4o1 zl;'alr{.-
    E9l
    4xI ulrl9l E"]l ¤^d¤ ¤6J^}HB(rH rz.:9lrl +gol 9lE PE)"] tl9l ^llc.

    ol"lEolE 4z] E¤ E4E A.lH 12.3 olx|fl eE 71^l ):^l qlEl ael b
    ^lls= dg.J+. olz[flo]1,<-l ++l
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    $,ol $dal Hg + 9lqot't}trI. dliigqj^l= +rJg ill-$zl $lall gg ,tllEE = ^le LJ91
    clTlll. =^ftr
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    ^llE=
    9lolrllE $olo| oJr|.
    ^fE:doltf.

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    6Jsq E^l6Jq.
    5'14 128 r^llslU^^il

    a a a a

    a a a a

    b
    a

    w -1 a

    ,L
    a
    w\
    oI_
    a

    a __.1 a
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    B6J^[HE 4\l(a + b,y:"Ja) 8^l+E 4xl(a: b,y :90') 4^p+E 44@ + b,y :90')

    gq,JE 4xt(a : b, y -- t20.) otEs 4xl(a : b,y: "A"l)


    EC rl^t4a 4rt

    La"J 12.4 tl^ 4xl' 7: 2:^lel fl/.1(primitive) LJP|


    7l.rle.l 0l^lE! rlal4oe LfE[LHfltl. !l=-" 4^l0ll/.] 6C
    ^l,^l4:d
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    6d E9 F Tllol 4^fE= +=r[
    ^1ls: ^lltrel= ^lls.= ^]lE.J

    oli}fl 4zloil.rl gq ,rJlEE rEJ 12.4q +ElU 4C zlzl9 E-oJ 6 6t+


    ol4. 4z[9 7l-t .JE]4.J ¤Eil= ul,..Ea]41 zl+(¤q^]H¤) {x}(obtique
    6d rl^l4B 4rlts flq|-t
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    ^}olE 4
    yY
    ^'lE
    fl99 =zlol+. ul+^J +9 ^JlE= "J99 Eolg ,*= ¤e^lE¤ol4. 4
    zl^}4¤ zlx}(rectangular lattice), 4S4B 4z}
    ^t4¤ {z}(square lattice),
    (hexagonal lattice)*, ul'.BE- {x}(rhombic lattice)E 4 y4 4zt ulrl a* bA
    ,Jole.l+4lE -a+oJ a6Jg 7[{E}(rH 12.4). ntEL 4zl* 4xtdo] 44
    d4 +dq 9l= zl^14¤9 ++l ^ilE-e.E ¤Bg f ?lr}(:r.H 12.4q1 +4-9.
    E ++.J). ol trilEql ulEoL 4^lY gEI4eE +d zl^I4¤ {z}(centered
    rectangular lattice)-E ,J+¤+. f.H l2.4ql C^I4B 4^1, 4^l4B 4rL d

    afeJ 12.5 E= Egtol ErJ 0l0lE017l7t


    +4¤ 4xt, trt$E(4olotE=) 4zl, "J99 ¤q^IH¤ 44 + 4C zlzl9
    7]ts EoJg ,*+ 4^]F=- ,J
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    E6l .;= aE 9!l-dtl. q7l01l LfEfL.! 5e e += a+4¤e E4]= Bzlzl ?*9 ill Eg il]g + $.+.
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    E0l72l E7l56lt[.
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    ^ll
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    ^llE: 4^I
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    p
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    v
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    lHt -gHt
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    AfH 12.6 7=+"lAr^tfl fl,l.l4xl

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    r+1EoilEt
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    ^llEg =c+
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    A 12.7q1 .J* 4z}9l ql6J ¤Eg +ElH+. illd EEJ 4xl(body-centered cubic lattice)E
    8rH9 +lldg EE, +9 xJdql 42149- 7l7ljr- glr-t. sg s!$ zlrl(face-
    ^llEg
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    q +48 4zirig =^ll+4. fl^I 4II
    ffi {olr}.
    EHJ

    Lt+l^jls iH-g
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    gil:d 4rtE
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    qq flr, 7+ fl^l7l4ztd9l zld +q ilts 4*o14. olEll Ad +ee+ 4zld3E++ ql
    Eg ,*:+. z1rz.:¤91 LI4d aal rJol, Be ++ fl^zt ol i[aE r*=rt. g^"Jol ol a

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    ql4l c+(motif)ep.6|
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    = ^llEq= +lE+ECoil
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    EIH+. A44eE Eqd +aJCE olzlg gd +4=:4SGraphene)ole1' olitg A
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    a
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    glE gz} +ql El
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    XT EIE

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    7I eq4r., p$ ulf,5o1 q5$ q7l e g ,lLla 4l e"lzlE qe gqa+.
    ^J4l Aag +E 'ilHg r3e,-e.tr]1
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    .i). qg EIa-4 +qE q.ol ,r.]tr +^Itr trll, 7[g E44.J 7Jc+. _a E4-a+q g"lzlE 4¤ ulHol 7l+B+. s4E

    H9 El¤ol 'Jqt4. q], qBg xdg s=g a¤qzl¤


    ^Ia a+ql a¤q9,+.
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    xd e=7t ^lL[7Jrf.
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    LHoll

    fl^19 Pl^l= gol"t!rl. =8 =^tl6l=


    .,r., I ;4g lxll i17

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    ^l=*q= a+ +^l6J t}'loJ
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    (array detector)=
    ^l-*4q ^,ll7lE
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    '|]He
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    =c qlacss+q++l ^,ilsE 3 +q osreg ol+flq elA 4E= E^l6tj1, eA {ql^l
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    s ,llql^l g4¤q flzlE aA4= Ell ^l-&g + fl= Atr = 4l4ql ols= %l$fl.J tg Botql^i ,l]+ +e
    ^|.*61+
    i
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    ^FS

    l23l;+t{Iill
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    uflg
    =.zl
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    "J, ^Iolql
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    =
    ol4a al+ paJol
    ^Ja+. 4 fl^l7l dxtts 54ql flxl.* aqlql B=4 ¤4p}gg ?lb
    4.ol ot,l4, i1^llE Eqq H4 qri ?14. dxlle ++g ulEzl]E}g flxlzl dz]9 'ut4
    q +a oJolgEg ulEe, +EE + 9l+.
    ++9 e+ql AtJg rEq ^dAql Higg+. olulE 74dol4 tszll EeE +ql +lqE
    4ol ll9 4o14. E+ 4E +++ er+ azJeE zl-= trllE +Hg E 4ol 99 4olrf.
    ole+ ag EaEe
    ^JE
    +Eq= 5dg 7l^lir- gl+. d}zlEl olE E+= #4c " e ¤+
    g + 9l= qH +^[cg *EoeE 7l^)L ?14. 4l*a]ril afl ++q +He 544
    .J %Iqg +4U+. E+ EJ+e-E ++-g
    "JzlE :=4& *=ql, ra
    e ++q ¤dss.z} r7l qEql =+q ^l7l+
    ^JzlE 5^dol+. ++e d6l-= E ++g
    .JzJ.7t
    I
    E6Iq dr]l sE i 9)zl trllEql *-3 dzl dEE= ,*=+. "J+4sE ++9 gd "/
    EEeI dzl dEEE .!e. ?9 aolg ,*=+. qlE Eq g^ +ql^l zlzJ *3 dzl
    aEE= +El.ll: 94 +47| TI^L tg gdEE= r*E+.
    gs- g-g.E "JE + 9,lE dC(malleability)g 7]ts=A1 4
    'I++E ++g +EEJ^J
    eE S¤ + 9l= {C(ductility)g ,*=+(rA 12.10). ++ql^J flzl-E"l ,tJe ul:zel A:1H I2.'I() E¤I-} Ed BEJS B+
    4 7lqrJ f 9lzl ql$ql ole+ eg Scol +Ett+. ol$rJ ulle| ++c aE +z =+o_l
    Ed= LlElLl1q, ?alc3
    o ol od.l.lg r Ltr Lll.lr =+ =
    rill= ole+ eg 4#- 444x1 *68r, "JHl4etr dal +^lzlr. v\4tr+. L

    fl^l-=P 7lZl4 C0l Ar'EdtH= 4 AZI rlnaltr + ?,ltl. 018¤ r,^ll0ll^l


    =+0ll^1 ^l-=.
    ts ell olal-d lEol g0lLl^l ?J=71-?

    ffi cd
    7lturutul
    ruffiffinffi
    TUUII
    IAAI
    tA^a^#Lrtl, t" :d
    518 128 r^llelU^xfl

    o1

    EII fl^t 3^t


    =+ =+ =+
    +

    e¤ 4It

    ?^l gBJ 4rt iI l olHl TITL EC g'J 4^t

    =E
    t +r

    (a) 3,rl "J,J B4 (b) iltc "Jg (c) EC EB 34 (d) 87Hsl trJ9l
    =+ 6C ^iltrql
    3^t
    =?sJ
    _18 12.11 (d fl,rl gg, (b)illc "JU, (c) Ed gHJ +4. ': ?^= tfl^l- e^414tr-d 4xfol ^cfo.e EJEGldrl
    (d) qlEoil 9l^ -zt 8^l-(53^! o p LIEILJE 87Hsl 0 =+el
    I
    .J"J EPI li E?Erl.
    ^1lsoll

    ++B niilsl+a
    zf 4zl44l6J 7l]9 gzl-= ullzla|{ +471"JEqe cF+, ql++g ++ eag +a=
    ,JE6r+. a"+9 "J%r 4xill ql,il +a= reJ 12.11q1 +4H+. tl^l E%r- +zA r*Y
    ^ll
    ++e ezl ¤-e+"ol oi+ sl+l6J ql +E ol4"l4. e, ==aE-, aE,
    9+9ull, %I^l-C fld
    B4¤l Ee 4C "J%I ++olEl. 'JFults, B, +?-1, e, + Fe HC 'JEJ ++olr+.
    a4 n.rE 7l* oI4 *= rHql +q-44. ++l ^llse-l +]ldn+ Eql 9lzl.J g
    zlE=g gd6l ,J +91 =ql EElq= 4ol o}.l4. +rldr+ Eql gzl.J fl4E=e oJd
    ^JlEql"J
    6J E +-e gg ,,qle9l 96I ++9tr1. +E^ll= s4lE +]!d $ zlzla- 1l o I,.+. azJ Q.12(d

    ole|Tsl Eq 6 ?¤ 71"8 agdlll gE + ?tb trJ+l ol! TigDl?


    ^1lsE ^llEE
    87fle_t+ttrotl 67HE Eoil

    *rrr EII fl^l


    87|le_t4IlEoil 87fle1qllEotl illcoil 17|l E^f
    *rl e^t *rl e^l

    (a) frt Eg
    =+
    (b) i{tc gg E+ (c) Elc flEJ El*
    E+l ?It 1711 E.?.1 g^[ 27l'l E+] flrt 47ll
    ^]lE'J ^1lEJ ^llE'J
    La"a12.12 gHJ ?4E.'f= rH-d cJPl gz ill8 4 fl^loll L|l6G ?Pl EC|E ?EtrJE Lfeflllflrl
    =+oil ^llEel ^llEoll
    12.3 7^ll 519
    =+d

    8 12.1 trJgl
    ^fl_c.
    7d4lqt g^tdtts 4 fl^tel 88.
    flrt flil flxt= B+6lE E+l
    ^llsel+ E+l 91ts flxlel EE
    ^llgEoll
    fl717.)
    E 8 rls, r2.sEo
    -
    =
    E^.14 4 tls,4 zsqo
    E 2 rlz,4 soq,
    += +lzl I t, a rcoqo
    .6s6J ag *4 ga]- +dE 9lzlolE| t+l azl=ilql 9leE^J +r.d, E^Jq E: Eql ilrl ?];g g4-E=g +
    ^JlrEel
    +l
    ^llsql
    roo% +dl il: ase rJ+619+.

    ql +4u aa+ ?Jol,4 g^l


    E* +gl ^Jls= (r/s)x 8:17}l flzl¤ sE-6tr. glq. ae
    %rBge illd ++l ^llE(rH 12.12(b))= F 7l]E flz}(+ad-s-e+q (r/a) X 8 :r
    .J%r-

    7l] gzle+ ++l ^llsE 6dql 1Zl gzt)= E6J6l-r. 914. E,J Ertr-++ql^Js+ rJol, t+l
    7l]E g9-1 ,qle91 g"l] *-,?gzl trilEq *zl rlz flzl""J
    ^llirg Hql +q il= flzl-E=e +
    ^{s(rA n.n (c))91 eE}E dal flz}
    ol 4 ++l ,rllEgl sBE+. EI+^J Ed .J,J +fl
    fE eol4(4lldeE+q (t/s) >< 8:
    flzlc+ Ee-egq 0h) x 6:3zll flzD.
    17H

    ++l ^llE 49lrJ flz}9 9lilql tr+4 +91 ,qle "Jg1 4 flzI z7+q +gol q
    =z16l+
    Bzll B4zlETlA E12.1oll s-oJ:ot94.

    ag $"J
    ++q^l flzls=e flzlz} 4zlzl ++6lr flzltl dzl-= dill4_e-E ++"Hot 617l trllEql
    arrJdlTll +al g+. flz}¤3 + EoJE E4lolIrE, +5q a"J +.Jg ¤qE-_qe4
    ^lE
    ++E +a= ol6l]6J + gltrL 5.J* a7l4 aoeE + +g "JE trll 7I+ .Eg4.J %r-Bg,
    q++ql +4u ,.a+ ,Jo), ozJl$ =" ee eI zl]g tg E;lr{+ *Bol4. szt
    =g rz.rs9
    g +eE BC6t7l +l4q ol 71ts 6E q++ql +7l4oE +g +olo}6JtrI. +g Eg
    g +4s+6I71 fl6}q + HZl] +g ol+= +E=e a H4l +g ol+= +Eql el6ll
    ^Ja +
    ql flil6l]ol qI+. F Eal] +* t * d o-e E^lg +ql +rl+ sg detr s^lg ¤-ql +
    g + 9l+(+ol ++61 r7l qlEql * +ql^l + ="+E g- EFE F^lql ifig += H+.
    4+q= EelE +l6lq, F H4l +g .JEE r.* deE s^lg ¤.ql +g F9l4-r. alzt.
    H4l +g "JE7l +16[q +g H + 9l= %]He F z[zlo1r1. 6J 7]zl ,]Hg H
    ^ll ^ll
    4l +ol a E4l +9 HtE g
    +lq + 9lE+ Ellil6l= 1,o14. ol 4cg:H rz.rsg
    g+q +4*eq, rB EJ o[4q gql^J ts=¤ E+q]^J B3 ddo-e ++u ar+ eol,
    ^Jl
    Hxl +g a E4l ?9 HtE gql 9l+. 4l+6fl^l +g +9-H ril Hz|| 6e + ErU 6 Hte
    gl.il Folzll qr...., ole+ag uilHol 4l*gg, :H g+q +Elu Aa+rJol eses...B
    "Jol 99t14. ole+ Ag S"JE Bq= ErrJE"J pJ(hexagonalclosepacking, hcp)olrlz
    oJ+. E EIE EI TIzl EJHg, HZt +E +5ol a H4 +ql^J Sg AsE +4U ¤:E
    ^ll
    Httr +lq g + glE+ uflzlalf 1o14. ole+ ag EHgql^l Hzll +ql g= +E=e rH
    ^ll
    rz.r:9 e_=+ o[4 gql^J E E+ql^J s3 ddge +4u 44 ?Jol, zlg + +E ts[
    E $ql fjilo}zl *=+. Arlzlse ge r+Ag Hlqa}q $"lzlE +E=9, re e
    ole+
    +4d 14 rJol ABCABC... +.J 'lHg Hq ole+ ae s"Jg eqlE EU
    =+q
    5"J tPJ(cubic close packing, ccp)olzp .Jtr}. +%i =+. a"J S"J E+q^l
    ="J +"J4 EHJ
    4 ="3 +.J.J 4Eql "Jd.J t27llE +g r*:rl. ee +ql 67H, +lql gl: +ql 37H, ot4
    ql il= ?91 :2115 u1g;a(coordinationnumber)E l2olr+. Hl]+l+: Ad
    'Z*E+. 4 +E
    520 123 Illel C^rll

    7l'8 g?l fl^lEel El ?zEE ¤g-g + 9/= olil'g 4^l= olE )ioJ7l?
    ^ga.lll =e-l

    EUJ r"J SoJ (hcpt EHJ 4"J tB (ccp)

    'r
    f\# #Y\#
    r x f\ft#
    ffi
    # IEflI=
    (+loil^l E s^J f\r\#
    Y .t
    I
    t V
    n
    \
    +
    I fr f r:1
    Ef" w I
    F flrll=
    Y, Y # (910il^l E E6) V
    I Y Y 'q f, \

    8E3 bal Eoe 8-== leJ Eoe


    E^lE
    =oll=oJEt. + E,\lE
    =o1l=oJtrt.

    -!
    {
    L
    {

    rt
    I
    ts
    '{

    ^{
    sfll=
    (?l0ll^l
    =
    E^J
    I a

    Y Y
    a a
    v
    I
    , \
    a a
    \
    L
    ABAB...goJoe. I Unll E=3 53 Eoe E^lE
    =Eg
    B=el= HIE +loil Etrlt=oil ?,1= =011 il3
    =oJrl.
    =Eq. ^il
    F =Ee]=c3 Hlzrl
    ?l= gEelEcae+El
    =oll
    ?lrl. ABCABC...¤loJ.
    g0ll& E s*
    A C \ \
    I H
    B B
    }l
    M
    L r
    : ,# :

    A
    A A I s
    Iil n

    Afg 12.13 Eg-sf f7l= '*= EE9 6"J EoJ 8oJ g'J(g+)+ goJ 4"J 4+-oJ(9E+E -"F EE g: Erl4?] 'Jgoltl.
    Ert_rLr^! Ee g^|E g= LIElHrf. ^g ^g6t1l
    =¤^! ^l0ls.l
    12.3 | r^il 521
    =+d

    B A I I <

    =+,
    E+l
    rB 12.14 (d ArJ 4"J E"J
    (b) gg 4"J g"J
    tc8 Eet
    =+el
    e
    A C Zl= ^llE
    LlEIfHtf. ^llEel
    4 eE +
    ^!FP
    gdl= tll^l8Etl.

    til,r
    B B

    A A

    Eoll^J E PA 90il^l E6
    =

    2/

    EPI {lE PA Lr?l EA


    ^ils
    (a) AEJ r"J Sg (b) "J"J E"J tI.J e+
    =+

    +aql^J q¤ 6J fl{¤ zld Eelt fl{fol4.


    q,J ag +.J ++el qtlg +z=
    =H 12.1a(a)91 +4H+. fl^l +oJ +fl ^]sql=
    4 +q^l zl4 + 49 flxlzl
    oJ gl4. gu].J gz]E ++l +adq gzle] 4x]d
    ^llEe]
    "ll +Hls 9liatzl=
    g=+. tgl ,rJlggl + ZIE flzlzl e46I= ag¤-*e"J +gql
    {l$6tE + + ABAB +.J +^le+ .Jzl6J+.
    'JtL BEoIrll
    olollsjzli g+Azl"J, EHJ a"J +g +aE *ql^J ¤B.J Ed EEJ ++l

    ^llEe} =,E"6J
    +9 ^flE= *i4(:zH 12.11(c)). ABC... +E +.J4 Ed .Jot ++l ^lls
    ^iolE +4lE
    a4 n.r4G)ql +4H+. EEJ ++l ^JlEel i{ql4dql +4eE 6Eol +
    ol= ag reql^J g + 9l+.

    qnl 12.1
    g"J 3gE 4lt
    I g7l= -'J ttll. ErlS HJ
    8,J01 g.0l BE g= ag E7lE6ltt. S"J EE(packing efficiency)e eE Ll1oll^j 3^lE0l d
    ^tololl
    ilrl6|.= Eaol Hlgolrl-. Ed g,J e+ql q6|.q g"J E¤¤ zltr6l-^le.
    ^lle
    EtlU
    E4 +9 ^Isql 9zl¤ol '+z16l+ +q= altl+ +E= trl-SrlB4.
    =xI6l=
    +. :1Alg Eg ^llsE +qE ++olot oJ4.
    4q ++l ^JIEB-gztE +ql + 6J zlel Pq'J anflt* *
    Ed E%I
    d++E:
    ++ql^l
    ^"(+):Y
    g4-E=g ++lEE ql4dg tr14
    6rE, dill flztq 9oll d+g +q= 41&g + 9l+. +91 ^llEE
    ^le "*Bol914.
    ^llsq +vl= +6}rl f-l6}q *C Szl-5ol ^lE **ot 9l=
    BoJg *otot aJ4. :fl +ql 716I +4= ol+6tq E%L +
    s^l?.] aol=.gzlE Hlzl=.-s_E +48 + 914. 4r
    +l
    ^jlsE
    E^lE aol aE 9E +9
    ^,llEE
    +rl= rJ*61 a3ol4.
    Eot rB D:pql +4t a!+ zJol, Ed .J%} #+ql= B
    9l ^llEq 444 il4719l+. tri+^l fl4-Sq E"I d+g
    522 123 -,I^llef tl^^l]

    trI+^-l++l ^llEE H¤. 7lE^l=v-'l]4ce gzl HlrlEk) > H.5 ql8l1


    $ +ullzl- 94. t+6J .S4.J+e+ cos(4s') :rtlz? olfal olz[fl {z}e] '+.J Eg'e S4¤9 E4g +91
    ^JIEE
    H +g ^JIEE E^]E z)ol az flzlg *zlE re 444H tr4eE ++q 100%= *6Iq 44I++. lB 12.49 ol
    +s-rl e4. il-?l C^r4¤ 4zt¤.+a6|9, gx} qlzlEol alzil At<l
    a -- 4r cos(45") : +r1rt12) : (zt/Z), ,+4 444 +"J a¤-g Al4l6lE g"IoJzl-?
    ulxlJe-tr. flzl¤ol a+d +i4= ++l (a) 3.t4o/o (b) rs.7%o (c) 31.870 (d) 74.0o/o (e) 78.5o/o
    ^llEe-l
    Pul(a,)e
    ++q +g E&g 4ltI.J+. > .EE qlfl 2

    9zl-59 Pul (*)n,' illd ElLl ++q^l g4¤ql


    96ll d+¤ *Aq ESg Zl
    *"J Eg : 4I6Iq +"J a¤¤ al4i6t^l9-.
    ++l^JleE +q pt/i13r3
    -- 0.74, ! 74o/o

    A =+ +^0, r,6,.q fl^t +80, 7E] )r7)r? *or?t= EEE, g^rer +(H,,?r+)7,=E Eg
    I a== e7a;E7l.,J4apz171qtfit 12.1 d^)
    6J+

    ttE(all"rg + 7l7l ol{}E gA= Ee'6]-lr. 9l:4, ++el r+6J r*= Eeol+. +
    =Cg
    +E g;.g "JE= ag, ++6J ++ g^sl ra-S6J + 9l= +s6J EIH +9 6I+
    =Cg
    olTl qlEql ,ll+ ulg6IEI. qE Eq eel 4E E= .JH]4 eoEE 6tso¤ a^Jqi {ol
    4(qlE
    =E ^qlql4 ^ +).,JE(bronze)g +r-le} +49 6J=-olq, a"+E(brass)* +4e+
    olgE oJ=|ol+. ++6J +e q+ +e7l qlEql E4 oE .r.f$alzl qBzl"J, ++E 6J¤.
    g gd q ++6|r+(s24+"+g qH|" +a). .JHI4.J 6ts9 E1z.2q1+4H+.
    qFg !l P+e ++8, xl+l68, E^I ffi, #"J !H, ++rJ el6JEol+. il+ t+
    +r+ E^ll E}=:e *d ctsol +4^16l"_r. +"J6.|7ll El4 glE +"J gqlEolEl(fEr 12.15,
    <za: t.lp). +.J ¤.6J+9 ol== jrillE¤. r.ill +olol+r qI+. aill +Eq^J .JElzlg-

    E +'I] ilzlzl ilzlgx-EJ xt4E ¤-d flzlzt i}^l6}zl qE ilgEEt(substitutionalalloy)ol

    812.2 0JY!40J
    *?
    d*.1 +fl^ gEI4?l4¤(Eg'l.) E/\1
    -O
    .Q.E
    o+
    gE 6Lr-
    l- EE Hl^+E Bi 50Vo, Pb 25Vo, Sn l2.5%o, +=d(70'c)ol *g +3 zl-F
    Cd l2.5%o
    =Bl:a, ^gB=q
    %I+ +4 Cu 677o, Zn 33Vo ¤C. "Jqol :l* 6l-E?llq ++
    a+ +r] Ctt 88Vo, Sn l2Vo 4+Col iliL4^*7\ i7l EB(aF7l)ql 4+ +s
    +ql^1 ++4 0-+- ?laEL 6J.E
    ^rllolzl;.zj e Fe 80.67o. C 0.47o. Cr l8Vo, +^lql e aE !zl. $ffi zlf
    Ni l7o

    trllL+
    dll
    L+
    Il Pb 67Vo, Sn 33Vo +YAQ7s"c)ol *g. ol.$ull {aJzN
    OzI
    Lil
    O
    Ag92.5Vo, Ct7.5% EEql *eol .Jg 4zl
    ;1ffi oluJzl- g Lg707o, Sn 187o, CullVo, dTll 7E6J + 9l+ zlffi f{xll
    Hg27o
    HHeI 7A)
    t- Sn 92Vo, Sb 6Vo, Cu 2Vo +Ed(zao"c)ol *+ e^1, B4 ^-il+
    12.3 -+d r^11 523

    nnl 8Eoil^j E¤i1| EB|IE 0lgzl 386fb71.?

    Au Fe

    Ag 7 C

    3=t
    -Je
    ils dB
    14K= =dAE
    r,at 12.15 g=l} E^tl Er"=oll^l EE fl^lel'Eot| flrl"e.l E4' + 6+9 B=3 rill Eo-4(ilE
    -cfE)0lrl.
    ^lE =

    Eqzlr, ¤.d flzlz}8,ll flzt ^IolE '+B'oJ E-^l] glzlE E^l| SEt(interstitial
    gq{+(rH
    arlloy)o1 12. ts).
    =q7IH
    + zlE *4 cBol Hl+oJ flzl *zl+rt slE aE. 5^dg 7la ql 7l+ 6J=!ol Eq{
    +. q= Eq er+ ;.9 9z| HlzlEol 4E ?Jol, dill rc H9lql^J il+ t-J.=..g ^8c6J
    +. oJE+ ++E ilz| {lzlfi.ol E 1s7o ol{r z}olz} +H, "JH}49E +6}lE= "*3 zll'*
    g ts=4.
    E^I 6F.g "JsejE, ¤-d flzlE ¤-,ll flztgl Hl"ll g{ z}e aB gz} q}zlfi-$ z}!
    ot'*trt. "JHI4s.e E4
    ^Iol-tr
    a.J6I= gi= "JdaJ ++ gzlql =o# ¤6JS B + 9l
    Hl-o+ giolrl. ++ aa 4ziE Erll dtsg-r .J6Iq qBg e6J qEql, ++
    = ^JrJ
    6Hzln zlallzlQ scol qfoiltlq. qlE 59 #B(pure iron)-E_r| gd ++6tr ,;* +4
    (steel)9 td= 3vo Sullzl ++61-= B9 EFol4. g;rz](alloy steel)$ zJlaalzl +16ll^l
    E '|E fliE¤ EzlE + gl'I. qlE HlLl-EolL+
    =.eE¤ BzlalH aETl tol-
    =
    zll, ul-+.e| +^lq E aE + 91trI.
    =q

    & -dB ROeo,uS


    ^ltrJ
    -cr"=rl
    =l|]
    -ct3 6 0l!,loe ql=El=71?

    qAg '*+.J
    zl-1i ?,q'* e 6J+ + 6I+b 0.4o/o4 +r, t8%el 3.EE, 1./.E
    ;.lr.a(stainless steel)ol+. ,Jeql flis.l a,i3ulzl rll* ^qlql
    trllE
    =4161-=
    "*H+l6lAl H6Izl
    ql, rE+q golzlY Eeg Er.l Eloizl Scol ql+ trI"J6I+.
    5a+ .

    EEE EEl(heterogeneous alloy)oll.! C+r==g +"J6}rll E-c.6}zl ?+=+. ql= 5q g4


    ole(pearlite)4:1 gBld Hg+ EE!,g F 7l]E tr(phase)S zlzla- ilq(rg 12.16). d:
    tlg E4 illd ErJg z*i taoll, El= + tlg ^lHl4olE(cementite)4r g4TI pesc
    ploJEol4. "JHI4e.e' E+"J 6H9 5dg a^dS"J otl-lal +8 gtlEE+el -Lz]lz}

    Fe

    r 34 < rB 12.16 Hg g= gal.


    0lE +4el flEl3
    ^tT.!
    +.=e ^1|d "Jg tr B+01r,
    GIFS
    EJ

    I
    <
    A +-Ee /.lElE|-o E(cementite,
    I

    Fe3C FeeC)olrf.
    524 123 r^llelu+l]

    9*0ll gtts,
    de^lol SmCos?!tr|*dEsl E+l -18 titl, efl azgel Sm g^lei eTHsl
    ^lls=
    Co flxlE LtEflllol6E)l?
    Ni AI Nb Sn Sm Co

    Ni3Al M3Sn SmCo5

    La"d12.17 st-Br.E$ 7t^l ql


    =+Z ^11

    ^8Cq: %lBq EE+


    gqd+. qlE 5q *S stlge+El +BHee ^JCg H'J 6J
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    ^l-d^l ^8cg
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    ;l+t rEE(intermetallic compound)g gEl$ol olqq =cr+'l]+
    :zlElEol4. q-6Jgol7l {g
    ql 461t41$^Jg Ttzlq aCg H6Izl ?+=+. -o47J slql$ql^.|: += ¤49 SzI
    ^Jtr
    Eol +e^J6rzll Erqq *= aol olq4 e^J c¤6[al +EE]q gl+. ++rJ s+'"]gql
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    il+I qH-.il Hl6l] zilzlTl ?lS Edol 914. "+rJ
    E+6JES Ell+ 6e_6J E6Jg .J+. ++rJ EIBE Ni3Atg rgql
    eEil
    ^rqql^] *+rJ
    ^J9
    ,JEe+ 49
    "JE qlEql xllEzl {{9 +s +d cEgE ^l=&g+. EEgg ++
    cr3ptE sBg Zl46[=ql, olag 4]eg aE= tq eqE.J EEBS tszl+z]l szl
    617l +l6H^Jol+. + E+6JES aal12.174 g+ql +EU +42 ?*YLl. aA n.17q +EI
    u sI*E Nb3Sng "Jal gE ola|-E gE= *+E zla] ${ol 4zlz dE6l+ i{.Ei1o1
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    + gtql 'JH96Ial ^FSq: MRl(magnetic resonance imaging, 471 +E gt}) tlulE
    z}4q ol+g+,.,"- (6.7¤ "e.'Jr+
    ^l-71
    +H g*). olel aol ,]]+ *g ss.e. z1r4
    !- rC4^l7l-lt Szlollop 6lzl ollEql, MRI 4-Hl= 415^17l:49 ul+ol Ylol E4. :aH
    t2.t7E e-E+ql +E+t er} ++rJ slElE"J Smcost: Tlq.g 4E4ol+ a*E
    ql z}4g EJE= rJl ^ulz
    sl6JE LaNist: qA_+
    ^F&q= ¤7 ^l=sg+. F"J6J +a= '*=
    4 farlg dxlE +I3rI d+sE ^l-s94.
    i10l
    o- Bt:l.
    Hct

    +g oI+ sq d+q tI41+, ,84+, Elq+ql ^F+¤ + {+= +E 4e} u4B&ol Ai6J+. E4 oe.
    +ol+. +g ++es^l +.J.J slq HI+ql ,ItI g6tzl o#:g=q5++
    l4KeI l8KqlQl, rarollr] ;i
    .ll"J zl6JC, drll 7l-t6J ==tI
    ^4a., E"eE .J6ll ^I+q= :58%oola,
    + 9l= Cd E|]+4 el "J=Jg O4,lz4,) x 100 rar9lrl +9 EI*g
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    7l qlEql 844 Ae "*e ¤+ Eotql + flq, 4 +9 4Ae otsog olE ++q EI4 B4tl+. 'JH]4e
    ^Foo6J
    *g EI+AL+ rlEe+ {r5 go1z1 +l4q ++ += #+ e, ;.3 g E= +"-le},6J.J-.g ¤C6J4. gA= E+ E
    ^,ll
    r+.H"g "JE4. -H_4
    ^ltlq^l t*3 z+re, E¤g+. 7l] d EEJ +aq a4g ¤c++. ^il g^ E+ ag +4E 4
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    cg Bd6Ir, Hl++ =zl(Auel Agy az)zl zlel p_r,, cu


    E auu4 * rrozo zI+)= z*zl ollE"ll. qq+ aCg r*=
    f
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    a: 4.078 A

    acql q-zl olE 6J=:el 4?ol g4rl+. ee "J9 gol+


    74E eg,a1g #g oF=g +os "JE -H4q^l g + gl 18K
    =
    : qt;-^49 +4UtrI. Sg^49 ults e= 3E(rose gold)t:
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    49 rl4zl, dzl 3ol +C+ol Eql E]?+ eE!^qg +4S+. 9
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    :ct=sl +alslEg E4EE
    >.LE 12.18 adoll ttf= Au-Ag-Cu
    ^4
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    .Je +zl(clr, sa, p+)E flzl* 7+4 r,2, 3414 A'Jg aJ4E
    BC6I7l +l"Iq, EzI 4gl
    aJ 12.1e).
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    dql flx}4 a6J6}:l 9l+. Ng ilzlzl dzl-f4r 6lE, olE 444 gi= (s -n)zlel a

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    13+ 14= 15+ 1G t7+

    AI Si P4 s8
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    526 123 -r^llef U^^l1

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    .J +a= ¤C++. u[:u]lf,$ aEE ++^J +aE BC.J+. ol4 zJol Ca
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    4al(A) 4r[ oilLlrl(ktlmol)
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    =Cg =!s6J g^l7l 4zlzl ul$zl:*99 9l7l g*r ¤-o19"il el
    4. ol9 AEI sl6JEE 4+, \"A,
    tqq glzl qlEql. "JHI4ss olg aal s+6JEg {zl flrx11ol4. ol9 doJ
    sl.JEe n\zlzl N$ a6&g ,*Eql, ol4e g3 dd]-= z*ts olgE HI
    gqeE ¤Eg + 9lr[. aal1P,.24ql +E+u 1al rJol. o]$rJ ailloll ^tolE
    84ol z[ \
    zlallz]'zl dq .Jolg4 oJddlEB ul]¤E flzl E
    "ll7lH, *4ol *olgol ^]-+
    ol, oJolg_ololg, +olg_+olgE tsllgE HltlE+. a44eE, Eigqql 96lt (b)
    flzI E==.g
    ^ls ¤q4 42141q*ull, oleloJ Cee tr4 g4 ^ll+q ol+g Lag12.24 olE'JEoil^l 77l|old"[ tre
    +(+Hl g4el +^J+e Al2030lE|). Eg ed (a) olSd -ulloll Tl.J Saj(+E
    al¤E)o1 7f6HE riu, q7l0ll LfEl
    ol+al t_illel +a ^q
    L,l =5e(b) olel a3
    fl^l E= tt|alE4E*.
    ol=8
    ++^d r^lle+ u|4lzlzlE, olg^d ral: gzl¤ol 44zloll =g +"J El]gg ,JA glel
    =go_l =5ed
    E6H +Ht(Eg)ef
    g= + ?1r1.
    trEE=
    6l-= +aE r*=+. rq+ ol$rJ :ziJloll^J= rt= +zlEr+ HlEils.l dq-=
    ^lE
    530 123 -,z^llelC^r|]

    ,*= +E¤ Elzl +"I.t d+ aol zlolol+. qlale "J"lgg ¤.ol9gl Hl6l] ^JB
    =!_s-6J
    al zlzl trllEql (z.rd), ol9 ?aJE|6JEq^lE E]l+li= 4"J +.J ++ql^lel ull?lf
    -
    Brl zI+. El+ *.olgr+ "Jolgol a7l7l eq4E, eg d6l¤ z*E olg5g d+
    ^lE
    6t7ll 617l ?*n^l= ++ql^l ¤H.J a"J *oJ HIgg g + H+. r4e ullgg d6l¤
    ^I
    ol9 qlgqs-e qjoH Hlg-46lzl e+4. zltl Ht*4+ +a= oJolg-+olg a=l=
    ol$ $zl$ol 4s"q* t zlal zl*t,¤.ol9-¤.ol9
    ^I"lE
    ,l".le+ oJ:ole--oJolg
    ^Iole.l ^iol
    E 4il: al4z}9E ullgol4.

    a.1 0, ?r^1H, ort z-d trl-c'Eo1 9rts E=


    A oo, TEEJI? 12.11 L1ETLJ
    =+er
    fl^171 4^r.Eojr
    =or=
    I
    olgC +aq ¤4 ^ll 7l,.1e reJ 12.25q1 qEl*rt. gs1,rjlf,(cscl) +a= g
    .JHI4.J
    ule"re-tr *+. ++l qAd.J 4ztd9l +q fl:*ol9E4,4t
    ^l 'J%}41F= ^llEE
    +l
    ^JlEg "J+q
    +q fl= eL zl]9 "Jolgol 9+(g^l +9 ^llEel .J+ql= 4zldol $.
    *9 ttzlol4). ole+ ?g EIgq^], oJolg!+ +olg 44+ Hlql a6l-= E azle1 ol$e-E
    +Eq{l +Hi{tr EElr+.J+.
    gs+ 4E(Nacl; oJg +aqr.E +C+) +ae| do|fl$(zns) +e= Hd E%I 4z]F=
    u|5re-e il4. + +a E+, *ol3* +91 4lsE qld!+ Hql +q +l;(ld|= 4zldql
    +.J+. rq+ + +aql 4eI zflz} s+E ErJ +e+. Nacl9 4*, Nu* olgol ++l
    ^llEel
    Hg trI4 61- ol$eE+q 0156l] 9l= HlE, znsg ?*, zn2* ol9E3 ++l ^ll
    sq ^ll44dg
    trl+ s2- olgoE+El o156il ql4. ol4 Ae
    ^lol 4Eq
    tsH9l+ql zlol

    7l^l+4 6 0i! aoll^j B0l8E0l d+61-=71? fg^l ?JrlE olE 0l8E0l d+6F=71-?
    ^ll ^18 ^1.+.
    Cl Cs Cl Na SZn

    .e.^,
    Oo
    +

    E8 4I}

    fl^l gBJ 4^t uo olHl


    r!,\1 Ho TiTI
    a..l EH
    UE
    I OIHI
    HO
    71TT
    -"I

    t
    e8 +r
    d
    H**-'
    \
    .\

    CsCl 7a NaCl ?a ZnS 76


    LaeA12.25 CsCl, NaCl, ZnSsl 75 4 ?r -gr;5 2fl^f e^ei !tr-sf 4^F= 4-si--J-oElil "JE + 9,ttl.
    12.5 | olp! axll 531

    r+/r- zJL < rB 12.26 CsCl, NaCl, ZnS


    E HIIq EE UHfl BEg Eq6I
    L|E[L[|Tl 96|'q, 0l$s] f7l=
    C1
    CI =q^.lLlElLJr|'.

    Na

    CsCl NaCl ZnS

    gfol3 Elrl=, r+ (A) 1.81 1,.1"6 0.88

    .olE El^l=, / (A) 1,.67 1.67 1,.70

    r*/r- 1.08 0.69 0.52

    g0t8 HlI+l+ 8 6 4

    3013 Bfl+l+ I 6 4

    71 47Jq. gEl AEE 4+. 4 grol94 *"1¤¤ 6rllel Hlql d6l-= 'Z*= olgql E6ll E
    el,r+q 9lq^l 6Hllfl +aol ¤4. dot¤*q a+, 4 oJolg+ *"1¤+ 47llel Hlql d6I
    E r*= olgql E6]l EElr+q glq^J 4tsIgl +Aol g+. "Jolg9 ul]?l +Ag ral r2.26ql
    +EH+.
    +q4l olg aq} Elq+Eql 46ll q¤ eEtig +a7l7Ic- 46J6Jzl e+g f fl4. :74
    ql g6&9 glrl"J, olgel tr-q4e aTle+ sl+r+Eol zffi ieal oJ
    "lzl= "*g 9l7i7l
    zlolr+. +C olgq a7l= llel"|] !.2[. rH n.z6q1++U ai]H, Cscloll^J NaCt-E zJ
    oll,u19li= soll.! 69-? Hl+|j1, CsCloll^J ZnSE TJ oll, ufi9lfL,sql^l 4s H6I= aql
    +q6I4. ol ^ll s+'JEq a+, csclgl^l znsE-- ztj). *olgg tlzlES olf afr ga[
    ElH, oJ"lgq Hlzl$ol AiI ole+ eg 46&3 ++4e_E ¤EB +
    = =q=+= ^lde
    gl+. "Jolgq ¤.olg9 zzlzl tsl*6J trll= ullglfzl dsqq. cscl 74zt Bcg4.
    =
    "Jolgg ^J44e aTVl +otzlE, a+ql= "Jolg-¤.olgol flfrafr. gl: E^lql gol
    gEol 6l+ aol H olt 7l+.6t^l g*4. ol4 ag .Jol gqB ql,
    ^Js d+6[^] 9*E+
    tsll+lt= sql^l 6e-E gs} +z7l dEg+. oJolgg a7l7l rl 4olzl
    =qsq, 4o14,
    E, ull?lf= +^l 6q^J 4-e
    ^EE doI¤"J9 +z7l cEg4. olgd aaql^J
    Hlq a6L= r*E olgEg
    =q= olgsg d+6|zl
    ^lE d+6}r, 9l9o}6|q, ag d6l-= *E
    t*oI"I6J+= ag Ed6t4.
    ^Jql4e is zl*
    ololgq ¤-o199 .Jt6J +6 Bql= ACq+ EJI +q+q. rH
    n.z6ql +4U -e-E *aE "Jolg+ *o189 izl zJ4. ole+ eg ¤49 +a(gs+
    ^il
    +, gsl aE, do}¤J*)= "J"lgr+ ¤-o189 +71 ,JZ "lg AEI ElqlEq^l"J 7k6I+.
    ole+ eg 4*zl otH trll= q= ac +4= 714 a"lq. ql= NaF, MgF2, ScFaE
    ¤ElHzKf.g 2.n). *+eilE+ AEg oJolgr+ golgol =q
    E+ 6HllflE ,*= gsl4E +
    aE r*=+. r3l+ 55efl4 trlrql+g "Jolg oJ 7l]B zzflel $o1gg zlzlE-e., F4
    "Jolgel ullgi= {{ol 6ol
    ol J4.(rutile structure)E-|tr 6l+ 4* 44 +Z# ?*+L+.
    zl"J, ¤-olg9 tsllg+= olz,ll 3 oE qflq. 4 "Jolgol 37llsl golgg 7l^l+
    =+sflE]
    E+eflE+.+E +aol^l "J"lgE ull+l+= qd6l 6olzlql=+e_ilq olge.l tsltgl+:
    2oltrl. oJolg/golgq ulz| zlolzl$, 4 *.olg +fl= Eq,&+i1 gl= ololgE += ¤q
    532 128 .l.illel^]lrt1

    m 4 +aqN El+l
    ^1lsB
    H 7ils.1 g0l8?[g0l80l E^tloits7l?
    gotEoil EH-d 3ol8el ul
    =7t

    Na

    Mg

    NaF MgFz ScF.

    g013 Bfl9l+ 6 6 6

    g0l3 Bll?l 7l5t tr-JEi1l *=gilt ItEIG+lt


    d=!^il

    30t8 uflfl+ 6 3 2

    golS Hfl?l 7l5I tr"JEi]l E{o{ tTla ,\{a

    LazJ12.27 utl+lt= et-etaJEoll qalgal.{.1trt HH?l EAg Eq6l LIEfLHTl 916[q 0lee.] 17lts
    L[E[L|1?rf. =q
    ^]

    Eq, ar+z1e_+. $ols-E ul]gfz} ¤q=+. trl+^J q+q- ae +zl^ls-tr ol= c=Jsl
    6J + ?l+.

    s+q}^l ++l'J "Jolg + *ol9 H]]+l+


    Irz. r]
    clql^l +9r} *ol9 f "Jolg tsHfl+

    A o,et ee6q eE +40tt^1, tEt ot== 87,et sEtt oltc-p H,lfl',q 9tEl.. trEf*E H,1

    I **
    gEtoJTl?

    qH 12.2
    op*rJ iLr{lg gJt 4ltl
    0plee+ +Hlfif Etrl.AEr[ee +^e ,l!sl-EJtt. (a) Eg H 7|e.l 0t0lgE:JE[0l80l o^)=)l? (b) EPI E THol
    ^lls.J HJxl=al.EtraJ(l.66 ^1lEB
    +HlE olSol "^)=71? (c) otoleael-+HlEel "JEE g/cm3e zl^lalzl +l6tq Rb*el o18 A, as.+z g/mot)
    a[, r-o1 o18 HJ^l=If A, rzo.so g/mot)E ,/.l.E6l-119.
    =EB{2.60
    6tlU et4.
    5{ ?J 4le! (c) "JsE,tllzl rJpolzl trllEql, +fl ^llsE "JE= eag
    {sq +aE, E4el, Hq flil+ olg$ol ++l ^lls'J flzlE9 e*g +
    (a) Elfl gEe+ E"J6ltrt. "JE= *+l

    ^lls QI+ql= +tlzloEEI =xll6J+= 4*


    zlq6}a, +l
    ^llEel
    +qs ++q Al&El+. +9 ^llsel +q= A
    g+ +aq ++l ^tlEql *ol¤9 +E. ^ll C6|71 f.l6}q +C olgEol d+6tr. 9l= %t.lg
    ^E =xl]d+ ^1tr
    qo} tJ4. +oJ6tr olg$E qi4ES +fl ^lls E^lrl9
    ^FS6Iq
    (b) rl+l o}olgE += 44i+71 96l]^lE aol= 4&qlo} 6J+. +q= +fl ^.llEel E^iq9 ?ol
    ^ilsq ¤416t=
    E"J+ %IHg zl-L"g + gl4. olol+r+ ¤.olgE d6l7l- ^llxllE!6}q
    +6J4.
    =
    +¤.g ol+E+ de4g ,{^l Bg olfe_e +?l* +
    12.6 E^id 7^ll 533

    ¤4. .JBl +fl E^]4 ,JolE


    ^JlsE +q=
    A):2.++Aol
    =01
    (a) ololILEEI +HIEE 4.4 +4Y NaCl$ Na+E Rb* ^ll4l+ol+.
    A9 cm-tr H+]6fa.tllzllgalE, B4E oI44
    -tr, Cr-= r-s qill6J An+ qAoI -H_.Jtr}. aA D.2se+ TJEI

    ^jlEE 4 +lldr+
    L2.26ql9lE Nact +atr+El B9l +r]: x 10-8cm)3:4.t2x 16-22.-3
    (7.44
    4 EE +dq EI zfl$ $o1go1 fl+= ag .J + 9l+. (a)e+ (b).E+El ++l ql Tllel +HlE olgr+ q ,ll9
    E 12.lE+q +aaql +"J .lgE.e 87H9 +fl ^JIEB
    ^llEql
    f,f,6}r]l ++qa(+fl ^Jle'"l+rl]E ol9, Eq +.J ol
    ololeEe+ olgol gl+= 49
    "5 :14. ol4* Ar+e+ E
    g=g + 49 +fl e#g ^FS6IE
    *+l
    ^,]le* A+g 4l&.J+ 91trI.
    ^lsql FrooIAl *+g+(+91 ^lls ,un_a(8s.a7slmot) + a_1126.99slmo1)
    :
    Er-+4E olg). "JElzllE 8rH9 +11d4 67H9 Eg TIzl eo t.4t7x 10 zlg
    6.022 X lO23 moy+
    E-E ++l & + olgE += 8(1/8)+6(+):4ol+.
    ^llrE "JE: ++l ^llsr* e*g +ultr Ll+q E=+.
    (b) +ElE ololgqlE E.J+
    'J^lg 4+6IH 4 E^l4e+ ,,. 4* _.1.417x lo-21g: 3.43
    s+l ^llsg +dql 6J 7l]9 +HlE olgol gilql+= a "JL :_ ^ .^ g/cm3
    +q
    g g + ?ItrI. *, 12.1E+q 4 E^]?-lq +"J olgg
    aE 4++E rriiE "JE= qEg "JE(0.s g/cm3)si ol4
    ql ,ilE 991 ,<flEgl 96ll f,="617ll
    ""+qa(*fl ^jls%I E9 "Js(22.6 g/cm3) ,tlololl llzl qgq gq41 Ag +'*
    rl44E ol9, +fl ^llsE +dql +oJ oloi¤e:2"+q 614.
    xl *=+. .J%loll=
    l2zlE s^]elE z1zlus + +ElE
    olgE +: rzQ;+r:4oltrI. d6[ +eg "*+zl g]a]¤ > E= qlr1l1
    sc3+(0.88 A, +s.o g/mot)el F-(1.19 A, rs.o g/mol)9 ol
    Rb* olgr+ I- olgE f Aolot 6t7l qlEql 99 An+
    = g HlzlEr+ Ee"Jg ol+6lq scF3g EJE= 4l4I6I^1s..
    =.}zl4oltrI. scF3el+a= :a4 D.27+= +n6l^19_.
    (c) olg a.J sI.JSql^J ololgr.t ¤.olgg ,rle {qa}-L
    (a) s.99 g/cm3 (b) 1.44xt024 g/mol (c) t9.t glcm3
    9l+. Rbrq^l oJolgr+ ¤.olgg ot4 rHql^1q zJol (d) 2.39 g/cm3 (e) 5.72 glcm3
    +9 ^liEE -E^J4= trI4 d+6}r 9l+.
    > HEqFJl2
    CsCl(:H 12.2s)ql^.1 Cs$ olc- qfzl$(t.at A)4 ¤p].1
    gg Hlzl+(1.674)o-E+8, cscrg E%I ++1 .!|eel E'
    ,Jolef "JE= al4l6t^llt(fle: CsCI9 olgEg oJ
    ^.ln-l
    HlzllE 6J +ldql^] illdg zlLt tI4 +ldztzl ololzl
    EEI"J illql4dg tt++ d+6}r 9t+. +4.J+Hq "+
    =
    + .JBr-illg z]44dol -E^Jeltr+ \,6HHEI+ a+= ag
    2rRbt
    "J + 91+).
    ++l ^llEel E^]4E 'Jol= (r-)+zr(Rb+)+r(r-): zr(t-)
    +2r(Rb+)ol+. 4 ol3 HI^IE¤ qlE6[E z(z.oe ]i+z\.ee

    12.6 | +zl'¤ -r-i1l


    l!:zz}-ffix[ e, E4]q, +A eqF+ ?g +z]rJ Ese
    Exhl zi{l(molecular solid)*
    aEt¤ flz}4 +zlE ol+qTl ralol+. ole+ ag EzlzJ a;g qt-olzl qEql $zrJ lzll
    +sa +=d("JHI4 o-tr 200 "C 016})0l ^Jq4s.+ *+. ql= Eg Ar, H2o, Co2e+
    =
    zJol {99lrJ Tlill tr-q.J EeEg ql+$,
    ^Jql+ "-q^ll +ztC rxllE
    *g.gEql^l BC
    El+.
    +rlC rillg $^Je-87.]-4I+6[: 6Je] rrlql r4l g6]3 *=+. ql= 5q
    ^l-olql
    +;el(¤B, cr2H22o1,)e-l ¤ulszl. 4 +r-e^= szH9 -ouzlE zlzl-L ilg
    =¤g
    ".+g +i a.Jg ec++. a44sE #.2s,A--- dgql^l aa^d ir.xllE +:
    =rl]6}q,
    dg +E Ezlc rillql Hl6l]^l {}ql4ee +g 184 "col+. Ezl¤ol $zlg-q_+ Er+zl
    534 128 r^llel U^^H

    tr u!{!al'E+gle o|L aol E^t?Jeol q aEt7l"? Erl5ol rl EE4o.tr go|= a,3 ol!
    40J)l?
    OH

    E=Oll trll5
    Elt!
    +E(.C) 5 -95 43
    80 111 182
    ==E("C)
    flld, trlltsE +=E4B=E
    ^aa12.28 =+gl,

    og golzl g6l1^J= BzI E.oJ E^l +-e-6J qlzlol+. qlE Hld(cuuu)g nEE qla
    =q
    cg r*= BEB Ezlol4,.. (8 6¤). E+fle {dql^l +4 gz} 6J 4l7l cH37ls zl{+
    B ql.JE(raJ 2.28)olull, Hlr$19 $i{ol E+qlE +=d!-+ ++. E+fl tsz}E 4d
    Col zlzl qlEql, Hl4l +rlql^.i4H E44ql S"Jol "Jq+zl S=+. a44sE a"JoJ
    d+ql 9=6[= tsz]zJ ¤ol Ee a$!olz1 *6]q \"i{ol ^}q4ee *+. Hitrql E
    +flel #=de fl4lsl #=dB4 t+. olae .-qill 5+flql^lel EzIrJ .Jqol 9;ll {l
    4lql^lE "JqH+ 771 trilEol+. aH D.z8ql +4U Hl4le-l E r+= zl+lill.J qtsql^J=
    oHtlzl +i a6Jg.J f ?lzl qlEql, qltsg #=d4 \i{ol E+ HIdIB+ ++.

    12.7 l+#8 --rE +z-7.{l


    3g'5 =E TiE zi{l(covalent-network solid)E: ++ e6Jq elEl B C g 4 ++ rE Tagl
    ol+q4 9l+. ++ eqle ts^|rJ eBEl ¤d ,J6l7l
    ^ltr ES4 9lE fl4-e=e "IEql
    ++^J rE +Lllill= tszt^d Jlxll_H_4 gd ++6Ir +Edol ++. +AE t'd8l"J trI
    olotEEe+ qgol 7I* a++ ++c rE +a ralol+. E trl= qlE +r, x]ul-H, 4¤
    (sio,), +E+ +^(sic), es+ +r(BN) Eol ql4. E= A+q g4 7Jel A'Jg
    "lg a6J
    H{E SdoJ ++ A6Jol4+ ++Cql 4 zl*4.
    trlololE=ql^l 4 +i
    flzl* ql ,llE += ts^ flzte} aq++q(f=J tz.x). dolE+r
    +4(aH n.ze)414 ol¤ olgrl +s+ olg E+E ed gzlE zl+l6}E, rlololpr fe
    >azJ12.29 @ r[olo[g=, (b)
    ,J49 EJ g^lE 47He.l
    +Eel +^ trl= E^tq
    =e6|q
    olEtrt.
    ^lEill=

    Etalq el6fl sJ

    =ol,(le
    ?,ltrt.
    -al

    3.3s A

    J
    (a) Et0lottE (b) eE
    12.7 I r= +4 r^ll 535
    =+d
    Eg + 9l+. *e gzp5g sp'EColE, 'ZJ* +4-+^ E"J ++ aaJe--E B=
    =
    e glq. qololsg.E olE rllzl4 glalol xlf,zlzl
    ^JE
    "JEla E4 +ql^l
    a6Jg riJ-6},ts_q--E

    TltI ++6I+. olel ee ?+.e. "J6l.l +ololEE=.lt++g e^l4Bql^l EB


    E
    ^l-&gr+.
    +olotE=* ++61-lL ^l.e. ¤a¤ a6J"J tE A^ q+ql ?l* +2 EdE
    ^IE+
    ;|ulolzluJ dzl dE^ll= olq+. +ololEEg \|{ol 3ss0.C.tr ,l]+ +g ag
    ^ll 6E
    oJol orqq,
    =q+
    qts(f-H 4*, Ea fl4-L =" + e6Jg ol= +g ¤¤4q, ol +5e ts
    12.2e(b))E
    zlzJ !le-e r.le ¤¤4 9l+. +¤E +g rH rz.sgl 448 = rqgE
    +4 aq. +ge
    .{le"ll +g ^llE= 4=+. + +q fl= 4 +E flzl-b
    t}+l F zll9 sEJq+ +%} ++l
    += +ql fl= +^Etr ol+qd q4Be.l +.Jql +q fl+. 4 Ea5 ae +q += ^ll
    z]l9 Eep+ AEL6Iq .rJe SE¤ q4¤ rel= ¤C.J+. ee BEql ,rJ-e oJd
    dl= +}-+4 44= t.+z L")4. ol= Hl4lq^lei +4-+A 44\3es A)c+,ll+ +^l=xH6Iq
    6l+. ¤zllE +flg +^-+^ A*3 Hi4l9 +^-+^ A*r+ fridcll, +Eql^l ul$zll
    4E r AE.e dille q+q"l !lu| :or= (s 0¤). d4¤ol ul¤4p]¤ stslgg E6ll zI
    +^84 -$4oloe, ==
    +ge +g q+ ¤9 dzl ds.z1o1r11*ge dzlg dEC d+_t
    E ggql^J sp2 Ecg 6Ir gl= tst gzl5E =o4 63 3.3s A aE Eol
    ^l-&g'l). ^Jtr
    zJ glj1, ol 6E=3 E&qql el6]| EEEI gl+. trt+^l g¤g EzleB +Eol ^Js fl
    ^Js
    Al tr1174^l7l trllEql +¤e ul¤ulE* :=49 q+e9 d-E4"J Eeql^.] gHlzl
    =+.
    -g-tr +4+= aaH, B+E fl^l7l =o tq ,*"JqE ole| ag a6}g +4gr}.
    ggg g-gxll-E ulolo[]a-r-u. E trt ++
    ^l=sqr Egdg "J=
    ullE
    ^l=&¤+. +sr+
    + Ei.JqE E+6lr +itg +ae+ ad.ol ^le 4ezl ullE.ll, rSq E44 4ae g
    ol +e+.
    UEiII
    ++e 4zl* ol]+ g dE++. rBl+ "*3 li15g ++"J+ dzlE & dra1z1 *6[q
    s+-J dECg z*zl qlEq rEl,t} Eeg HJEi{t(semiconductor)4-z aJ4. q}s;ll9 F z}
    zl qlE +^(sre+ xluf!:(Ge)ol fl:ql, +Tlgsql^J +^e+ zl"l-bg +i HtE oHlql gi
    +. 4 gA= tsAe+ u|$zlzlE +zll9] flzlzl dzl-E zlzl:t_ ?19, gdzl. +49 "J+^l7l
    7l f.l6ll^.1 'Jd6I= 4419 gdel +"J ++ A.Jg B^"r"I]ot ++. relstr +^e+ zlol-b
    g EE El^4 +4e eolo|grxlH +.J,* ++C rE +a= ,*+ 4dg= BC.J+.
    s gzt sHlBr+ p ?4zl _g.HlBol ailB e6Jc sHlB4 Hlaqlc sElBol B^"ig+. 6J
    aJ9 s a-u1gol A;<lE ITHE A6JC +zt sHlgr+ lrHE HIAEIC Ez| sHlBol ¤^dq=
    ElH, ,(J9 p -sElgol ailE 3rilE eBc EzI stslgr+ 3rll9 H}¤qlc EzI stslg
    ^Jl
    ol e^dg+... ir.s¤). e!+59 aE +z7l ql}qE, rz.+¤9lrJ ++9 dz} +aE E
    E!+ trl] E9tB ar+ F.J.J ¤qg q= ¤C6JtrL rql+ ++4= 4e4l *u1lq1r15 i11

    ?ld eHlg4 x}l+lzlzl ?+g sHlB ^l-olE "llrJzl zJ4ol ¤q} eul94 HleB- sHlB
    olel qlqal ,J444 g^J+tr},.,^-, (e.61j). E,*d Ezl sHlBs+El ¤dg 4E arlzrq
    ^t
    (valence band)41 6lq, qlAaJ^d gulgE+q ¤^dg rlE Esrl(conduction band)4r.
    qlq(f=J rz.so). Hlsi;1q1,...1 flzlzlqE dzl¤e i]]9l4 9la, dEq= Hlq fl+. ol F
    trl ollrlzl 21015 .llL,lzl qza(bandgap, rr)ol4l *+. ElEill= EB ull glHxl
    ^Iolg
    el +9= eVol4 a- aTlY I eV: r.6O2xro-1e Jo14. q?J4ol3.5 eV ol^JoJ EAg Hl
    Ez)lzl olll+ Egli{l(insulator)olq $zl$ ds.a1z1 *=+.
    ElEiJl= gi HlEille+ 3[I'JE HlEillE + ++E ++q{q-. g} H}EillE + Ttzl g
    536 128 l1^llelU
    ^l.

    +E^]lE ¤E6t7l ?l6}q 0l rH g0ll F flfi|:leJg:leJqE, qE sE¤ E[e4l LfEfLt|il


    E/l !

    dEIII
    EPEI^I ?i3 uJ=-cld
    E^l9ul=
    Si, Ge, Sn

    1 1 1 1
    oil ttlrJ4
    Ll p g-Hl=J 4
    (E-)
    ). p o H lEl'
    I
    ^l
    1t t
    I
    lt
    s gHIEJ \ \ s OH EI
    =
    Elrt7]nl
    x{ocl 7l;tll
    dr-d
    =Bd
    E^r 9Blg

    arH 12.30 rlololEE +4= 'J= UEillelI^l rrl+I


    =8

    ol+q4 flr, e+.JE HlEill= + 7l^1olt9 flae ol+qrq 9lEl. gi EIE


    ^trJe.s
    ill= E+ 14+ giE ol+q4 il4. fzls+ql^l o}4s olrEo6J+E- a6J rJol= ¤zlal
    q, sElg aee ,Ji.JtrI. ole+ ag aag +de ola[{ flz}z}qg a.Jc Ez} etsl
    B4 dsqg HIA.JC $z]. eul$ rlol9 ollulxl zlol(42J4)zl4ottl4. 444etr rl
    ololEE(s.s eV), #A(1.11 eV), xlul-!:(0.67 eV), 914 ?4(o.oa eV)og ,J++tr)rJ4
    e e^dq. +4 Hls otelql 9l= Bql^.i: rlzJ4ol $,"1214, a 4a+ tsg ++q +a
    e+ 5Cg i*=rt.
    s+6JE HlEillE A+ B+ fl^l7l z$z|45 flzlzr +2il_e, s4 *Eillel a+e+ ?J+ +
    9 flxlzl- dxl¤ ,*:+. q= Eq Hlie+ ,JE(caes)9 A+, flzlB :zH9 flzI a#
    7I d4¤ xll$a|_r., Hli= flxlB szfl$ flxlzl-d4¤ xll+dJesrAl +ir+ xl"l-ts4 zJg
    f'J flzlB ¤t +211E flzlzt dzl¤ r*=r+. qr+^l GaAsi Hls.i1o151. rlp {-E InPgl
    ql# flzltl:zflel $lxlz| dzl-= zll$op,, oJg gzlB s{el ilz}z} dzl-= zll++
    ^1,
    4. cdre9lrJ TtEEg flzlB 2tll! flzlzl dzl-= xll$afn, gz}'.r. 67He-l gzl g+#
    71 4^E rll+,*+. + 71714+ EF, flzlB E+e E^l 47llel flzlz} dzl¤ zlzln !l

    4. caRs, InP, cdreb EF do}fl* +ag 449=_ ¤Cqlq.


    +6JE qlri11q1,<'1 +C gAE ?JE + HE 210121=++ 4zJ4* ?zlat= A6Jol 9l
    +. ql= Eq ra+ +l^trE} ol+qd z]ul-b *u1q1,r1 qrJ4g o.oz evolzltrJ, r:4 fl
    np] rs4 gie ol+qt GaAs ElEillq^J q+49 r.43 evol4. tz4 to4 fla fli4
    s ol+qa ZnSex]H, + Hg zfolE 4tr +7!^lvlE trlrJ4g 2.70 eyr ?716Jtr1. gl:
    $s.i1q1,r]E ++6J ++ Aqlol 3rI6Jg HlE4lq^J *d oof Aqlse ul+lzl trilEql, ol
    4 rJol rlzJ4ol +7l6JL+. gd= dzl *Cs ziolzl aBel +Col ?zlo[
    ^|ol9
    q qrJ4e 6zl.J4. =++
    dzlEo 44:=3 +o&* 4zl *zl "t "Jq tlilq gI6JE Hls.;19 9+6171 9l6lq e-Elg
    9 Ae4 A6JE +Cg aA6Iq HlEillsl q?J4*= =e'J+. 4.zlzl fl^ qlrxlel rla;
    --
    12.7 I r= +^:r^ll 537
    =+¤

    812.4 ta UElilelEttJE: uErilel rqt4


    EZI
    tz. +3 BEI rr(eV)t
    Si rlololEE
    I I tL- 1.11

    AIP rdol¤!} 2.43


    13 1.4 15
    AI Si P
    Ge rlololEc 0.67
    30 31 JZ JJ 34
    GaAs dolS=J t.43 Zn Ga Ge As Se
    ZnSe dol$* 2.58
    48 49 50 51 52
    Sn' rlolol-u-c 0.08 Cd In Sn Sb Te
    InSb dol¤* 0.18
    CdTe dot¤"J 1.50

    t .llq^l= ¤gql^l gg <lol+. I ev: 1.602 x l0 re


    I
    "lrJ4
    t ol xlgi uJExll
    ^deC ++ql: +49 5:i4l"J sl4 +4e-e+El Eg Aol+. EtE Fiall"J ¤4 +49 ++olE+

    E Hls.ile-1 42J4=^ E 12.4q1 +4H+


    qHl 12.3
    HJEitltrlrJzE tt4"J Hla

    GaPE ZnS-Et[ ttlz4ol GaPts GaN-Etltq7J4ol


    =)1,4?71? =71.4?7t?
    6[l'J ttrq 9+ql 9l^l++. r Ar+ gEIEE ddol 6z}9oj,
    E{ ElrJ4E a7)y +7l&Eql^l giSE 44 ?zl"ll u} GaN9 ulzJ4ol GaP9 trl+4tr4 q aol+.
    =
    + gqdE}. +g_+ Ae a+ "lrJ4e +zFJ+. (r) fzl& Atr en Eeql dfl 4 El.JEq qrJ4? +gr+ ,J4.
    sq 9l+ql +lil6l-= fla5 eu1g9 ddol +716J++ re GaP'.2.26 eV, ZnSl 3.6 eV. GaN: 3.4 eV
    q+¤ sHlgr+ Hlad.c sElE qlLlzl BEE +71^l
    ^IolE > E* qt{I1
    A+. E= (2) +Tlgsql^l giE ,Jq + Hn zlolTt tri-s e*E a3?
    ¤H +
    + 471¤-dEE zlole+ a!+el +col +7I6J+. =+
    (a) ?zl¤s9 t4+ql^] oI4E 444 ql a4l g^E d
    4tq 449 a+ +TlgEql^i giEg t}4zj +lil= Elir {r401 4r1+.
    zl
    6llot 6J+. (b) +7lgsq ra{oll.<l ot4E r]lqa ql j1^ll gde.l trl

    60t a+g 4+71B+ flaol4. t9:721 rsf flaolQ. ,J4ol A7L6}trI.


    o}¤g AEr+ ,Je +7Plj1, +g .JrI ?JZ +7lolr+. :14 (c) HlE4l ElElEql ql6}q 4&+ gz}Tt dxlE flzttr
    4 rz+oJ oHe aEE g+ql fl= gdol.I., l6+q fl= ¤+ LJI 4lol+.
    +e tE e.E"+ql fl:
    gloltrl. tr++^l znsg 4*zI F (d) HlE4lg trlrJ4 qlLlTl= 0.1-3.s evol4.
    flt ,rpo1g d7l .S.cE ilolTl trJ
    =-q. 44
    r
    znsE a1ztr (e) Hle4l +qlgq {Elol cl +dg++ ulzJ4 9lH{b

    4ol GaPE qrJ4tr+ q aol+. q +.1d4.


    =
    Gapq caNoll,r.l ffi9E E+g gi= $z\ $$rzl $ > .s.= qlrll2
    3 caol4. u}4rl dzl $Crz[ g4'oJ pe+ Nq q]6] ZnSeE ZnS-E_r| ulzJ4ol z+?71?
    q +7lgEq^lel 9l^l"Jg ullalE= g+. ls+ql^l e4= =71.

    HJs.i1ls.trJ

    Hls,41q E+E flzlzl E,ElqE 47) .J.EE7} B4tlr+. xlqg E+E gzt "Je-l
    E EAql ^*E
    Szlal-b +dS.EEJ(doping)ol+I +i
    6Jrt. AAql^J +a gzr .J*zI .J(s
    $xll(dopant)tr .JEltDss il+lEl*.9 trIE ^J46]]
    Bzl. rEl 12.31(a)91 +4d 1al rJol,
    538 123 r^ltet u^^||

    tfr nB EJEillqlEB Sg + Hfle. ts7t5iE 0)rEg olg4l EJiln

    E
    E
    nl

    HIGI OJ= MO
    oil
    L1
    tl2Jr:(Ec)
    ^l Mo
    ^ll9lTl

    fl
    rl
    7l
    nl

    *+=3 dTl6trl ng BJEiil PE uEiil


    E}E EJEiII
    (a) (b) (c)

    arH 12.31 UE^lloil 4aJ9 E#gs"Jfi|)g 871-61-E Etrg E7l4 E-drl'


    =dol

    ++EI si HlEalql^l t_! flzlzlrl tszI sHlBg ,l]+14 9la, EE dsrl Ezl stslge
    Hlq 914. + +tl! flzlzl dzl-E 7)7)trJ, 'J3 sz11E flzlzl dzl-= z*zl ull59l s¤
    =
    xllgl flzle$El +e'qts'E szlzl dzl* dEtrlE iH+41 gq(rB 12.31(b)). E+E
    I egtal-ts. E¤g Eag nB(n-trpe) +E^ll+-il 6J+. nol+ dEqql *dd-= ts dz}
    9 fz| ?zI9S.*9 9olaJ4. ol qEE d{-L dzll dsrlq^J SzloJ + 9l+. tr14^J
    f pp*9 qlol #491 ?z[98, +iE l.+ dzl dEEE ulr] u]l 4u7zyt1z2 + 9l+.
    Egr,ll dzlE- "J6lq EeE szl .]EEzl olxlH Eg "J5[a] H6[7] n]lE
    ^%i9
    9l *s:ilql.<l= E+Efl oJg ae6l.71 +l6}q g4oJ Fr]TI ol+qlot"J 6J4. qls
    41 4}Eql^l= Sq.J slE= "JEzl +16|q 'nine-nines'9 +i= o14.9 siol
    ^I-o"o-J+.
    ee.eeeeeeeeeTo-tr ++6l]ot 6-J+= 4¤ 9rlaJ4. oli E$zllE ¤!+e+ +E= d"J6I4l
    ,Iq4q Eeq dzl ds.s.E a¤B + 9l¤¤ 9"1.J4.
    Hls.^1e1 +CE EA.E-4 4e +E fl^l7l dzl-= ,*= gxtE HI=.i15 EB^IA + 9l
    +. +i Adq^l + gzl .JPzI Ae}g oJF"lts"e il++qflg ql$ d46]] Bzt. +
    a= +z}]9 ilzlzl dzlE ,*= aql uldl, sF"ltsg :2fl$ flxlz[ dzl¤ ,*=tr]. tr]4^J
    +471g+trlEoE E¤g u]l, flzlzlul"ll ¤,Et(hole)o-E.JElTl azrgl HlzlzlTl ^B7Jr+
    (:H rz.sr(c)). r zlelql +d6l-= ts d^t7} Szl ultE"ll d=o9 oJd6l-= zliQtzf,ft
    g + 9l+. .Jd+ 1jzlzl d=oeE #ArJ u1 ,r]1-ES 4+g ^JCiltrt. q+^J oldd-= q
    4+e 4zlql^l EITI oJ4^le +zloJ+.. ole+ eg Eeg p$b-typ") Hlsal{r aJ
    = p* Eeql oJd6L= t4= d+E izl="tly49i*9 9olaJ4.
    '1.
    nB HI=,219 d7l dEEeI +^16l-41, f pp-9 pB E.B^ll7| Hlri11 Eeq dz}qE *
    E4lel .J,71 4E.E7l Eq"J Hll AE ?zlaJ4. rq+ ol a+ql= gzrTlqql q= d+ol
    d7l dtrtrql +q.J+(rH 12.31(c)).
    p¤ qlEale+ n¤ Elsxil9 d6Jg +ola =, E{zl^q, ElloJ dzl "t += *llq 714
    7194.
    -ole+
    ag ol5.g Dlil idq^J q^JEol ^JE- xlel El-+71 6l+ ag ++61-= 1+,Jcl. +^J5(dal¤)ol olExlE 4g
    zfel(fl2|)E 01:16l"= ac ++B + ilrl+, .IqE Hlzl4(4+)7]-'gzlol=' a9 ++B + ?tEt.
    12J 3+d rE +a r^ll 539

    qH 12.4
    HJEall++ tftrJ"lrl

    3A Ga, As, C 6 + 0ll EirJdlq nB HJEill= EE + fl= aA qE flAE7t?

    6113 B tis.41g e4 g 4o14.


    E{ nB H}E4l+ rSxll flx}z} +E4E +CE EeB+ > .H.6 qtr{ 1

    trJ Elg flxlz| {zl$ 7}4ot ++= 49 9"1.J4. ol a+


    ++ + p¤ HlEi{= u35zl fla}{ E¤g ae?(+'J g
    q + 7I HI=^1E +C+ Eeol+. zt: rE flztg 448)
    Xlel +7lgs.q^l si, Ga, As, czl zlzlt- 9l= gzl-Tt dz} (a) Ge:P (b) Si:Ge (c) Si:Al (e)Ge:S (e) Si:N

    +E AA6Iot 6JtrI. + _E_+ q Be $zlz| {xl$ ,*: g > _H.* qlril2


    47i EBqE nB E49 rJC6J Xol4. HIE^il +ElEg nE4 pB Ed9 "JEzl fl6}q EBg B
    Eol si= r+4olzl 4lE9l +211E $zlz| {zffi r*E4. caE +E 9lrl"J 4¤t flzl-E il++^l7lzlE.J+. q= 5E ce
    13+ol7l rllE"ll lzll9 flzlz| {2ffi.r*:tr}. AsE rs4ol zt GaAsgl E¤qfr.+H GeTl Ga 441 il+qE, HlE.
    qr., "¤
    7l qlEql szfls-l flxlz[ dzl¤ z*E4. cE r+fo]zl qEql illT} 6sz| As Eil41 p¤ Hls,i.ilzt ¤4. p¤
    ^l¤l9H
    +zflel flzlz[ dzl-E z*ts4. trt4^] AsE fagl EEa]H n +EilE ".IE=zl glalq cdSegl E*61+ *Hg 4l^16l.^19.

    -?"allttE}| aEJ

    ql+4Bg.J4 tr+gq 9lq^l olxll +4qzl "&¤f, azl LED9 qdg n¤ qlsiJc+ p¤ tlszllzt dq]dlq
    ^l-E
    H ^J4g+. Eg5¤ g,J 4ols=(LED)e. ialld,_e-Er^l 4{ p-n r-;o1ec(p-n diode)olr}. rSol "JL+= d6Jq=
    d4lE El]+ gg qLlzl= e.+e + 914. rso= HlE4le {al$ f5g dzte+ C+ol ,l]+ zlq dEs,z} A}.Jtr}.
    ql6}q ds} ++g 6} -
    4e6J d"Jol 7f6llzlE, {zli n_E$g +9 dEtqe+El
    "JEzl ullE9l, {zlrl LED9 zfFql
    ae 4e6|4. d++E olEo*4. dq++qd dzl^E p-s¤g +q gztTl
    = trlE+q "Ja1l 4="rI qI*+. d
    Ilot
    !B :E
    OH I[+l
    6/\t
    zl+ Hlq fl= 4*ee Solzla.
    : olluJzlg qotr. d+g+. H9
    cl+ Egol nE 4oe#e1
    oJxla, pE
    $zlzl r*= qlq4= Eee] ttlrJ
    EA+e drlE
    +oe+E1 trg+e g8g 44 F"JoItrI(feJ 12.32). olel e
    "Jtltrt. I H}^l9.e {zl ollLJzlz} *q} ql
    t-=r1 qzls d+|gtrL
    Iltrnl EJ¤qts qel Eltle Hlr;1E
    qrJ4ql r|4 B4zlzl trIEql, 4
    E^l= Hlq 9l= ¤3-e.-E
    HI UI* tq144 ¤+ HlEillE dq-g-.tr. LEDqI E
    qlqrE,J= BrlTl=get
    =cl7tr.
    ^JC¤ 4E 4eg aeB + 9l
    0ll
    611
    Ll
    HJEEItrI.
    ^l +. ql++ Bg4 LED= GaPel
    GaAs9 gqlEE q}=qt4. cuP
    ooooo E qt4g 2.26 eYA.62x to 'e I)
    o#c^[e )
    olq, ol: 54e nm9 irltlg ,*
    flrtTlnl
    grPltr| o *E 83h+) b a+^4 +rz}9l 6il'&gE}. +
    E caes$ trl,J4e r.43 eY
    P-'J UE^ll ol=
    (z.zsx to-te 1;o14, 867 nm
    Ed+ nE HJEill
    el +tlg ,*= 4eld r}4q
    "ll%I
    LJHIZ.BZ 'JB rlolcc BJef +0laEe.l -4dP p--n EErolrt sl+ d"Jol 7l6ll^lE, flr| .,.' (6. I ! . 6.2 rl ;. GaPl ,As,
    E-cf+011^l I^lef 830l 'J:gE|G "!E g8-zrtl. I adg r*= + gI.JE9 rh.ll +
    540 123 r^llef U44

    ¤^dg e"6|{ Gape} caes r}ol9 +rJ*gE_vl7J4


    ._4E ot+ 44 "J5 + ll= HlEill-e+El qol ,J=qil gg 4
    g e¤g + gt+. rlzl..r.1 Gapr_,As,i $g,r{, ++4, r.+ E g^J6lzl ?*zl rllE9l. u4¤Eol+ B%I5¤ LED-e i^ll6}
    49.J + ?l= LEDqI ^F8:q= ai]l *9o14. =ga! ssp a 9lq.
    E calq Atrq g6JEs "JEq{+(Es :2.43 eY, i :5r0 +¤ s+ E^\: 12.73-12.76
    nm).
    *e^q LED= +d H E.J ^l-&gflErJl. u{r4%r9 "JE
    7l ?l6}q E¤.ol =t 9 +¤4 LEDE zllzlol {eafqq. Et \__-_,
    g LI= +=^4 LED zl
    ^qg ^l4#g lee3LJq "JEql^l I
    as E^lqfl+. rtr+Ei 20ri HoJ 20l0LJ, d ^llZlzle t!
    40q gel old-g +=^4 LEDT} g*trt. +=^4 LED=
    -+. I
    -a.
    GaN(Er: 3.43 eV, i : 365 nm)4 fnN(f r:2.4 eY , )t: 517
    nm)9 a*g-tr 4la*+. ol4l +"JqI49 lepzl H]?E+ afH 12.33 LED= +al +H "J3 *0ll^1 g8Eq.
    j/E ,llsF7]H qL *ql^l+ ol+g + 9l+eB 12.33). O NUTTANART KHAt\i]LAKSANA/Shutterstock

    12.8 | fEFill
    tol. glb cEg 7l+4 a4 5¤ ol+r flE Ee +ql +E"J amu9 'll+
    e4+g ,*= Ee5ol E+ol gag4. g. zlzl qtr^1, 4Eq r*ol gl= +"J4 gEEr-,=
    ^IEql^J

    E^lE E+ql^J *g + gl= +Ea Fol gir+. 1827Hql |<ins fakob Berzetiusb exlelol
    zl¤ E9H|(monomer)el 6*(polymerization, Ei4l Aq+6}q)ql E6ll ¤Cg +z}*ol
    Eag 44421 9lal] #Ir{l(polymer, r4^qE polyE'$$', meros='? E'ol+= *ol =
    +)+: "Jg "J=*.+.
    .JrJg e*E"J 4.. zG, ul+, d¤l+s+ Ag ag +6JrllE Sso6J zll-E.E 7l-*619
    4. zlts 70q tr ¤lq}, plqr4s=g 4qg irlE} HI*q^l ++l^]9 +6J HI¤:q 96lq 6Jc
    ?.J^llzt ^dcq: 49 g+611 *4. ol4al E.c +.Jiil 4+Ee +i-Ei a6JE
    $ zlzlL gl=ql, ol= +i flzl¤ rJql ,ll+ zfo|-L.JC6J A6.Jg ol$zl rllf,iolr|. =4
    EeFr4(plastic)o1g "J+4es 94 Sqg zl.6l] +"J"J ¤4E. "JE + 9l: rill
    olEl. qq 7Vl ++E E+^qol 9l+. ==6J

    zllzffia[{ ¤^}g "JE + 9l+. qlE Eq


    EThA¤ EelAeJ(thermoplastic)3
    $# *zlE 84"{lBflbolyethylene) +E}^lltr "JEqd+. ol Szlb +g + *eq, =+4q+
    +EE 4g+6J + 9l+. trl+ qlql^.] ga 2uI"J E ol^Jg xHg¤-¤4. :aJ
    = =+lqol
    p.34ql +E}U 44 *ol, g+.q ¤.zl9 HlEr-ql: *zlzl aq 9l= z}]g+ szlT} glEl-.
    iz}q r o}4el Ezts ¤ EzlE E 12.sql +4U 4+ rJo). *zl3 "J= +
    .J^llg a"FE +4U+. ole+ Ag szlE 56l] aCql rI4 *zl# E+6J +
    ffi
    .T: 1 9lE+.
    .JHI4str_ *^l7l +g++, r EAg !l$$alzlz[ r] dr].
    ElEq Eeqd Eatr4(thermosetting plastic, Et thermosetol4 Eg)g
    ¤^Jg "JE trll ElTlE4oJ slqzl +4sE ElEqxlTl oll+ql +^l 7l_+4q
    ¤^Jg "J5 + S4. zI¤.ilelg rl+e+ +g +4qlEi-l^= E6J6I= tlB^.1
    EAql^J gaq= 5rl+;llql.Jol q+,* gas|^J g+^qg qlol+.
    .^a"A1Z.A4 1]EJt trAl 9E-J += ¤EIE Eltlill(elastomer)olull, eg Ce, + +dg
    ^]l4El=
    +Eol Eal^= ETlot|: g7l= u=71 9l6H
    rH
    =+^qg '.+e+
    +4q]= E40l+. ts^d^ll= Eula+ ++B UL EeE +C +41='Jq EB
    ^l
    t-Lf 6EF^II!6.+cl^t|gEol| tH-Lf
    =--J^llsl ^1
    glt[.
    9zl *9148, H¤4(distorting force)ol xllzlsl-r. +E E4E B^J9E qE
    -sr.s= LtEl.LHts E^l7l otJEl. z|{
    ^HEJE
    O l\4ameraman/Shutterstock ^HZ^1 _u_EzloJ E^J^llel ql= _1+ol+.
    12.e 541
    =-sf^il

    x. 12.5 0t+q^.t
    ^t+sti 4tsJt eE4 EEq
    rllg g*
    *rt EII
    =gr"ill
    1 PET E= PETE g?-lqlpfl qlqlEgsllolE
    2 HDPE a"JE gelqlgfl
    3 PVC +.elgE+ ulolH(PVC)
    4 LDPE zl"JE gqqg{1
    5 PP 5r_lE.tr'gHl
    6 PS
    =4^ElolHI
    7 o.l o TlEl
    ts E

    4.JEol4 g4ql^qel eg +i+ill= E+ gap+^J ¤4^qolq, rl4zl.*4 zJol r+


    Ezlql El6ll ^Jql4se,ll+ a d+9 4l4rol zl .oalQ. ole+Ag d+tr 4Eq ¤g¤
    + 9leq. E++ elolol trzj ^]]Ee+ Ag +4" o-J Eeg ^lla6}= ql ^F$-gtI.
    5.t'"El4ft
    +Et H]+9 7i+ a+EI el= qIBHI Ezte+q E4qlEHlg B^d6l+ aolqes 12.3s).
    ol E}¤-ql^l 4 qlB{] Ezl.9 ol+ A6,tol 'geln" fl4 ol a6Jql 9lH F zflel {zl} E
    rI= + ,11E qleql Ezlc+lflE$ Ea-tr^ +.J a6Jg ¤C6l-zl 9l"ll
    ^l-*g+. t9l^ll
    ql fl= q-e ABg E6rq t9rll$ol 4l+6ll^] t?9zl ql$q, ole+ Ag +6J HI¤¤ E
    7l # LE(addition polymerization)ol rl]. flQ.
    +6J HI*ql ql'J HI*4g ++4 zJol ¤ + 9l'1.

    nCH2:CH'-
    rTl
    C-C+
    T T],
    {zlr.l 13 6}+el 6Bzll Ezl. BCg 916}q Hls" 6}= +Eql^l +aql olsE t+lill +z}
    ol A+ qlEHl)E += +4U+. +*^ll .ll9 ++ Sfl(repeat unit,
    (monomer molecule,
    glE H1g^lql^l qgE .Jql ++U +g)= di] tr-i+ H]+4se Zl+ +qU+.
    ^l+g
    ?Erolq += a6Jq-e ol+q4 9lrl.. trI+^J gtE e^=
    e^-t^
    ^l+E ¤+Ee
    47H9 A6Jg r*:+.

    /fi:\/A
    \^ ^/
    HHHHHH
    ttttrr
    Hl
    L:L
    \H H/ H/
    ... + ...
    -c-c-c-c-c-c-...
    tttttr
    HHHHHH
    oil=aJl
    =4ql=zJl

    &+&+& T

    rEJ 12.Ab Ealql=Jfll=:ctijl= Ed6l.7l $l-d 0tl=JaJl E+lillsl6Ef BJB


    542 128 a^llel Cail

    E 12.6 tE4qE 6'-etJ troJrll

    ?a .QE
    =giil
    E7t=eE{l

    s4qlBHl +cH2-cH2J7 gE, Etlx1, B


    EtrgH] +*¤+, dS, zld 8*
    =q
    t il

    sxJzll, ltrl+ +^l +71,


    =4^401{ tI¤xll

    ufolp(PVC) ull$ ol.$ull. u[$


    =4gsI
    t*'-rl
    +Ef
    =-sr'i{l
    gEB 7F +dxll,
    =4+qlEll.J E+B Eg4, zl+ri} ++-,
    n
    ,tlts+, B'-+ aB
    &R',: -CH2-CHz-(gl)
    rlolol trzj 4lE. qlols.
    {o-cH,-cH,-o-c ^I7l
    =qqlgHl4qlgg4olE
    (=4ql^q)
    lr1
    LO
    il
    o t1
    el+, gE+B

    4'JE o.o 7I4+ ¤El, 9F, zl9l,


    tcHz )u
    -NH-c-,."r,,--[], *,116, 4¤e
    {NH-
    E4zlBullole o ?Id "JA +al, cD, DVD
    il
    C
    %IE +a, ed

    t1

    E?]qEflg +s+ Eeol+. ,l]E ola.ilrl 1e00q ir}*= oltol ^J^Ig+. a+6-J 3
    C'JqlE B76Ir +Elill= "J=71= qB4. q ¤ E"JE ¤+ gql^Jo} dlB4 oe +&
    6J +ql4l9 4laql gsql 44g=- -*g + 91fl+. e=B +oJ* E4zi 5^Jg r*=
    "*e
    =oF9
    .Je4 9l+.
    =4qlgqlol
    El44 adel ,*b 66J^ll= eg
    +qlillel H+= F4q qoJ"J 844, e+q}4
    =Cg
    + 91tr1. ?zI6aJ HI*q Eql 6JCg gEl4.J +qli]l5el ql= E 12.6q1 +4*+.
    ^JE49E +9-+ +6J4lE E]^"i6I7l +l.ll ^t+51= E EIE HI+e +g =E
    EJE

    (condensationpolymerization)olr|. +ql +EI Hl*q^lE HzOeI gg zlg +zI7I zllAEl


    E^l + zlls_l $zlz| 4l+6ll^J a.J6Iq EzlE ¤^J.J+. qlE 5q olul(-5H2zl$ E
    =
    12.8 543
    =-gxil

    H o Ho <.Le12.36 +-cte-ctHJ8
    I .--------lllll
    N -,4 -------+ + H2O
    1E-O--I-C- -\J-C-

    + --------> +
    F

    +6I: sI6JE)g z}9d&(-cooH7lE.E6J6l= s+6JE)r+ ++q-q N4 c


    ^Iolql a,*
    g ¤d6}a H2o ts4-= ^Jd,*4(=* 12.36).
    F zH9 +E ++lx.llE+q ¤^dg +'J^ll= 8fili.tl(copolymer)ep. qI+. Be +.JEq
    ¤dql^J ^l+E "J ¤ql -NH27l= r*= EI*E.J +olotEJ(diamine)3 .Jgql -cooHTl
    r*= s}d.Ee olz[!(diacid)4 E]s.*+. ql= Eq ++,*^ll +.JE 6,69 67lle.l +i
    =
    flzl9 "J ¤q -NH2zl= zl.{ r}o1o1u34 6zl]q tsa gz15 z}{ o1qu41ol H}s"6l.q B
    d94(r=J 12.37). Qololul{ A}e,l "} ¤ql^l +6J +oJ H}+ol gq++. Eol olBEl-r. E
    zl
    ^Iolql
    N-c A6Jol ¤Cg+.

    H H o o [H Ho ol <.r.H 12.37 LlgE


    l l
    r H-NfCHrtN-H
    il il
    + r HOCtCH2J4COH -----+
    ll lil ill
    + 2n t{2O
    6,69 gd ==-Et^lloJ

    tN(CHrAi-C(CHr)nCt
    +o lo ;trJ 0ltlEt Ll?= 6,6

    +6J +6J El+ql E6l] 'Jdg +"JE 6,6 "l += "JHI4"J +6Jill9 95 s 12.6q1 +EI
    H.rI. ole+ Ag +'J,J=q *4q=, c 94+ EE N flxlq o g4E EI4 E+qq 9l
    !-g +E_6l.4.

    0lellel E^1.= E7|-e-Etrllel Etr?.171-, 0lLlE +:Er'6:El ]lel EtroJ7[?


    =g =g
    o
    HzN
    -o-H

    EHEEEEEN
    d ^llalq lq ql7[ H= 4+7]7] ¤zHaJ4. izl]g +ae] Esqq 9l+. ^114";e. *?4(MgzAl4sisol8)ql olgc a
    ol"]]9 ,Hdql IIl4 q "Jd47 gE illgl .JF"l4(error;21 "J-d^l il'i. lle;ll {}ffi$ ullzl
    =cq =84.J "Iqr+
    1t.$ol +e 4-Fztel zll$ol zl-i'al.4] qflq. .lrl+ A+ zl4l4 *zllfltr BlE +4i;17\ 9"J t}^ d^iql
    ^[+q=
    EJl, ol= o"f ?6J _LE +4 j14l"J +iql zlllall. fl= ql
    i4= d-^l gulBTlE afzl.(=al 12.38).
    ++r+ ++ qHg zl-F7[9 qq +gql E.Jg+. ql= 4 z4 ?+Elql gEl =a¤+. +6Jill=E zl-Erorlql^-l ga
    Eq "J+ultsS trgzl, E7l+, ql{5q +E ++ol+. ,J q=ql, Ext 4Hle+ z[91"e gq-4 ql.r[!l-e
    =?-]ql^El,
    e4=gpqlol ,r.}$
    ag 4zllel ^I+9tr1.
    tr5i tt ul]zl ¤r-lzleq1o1e, Hulc+ ule"z]. {zloll
    zl. H]]T] r+=4ql
    qz{7le} +,fl E+7lql^qloJ4/-rJg
    .l*¤4. +,H E¤}zl g+.
    9 ,]]+ql= E+ Zlgel #4Eol Hd E.Jel ^ll+E flql
    544 123 z^llsf U^^|l

    ;,-r-
    TA
    (uJsi111

    g+Elts
    5lJ

    ^Ell?.!al4e
    /El=\
    =qdlAEl,
    Eal7EtL1l0lE,
    EAIEEEJfl!
    (=Etilt) g+ElL[,
    fi{.,\1

    a1i.,
    (01=d rill)
    o= EHf
    ,=]=\ ao
    (=+)

    a
    EJd
    =Ai{l
    (EEhil)
    !
    t
    arB 12.38 {EIEJ EEAilslIl.5^1.+.8E

    6tJi{lsl +ael Eal4 +J


    E4qlBHlol+ +C +.Ji{q 4* ++q} +e^le ¤41 +ae}= +s+. g4qlBHlql
    ql ,l]9 aqlg 617l qEql Hllgg 6li1 91tr1. u}4^l gql^J 7l
    ^l 4 +a flzlE ^IEill
    ¤6IflH a4'Jol, dEl ¤?-lqlBfll EzlE 94d9 +g ^l=g otq+. rJ$ol flzlfiol
    c-c +g aE. ++lE qd6l-= ag tlrll4s-+. zI+E;q-. 4E+^l ^l-^=g +j1++6[71tr
    +:,11+ +¤6lr d6l7l d+(ral 12.3e). +zI ^l+E +gc qlEql, ole+ eg
    7lla6J Ee q^l =.6Jill-e
    "l]+ +¤6IrL
    "JHI4str. 6Jt +6Jxjle+ a¤ +6J!l= E+ +oJ+ tsz|=J +E= z*= z]4 ExI
    (macromorecure, 3 +zDE d6Jillol+. EzI*g
    ^J^J
    eaql q+'l]+ Hg Hgql^J "J
    H+l6l.7ll +E6l4+ ¤+{t "Jdqq 94. ol4 zJg Ezt* EE qlEql ¤=6JxJl=
    =i-lq
    +E Hla4B(ul¤¤d) Eeol+. +Elill= EHql +Edg ,*= Hq+ aatl-s--E
    =4
    12.8 6stll 545

    =s rz.ao9l +4u a4 eol, r


    6I7l_H_+= qL gE H9lq aa^l +E5lltl4. :244
    AIE qtr gEql^J=
    ^l¤5ol *e 44E +44"J AEg,*+.
    olel ee ABE 4E7l
    +oJillE 'zJ8E(crystallinity)E +4Btt. ¤+ tl-ql 6a;-i1lz[ 4]g +Bg E6ll 'J=g trL
    714l4eE ts44+ *otB4rl, 6.Jille.l adE= .JtI^la +
    ^l+g cB617l il6l]^l
    9l+. Agg eCC gqql^J +Elill ^l+E=g tsztzJ Cql E6ll ll_+ ¤¤4 9l+. trl+^]
    +oJillE rl gdqr, ++6l]zlq, +6]]E= z1-olzlr,, .llgce ,J6]]1l+. acE Gzl4l
    q= g4qBHiE E+= E'tz.7all +4H+.
    =^d
    d¤ +=?l g4qlBfllg EzI ,J ^Js zl+ql el6l] eCETl ^Ja+. relq ¤4qe{1
    9 eaE= ¤+ +rt ¤=+q q4 r7ll B+11+. +oJ"J n z*etr- +oJ* tszl=Jg ?*= 4
    4 Ezl-E9 gtJEol 5o; qleoeE ^J^JgtrL EEol{ *9 zllft9l ^I+q= ^lgE ¤?]
    glB{l(ropn)3 to'amu C-r9 ¤+ +^}%Eg 7*a-, o.s4 g/cm3 olotg "JE= z}zlq, "*
    ?zlz1^l+g r*=+. +.JillE +^Eql ¤^l+ol oleloJ ¤^l+=g 44E
    = =rHqI+.
    sEg BCg ,ll.J6lq Eeg "JEE 'Ji^144. B, EH, ul]S9 xllzlgl ^l-s5]= ]l"J
    E E4qlgHl(Hops)g 106 amu 4EE ¤+ ErleJg 7*a, o.s4 g/cm3B4 gEE ,*
    _ilBE Efl"Ipelg 4zlz\9 izl44. q+^J tf eeEE r*=tr}.
    =
    =+. a rH 1 2.39
    g+E =aloll=Jfl! ^l-="1
    EJ^ 3^l2B7He 0l+cl
    q=aJzl 0l^1lEt! H|.01.J= EPIfi|e -BrdE! 0[^J|E{J Hl0l-J"l E dg4o+
    ^l.Edlq ==-dill0ll^1,
    ^1?tl..
    oilEfllsl z0l= ^EEIE=al
    cHz -J+l
    Eol67l.-g+E +"=Eq-=¤E: #^-dtl. 0l= dB6l^le. ^l=
    tr rH+ i O3-1 o5Tllol zjo lo lrf.
    CHT:CH
    HH-I
    \n-n/ -ta1trl dG
    occHl d=-t di

    H/ \*, il
    o
    q=aJ] 0flllEtl Hf0lLJ
    (

    +qlillE rl ++617ll "J5 + gl= %IH3 ^l+ ^plql alql ed.g E.E^l7l= 4o14.
    Ei],Jg(cross linking)ol+l' ++(riJ12.41). Lzl. p1|o1 gg
    ^l¤. ^Iol9 A.J ¤^dg
    +E +6Jill= q ++6}trt. ¤zIiC 6a;-x1lz[ +B4e ,}|E ?oJi]l ^13=E ol+qd +8,
    gAs+^d +6J!l= ¤9 zlalfl -ili} e6Jg 4q, riil A6J ql$ql +ql^ll= oJC6J E"Jg
    L azJ 12.40 6:sr.i1l 1l= 'Jel
    *zlalzll ¤4. 8E AtE flee +.r1p gqql
    r.z} AoJel +,q,* 9li, ts:sEoll Charles Goodyearz| gAe dS r+9 7t+ ElE L|EILJ ,i^laJ, oJEdl= ur|} ,J
    (vulcanizatio")o14. A¤ .7.5-= Hevea brasilierzsis ul*9 .Jq e4ql^l +g= .-4;ll fzl oil Art6l.= coe ?.16t| +$i5
    oJ 8=01 8zrl.
    rlE ^l¤e.l
    ;(1alol I]-rl
    qlLo=laL,|=9|/\|Li'= =88
    Ef =LTlol 7l

    E 12.7 etEel oJ+e LEFJ EelqEJallsl 8.8 8rl+^l-st 8=g -Lrtl.

    /\l^l
    OE 2t\-lE
    =o+
    55"/o 62"/o 70o/" 85o/o

    +dcc) 109 ll6 t25 130 133

    "Js-G/cm3) 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.96


    7J'v* 25 47 75 120
    12.41 E
    165
    ^aa =BillgsTl:4l
    7^lrJEt= ^1.+E
    9;!* ^f
    6LB
    o- oa 1 700 2500 3300 4200 5100 =:st
    371(E=^4)= 6:sr^11 I
    * 44E71+713}+=. +ilillEE 714121+E7l +7161-= 49 -u-q +r ?lEl. ,JEql q{} EE4 +flE psix 10-3(psi = 44 eE= qrll-Jrl. ^F=sl
    rEzf .d^l
    q-J EE= e jlrllE H+ fl= ttHEtlE e-Ets +
    ^leBE tq.J 9,1eI ?3-Cq
    rISE)olEI. 6J+ +qql .ll6J *+lE psiolr|. ol
    =-cfol
    ^l+Slil*
    E Hq\++.
    0la. +883'JZl -Jtl.
    546 123 l^llef U IH

    (a)

    CHs H
    (n+2)
    tarr*
    n
    0[0[+u91 !T

    (b)

    CHa

    S
    S
    S

    LaA12.42 tsE n+E TlEt HJB (a)o[o;+ng1 E+l^]l-++El EE r+ 6--J^1l7l85Eltl. (b) r+0ll g
    7l6l-E El^-g 871r,I fl^l=o1^l¤4^f=¤ E=d|]
    = =sfol =tl-.

    e+q "JEqTl+. aE j1+= oE olol^uQl(crHJ9 +6Jillol4(f.al12.42). +


    Elqtzl
    ol+ a6Jg +9lEt' 4dol dzll "Jq+rl ?*zl rlE.il, +i +9lql eqtg 4I+
    ^-+i
    zlsl u1a3=s- dlatq H}+lzl *:+. a4 2.42(a)q +4d 44 ?ol, dfl 15q1.rj ,\19
    el q+e ol+ aqlol ** 4q^l "Jq++.
    aE r+= f+oJ +qlalTl olq+. q+ +sr, s+q}4 oE **dol r7l ullEol+.
    Goodyear!: +96l r+ql !*g a7}6tr, r gdJEql $$ zla[g{rJq. a+71t] Et6ll
    zl;., /Je}* +E 3rlq4 Hlg"ee+El9 4dol ,J-6l]zl: ag ga4fl+. re n.42(b)
    ql E44_q=+ +Elu ,.a+ rJ"\. +g +6Jill ol? a-Jql r.zl a6Jg cd^l
    ^l+el 9B
    a+. q+^l a+= gas+c +Et7]E He+^l7l= 4o14. ol+ aqlel * svozy rz} a+
    ol EIE +¤6Ir +q 9lE a+71g+. n+71=qB ql, jlzt a6Jg ulzelzli
    ^l+ol
    a9 E=+. El4^l r1+= +cg #zlal7ll g+. rzr a6Jg ¤d6l+ rlcql^J
    7lg+Al7l iealzl q+ql, Goodyeari r +al= -8trI9 EE {]el ol+g tr}^J
    ry EzJ(vulcan) ol Er- H E 6IH+.
    -q
    qt+EE +6Jxll= ul¤zll:zl¤ , 4zlzl S."lzlErJ ,p, Ed ts4 gz1-5 Eei6I
    ) {zl Sflz]1oli1+4ol+(trlrJ4ol ltlL 4¤ 9"1
    !-tr.,,:,,,. (e.6fl), "Jq}4g-s
    .J+). relL} +6JillE E4ol +E +e ,-r,.-, (8.63. e.6¤)= 7rzlH, d4-e=g zJ
    ,l4ql a! ul¤z}lE}9"l +6Jiilq^l HlEalel ,lFol '+ElB + 9l+. re+ eg
    'E+^q dzF*qt'g 7lE:2, +¤dg ,*Y +7]|4"J dzl, ffzl e{zlarl, $
    A]H 12'43 drE-E BEd= zl uF{ r4r +de+ ,J* +71H}E4le]+ 84, +iql zlE}* E +
    d^l= EE¤ 6:cr-ille Lr= 't e c +oleE,
    2A= +71Et|"J =al'^El
    ctTlrt E iatg ,llg +dql^J 4trI* +dg En 914(fal 2.43).
    1z.e LtlEtr 547

    12.e IL|g¤4
    d+^t'r-|L(nano)'= to-ng 9"le!4.:,,: (1.+¤). r}*Eol 9.6l "Jd|='4t zl¤
    (nanotechnology)'olg, l-100 nm 371-tr 4'zl-= "JE= 19 9"laJ4. Hls.^1s1 **
    E ^dae 4u =zl9 H9lql^l H*+11 .JEj4 9I+. l-100 nmel zzlg z*= LttEE
    (nanomaterial)$o1 d
    ^Jl4l
    s+¤ql^J d+4etr s+qj1 glr, p+o+g +LE4 g+ql
    ^J
    +d4.J q6Jg atr gl4.
    LE3Tlol u'-jErll

    t4 tz.zzq)^J gEjE ?ol, +g tszlql^l= dzl-=ol E4g Ezl sHlgg zlzl6r


    ulc+
    11 9l: HlE, 4Ell +Eq :il.iilql^.i= Azl¤ol ulEzllE]¤ trl= ztzl6}J. 914. Eziz} ol
    ! 4E aTlE 4e ql, Ezl LIql fl= dzITI ¤z}]pls +zl sElB!_4E ulE4slg ul
    ilzl6}4l ¤zt? olE "t ¤c arlql 96IH, Elri1g 4*, t Be q+ 1-10 nm($z|
    =
    ro-roozll9 r7l) AEol+. HiEdl EeE ++ql q4 Cq+ flx1a5 B+A+. flz}9l
    il= dzlql ql6ll 4+6I9'J "JzI EoI "JA^lg Hle.^1s1 dxt(E= a=")ql 4s"6lH, +
    zl sHlgql^l trl.E d+|q= zldg Eeq a7l= qlq}4eE 4l&g + 9l+. 1-10 nm
    45aE zl$g 7*+ a7l7l qE ole+ zJZ 3;tlzl +s6llzl7l ql+ql, ol 4E a7l9 z.l3
    g r*E HlEzll flzl-S$ olz[]l(quantum dot)ole]I q]4.
    Hlrzl acg a7l= ¤q^J Eg + ?l* zltt ++B "Jt a4 6q 6[+=, a7)71
    r-10 nm AE qE qi{4 e--E qrJ4ol E6J+= 4,o14. "J^l7l +o}A++ rlzJ4e ul
    Tlxl:ql, ole+ eg srlE fH 12.44q1 +48 44 zJol, ui|,e-trE d7il ++lg + gl+.
    Z^14 ieql^J .J3r+ zlE$(cadmium phosphide) HlEzllE 47J4(Ee:0.5 eV)ol zlzl oll
    Eq ag^4e-e BoJ+. + .Jsl TIEEe E= 7|^lrldg g+Elr}. 9zF5 4rll "J58,
    dzl EeE E6l] 4+zlsE ¤lrl oE -trt+. rl olt} z|^lJJdg ¤+6l.zl ?*zl oll
    ^4aol
    Eq g4es -H_olE aol+. trlrJ4ol ql+ 4^l t+ qlqzl= z*E xt9d"Jol {_Eul-E
    dxl-= 5*Zl g + il+(Es>3.0 ev).
    "}zldg drll "JE + 9l= %IHe +Eql^lel EIEI HI*.l+. qlE Eq cds= "JEzl gl
    6ll^lE Eq cd(Nor)re] Na2SE +t + g,*6|]ot.J+. "JE Eql^J cd(NoJrel NazStrJg
    gB.JElE, ,l++ cdS p{uJol aa6J 4o14. 6tzlE} "JE
    =rl.J4}E(-(opor-),_)4
    ee gd6l-= Irl= 66Jill= H4 Eq dzlalE, cd2*='^rlalEl'+E 4e'ule$'zlfl
    +qlzilql Aq+6lr1l ¤4. :fl
    +ql +sl olgg Ezlatfl cds oJxITI Ctld+ql, 6tlilltr
    .J;H dCol rril ¤Cqzl ?*=+. .JA.J a71e+ Eo&$ ,*= +LAC$
    ^JC6Irl 9l"]]^J
    H]* z49= A"J6l7ll xllqg Bezt 914.
    =
    -1-10 nmoJ BJ.Eill < aH 12.44 rl= g^l =.71=
    '*ts CO.P, EoJ qAE
    ^l=01
    g^i='oJ^fE'o el_a -.Jt[. EJ-Bro
    f olTL I

    E^lsl -dzl tr. g^lf7l= ,J^dln. E/.lql


    nlrJ4 OllLl^l= ¤i7f6l-r,
    ^43101
    -JatTlrt

    EL\2J4
    g^tel r.7l ,JA ollLl^l
    =71
    548 123 -r^lle[.U4^|l

    qH qlE^ll izlql d"J.l ¤48 qol H}¤gE-t= Ag 12.74


    grl.Eel37l7l rJ4g+.e u=Elts ?E tri83 5716l* ql^J gultr9l{. E +e HJBee HIE^{E rlzJ4
    "llHzltr4 rl
    )l,2J4Ak7!? 3 9lHzlE ,*= qg e^[6ll +E qq H]e.;1 q^l Hg']=+
    r7l 4. ol 4CS *ts*(photoluminescence)ol4l ++. gztztttle]

    rrrlr
    CdSe "_r^|"Eel
    2nm 7nm
    dzl-=ol *zl¤ dEtrls EEZI g+. ol E= Az|zl g
    =+6}0l
    zlzluloll Bot 9l= A3o eE +^l Eqzlfl, qrJ4
    "ilHzls+ 59
    E
    ,q} qlqzlE ,*+r*^l7l rJ=gtr}. oJ4.dg
    4+,44 rTlql q+
    tr)?J\g e¤6J + 9l'|. trl-+^J fA 12.,t5q CdSeoll 4"}l +4U
    a 44 zJol. 6-J zlzl EeEJe=eE +zl7H 4 E+= gg + 91tr1.
    rl t',.] Z |\
    = =E
    ZnSE B"J3JE -Eq 48 340 nmol qA4
    =+. = HJ=EJrl". qr=89
    ollLl^lelElgptolll-]^l= += B^t7f 3
    ^l-eld
    2.7 eY 2.0 eV 7l= 4trdlZl^tr61.= UEe-+, ,J=E aJx|.717[^lBd Bqol EIE
    nlrJ4 0llLl^l(Es)
    + "JB= ol5^l7l= 4ol)|.g.-!)tl?
    arB tcel B"JTJA oJ^l 17l0ll el=-drt. Ll
    12.45 Ll.E
    _rg^l-= E:Br6l.1 ?= 8.-{0ll "!= nlrJ4 oll
    Ll^tolt .33Et= "!ot gr=Ert.^lslc
    gr=Et= g3^,\ld[E
    4 tEoil oJ4dg rll* g}I .Je4q,
    ^J^ll 46JC BzlE
    sH+g ilrl
    =^l1oJ
    ofts cdSe LtLg^lslr7l01l ttlal
    =alT]rl. +qlE ,rllEoll 5qa + glg "J+ ziTl ql+ql dzl*q], 4lol
    zl, 9E ¤{t Eot9l oJzldg +*6171 glal ¤72| gg6t+.
    E+E +rrr7lE +4^la g9-= S.trI.
    ^]]Ee $^dg 44421 fl6}ol HlEillg +7Ig
    zl$$ ul:l{ H9 olztfl Eg q}Ezlle EEg + 9leq. o}z} +E(quantum well)B uJ
    E7l 96l]^l: f 'l:."lel +4l"Jol gs6|+. HlEzll d9 zlBg frluulqolzl"J, eol
    z[ rH* Z o]z]d(quantum wire) $;.1 +oor* e+q]4 ,JB9E "JEq{q. *z} +84'J
    zldql^J Ll:-a7l ilgg %r-6Jlg trt4 +d.J Er-l=6}g "JzI 4E¤ BolzlEJ, a zlgs.l %I
    'Fg u++ eqrl 5Ce ,l^l EeE =Cq +e+.
    LE=_7|E;+
    ++E q^1, 1-100 nm =,7lql^J olql4.J Ll4u+. ole+ ag ¤tI
    =cg
    ol +4+= ag,=.+ql fl= dzlE d¤4.J B+ ,l+ BE. =84etr,
    (10.8¤)71 dgql^J E
    1-100 nmolTl trllEol+. trI4^l ++ ol^19 a717I roo nm olalz| - 9E 'dzl u}4'zl'dl
    H(92I9 -EH)'g "J+= Azle olel4 sr+7| ++B + 9ltrl-.

    El^ll trt*^cI| 4Efl trl*-,E AIfl

    zlrll clEt!(macroporous) i4=


    qoJ-9E -Bol= *89 zI zl9 zlt14. olp ixlsl r7l q=^d
    I
    r+qxl¤ol 7l
    zljl 9l+. aB u\tl mm H?19 ,ll"J g+= =^org
    6}rll# 6[fl+.
    a r++4 ¤-+q ql6J
    ^l=&6f=.J^J ^¤
    zl(rB 12.a6(a))* fd prm H?i9 zl-Fzl:$ufl {i}zl(r r{lpE}0le(zeolite)= ag4 q}c-qE gg + ilErll,
    g 12.46(b))el Ed E"Jq +44 qd P?l 5lol r qloltri. 17s6LJ+El .J4{ "JFoltr f&¤(aluminosticate)9 E} t
    ul,$l rf-f{$ iJtr zzl EI-¤LC izl= +.Jetr Bolzl * +oltrI. +E ++9 trl^ll r++r.cr+ i,1 zzl q+.8 ,llg+
    ,ll+ ALg +B a7l= 7l4r+. Efil EEitl(microporous) olszt gl4. ol E¤=g g6l Bdr+ +^t6J +aE 7l4El
    =
    n^l= 7B azlTl 2 nmTlzl"J HlE, ErJ =21 clgg .Jtr ¤aE qEill t# zlu trior* +a= ,*=+(fe
    (mesoporous) nzll= aB zzlzl2-50 nmol4. D.a6kD. rI+ .stre oJFslb, +i, 4Ii flul9 tErJ
    ,rll ffir.Jg 6z1 zzl trl-E.C Arll= +"*g +B trllEql
    uf g4r+ E6IZI tLa 4¤¤ 6l-= olgr+ E4¤g ol=+. +
    +rlql Hl6ll s$g 7I4l+. Hl{ql +LEd(nanomaterial) "Jd +84 +5 r7l= ElqI4 aC4 d'C %LHg HsI^14
    g r zlg o)4 = a7l qlEql
    +4ql Hl6I tr-ql4-e-e sH
    =
    xlla* f 914.
    12.e rf!.Etr 549

    4le-4olE= +r-E¤ ^t^l6l-= E6}rll A.Jg olgEr+ * q+= ,1lg4olE9 _E5sE +"J¤tri. E += ql= ar-" E
    4l .J^"ig + gl+. rll+ s{r+ trl ,J6L7ll rlE zfaod; o1 E A+, Etrql+, e olgg .J+{+'a+'= EoJ6t= +
    gql ]t=qflg ql ,J6trll ol$oll rI+ da+ +89 i.l?-lol4. zf¤¤ A+= +E+ ,.ilq] adg ¤d6l.l
    ^Js ++61+
    7I q .ts+. olae olgc g + 9l= E4g ILrl EE¤ %r-6ll6tE-tr ETll= "Jg.a + gi
    ^szl4 ^laol ar+6Jq1 "I4
    zl os
    "J=+. ol+l+ ,tt¤ * trq += 9lE zorrE zl{ +. a+: a+ql fl: e+g qlil^la + il= i# EEL+
    4 "H"Jql 96l] +tI¤ .JEel ++^lu[ rfolz] tsd1791q1 x-ll-o={olE$ E"4^14 '¤¤+^la+. i1bE9 aE olgg
    9gg *^l-b 8lf("'Crc+ "'Cr)g 41216l= rll ,tl^-$$ aS EBd ++"-qee fzlzl o e rll$rlole$ E4^14 +E g
    4lg4olEol+. ^ll+ olgol olg r.+(Nan 4tl cr*;o1 "3 6 0199 zll4d-q xllerlols$ trl-sHql zll^l-so 6IE+ 6J+.

    (b)

    T I
    (c)

    -5(X) nm
    @c

    arH 12.46 rEd HgTl ed+(b)= TlrH rlg80lrl.


    ZSM-S(c)E ^il ^uJrl(a)gt^fE^fe]+rl1
    +Eq il21219 O.S nmoJ 0ll1l tE¤ 4IH0lt|.. OMaencc/Shutterstock
    ^llEalolE

    B^lql BA.J ¤d-q ql6[q Sd6[7]l 016116[-7. 9lflH ag o]qzlE], +E tr d+El ^]


    H.=e ++9,il+ 4r1l erJ ql ++q g+T]trIE ag "Jr glfl'}. l400Eq
    =^Jol =,
    4I4 +4 zll=$zl-==$ ¤+ +Eql +g E4I^l7lH ?l olE+g Bg^4ol gqdq=
    X9 olol gr 9|fl+(aal12.47).6J+ +.J tssTLJq Michael FaradayE #¤ ft* "JzI9
    +t tr-qlE "JC6lr]l "JE + 9leq, 3e.o1= +Ee 4lEI ^4¤- EtrI= 4¤. e-La1g4.
    r7I +E P4E gEoltr 8.-4 $Pz[ ol1tlfz] fl'Jql il= Eil¤ $]fl Faraday EE+ql
    < ac 12.41 EaJ^ llE
    si
    :,l\t == rfld=Jsl oJ-=al
    ^I|1
    ^Ell
    / t)'
    ^12^ll7l0il "J=clTl 0l dEq
    ii ';\ aS
    v\ 5A^4P e LIE"J^I rr|lEolrl.
    i. {'/
    t' t'
    /:,
    ,.
    r. l sl-: J+
    'ta 'r
    f: i.'! I "$1
    ttl' I
    :;f .'i
    \",'ll
    O Claudi0
    K#
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    \i
    t/
    550 123 .l^llelC^^H

    d^l q gl'I(r=J 12.48).


    5l

    ++ +trflztTl7*Y r+= 844, El+zle Etl Z^l EAE $^dr+= +qq. ql


    Eq zleol 20 nm olal?l + "Jzl-E=g oJ4q=C a7l7l HAI eE¤ +B+ Ut *g gE
    =
    q^l +E+. Ef, zl5o1 2-3 nmoJ + E4:=g cl olt E}+col s= 'Hlg^J' ++ol ol
    q+, clq4str EI*C9 r*=trI.
    +r. +=9 =.zlql^1, ee raq ol#++ 4eE= +4 El+oJ deg zlzla- 9lzl"J,
    +trtrI q H}¤-dol =4. ¤u}] d ^il4lE ts+¤ql^'l= ^Jill g^J "t qlql ?= Eo}"ll *4
    <*> +L "Jzlg Solal "JFq
    LE:.71E EJA
    =Cg
    ola-" olf. Ell
    =
    +dg Eolr 9l+.

    of uf $$_H_i|*ol, +d= *r:l rl]+ "*g fl4o14. sp3 Ecg r*= rill t4 EorillE
    4olotgEola_, gcg ,*= aill ^Jql 5^ill: +gol+. zl\t 30LJ FoJ 4qt4-E=g
    'p,
    EC +4-e ol+qA 'Jil-g Ftr+ olil-g S4 ee Bz11 tszl¤ gaarflEl. ole+ A
    Arg 'p'
    12.48 16soLJrfloll g +^E EiiUEg o,19 gulEg +Cg LI4U+.
    Faradapl oJ= Ll'l.
    Michael
    oJx[ =
    to-4 ilE9 Fara-
    res0LJql ++vl^\, +++ ff{
    t}qlel +4b ++C rE +aE ,*= rill.J 4olol.
    =eolc
    day o-]"E$oll &^lEl0l ?ltf. EEe+ +E + zlzl rlQl-=trJ 7.ee ^J46t9+. rel+ lessEql Rice4qr:l9
    =4161+ g^
    Ecoooll ?]ts 4 Ela gxl'=
    =
    Richard Smalleygl Robert Curl, ¤=t9 Sussex 4qli9 Harry Kroto ¤+dg

    =J E4zl
    'ZJ*
    E qlolzl HoE 6.9 ^lEEr Tlql^la +, gE Tlill=g+ TlxllE a}q zlqlg +aE n
    :=:,= ().!zj)e E46IB+. e* l4EHql +d flz| 4*gl 6llB6l+ ++47I

    7flq esrg 6|i7l? 0El eP Ll-+Hrt. oI+ .rllzl9 ++;lE, olae tsa gz} 6ozHE ol+q4l Ezl-(cod9l qlBq
    Sgg oJ'Jg ttll. C6o a"l+. =
    q =ZeqololEEet EE =
    ?E coo g+{e
    4tsol ^JCHS.zl qlEql, ts^E E += Bqe 4E
    =A¤ =tszls.e
    6q!aqlL17lnEJzfl * so}-g z*= cuo Ezl-= ^ll.J6}fl+. rEg coog Er flxtzl 3241E E, rzzI9 s-4
    ¤4 zoz119 +4¤g ,*= ++4 qee '+'g "J=+r xfloJalfr|(:H 12.as). o1 g
    zlel Eole
    "l+E +o+zlolz| lSzlol R. Buckminster FullerT|
    gBt +xld E(+4
    ¤9 4xl-3 4I "*+l EIE a=J E)g ¤tI^lA+. EI4^l coo9 E4etr 'E"J.ElE+l{l
    (buckminsterfullerene)', E= 'plzl$Guckyball)'ol+I ++tr}. Coo9 tsd ol4E
    =q^l
    +^IoJ += +A EzISol gAqB+. ole+ a.g Ezl-E¤ 5¤q^l E4ql(fulterene)ol+
    ;l 6}r]
    *ut.
    rJE zl;il aaql^J 4z)4"8 +Sg +B^14 tlB*q ulzlg¤ Eg + fl+. Eqa
    AE +"ll^J "j tevouJol C6s4 Crro e +dqq flirll, Czog cooB4 + q ,J+"ll4l +
    ^I
    ezlol+. +r= oulol eolali Tlill^J4 ¤+tr-qE += ¤Eilg s4qlol EE}qq gl
    q++ cooE4 q Ele tsr gzp=.tr6Jdl= czool4 ca+q A3 EzlEol4. 7l* 4
    =q,
    e ¤qlE czoS zoooEql a=Elfl+. olzlH zlr + -E.oJ.etr rJzJ ts4* 44
    =qql.J
    gd q EI+Col zHEzl"J tszle +¤qq 9lzl ullE9l #zl
    + EEIHIH+ =-+. Eqflg
    +4ql * ++. +ololgE+ +Eg Szl 8,ll"ll +zl ?*zl"J, ole+ ag +6]]E-+ oJ6ll
    AEE += CE= E= += ="F9 E4flee-*q 54 ¤ElHlg E4B + 9l+. ¤Elql
    a.fg 12.49 4ure154p1, E +a4q]^JE HI*ql qloJ ¤+E ol q+ql 7Lb6I+.
    E^lE DH+ rH84oJ +
    coo Coool Bd¤ zl $uI F9l, s}4zl¤$ tsr {:.5u(carbon nanotube)E Bda}H4(=
    4= +=rL 607Hql EJ^ 3^l
    883 BEe-e 2oE
    aJ 12.s0).
    Ei +r=+E= g¤q sg "JoI FEE "J= +ql 'J+ ¤ol+ "J+ gg coo E
    =
    rllsl 4 4llE01l ^[= flq. ol zI9 tlp_a Eg aoe ^J4g + 9l+. coo$ "JE trll %IE4 +^toJ HJB "8, E
    ^l-.+o.J
    a]] reqlts Er^=qflrlE +:.FE= + fl4. ea +LFE= ffi$(multiwall) Ei E9H(single-wall) B
    "JE
    el ,J--JU= LIEILJrI. ^l.ol
    ^qltr ElEqTl+. ++q *^ +r.Ftr= Ftr +ql E +e Ftr7}5q il= HlE, +ge
    12.9 I Llt-=¤ 551

    E^ 4r.+u= 6.J 7l]E FHE"J ol+q4 9l+. +.Jq +^ +L+_E_= 1000


    nm olt a4l "J= + 9l=ql, +E9 zl# 2* t nm AEol+. +i +r.F
    tr= +¤+etr EISq{ Fqg zlE4 +g+g "Jot 94i ,}Hql q4^l
    HIE^ll+ ++rlH 4E6J + 914.
    EE rill +ql^1, EB S,ol HlE!l-++ Hfl$ EC a¤ol 7R'
    tr-ql Ee
    6J +.JoJ EAol Ei
    Ltt FE oltrt. +i=
    zll]9_tr 6l= d^I4zl-= "J571
    glq} *e
    ¤+7I ¤z1] +l"J +ol+. +^ +hF_E_A zlAl4
    =^dq] 'l]* g+
    E gg6].E|. LtLFBq *42 E4-+i AdJe-P ol+qrj ?lzl oll+9l, S
    ilgg r*= ++ ulL{(nanowire)ollE + 9l= a.Jol $.4. z]]E a rH 12.50 EJA LILFHe.l flxl EE 9*:
    ^l-6J =4'J Tltdl='oJ+!Il' EE||! LflEFtr, I
    Ei +r.+Eql 4+ dE 44, B^ +L+E7t +^I¤I a7l= '*= eH+ =+^]aJ
    Fqg tr|el EJE^ll IE=
    rl zlalrp aol ElqaEl. +A +r-F-E-= ¤!6Jxlle+ Et4l g6J6lq d+E "J =+: ^Eoll-dtHel Ll lE+tr =+^'lzJ
    7lE6l-='^l-l^|]-r'
    5 + fleq. eqa g-a; xll_E= rJEe+ te q]1lqg r*=+.
    olzl-fl e4 +Aq +^iil.J r4Eg= 7It 4=q dc4etr Erlqq g
    +qq I zlzlfl ¤4 EaE atutol4. Hl+ ole40s= 60LJ d+E] rrll
    tr9 ¤x}le}5^dql ql6}] ql="H *zl"J, zoo+'Jol qq^Jot ¤* Manchester
    qlqiE E+zl¤ol +A gztg ,1]E +Eg E7l6lr +^dg +E6lol, faJ
    12.51q1 +4U 4+ ,Je Ed +aE ,*=E|= ag "J + 9lfltt. E*ZIE,

    +"J+ rqlgg ts;ldi7l +l6}q, d+ qlolsE ol+6}q qtsE sg +g


    E+6H^l qlqLfl= zlHg
    ^|Sfl$+.
    rfl
    qg, 7]]E 6 r4gg 4"J6}z]l
    aBg sior"Jg r*i si +llolElql -$aE+. 9llolul gql +"J + rrll$ol 5o1 arg 12.51 ol^tg raHE EJg g+E
    ,,ll qE, %rel eul? o_e E 4l ,Jdr+ +^l-6.J 4ul 4lHol +EI*+. ole+ e
    ol t+6tzltrJ ar+4.J 7l]E r4g acql El]'* a^I rJBol sfl'tE, oln| zlfrzlxlE r
    4gg ga6l-^l *6lH¤. +E 9l+. 444str, r4ge += ¤q 349 zH*aJ sEql
    +zlg + 9l+. ManchesterQlql9 endre Geim4 Konstantin NovoselovE oleloJ 7lq=
    .JC *oI 20 108 ]Lg E?-l qltlg ?tr-6f qq.
    :a4Eg Eg "J6J 5Cg 7lz)a- il4. -24S9 ,ll+ ++6lq , 7l+4"J ¤dss.E z*
    'iElu+. r4Eg =++ol
    ,JEe+ gdEEEql^J, tr^ +k+E_5_+ +e 5cg
    =rI.ol49
    4. 9uli r4gg flzl ]4zl ollulzl zJ{ol Cq6l o"J H}sxll9 dz} +ee+ Hl
    i6I+E 4,o14. :a4¤ol z*i olzlflzl dzlEol 4E
    =dr+ =++ol4= ^I¤E+E],
    dzlu| SzL BfEql q.Jt+ S,ol 03 pmnlzl ol]+ E 4r-l=+zl.J + 9l: ag ¤
    B6J + 9,14. :4ng +zlH+ rouull olt9 d+ "JE= 4tsg + gltrl. oJ gzl. +4lel
    r;I¤ql^lE 5qe= qqg 2.3o/o= g+g + gl+. 4* 4qr4-==e +oJ* 7l¤ Eotql
    r49g E"J6I= ,JHg E++6I:z glE
    =!0l+.
    \\F tBf qHl
    /z .4.tl 7HL{
    o u'llo

    EE¤ Egil(conducting E7l= dE-g + ?l=


    polymedEl clEg UExIE trJE +E ?lr, clE aP
    7l!71l"J= +E ?ltl. qloltl. EEE= e)l^l7l7l +l6H^ Ealof,Ul=illE E"J-g f tr ?ltl.=+0ll
    =:Et^lloltf.
    HJs.x1lE 6:sr'^1lsl =-Er^llE
    Eel
    =4ol.^ll=aJlg HJ- trJE
    0l^11=eJ!8 trJ+6H H0l^|trJ, tr^llE= DlLle? E6t|0['J of,tjllejo++E't + ?tl.
    H_C=C_H f CH:CH}
    ot{l=aJ!
    =alol^llEJHl
    (a) ol^llEJil!4 Eal0l.^Jl=H!el EJ^ fl^|'71",*ts Ede +X?l7t? E-;J7+ fl^t ++lel 7l6t+4 +4.= +1oJ7l-?
    (b) o[,,tllpa11oe+El U=olxlE EB ql-4 U3^]= eJ'561^le.
    =alot^ll=illo1
    552 lZli -t^llef C^^H

    (c) 0l^ll=aJe tSe-l g+(2s8 K, 1.007|oJ)oll^l 7li1l0ltl. ¤eq gtajql^l 5.00 L E7l0ll 9t= 0l^ll=aJl 7l^.tlB+El H reJel
    =ol
    Ealol^1|=aJlg ,J= + o,,(=Tl? (01.^11=JaJP olCl 7lrllE zlE-drl-L 7l-¤dtr, 6-cr HJBsl +-g 100%=_ 7l-¤61-al-.)
    (d)E 8.49 EE El=tr|= 0l^11=al]o++El Sddl'= U30l gg HJ3?.!^1, USoJ^l= trJ.&|"^le-
    =-cr ^|"a-6|.q,
    (e) Ealof,tJlEJaJle 300 nm-650 nmol Hre
    =alol^ll=eJ=
    LLlTJrl?
    =E
    H evoJu |.?
    =+6Jtf.
    8}iH rEot.J+. 6)= +16ll^l= s++ H}+^lol 44441 +
    =71
    B{ (a)E erl6[^l= sp. sp2, sp'Ed4 zla}o}zl fagl Bol "*?tEzl q"Jg 9_0-21 914. (c)E ¤zl fl6]]^l= ol
    ql6]l tsll+ =71 49 trzlg gsTI 9l+ e,
    (e.5p). (b)= -$ zlill!(rv:nRr)$ olgoal¤ ,lxll$ +E= zlzllE
    +l6fl^l= +¤ "*= +ql Hl+^lg SCo]]ot d4. (c)E Ezl
    =71 E Hl-+lot 6J+. (b)ql^l ge HI+4q+$Q o|,r11gql =+7l4l
    +16l]^l= oltr zlA49 ++ ._ (ro.+¤). (d)= E +i+= ^JCg gElot4BHlE E+tr Hl-E +9,
    ^l-8-6l]ot
    71 916ll^l= Bg Hls"4 +g +AE CEE {1716}l., dall
    = =4ol^ll
    gfllE r++tr +^If,E+. (d)E Ezl 9ldl^l= AH.*:>(#
    HI* qlBrl= ql+6t= ql a* $grl= qB4 qd a.Jg a.J 9lgrl) ->(^Jcg eq+g a.J flgq).Jg
    trzlal $,cz[ 914. (e)9lr] E¤ql 9+q g*f¤ z]ar *3
    ^l+:611016t
    d-7lE 9ez1 91c1. - (8.82r). (e)oll^l q9 g+=
    =zl=
    EAE z}]+ld -sElpr+ Hlq *= sulg ^lole.l 9lHzl 691 9lHxlzf El7J4 E'EY ag ol6|6|ot el4(tls.;1 E= ¤g
    I zlole+ +¤^l4ot +trt,e'o (6 3¤). illql ql{q). zal.l- E*E Ezl ?la}{ E:hv* c:tv* 4
    6JaI4(r:hcli).
    4l& (a)E 9d]]^.1= +AE+ ^JCEE plq4 +a=
    =71
    ¤01
    (a) Bats 6}{-ql ,l]E AElg ¤C6J+. 4+^l o}^llgHlql^l 4 *
    g4+ +^e+ +.J AElg ol+qo| op, trl= E^el ++ 4
    ^{}9 ol1{o} 6J+. :a 44 4 +i= + 49 dz} ¤9¤ z}zl
    4, sp ¤Col 9qot* oJ+. ole+ 7J9. sp g^dqE olaf{ of,r'll
    Bflql^'l H-c-cE aEt4g 180'ola, Ezl= d¤ol+. g.rl
    oI^]EHlg ++4 +aE +44H +s-+ A+.
    H
    E4ol^llBHlq fl= 4 +i= E+ F="6l+. rq+ 4 *^E
    H
    I I

    ++lql= ,rll zl9 a!+d dz} ¤9ol ll4. uli+^l 4 +^E s


    CS sp2ola, 4 +A= 120'q AE+49 +: ¤H +i4¤9 zlal I

    :L4= 7]l:rl H H

    (b) HI+^lg ul-e=$ Pol +ElE + 9lEi.


    fl4 olrllBHl9l ¤4]alH s-i flzlz| ^JC+g + nc2H2(s) + -f cH:cHl,
    =?-lol^lleHl
    ^d6ta 9l¤¤ +re-4+.
    (c) ol^J zlrll^lg +¤.4 eol +48 + 9l+ PV: NRT
    ^FS6Iq (1 . 00 atifl ) ( 5. 0 O
    :
    L) n 19.s*ro 6 L- aral I K-mol) (29 8 K)
    n: O.Zo4mol

    o}^llgH]g ¤-eetg 26.0 g/mololEg 0.204 mol$ {=6r.$ ffi (o.2oam<i)(26.0 glry,riot) : s.32 g oI^'llEHl
    r+ rJ4.

    o)ql^l org qlso^lstr+El, ot^JlBfllE 5.s flzl-zl. E.4ot^llB


    HI ^J^.r59 +^J6tz 9l+g "J + 9l+. o|,rJlpHlol E+ Hls"+
    qE, e=+ tr= Bzlq E6l eq4l 4*? s.zz g
    ol qqot 6J+. =r]ot^llB{g

    (d) n: r"J A+= ^J46ll H^1. G)ql^.1 ee HI849 HI+5ql=


    rzl]9 c=c iI+ A.Jl+ zzllg c-H +.J eqlol 9t*g "J + fl
    4. O;q1.<1 eg Hl+^lE ^J^dEql= tzflel 6=6 ol+ A'J, ('J
    d.J ++l4l= gA4zl gaj; rzfl9 c_c +oJ A6J, 27Hq c_H
    eE "! 6e Eq 553

    +.J a.Jol lqoe. rzll$ c=c r*+ A"Jol #q


    =z]]¤I+.
    c:C
    4,r1 r4lel 4"J4 rzfl9 c-c t"J a'Jg ^JC,*
    016
    +. u+4d +r.lo}^llgfl ^JCq 'll* {gul E+b q-q_r+ e+. AI/.- : (c-c $l$ul) - (c:c SlBnl) - (c-c tggl)
    flgrl Es+ AHTI *-9 *olo-e. EI¤+ gg *=6t= Bg : (839kJ/mol) - (61akJlmol) - (3a8kJ/mol)
    HI*ol4. : -1,23kJlmol

    (e) $e-lo1,r1gHl H9 g+6frl"J. zI* *3


    ^lE: Hg 4*Er|*q
    9luJxl9l ^JB6l+ 4."]|zl* a HoJg ++6lz}. E : hclr
    ol olluJzlz| ?lrl7ltrlE zlAI +e ++n+ dEqq zl* *g : (6.626 x 10-34J-s) (3.00 x 108m-s-t)/(650 x 10-erlr)
    iplol IqrJ4 g9t :
    "H'J6J+= ag
    H E ollujzl Esql 3.06 x 10-1eJ
    ^lolE
    4, olxll eve. t9 +I4Ig 6IE, t.602x lg-te J: I eVolEE
    Es : 1'91 eV
    qs=r+ ,J4.

    eE "J 6s tq
    r.i1le] E+(^lE, 12.1tr) na] Lllql^l g^IEg E+C rill(12.39 e+C rill(metallic solid)i 'JHl4 o.a dTle+
    ^lE Ed-n. 9l
    dql 4+ llillE +ae+ E^.ig e+63 + 9lE.l. zi1 gql q"J =a¤ dr;1014. ++g s.q} FEq^J s9 see
    "35
    = =4-¤
    (metallic solid)oll,t'1 9z|E=3 dill4-s--E *f¤ flxlzl dx19 ul + 9l= de"J adr+ detr B¤ + 9l= ^Ja.J gcg r*=4.
    Sxlcl¤ dz} +Eq 9"}] EEEj 9lE+. o|t$ l.i{l(ionic solid){] ++ql^l gzL=g 4"J +g +=E E^J6J+. EU iE"J tlfl(cubic
    oJolg4 +olg oJqql 96ll B=q 9lq. close packing) q +J EE tlfl(hexagonal close packinC)+ gol,
    ^lL ^IolE ^Jc. ^l-e.
    E*¤:18 74 zill(covalent-network solid)i q*g ++ eB F zlzl B4e-l ag $oJol zffia|4. A zlzl a+ E+, 4 *g
    I rE +=ql EEll .'.1e, E54 ?14. =rru li{l(molecularsolid) l27ll I Ell?lt(coordination number)¤ r*t.+.
    .+"J BaIrJ elql q4 E=El 91trI. EEti{t(polymer)} * ErEl(alloy)$ ++E SCg r*: EeE, E .ltr9 g^+ ol+
    = A.Jql ^1tr
    + 96ll ^JE BSrl 9lE gzl¤ql E6ll BCE ,ll+ a ^I q4 914. qHql^l giE t.J6}rll E= #"J6lrI geg + gl
    ¤¤ EE-61-n 9l+. 'JHI49-*.. ol ^]¤r==3 "+6J +zIrJ 6Jql E trI. +.J.J gig gq++3 E*6lE 6J=!g 6J
    ^l+Bol+ E^llB
    p{el zfflol +ol ¤ + 9itr].. iltlE EEl(substitutional alloy)oll.!3 A+E g
    ^lE B=4
    6ll 9lE+. LEEE(nanomaterial)* zfl$
    l-100 nm Ctr e EAolq. }'B B flzlzl 4i 949 g^I9 ^ti-lE z|^lt+. t{lEt EEI
    =qE (interstitial alloy)oll,!| gAE H flzlzl 4+9 +gi
    rillel +E(12.2tr) 'JAC Eill(crystalline solid)ql^l: "Jal¤ol + ^+9
    zl4e HI+ B4E HllgElq fl4. HlEe¤ !fl1(a661p6ous solid) E g^l¤ ^Flql 9l='+B'.J E^ll ^tr.l= xl-zloJtrI. ffiet EEI
    (heterogeneous alloy)olli.l ?l.c5s +'J6}rll E+s12.1 *E4. r
    + oJal-=ol ole+ Ag +zl^Jg 444x1 ?*E -r.,1o1s1. eCC ri
    zlet zlg H]+ +9= E+t 441 5C4e e^Jg ,*= + Zl ol^JE +{6J t}ol +zll.t}trf.
    cell)olEl. ecql^l EE =+
    ^ll9 ^ltE(unit il tlElE(intermetallic compound)3 'JC'tL 4Cr+ 'JCtL ^jeg
    B9l ^llE: E+l6J ga} Ellgg r*=E|. E+l ^llE7t Ellgqq fl=
    ,*= aJ+oltrI.
    AEg 716144 4lBg eE {rJ(crystallattice)4I.J4. eC +
    aE BC6Izl +16].q g^I+ flx|$e-tr ol+qd e+(motif)E E E+ eg(12.4tr) dzlz| ?+ +4 dillE E6lq zt+Er)l *4
    $ {r}tr(lattice point)ll r.JE Qlf,-slolo} aJr}. "JEtiri
    ,J+d EI] HtEt Ets(electron-sea model)9E ++9
    olxffloll,! ++l F zl]9 4rt Etet(lattice vector. a, b)91 g AC49E ¤Bel + 9l+. Ezl sHlE EBq^], ;.+ =¤ gz}
    ^JlE=
    Edl Aqg =.71e| Eo"Eg += ¤4^IHeolr|. olzfflollE C^I q 9= flzfz[ {z}e] g^t eHlB=iol .rlE t}s ++6}q qlq
    48, A+4¤, zl^14¤. B4^IH¤, u|$e !ufe| ,Jol r+\71 zl:rl(band)E ol qlq^lqE $zlz| {zlfql E6]] ++
    ^J¤ELtrI.
    fl^l 4r](primitive lattice)zf 9ll, 4zld9 E9l
    ^lleel +71 4e_e 491X4. Ar+zlee A^l rlle.l {z} f=b rt?lE(band
    ^lE
    eq,J +lilql+. .szlgql^l E+l ^llE: ^jl 7ll9 ltl flQQ. b, structure)E BCql4. ++ql^J: s, p, d 9HIBE gzITI4es
    dq gql 398 azls+ E"&g +: Bq+EillolEl. .J,J, a%I, +q Bc¤ trlEol ^Jtr ae.g-EA,l E.5 trl7l +e4 eE ill+l^l
    +BL, 4i%1, +^I, +^f 4ale+ ,Jol77l^19 flrl {zfz} !i ,ll E+. qlq4rl= olfi eulp ,JE qLJzl ifolT} Ell+ z+71
    ^I*.
    4. tg ^llEq 6dql
    ITHE 4^ldg ;zle u-efl fllg E',J 4 ullEgl, dztzl q +g qlqzl t}4el eHlge dol'J Ell g-s-6J
    cubic lattice)zt gqzlil. +9 qq^l=,11+ z++. ol qlEq ++g d7l dtrtre+ gdtrtr7I +
    ^ilgE 4 EE
    r](body-centered
    +Cq 4xLEg +7le +gE Ec EIEJ 4rl(face-centered cubic n, ++"Jg n++ 5Cg ,*=E+.
    lattice)7| Eqd+.
    554 123 -,r^llef CA^|I

    olE:d r.iJl(12.str) ot*¤ zi{t(ionic solid)b o}olgrl *o18"-a zI3 tszl-z} qH A!+6Iq ^JdE Ez}=d=ol Ezlolr+. EelaEJ
    =
    +dElq 9leq. fEg tdzl qlq oe rle. EE4 9l+. olgS (plastic)$ "JHl4etr 94 "Jqg 716ll +or* BEll= "JE + 9i
    +q tln z++ol ,il+ r7l qlEql olg a* pIEIEE +=ee,l] : Eeolq. TIgg ¤L6I B^Jg tr|^l "J5 + ?l= +E.al.= C7r4
    + ol$$ {afzf 4114,+ olgE r7l7l- +^6}E olgE
    +E+. C EzlaEJ(thermoplastic)ol4lr. 6'lr-, Hl7Iq4 cI+4 +A " tr
    ^l
    olE .Jq3 4{trI. (.Jolg4 $ol$,r.fol$) .Jq+ ("}olgr} * "JEzl ullE.ll 7B6Iq B^Jg +^l EIE + S= +qlallE elBrl8
    olg golg ol+ql olg 4a oJ4. eJdi{l(elastomer)E 6
    ^pl, +olgr+ ^IolE) Hlgqol ¤|'=6t71
    EaFrq(thermosetting plastic)ol
    e6J ++Ee r{zlzl d4. ++4 eol olg a'J cI.JEq +3= "JalE Ep_lzlr+ ++il + r eg x]46lE fl4 e"js-e q5o1
    4?d.14. rq+ ae d6l-= r*= olgEol 4d4os d+6J 7l= E^J 7]Eg !Lol5 EAol+.
    f S.oeE HI+I+E "J+4ee + {lzl a-+ a"J +.J ++ql^1tr d71=E HJt(addition polymerization)q^l= Ezl¤ol '*a 9l
    + zlE+. c+6J +a= olgSE ^Jql4e rTle+ dQl^lql^J gol 'J z.¤6J¤
    gq 4lES a!}g ^J^Jqiq. q= 5q qlBfll9 +
    gql 4+ ololgE Hlql q4 g4{+. o16 e6Jg gq g4qg{q ,,.11-e.S eq}g
    "JE+. +
    ^-+^
    E EE E!8(condensation polymerization)q^l= +$!l$
    Exld ts^lrt 6J etr
    !.i1(12.6tr) Erltt ?ill(molecular solid)E ^Iolql
    E-=31 9lE g^I E= tszls +dElq fl4. ol -Je tL4zJ ^l +9.$zfz|
    xllzlrlS^l A6Jol
    ^J^JErl.
    qlE Eq olol$ z[$
    ^le d4I ^Iolq^l E ExfTI ,]4ElE^l e+ol s^JElq q3l ++q
    o-e. +zl ollE9l Ezld aa,ll= +g6tn +=dol *4. +=dg
    +"JEol ^JC$4. A zlzl4 ^lE E+C E}+l^lle+El ^JCB +6J
    EztrJ EE .<jlzle| gxlel +g ag^Jq q4 B+41q.
    ill ¤i 41 6J4.
    =8C
    :1E ?E r.i{l(12.7e) E+8 r.= += ?ill(covalent- +.Ji]* ql+E HlaaEcol4. rqLl qL cs9 ees
    =iEtill(copolymer)

    networksolid)= r"+ a'Jql e-lt} Aq+ rE +=-a E¤Bl (crystallinity)E ,*= +EtxllE 914. Aqld e+q+ ql6}q
    ^le =^Jql
    9li g4-=e +dqq 9lq. ++d :rE +z il^llb +^l^J n,ll acE= e^l e"d=r+ ¤!6J^ll +^l¤! zlz]|zltl aEq q4 94
    tr+ g{ trl ++61q, +:dol ++. +soJ qlE, tr}olo}gEe+ Tl4. 'J ulaJill ^l¤.9 sg gzl
    ^l¤E ¤a6l+ Eil?|il(cross_
    +gol 9ltrl-. trfololgEq^] E^ gzl+ ^ls +-e +^=ql E6ll linking)oll E6ll^.lE +'Jiilg 5^Jg rrll 96.t9 s=+. n+=
    4 Hl+lqq 9ln, +tsql^l ts^ g^tE sp'? d6Jg E4q q4¤ zl3 ElE(vutcanization) +Age' A-g qI g^I ii}
    ^l+ql E6ll
    +g BC6Jr+. sJEill(semiconductor)t ++E+= ¤d pa1x1"3
    ?aJ9 qI4."14.
    dzlE dE6I= Lallola, EElitl(insulator)E d4 dzlE AE6l
    zl 9+= a;-|lolr1.
    LftEe(12.98) E?ol "Jilg E= olxt?loe +861, "JEI49
    E 100 nm ol6}e zlolzlE, Eeq .+Cg H++. ol z$Eal =zl
    eg flA HlEille+ GaAs, InP, CdTeet ag sl'JE Hl
    Si, Ge$
    ,*= EAg LEEfl(nanomaterial)ol4l6.Jr+. oJ^ldg
    Eillzl ++C 1E +^E 6s,t} qol+. HlExllql^] ill+"141 A.J = ^lE
    ol r-r0 nmoJ HlESl flztol4. ol azl +=q^l EeE qa4
    C E^l gulBol tllJzflxl(valenceband)E BC6ln, Hlq il= H]
    qlLlzl= rTlql q+ B+11+. '=.+ +LE^l+ l-100 nm a7l
    ?.Jd +^I 9-ElBol EEtrl(conduction band)E ¤dt}+. g^t7f
    H9lql^l dill E¤!}E += Er,l +E4 Scg r*:+. qlE E
    trle+ dEtrl: utzJ4(bandgap, E )ol4l. 6lE qlLlzl+;: ^Js E g4d+. +
    4qq 9l'1. At.J 7Jol7l z}|olA4 + fl^ zJg 4zl *CE il "l 4u"14 rzl9 +q a+ HI*C"I 7l^1i1, ^4ol
    olzf f;zlaifl q 449 r7l= +zI6J+. L4+ EoFq g+ 4r+, ^l+t+^l94zlzl ?*91'J sp' edg r*
    E+Eol EEJ(dopine)¤ HlExllE dzl dE.Eb 984zll 6zl * ^lltr+ +4 Eii.llE "JEfl+. c.orl ?¤ gBldg EA ?lzl-
    E"J B^J¤ 44+ Ezlol+. +4 +LF'r= +S+g "Jot g
    "B HlEill: E+Eol dz}99 dEqq 989 dxlzl ¤
    6J4.
    E}Eillola, p¤ HlEillE E+Eol aTiqq flzlzlrl.ll d
    il B4lol4. *9 "JoI gfl ElBq q-+ HlEiUq ++^lH 4Eg
    ^l]6l-=
    gn ^dA qeg EE3(hole)o1 ¤zl]6}.= Hls:1o1r1 + 9t+. +¤e-e.+q e4E Bg+oJ r4¤3 +^9 olil-?l B
    ^l-E Ellol+. ole+ ag +r=Eag dzl-=o 4, lllEl ?.1, qioJ 44, EoHl
    5:Br'i1 |
    (1 2.8 tr) 3ifi{l (p olymer) * i ?l cJffi | (monomer) 4l at'=
    +*6171 flt ¤*zI dflqa fl+.

    qt+ tel 0t8=E+-d+ofl qzlE8 trtE¤ -g+ ?lotot-drt


    . d!*/EzlzJ 6Jg ++6Ir, e+9 alolql qE 6ljl +¤ g+ EAi t2.21,t2.22
    Cel6Jrl-(12.24).
    =7)E:z4lE
    ilol= ol6llqlqlrz.r¤).
    E.44 . 4zI ++9 +7I Col4 9lE ol*E ¤B"J+. s7l^lE ol,+g
    +{ ¤+=^dE
    #^li 12.12-t2.r6 g^l 4zle+ 771^19 $ilg g^l 4zl-= oJzl'g + ilEq +q.
    . aac r.a.ile+ ulaa^J -ulls.] ilolg olollflr|(rz.z¤). iid 4zlc+ Ec 4^Iq^l 4xldg flilE ol6lqlqlz.z4).
    +fl s+ E7.ni t2.te,t2.2o +B Sf E4l: 12.2r, 12.22, r2.zs-t2.28
    . B9
    ^llE.
    44 4^l.4aI 4q, {x}{ ,(}ol$ ^}++ZlE ol6ll . ++g Edr+ c4g ¤Be+(r2.3a).
    555
    =* =r1l
    +H g+.841: r23, t23t-12.33 Cqq}+(r2.79. +¤ ¤+ E4l: r2.8
    =
    .++.1^-lEE rB"E+q olgd nille|-,+C aalE dE44 .+714 a6}g +i16I9 HI=.i19 trlrJ4 qlLJ^lE Elr+4. trl
    "JEE 4l&++. +4]6l+ gzlL+ olgel HI^lE-s_-a+El EB zJ4"l 94tl LED-E+q EJ=qb *zl9 sltrg 41.!xlQ$z.z
    ++l 4le ,qL E^Jqq aolE Zlt+4Q2.s4, rz.sg). A. +H ¤+ +41: 12.71,12,22,12.75-t2.Bo
    . nB E.E4 pB sBg F6Iq HlE.illE dEEE + 9l:
    ^llq6J
    .+.J qF.r+ ¤+g 6JE-el zlol= ¤EqL+. zl$+ 6J;., E^]l EI EJBS q+++1rz.tg). +A g+ +^\', 12.7i,12.24
    +, ++rJs++E ^folE ilol= 7l+qlq1rz.:3). .++lxll,g4^q, EzI^C ¤4^q, gAp+C ¤4^q, +C
    +fl ¤+ #4:12.41-12.M ii, *L+Elill, ix} at}gl +qE ag.J4(rz.s¤).
    . ++ a6Jq dzl uI4 EBg ¤B,t+02.+4). +fl ¤+E7il: 12.81
    +H S+E4l: 12.4e .+9lzllE+El qBzl +l}illTl B^JEl:xlE olollaln, +tlillE
    .++E d^ftrl +48 uJ$zl fl;ll, E ++E +=d, #Ed, A B^J6l+ Ez}gl 544 HI¤¤ ol6l.JtrI. EzI='{} H}gon+ +oJ
    EE a6&9 AC49E ql+6}71 fl6}q ez} eHlB EBg ol +* H}gel il-ol= ol46.J+1rz.a¤).
    a-"gci(rz.+d). +H g+ E4: r2.sl, tz.ss,t2.s6 +E ¤+ ¤:41: r2.8s-12.87
    .olg HI^IE+ dB4se+q olgc i1^ll9 +4E ql=++ .+.Jrll rJe] tE zl+ol qBZl +Elillgl Er.l4 q^dql g
    ^l¤
    1tz.s¤). *¤ g+ +4:12.63,12.64 6Jg +EzlE- oloNql4(rz.s¤). +fl ¤+ #^{l: t29t-12.e4

    +4E+q {e^lg q146r1irz.s¤).


    . olg^J ri.llE . AAE rzlTf r+krrlEl zzle-¤4== q, HlEiJle+++E
    +fl g+E4l: r2.s7,r2.ss ol qB4 H6l+zl= zl¤oJ4(rz.s¤). =d
    .ezH ralE +=e4 *34 z|-*.E E^lrJ fl+ aC ++ IIL +H S+ E4: 12.e6, t2.e7,tz.too
    BE +eql^] 6ll^l6J+(r2.6¤). +E g+E4: 12.64 . gElHI, +^ +r=.Fri-, r4flq +4e+ r++ 5Cg qfl+
    .HlEz]le+ ¤¤^Iq1 Qla|{ flz}2iq, d:aul, qrJ44 ae +q (tz.gg). +ts g+ +xll: 12.101,12,102

    zo Hl--e-.,\I
    L O -r
    O!-
    s}+^l 1!el$ oJole+ golg HH9l+
    +q}^l ++l'J+olg+ "J"lg Hl]9l+
    lrz.rl .Jolg Hl]9l+ "l solS Ell+l+e} olg aEI s+6JEel ¤e4
    ^Iolel+Al^l

    OJ+
    E4I
    tso-e.H.= TllLJ r2.2 rHql +Eit oli|fl f=91 4aI9 (a) t9 4leE:e,],<l
    t2.t o|elql F 56el arllE +E{fltrL 6I++ H}E^lloln, 4 e. (b) olil-?l 4zlE BEIE ea6l^le(rB r2.4-e.+q).
    6l+= a¤4"1+. qL aol HlEilloln, qL aol ¤ts (c) B9l
    ^llsql
    4 849 +(¤44 Ag^q)ol P 4L+ 9lE
    =
    illql7.l, olrq¤Eq ¤B6r^le. [rz.r¤, 12.74] zl? lrz.z4l

    oooo oooooooo
    o o ooo
    U o o .)

    (, oooooooo
    o ooo
    a\ (_,

    o U o (l
    ooooooio
    (i) (ii)

    12.3 F zlzl n+Aq {EJ ee|:go1 !lq. qe 4C"l ?49


    ¤dr+ dcg LtElqlE a=d"J7l? [rz.r¤]
    I
    556 128 _I^le[^]*rtl

    (a)

    +
    (a) (b)
    (b)
    \, 12.7 ffi gzl. +6J41 + dzl dsdg *4421 +lg ag qL
    4oJxl : ol+= Eq ¤B6I^le. jz.eg, rz.sdl
    (a)

    @#
    r2.8 EEE HIE^llE d^I +4E:Hql 444flr4.7r2.t4)
    (a) Arlel Bnl + qL {ol flz}z}rlolz}!

    t G) qe aol dEtrloJTI?
    (c) E.s.9 qL ++ol qa4g 444=zl?
    (d) ?Elc +zI sElBe ol+q4 9lE ae qL qtTt?
    (e) olag n¤ HlErlloJzL pB HlE4loJTI?
    (0 HlE4lTl Ga, Si, p + 5.8^lle g
    ^lEl+.ol+E ^l-s¤
    F{tzt?
    ^b

    r2.4 gxlTf ulg¤ + 4zI + qL 4ol aoJ +"JoJ7l? ltz.zg) Bnl

    1 t, .,t
    t, + + ulol 9t= Mo
    t"/t, + + oil
    Ll
    rl ifl?Tl Mo

    (i) (ii) Anl


    tz.s (a) f9d ^I4lq +4t
    EIgg qtr =.F9 *9 ullg"J
    zl? b) +.JE 4+ql fl= 4 s.+el HH9l+: g"IoJzI?
    (c) *oJ9 .E-olS *ql fl= izlE s.^l¤ ets9 tsI+l+= t2.e trIE + +*^,llE TIHEE rBq +4H4. rHql
    ^le =
    g"l_oJz}? srz.zg) A6Iq, qL ++zll7} trl egg asE ql^JEl=7n q:=
    lsl \3flo1 r.l katEz}? [rz.sd]
    (
    Qt

    a
    a
    1
    .i .+

    I a
    2

    12.6 "Jolg(L+^q)4 +olg(+E/-q)ol Hllg¤ + 44 + q ?I (a) (b)


    ctulig¤ qL aoJ^l ol+E Eq ¤Edl^le. lrz.sg)
    12.10 rHq +e ql ,lle.l CdTe LI]LAC ,tl++Pq Boltl
    ^1tr
    *,J+Ig LI{HtrI. 44E +:reCe ++4 ,lEq^ql E
    EA E^lt 557

    4 9l+. ^l-aql 4-qd *99 =rlolq *g%Ig.JeaEI. (c) \if o1 +n d7l dtrtr7i ++r
    4*zl9l Eq 9lb +r.Aaq B+ rzl=,tle 4-E4. 4 (d)++ a6J9 rE +a
    r.ACE ¤+ f-zl= 7J4 q.o. 3.s, 3.2,2.8 nmol4.
    12.15 L++ 4 p+.JEg qtr BEile-l A{($^IC, !:4d, .19d,
    Irz.z9. rz.g4) E"
    #C :E
    +e).J^l +4.11^ls.
    (a)ol: $zloll +.0 nm +La{ol Eq fli7}? (a) CaSOa O) Pd (c) Ta2Or(\id, rczz"C1
    =,7lol
    o) qL $zloll z.a nm =.zlel 4udcol il=7p (d) 7l-ElloJ(CsHroNroz) (e) EFQI(CrHJ (0 pr
    =.q
    (c) E 100 nm-Brf a7l4 cdTe EC9 4zJ4¤ r.s ev 12.t6 .+g 4 +'JEe qtr ¤4E AA(E^}^J, *4d, ol$d.
    =
    ol+. ol a4etr+q *=q= H9 ++r+ d*ib 9"f *+c rE +a)ql^l q44^ls.
    "JzI?
    ol Hg 7l^l*d, zle.ld + q.L a.J7l? (a) InAs (b) MSO (c) HgS (d) In (e) HBr
    ^Ie_ld,
    t2.17 700 "cq^J q4 Eeol 9l+. nillb E4lola Eql +
    +i
    1

    I I 3 I zl *=4. ol Eeg q¤ ¤49 r.i{(E^}^d, ?4C, ="9


    d rE +4, olg^d)oJ7l?
    12.18 100.cql^J .++ g^! Eeol 9l+. -r.41= E9l 51, l.ztl+
    r +eqol d7l +E4lol+. ol Eag qB B4E r8l(e^I
    C, ++C, *+C rg +4, olg^d)oJ7}?
    IF!

    ri{lel+^(12.28)
    2 1l 4 t2.te (a) ead :ZillE +4'llb rBg g^l ++ql^l r?-l^le.
    (b) Hle4c rillE +4'.I= rHg gz} ++ql^J r.4^le_.

    12.20 HlaAdql d?-l7l(sior)s] "JEi o] 2.2 s/cm3oJ HlH, a


    ritPtE+(12.1E)
    l2.ll ror? a6Jg Bzld rgl "l rofc :tE +3 n^llql4 .Jq acfl ^J¤E 9E.= z.os g/cm3ol4. q+ + olel ag "J
    B+. trl-.3 + olE + ¤,+el r4lz} as.e| +bdql 9lq^l sel zfolS 7l* 4 ¤B6J ag?
    ,ll+ +E olrg¤ zf+ 3 ¤B;J ag? (a) Hlaac ¤4zlE a".+c :E 74 r.z1lo1z1u3, 4¤g

    (a)tszfd nill= ++c lE +a r^llBtrI E *6J 4".? ?+d i18loltrl.

    e.Jg qlEI. O) HIaAC da]zlE g^l "J* 4^1tr AA+g+.


    (b)E^Id adql^l E^I:E=e tsxltg .+"J t-E z}+9.e (c) 4¤3 EIA¤^d dq7ltrE| q tB6I+.
    (d) 4¤e EIAAC d4zle4 q B+l 7l4o} 6JEl-.
    a,*qq fl+. ^lls¤
    (c) *-I?d aE +4 ilrllq^] gxls=g *-+d ni.llql^1tr
    (e) Eleac dETIql flE g^lb=
    4gql 9i= flxle| ul:r.
    q EJ ¤+qq 9l+. g EI alilg +aql^.] s44 oe. +olxl $=4.
    (d) +zlc a4lb Eo#d aE +4 ili,lltr+ cJ
    =ulolci.
    [z1 ,Je rzlE
    ^Jtr
    EI= +q +"Jql ql+ + 7l^l sllflg rB
    ql +4H4. 4 7="il 4aI{ (a) olil-?lE9l ,tllsE:4
    t2.t2 +LY d4 cltrel 7lE4.J cBol4. siL 4ololgEela
    (b) 4z| ulE ulBE9 ,J
    g +4E
    'z*=trI. ^le. ^iolel 4 7E +6}]r, 4ul
    olzlzt$2,1, +E^lE aa6l^le-. (c) olz|fl 4zlq ="+E
    (a) sib +z}^d .1141, ++d i1a,ll, ol$.! rill,
    "ofC :E
    +a -r.zll6 qL A"J7l? ac6.I^ls(rB I2.4_E +El).
    (b) +4= ¤al Hls"6}q ol&E+ +i(sioJE u.I5a, ol&
    B
    Itl +48,}l+ *El6Ir, Eql +SCol4. slor5 gz1 Y Y

    C rrll, ++d r4l, ol$.tJ r.ill, oo*C f.E +z a L l.

    ill+ qL 4ollzlt**zl? Y Y
    rl-¤- gz1flzt, +zL olg)E q¤ eqE .Jqol l. L
    ^lolql5
    +xll6l=7I?
    -1213(a)
    B^Id AC O) ++^J aE +^ 44 (i) (ii)
    (c) olgC AA ++C aC
    (d)

    r2.r4 q+ql Llg.J 44el +ag r*= 43rj ¤48 +


    12.22 7Je rTlE
    ^1tr
    Ef= +e.l +"Jql
    'I+ + 7l^l lllBg rB
    ++H+. 4 7=oll 4ot9 (a) olil-fl +91 ^llEE r4
    -1819 ql
    E..JzI? ,rle. (b) 4zI Eq ,J
    (a) l4ldxllE E6ll dzlE rq+Col k¤- ^iolE 4 7E +6In, 4^t EqEg
    olzl. zJ$zl, +E^lE ea6l^le. (c) olilg 4^tE ++E
    (b) F=-z $|{ol t}ql4ee *g
    ACd1^ls(rg 12.4-tr+El).
    558 128 r^lletC^^H

    12.30 c.E+'. oJF"1ts, 5+e-fl9 E.EJ6I+ El'*gq El+l ^llE


    fBq +ElH4. (a) ol aaq 4zI ++b +9."J7I?
    =
    (41 4E 4zI ulrlzt EF +zlol+.) (b) d'f,^le +t
    ^]E
    "J7l?

    3.5s A
    3.5s A
    (i) (ii)

    12.23 g^l fl* 4a|q +l+ss to} Eq


    4ul¤ ^Jtl6il. EBL
    -trZ}. E=4*so'e+zlgtr|. qts++el g^l 4^l7IEJ
    Eq^l=7I?

    o.ra A
    l;#
    tz.z+ edxl oJ* 4zl¤ ^J^J6ta EoJ 4zl-= +ql +rldg *r-
    4 Eq aol= E"J6fZl +zl6J i|] EAI 4ztr3 g-6e-e. E
    el !.zI. 4zl ElEl tE
    ^'ll
    4EE B'J6}^1"J, 49 q ol^J
    e0'z| o1qq. qtr ++q g^l 4zl7l slEqzl=7|?

    _t + O" eo, O F

    ?ill(12.3E)
    12.25 LllT++ qL aE e0'7I otH +91 ^llsE ,*b .Silg g^l =+d
    12.31 g^ K, Ca, "JE= zlzJ 0.86, 1.s.3.2,4.5 glcm3
    Sc, Tie-l
    oJ* 4zl-= 9g 4.Jzt?
    oltrI. olE + 6h+= trIE
    (a) r|* 4zi 0) +HJ 4^I (c) c.* 4zI ^l]d E"J +3E aC+6E1. ^ll
    7l]= EHJ +aE AA++4. ^lld EttI +aE ¤A+
    Ed
    (d) t^l4zI (e) c-%I "t +^l4^I
    6l+ 49 qL a.J^l ^146l.r., r ol+E "J6l.^lg.
    12.26 E* ++l elq Eq 7Jol7l E+ E'J6J +91
    ^llE ^ilEE? 12.32 (a) TiCl4, G) NiCo ffi, (c) w, (d) Ge, (e) ScN 6 *49
    (a) r|* 4zi O) 8* 4zI (c) +l!LI4zl'
    (d)&^I4xt (e) c-%I q +^l4^I
    E{g z}d aee ql{LEIE E4g qL t."Jtn
    rz^l: :eq +4U a4 aol, "JHI4 os ++C g^q^'l +e
    nzz Ae E%L 4^l-= r*= g^q +91 ^llsql Eql¤ + 9l= 6l
    9= ^il zflel ^lg Etg +=q t9 ^]lsE r.316ll E^I.
    4 fl4a5 H zl]'Jz}? (a) zl* a"J6}al g^l-7} +ol= +4= q- 4oJ7l?
    (a) I (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) a (e) s
    (b) TltL c717il g^t7l +ol= +ab qL aoJTI?
    12.28 EC .J* 4^l= r*E g^E ++l Eilg + 9l= 4l
    ^llEq
    a fl449 q 7ll.J7I?
    (a) I (b) 2 (cl 3 (d) + (e) s

    rz:l ,laq- 4d(nickel arsenide)9 EIgl rBql q4*r+.


    ^llEE
    (a) ol ¤c9 4^I =o+E +E.J7I? (b) dE^le Sltz}?

    3.57 i\ +rA 7IB +4c


    'q 12.34 4E #4(gz}=Jol 22.e9 glmol)9 "Js= O.SZ g/cm'olE,
    r; 4ld .J* +4q aag Bc6Jq.
    L 1x; ol zfEgl f(.rVa: O.OZZ x 1023/mol)= ol+6f
    Avogadro
    q, 4EE g^l HlzlE¤ 4lt}6t^le-.
    goll^l E raJ 9loll^1 E raJ (b) cE.ol ,ll+ 4E6I4l Hlso6I^l ?J:=+E E 9lql
    Elg + ?ItrI. (a)91^l g-oj z|-e=
    ^E¤E"J 3"J
    ol+4q,
    O*t !e'
    gxlt 559
    =*
    +"J +aE r*i a5.E "Jr.E 4l+la},<ls. AEg qd +, ++rJ +qlE+ql^l +EqlzlE AA4^le.
    6lEql EAYTI? (a) Feo.gzSio.o: (b) Feo.ooNio.ao (c) SmCos

    rz:s qq*g 6.j e,rle,lel 7Jol7l3.833A.J Ed "JoJ Bg ,qls 12.44 oI4E aCg ,*= 44E qHql ql6}q il+l qH, E^ll 'J
    E r*= aag Bd6J+. (a) ol4E sxl9 flzt EI^IE¤ +, A+rJ p+6J¤ +ql^l Fl,tzlE ed6}^le.
    olrl$ #49 "Js= al4l6l^ls-.
    Zl4}6f^le-. (b) (a) Cuo.oeZno.:a (b) AgSn (c) Tio.qgOo.or

    r2s6 vJ++ aoz'Cglr] ;lld E* +4A?*Y adg Bt++. laa5q.g 4 E+ql ql6lq +r+ 419 eA6}^le.
    (a) 4 t9l ,qle9l e*¤ ca gxlE P zl]'Jz}? (a) zl{t oF.g E^ll 6F.tr4 $Col ¤4.
    (b) 4 ca flzt"ll ztat Tlvlolql *= gz]+ P zllqlz}? (b) E^ll 6J¤-g uli6J olg HlzlE-g += g^E
    ^Iolql^l
    (c) rJf9 gzf +^lEi(I.e7A)og+q ++l BCg+.
    ^'lls+E^Jr,l
    g zgo| aE Zl4l6}^le-. (c) 6J=:ql^l El++ fl4= dq gAq4 ?*=trI.
    (d) olgEql^l a+++E gEE 4lt}6}^le-. 12.46 Ll+ 4 ++q1 46lq +r+ zlltg eA6}^le.
    (a) ?4zJ P+.J¤g Aql{ c}qzl aCg ,*=E}.
    r:-:zz ,Jfe dgql^J 4 HE AolTI s.s88 A.J EC E%l *+1
    r*b aAg ¤d'J+. (b) +54 aFq +c+e +r.lol4.
    ^lleE gzl= E^]] .+lilE il7,l6J4.
    (a) ,Jf, flx}9 SzI tlzlEg Zl4}6l^ls-. (c)
    ^HloJ4^zloll,! aE$
    (b) ol gEql^l a+ ++E EJEE 4l4l6l-^le-. la47'4e--4 Aol tr4 tflql^J ^l-&El='4g r*= +'g "JE7l
    rz.re flzI ElzlEol r.sz Agl gzlE +C¤ trl-g BEHE E%I + 9l6lq +4 qE gdE ol+6}q qH|g "J5qoh 6l-=71?
    9-] PqEAge 4l,t}6f^le-. 44ql46Iq qtr B{fl6$0l {Cq=zl$ p{of,tle.
    ^-llEg
    (a) 94 + 0) Be4 * (c) *E4 + (d)
    9rl 0) Hd EBI
    (a)
    =+l + gq+
    rz.s .J+oltsg Ed E%L^llEE ?*+44& B^J+4. 12.48 gE q4 E-= ++g flfltl rtzlr;l=
    =rlq 4=EL g$+g Efl ^lls aolql
    (thermal expansion)$
    (a) Efl
    ^llsql
    E*g Al flzlE H zl]elz}?
    (b) 4 gF"lk gz}9 ul9.l+= g"I"Jzt? qBrll g6}-3 e 4"J71? e-E +7171++9 lrJ-5aql trlil=
    (c) gFults9 gz[ q]zl$(r.43 A)-e--e+El Bf.l 6J E c.rtb Flalzlz
    ^lls
    aol 4= 4l1}6}^le. ee(12.48)
    ^J?]E
    (d) "JFults ++e] gEE 4l4}6f^ls. =+
    tL4' '++ ¤Bol ?oJxl, 4l.JzlE Tj¤6f^le-.
    rz.ao "lE g^7I4lC EEJ 4zl-= ?*E 449= BC"J+. +91 (a) fr$$ dzl¤ol ul¤xHplq9 9l7l qEql E¤ dzl d
    ^il
    g oJ e.!alel 4olE +.oza AolI, aAq gEE e.30 g/ Etg
    cm3ol4. flael flzlr3g alt}6tjl g^E
    'z*Etrt.
    ^l4E}^ls. (b);:+g +E nrllEtrE| 3IrJ6I7l qEql +g dzl dE.
    rz.ar tffi4 ++rJ sldJEql 4+ ¤H + $*4 A+? cg,*++.
    (a) 3# lHel ql ql"l+. (c)f,$$ T}gdl-fi.g rll ++6171 trIEql 9ds4g z;
    (b)'g;'E E ri= "Jg'+ ++ ol^Jg ;:+EE "JEq^l =
    =+. gol
    E a^Jol H6lzl *= ElilE'o14. (d) ++g ++q 4lE"d ¤t qlq4= Bl{4s}¤ d
    (c) ;-4rJ pI6JEg 9Cqi aCq + ++ oldr$ fr{e-e EIEqI gdE^JolzI+.
    ^l¤ol dzll dg:.I^l*6171
    rJ+El^l ?+=tr|. r2.s0 ++ Eqlrl ¤Hle qqql, += eHle qqol sE t4ql
    ".I5qd E}6JEoln, tHige.
    (d) + ++ ollt$ frtrpol gzl +=ql^l gBEE F zl| tc=q*g "L ollz} Hlz.l= B qHql L=E ++ ++¤ "J
    oltlE El= adg r*= t}-s--+ Br]qr., ts-a9 ts+ol Ag rI edAI y,44r+. 4qq1 r.=qal 9*e ++ ++g
    yrAAE+E, r olfiE ¤ds.t
    ^8Cg+. "JAg rll ,,I4 E= Ed4
    (e) $z,3 EP'g +^J6l+ flzl¤9 a7171r,l+ E|= trll4 *aq^l B-6.I^le_.
    ilE ".IEqe + 9l+. r2.sl 4E fl^l24tr g d¤ .t'lf$ +2fl-e. B dB Eil6J
    ^l¤ql
    tz.tz 4* dBql ql6}q +r+ 419 aa6f^l-e-. +zt sElB Es.=:r.H n.zzql +ElH+. EIE g^I6zll-tr
    (a) zl* tP,* i14l +'-!olzlE}, E^]] 6ts9 ¤.dg 6J=-"14. g dB qloJ tszt eulB E-s.E EJEa, -Esg
    (b) il+ tP.g 4zi qlq fl= '*,ll' flxlz}'+e' g^le
    ^l¤ql ^l-s
    4q EH-E+q B-61^le-.
    il++qzl"J. E^l] E^:a.g 4^l.Jq flY'+e'flxlz}'* (a) -ErEoll P zll9 Ezl sElBol 9lbzl?
    Ell'g^]¤ 9l+. (b) 7t+ *.g glulxl= ,*E E^| -sHlBql Q zl$ ulrlzf
    ^Iolql
    (c) ils tHql^l= flxl¤9 q}^lEe
    ^Je
    Hl+6I^lEJ, E!
    9l=7I?
    gz}ts-r+ gd z}4.
    4l{H!ql^l=¤i^ll flz}zl?q_l4z} (c\ 7l* +g qlq4= ,*= ez} eulBql $ zll$ ufQz[
    12.43 oI4E aCg r*b 44el qHq 4+q 1+l'ffi, E^l] 6J ol L ?LO
    I:
    ^\=/
    560 123 r^llef C4^H

    (d) 3]n "ilulzl d-,? E^f sHlg(HoMo)ql g! zfl$ ulclz|


    ol L 7LO
    I!
    ^^E/
    (e) 4zl qlLlT.l tsld+ +^l-eHlg(LuMo)ql P zll9 ot4
    7l ilY7l?
    (0 ol a+E HoMo-LUMo qLl^l ^lole| ^Iaz[ a+e]
    HoMo_LUMo qlLlxl ilolE Eli6lB 9ul.*zl?
    rz.sz 4E gzl.87H-aS dB ql6}q +41 r2.sle.l 4EJ
    ql 46lq B-a}^le.
    ^l¤q
    r2.s3 (a) 94 Ag4 Mo 6 ¤¤ol q +3 4eE ql+Elb ae? o Co

    (b) g^ Zne| si
    44E A+ql46lq r
    + g^Jol EJ +g aetr q+q=
    ol]gg {ga}r.le.
    a.g? o o

    t2.s4 t++ ¤B +.JrJE -.+el ++-++ A6Jol Hli.4 eI6I+


    12.5e Alabandites *al "J7lq=(rD(Mns)-tr *,(.1¤ +7lEol+.
    ol+7lEg .Jg +48 7t4. rvrns Elgl ^llEel + E^l
    = ^pJql 4e^l *= ag? elE aol= 2s "Cq^J s.2B AolL+. MnSE 'JE= glcmra
    (a) 9"J4 ++g r+E ++E=trtrI'J eg6}+.

    O) geq ++g rJE


    alt}6t^le.
    ^l-=
    + 9lg "J+ +eEI.
    (c) 9,J4 ++e += ++E=E+ Hl+Col e+. 12.60 clausthaliteE ¤41ts4 B(puse) o e ol+q4l *EolEI. *
    (d) "JrJEl ++g 4=;$==-E-c| +Edol q ++ E.g "Jg +=E '*E ecg Bd,++. 25 "Coil,r.l pbseg
    (e) "=tJ4 ++g +E ++Er!-El ol$r{ olltJzlz} q *q. "JsE s.zz g/cm3olr}. pbse Eg ^lls 6J E^IEE AolE
    rzss ga Mo, zr, y, NbE \!flol 67I61-b +^lql.t u]]g6t Al4}6t^le.
    EC Bql= rdop+ +4= r*i aCg BC
    ^le. +=del a6J¤ ¤B6I^ls_.
    41,l1-(ucs)g

    r2.s6 El_g 4 +elql^l +=aol TI\L t¤ aee qltLqb ++


    6J+. +?l + s^]49 zJolb s.asz Aol4.
    -rr51(a) ol Bql=^llEr*E ugsE trJE= 4l4}6}^ls.
    g +lt7l?
    (a) +(Au), ellb(ne),
    (b)
    "JE tiemmanite(Hgse) $^l dolg"J +4= r*= rgl
    ^ll+(c, ,gg B^d++. ol *Eql ql.J +g ,!le aJ E^Jele.l a
    (b) +HlE(Rb), E4trqH(Mo), tlE(In)
    olE e.oes [olr]. Tiemmanite9 tg 4l^Ie.l +
    (c) F4t (Ru), .-trEE(sr), TfEE{cd)
    ol+= ¤E6l^le.
    ^JlEzl-
    fl ^lls!.E}
    0l8c rillst Extd r.{(12.5E, 12.6tr) =
    (c) EJEzI El E4g qy 4"J71? "Jsg r1o15 qE21
    12.57 TausoniteE Sr, o, Ti-e. ol+q1l
    "JEolq, rBq 4ElB ¤HE} d'JZT?
    =
    *al,J"l E* t9 ^JlE5 r*E4. 12.62 4&,4zl'JglrJ RbIE NaclB +aE r*= AAg Bd6J+.
    (a) ol +Eq dEl^le #t.JzI?
    (a) ols Hlzl+g ol+6lq E%L ++1 + u_r..le]el zlol
    (b) riq HH9lqq fl=t4E += P 7il"J71? ^llE
    ql+61^le_.
    (c) 4E olgEE dxll ull9l +lAg gqBzl +16ll^]= =
    "Jd ol A.g ol+6}q
    6l+ +fl tllg7lzl nEl6llo} 6J+. 4EEEq uHglqq O) "JEE Alt6}^ls.
    glE&aE += q 4l"J7l?
    (c) LoJ9l,tJ*aE CsclB +ae 4o194. olg Elzl+g
    ol+6}q roJ9 nul ¤qlq 46J E%L +gl + E^l
    ^Jls
    4e] ,JolE ql+6f^le.
    (d) ol <tg ol+6}q "JEE 4l,t}6u.le. ol EJEe+ o)ql^l

    a ,\E-eE 4ltFl "JEE ^lE Hli6l^le.


    ]J;et c"t, csl, Nart: 471q++4= r*+ ACg BC"JtrI. r
    o tt^ 4 r2.26q1^-ll 7I7,lE ^Js E+E +arl +ElLt gl+.
    o EtolEfE
    (a) ol9 HlzlE Cs*(r:1.814), Na+(r:1.16 A), Cu*(r:
    0.74 L), t-(r:2.06 A)g olgag 4 plaJgol ,*Z 4
    A +== q+6}^le.
    (b) 4 +4ql^l olole{cl olgq HI+li= $oltz}?
    ^lls7} ffi$ Bc|.
    12.58 coe* oE s'*61= +6JEel +91 co
    gzlz| g{afal 12.6a E*4(rutite)4 B4(fluorite) +aE oI4E rHql L+4H
    flzlz}+lid9l 9ln, o ++l ^llE LU+ql
    ?14. ol EIEIEE drl4g +6t^le. .-.+9 ,tlsi ^J4= + 4(¤.o1¤-3 +4ee). ol + Eeg oJolg4 ¤.olgg ElTl
    r:zoJ olg A{} E}6JEel ,}t} gH}4.J +4 BElol+.
    9..JzI?
    561
    =* =r]l
    (a) CaFzq 9q^l olg Hl-zl=! Ca2+(r:1.14 A),
    ZnFzil 12.70 ++d aE +4 nille+ ++C iza-ll + +gr+ Ag sCg
    Znz+(r:0.88A). F-(r:t.tlA)g o1a"4q B^J +a= ?*+ 4? ol- {o3212
    ,*= +'fl¤!+ ++4 +48 E¤ \*d
    '*= +q}+g 44 el+6} (a) ¤C 0) aE (c)

    ^ls. 12.71 EI-Sql +Elu HlEallel aq}44ql^l trl,J4ol ae q


    0) 4 +3q^J oJolgr| golgel ull+l+= 44 gtrloJ7lz Y4."J7l?
    =
    (a) CdS, CdTe (b) GaN, InP (c) GaAs, InAs

    12.72 q-sql +4u HlE4lg a6J 44ql^l qa40l ae q


    Y A"J7l? =
    (a) InP, InAs (b) Ge, AIP (c) AgI, CdTe

    12.73 GaA g+E il{}6}¤ n¤ H}sllE "JEzl g]a}{ caAsE


    f,611
    E6a
    E¤g tr]I gsf, g4=+9."J7I?
    12.74 AsA "J+E il+6}9 pB HlsjlE ".1571 flol{ caas5
    EE6J ql gS_6'J g^.: Fg,"JzI?
    rz-zs ggql^l +iel q{4g t.l evol4.
    (a) ol xrx| qlqzlq ql"J6l+ qel j'Itlg g"Iqlzl.?
    (b) s++E i++tr qi.Jqg qlLJzl o"hg +4.l]= rtg trr+
    .l ularg r*= HE 9lil= +zldg rq Ll4.tl^l
    "ll,
    s. +4= 4oJ9 zlrl*d d+E ¤+61-L-7L A:d g
    +6izl f]:ETL olq$ "J++gg+6h=z|?
    a l (c) *d oI4 gqq H4g nq6lq diI 4"J 6
    ^EIEB
    12.65 Mg2+ olgE dll+liE 'JHI4SE 6olEL ol 7l-Eol 6Jd- *= f,.42| 946;-= ++g Ahle + 9l+. dill +d ¤q
    I'rooozo'4.r. 6IE, +4q e-l6l B+q= +d gqel
    +r. 7IA6I].. ci-g +qlEql^J *o199 Hll9]+=' +61^le.
    yoE guloJzt?
    (a) MgS (b) MgF2 (c) Mgo
    =^l-4t
    12.66 1J3+olgel Hll+li= "JHI4ee 4+ 60l+. 9o189 ull?l E||713 BJsl EIIE|
    ^trlEg
    +E ^l-8-slq +g cltlEql^l Al3*e.1 u119i= aa6}^le. :u^Edol EuoF lEllEal
    (a) ¤Fsfls| olgg 2HH+'loJ AlF3 1

    (b) &El olgg 6El]+]oJ Al2o3 (c) ep} olgg 4ul]+loJ AIN oll
    Ll
    ql4q +r+ 1Ag Aa61^li-.
    '4-o48+ql ^l
    OF

    (a) e^lc rals+++^d _LE+4 i181=EF="+ a+g


    -rt* zlzlzluJ, E4.d r4lel *f ¤Elol ¤t 9="Izl =
    7l
    'llE9l
    Ezlc rx{E +bae gd *+. l/. 4eld
    (b) +E et5o1 A+8, {aCol +e EzITI ulqla4oJ
    E.olg 7*b ts21tr4 s|{ol +e jzillE E}=5 2t3 ul$ (nrn)
    ol
    94. EI+
    12.76 B+BEI 7|EE(cdre)g ql
    "J dzls Seol+.
    (a) CdTe9 vlrJ\e
    =!s+
    12.68 trl-g 4 E+q 46lq ++ TlAg AA6I^le. gEtoJTI?
    (a) Ezl-c aalql 9lq^1, *+ a+q t)ltlzl .J+ o) ol qLlzlql a]l$:ol;$zlz| zlzlE HE r}*g 9"PJzI?
    =ozlalE (c) ultt9 ++.E ql.JqE qlq^l Elg +4Ll1= +4112.7s
    4 o-e, +Edg 6rI6J+.
    6) ezld r.illql 9lq^1. tszfzJ fl9 tllzpl rttlalE "J+ 9 =*.q,t1 ol ii}+g r*: Hgl +lil= +zldg rq
    4eE +Ede 6ztaJ4. +Elt.ll^le.
    88d rE +4 ri1(12.7tr)
    (d) +Ael Hlio}q Cdre= floJ Q $ol g4a1
    bzl. rl 4rllg:+61-=zp ^qEHg
    r2.6e ++c aE +4 r.xJlc{ o1g/3 n4l= E + ++eol E
    + detr+ ++. ++.J tqlqld + ++9 Eeg E+ d7l rnz "lA4g t.74 evol4. cdse-tr "JE LED-tr
    +E]al cdSeg
    drs-21 {!Eq. rBlL+ Eg ^1E ,ll+ +g LtEI\XtrI. +q IL[=qb qe] q*e B"toJz]? ol +E"J7]?
    =dg ^qe
    (a) E9l ¤-ollzl- & qb j18l= t2.78 Az.q LED= ulzJ4ol 1.43 evoJ GaAsE "JEqA+.
    "l-: 1q_1zl-?
    (b) E]¤I4 il+lg F6ll dEcg r*zl 9= ir^l= qL A"J7l? GaAsE tlE rcoe-pEl %l=qE qE Eltlg $ulolz|? ol
    562 12¤l r^llef U^^ll

    H9 dulzl .\dlEHql^l ^Ield, 7t^l+-d, 4eld + qL g ir^le-(¤Elol-lgE+olEE9 zl-.7, %r"^1 9+ F


    ggollga|.!zlr *eEoHl^l-sgEl).
    Guerel cap=
    ^Idr+ F"J.J ac +aE,*E
    l^ll +"+g CH,: CH
    pb aA Aillql +e^l6}zl Ee.qq 9lq. q
    ese|
    -rzls"35r,
    I

    CN
    ¤ x (t"ll ql6li^lE Gap,Asl_,2| +zll++. x:091d x:I 0l=.BeL[olEaJ
    H+lql^J Eeq qz4ol cl+4 adq CEl4{Lqa 714
    oJ F, GaPo,As,.sE lrlzJ4g !14!o'|r.19(caAsei Cap rlzJ +EI +*^lloJ Kevtar5 zl-Fii Elolqel- g¤ ,J+rll g %I

    *2n14 Ce-qs ^l-e" B+. Kevlar=


    4? 441.43 eVei z.z6 eyol4). olql 4"J6lE qg rl+ -rz.es +91iil9 ^JC6I7I +16ll
    ^l.soJ
    I B"I.JzI?
    F +eE rr]^le.
    12.80 GaAsq GaPq nill 89, GaP,As,-,e Bg4g ILL=61-b
    o H
    LED= EJ=4(qlzll rz.zs +a). EI=qd Bg^q LEDqI

    l,
    tl
    { x(
    I

    %L=q: Hel Eltlg 060 nmol4. 0 1 Bglql^l C N N


    ^J
    Eeq plq4 e^Jql AHlql6Jr]-r. z|4a
    qrJ4o1 -F., o1 I

    H
    LEDqI
    ^F8-¤
    E¤9 aCkll)g 4ltl6i^le. Hl-q trlqt
    n

    gErd(12.8tr)
    r2.e0 +Eqeg olulL,tl9 +* HI*ql EEl] ^JCg4. olulLt9
    rzsr t"l tglril* +tfl7}? + ++l4le ^l-s¤ + 9lE
    (b) Et-g
    ae qL 4"J71? HId, qlfl(qE{olzpr E}), ,ilElt 'JHI4"J +48 a+'
    trl'g-q
    HRO
    r2.s2 n-cll4loJ9 Ezl4g cH3(cHr8cH:o14. g4qlB{g +
    ql4ltr ++61-e HlH, ql4l.Je fEldle A+6lzl ?*=tr|.
    ttil
    H-N-C-C-O-H
    r ilolE qBTl +Egf ?lEzI? H
    I

    .ag^19 tsz}r}: 100 amu, 10.000 amu, 100,000 amu. ol +aq^l -Rg -H, -cH3, E= 4E 48zlE *4t
    1.000,000 amuoll Qlap ol fzfz| EIB+ ft.Jzl ¤E6I^19-.
    4. zo4el 4E nzl.=. ¤ zl¤4.J olEllctol 20+ 91trI.
    -rzsl
    12.84 +g dBol *"Jzl, 41?-lalE zlzlalrle. (a) :H9l 44d EzI9 +t} +ql Hl+q el6ll
    ^JCq= +
    dz| ?EI HI*4^J Hl+E +^JdEg frE|(+gol 100%4 EIeE .JElzl.J +a= r.?l^le.
    n 7lC6J trll). (b) +^l e zll9 olslt 4}ol HI*4q EIE +E
    ^l+g "JE
    rz"ss qllq:7Fqdt4 +q} +* Hlsoetr ^JC aol olH 'flElolE'+-a El4. soz11 olltg olulL,llol
    "Ja$.,.1o1e.1
    Ely cl.Jgoltrl. xllz+.+{{1,H ql^Ei ^JCq .I+ +*9 ;:Bel Ezl¤ +Eeol+r 6JEl. ^ll zl]e.l olnlrl&(Rl,
    qlE +ol.*,rle. +*!l(*Elql^El)E q R2, rcg 4E nzle ++qE)q q6l.q +EI HI+ql E
    ^Jd6t7l +lflq
    ^8Cq= ts4olE +aE rul^le.
    6I
    H HI+ol "Jq+oF 6l+7I?
    (c) ts4ol=4 +Eaql+zll6}b Rzle.l ullS +^l=
    rz.s0 44141(succinic acid, HOOCCH2CH2COOH)4 qe Hl4ol ^JEEI
    t9l4l7l. +6J +il Hlg"es +d-
    o}EJ(H2NCH2CH2NH, 4 gdql g.&g ts4olEe+ +EIAel ++E
    = =+.
    illE ql+ +B +q Hl+4g A,rle. +E6I7l 9loll slqrzl-E Hzl 'N "Jt9 il¤Izlc+ olxl"J
    ^Jc6l+ +4q ,c'JElg zlszl.ll q-4 olul:=tg
    BgqlEI. (b)g r
    usz qU dz}6il HI¤¤ sararfM Eol4a ^F&q= +ElillE gt'q golalE
    'N
    Bstr.+q "JE4',c ag ol6ig
    ¤C.J4. a_+z7l +CCl2-cHr*,o14. ol Egl4lel + f glqo} aJ4.
    ,l]g EIE oltrlL4}e=e.+E1 H 4e.l
    ,r-il
    4.8 rel^19.
    += B4ol=zi "J=qe f gbz}?
    12.88 (a) EEeuqlog+q ¤al3E.sg{lg ^J^J6}=
    r}Aql nsr ("1 E^19 qE +a4 5^J EilEq +q},ll7l+¤6lrll El=71-?
    4'J slq EI+^lg a^le(Eq=-e.-e-s.{lg r.+E-e- (b) +{}4lq jl:} e{}g 4H dql uloll Q -ft$tNz}=7l, g
    EtlE-tr "J+zll, 4l+ ol+, aullolq gE. Ed q+ +S6flzl=71?
    E" 9e 'r;3'94;.
    12.e2 +4E q¤ qlEql, zl"JE Er]qlBflltrtrl j1"JE E
    CH':69-f:t'' ulqlB{]E =-C trJ
    EJ5.7}
    =7p
    CI E4tq s+48 "JEBjr 6J Ell, +g e6Eel *g eA
    =aeEfll
    EE r*= +{}"ll + qe ag dqoilo} ts4?
    rge+olEBe+q gr.lol3Be.4o1e g -rzs3I;l*
    o) of 12.e4 ¤Hol Ttzl 41qlzl, zl{a}.rle.
    (polyacrylonitrile)g r+Aql ql+ ++ HI+^l (a) tsClli r+ Ag r4ol+.
    ^JC6I=
    +7f EA E^ll 563

    O) gA+^J +6Jill= +^l CBB + flE+ 12.100 rvql oltlzl.J o}^Ieg 4zlgl 4.J +41 trl
    ^I.sqE
    (c) g7I4^J +!]xll= {$e" ¤-+ .JE+. Eql 7}s+g E*6Izl 9+=+. olq6J +4ql *E ,l+
    LttEE(12.etr) c 9l= Eeg Ec E%IE doi¤¤. f3g zl-21.3 6p
    ol+. +91 E^14 aol* s.eosAol+. (a) olxtd
    t2.es jlxllTl4rL a5E zzloJ trll, rl^llE E.Jg'rl'e zlt ^llsel
    ol .JEJ4I Eols-e. ^Ja+H + E^.iE.le.l aolzl3.00 nm
    A+44 7l¤6}xl *6J +E gl4. : olffi !$o|.rle.
    4s.oo nmoJ 4.+. EBlill eCqE zJ flzlzl H zll 9lE
    12.e6 cdsel qA4g 2.4 evol+. 4++ cdsg ¤C.ll zI9C
    zI? (b) (a)ollr.J 6J +LEzITl +E^lg, 4E E^l7l tL+
    I qlq4ql 6ll'J6l+ Hol HJ¤E+.
    ar.1o1g, trlrJ4
    E qg HJ¤E 4+' 3.00 nmei 5.00 nm -u-!r1e1 zlol
    (a) B¤B qE
    E zlzlE eAe q! Hg B A"J7l?
    43eF9,"JzI?
    o) +¤^q Hg %L=g+ 9l= 4¤;J azlg cds oJ^fd
    ol 9l=zl? rz.ror :qg++fle.] zloldgg=tsIezl ¤BsJ ag ql aqlT}?
    (c) 834 Hg %I=El + glb 43aj =zlel cds olzl-d (a) :4{3 +z}ol7,lEJ, +gg E^}zl- o}q4.
    ol gl=71-? o) r4¤e +"J+9 +^ g^IE Elq fln, +ge q
    rl +el, q +q +4 gzlE qq 9l+.
    t:-:s? '++¤Bql44q +E= 419 AA4^le-. =
    (c) rfl{e ¤gAlolzlq}, stse?+ol+
    (a) l-10 nm CEgl^l d]^l a7l7l AA6LE HlE4lg El
    g¤g +++ +iol^]"J, r4{g o].q4.
    (d)
    a4g rJa6J+.
    (e):4991.t1 EcE sp2 g^Jolxl"J. g:ts91;.1= ,p'e
    (b) 9l+ zHS BoI HlE4lql^l %IA9E qq Eltlg Hl
    scEl¤+.
    s.ill$ olz| ezlzl zJastql q4 aqd+.
    12.102 clzl$(buckyball)$ $z1o1qq+g +49 Eaol olt-l
    t2.e8 +g ¤Bq 44q + E= ,lllg aC6l^le-.
    4= a3 qtsa4 +E +rl= q! a.J7I?
    "JE +E^q Hg %I=6I= Hle.;15 9az1.jr;H. -= (a) ElzlES e^E q}Sqa+.
    4 *zIqlHzl91 611'J6Ib r)rJ4g r*b EAg ^l-.S614 (b) tsl7lg3 E+61 cgg gz}+aelE^f*g r*=r+.
    +, olB+ zlg qz4g r*= Eeolzl"J 4e6}rl EzI (c) ulzlBS E+61 cEg +=dg ?*+L+.
    q eTlE 6q^l "JE +LE^l= + 9lq.
    ^l-.8-6J (d) ttlTlBg HlE,llol+.
    regs +g ++l ^lls,* E^l4el z)olzl4.08A.J Hd "J%L + (e) fl9 ¤H + fl zll olltol eBol+.
    eE r*84(rB rz.rr). zl-aol 20 nmoJ i$!l .Jq
    Szl* H 7ll 9l:7I? (+9 +EE i,zrlol4.) "

    ?l E+ +rll
    U2.r03ldHE Be+Eol E++e-l h*dg zlt14. 12.106 ++6J eg illC E%I +=E 7*y 449e BC6J+. frl
    NaCl(801'c), Mgcl2(714"c), pc13(-94'c), Scl2(-t2l.c) ,+ 4+9 E++g Ezl-al$ .JA+ HC EEJ +aE g
    (a)4 slElES qE ¤flel l,,il(Ezld, #4d, .l$^J, + 9l+. 'JE7I eE Bql= Fq"JzI?
    =
    ++d fE +4)"J71? lt2.t07l++ 4^Iql tsdE EE6'}H, "JEI49E 4E7l eTlqir-
    O) q+ 6 q! e+6JEol trl +g +=eg zglitll ¤col *otzlq {zl {q+ "i gds.s.z} *o}+14. :
    cacl2e+ SiCl4 olffi {ga}.rle.
    u2.r04lr47lle] c-i}+l4zl +ql Ed ^I,J 4zl+ s4. Ec ^l- r2.r08 Ni3AlgztEzl +-r. EJETl4zl ullEgl ul4zl gl{g el
    q zle +g r*E illc 4^fe Hlql qA ++e Hd E%1-+91
    %1-+91
    ^]lsY ^]lE=. ^}BF ^FSgEl. ^JlsE,*b E
    q^l A9¤ + 9t+g Bol^le. %r-rg +"J +3E r*E ElE, ail p.t7ql +4U Eie+
    gol Ni3Alg e^l Ellg¤ .JoJ +4E ,,tE+. gBl t+l
    ll2.loslg^l EHJ 4xl-=i lLtI6l^I. qqlTlql^J EJ oE hE El=8=.
    6J E^]r.lel aolb qaq C* s.sr Aoll, Ni:AI9
    {I Hg 9_=3-_q_-e'}Ag a+ E= 4E7l e0.olq. q ^'lls
    H ++E g^l 4^l-= "JE*Ezt? 4A t.se Aol4. ol zlEE ol¤-6}q F Eeg "JE= 4l
    tI6Ii1, Hli6}^lg.
    r2.r0e .rH tz.vql LI4U 4 +++ +6JEql q6lq +fl
    ^jls
    trt ql 9lb 4 gzl9 += eA6f^ls-. Eqd Ele dB
    =q M3Sn, SmCo5e-Efq qh}+El¤ql+g-6P-7p
    ! Niral
    564 ]23 _?^ltef
    ^t^^|l

    12.110 q¤ +eq +4E r*= Eeg g^l EBJ, illd E%t. E


    d E%I+ qtr ++q 4zl= z)v_zll
    (a) CsCl (b) Au (c) NaCl (d) Po (e) ZnS

    r2.ur {,\}(Hgs)} 4l+ol+r.Jq+l gee ^F*¤+. ¤g


    vl^l n4l9l Ela4ol 2.20 evol4. ol ollulzlel =
    aql^l g
    qtr 4* Hflhm)qlzp
    ^IE
    ftz.tlz) g+ults9 dzl dE-cS +Tlgsql^-l olfa;| fl+uQ
    10eE]l q a4. .JF"ltse EC EBI +4E r*r., +

    +oloigE, +=E r*E+. qqEq 6J A+zI "JFultsg


    =
    ++ola, +^E ++ol of'J ol+7} EJE EllEol4n EJ (a) B9l ^lls.ll+ql 4++el flzlz} H 71 9l}z|?
    6.j4. triq *
    "Jqg 7I6tE, ;:+ilH zlEB d"JzI (b) olge.l uilf-l+E aa6}n u1l9l ++ael s"Jql ql
    E Alr+ siq +'* gs+ s= EllolqE +ol^'l qq+E ^E
    6l
    ^l¤6f^ls.
    A+s=4 trgoll -E-^19-. (c) Eg ^llse.l 6J E^lrl ?ol7} s.sso AoJ d*, Nazo
    r2.u3 -rBql +ElU a4 zJol, Ec+ + (sic)= *zl?l +4= 9 "JEE+6}^ls.
    7LL rL
    'xE"1 . 12.117 ql=E(teflon)* FzC:cFz9 +.Jql E6ll Bd¤ +Bxllol
    4. (a) ol ¤!6Jalel += g+E r"l^le. (b) ql=Ee q
    ¤ +EI Hlso-e--e. rJdEEzf?
    l2.ll8 4"JE o,04 rJg +"JE(s' r2.6)E Etg eAd+ ql
    ilq^J Eq+ElolE
    ^l+,r.|ole.|
    fi a6Jol ¤!-s_+ Eg
    g.J+.
    ^l¤E +4^lg
    "Jd6l-= 4"Jg 0,0 F rr_lr-,
    zl¤¤
    ^l¤ ^iolql 'Jq+= +^ eql tlg
    LlEl.ll^ls.
    t2.tte aaql^l g^l ,J Zal= +A6LE ql xdg ^l-S¤ + 9l
    zlo.l z|.rl$rjg + fl¤¤ ¤g6}^le_.
    ^l-.&¤
    12.120 Xd sl¤ S+q^J William4 Lawrence Braggt 4,rf
    (a) E"J6J +4= r*E qE altlEq olg$ uf$a[.r]e. g "19 uI^J(,r)4 HE qe 4=(e;,,.1-o19 +41^lg B
    (b) sicoll^J TI1I +41'6J Aqlg olgc, ++c, E"+c + flr+. acql^l ol¤9 "Jgzl= g^lE A4@+
    ^Iole.l
    qB as.a ql^J6l-=71? ilt:2d sino-e iqd4. l.s4 Ae] uttlg ,*E +r.l xC
    (c) siCzl goJad(2700'c)ol E]r., aETt ^JB5l +a +eE+q *¤¤ xrdg acd +^ql 46i 14.22"E 4
    L sicel A6J "l +4e+ ¤+^14 ¤B6l^le-. ql^l al¤gE+. Bragg ol+61q, ol acql^J ole+ a
    ^1¤
    lt2.tt4l9lqzl ul= "*g +E 7l,JA\ fl7t6J qlLl^l qEql e q¤ql 4'J6l= gzfB ^IolE ,lalE 4l4}6}^ls(8.
    g+4-s-E ++¤E+. +el aaq^l .ilHzl 699 =+l
    Hflz}
    n: t(lil. qae 7lC6J+).
    oJ r x ro-'e
    IolEI. 9ld6J frllzl fizl4ol4r. zlaalg, t2.t2t zl"l-be +ie+ ag +3E r*=E+. rBl+ Ge flzlp] Si
    :L 7J4+ qLl4 +elE d^ll Hfl= AA .ll9 g^I+E +l^lE =7171^1tr +e7l qgq *+l ^llEE f7l7y trl-
    ++q ++6J + 9i+. 94. glg E^lq^l si AA qlC Ge d49 E|
    ^l-&6lq
    tJ e,rJr-lel ,Jolz} o.s mmoJ g*41 E.Jg +ts] ,Jeg +EtE, xdg Ele4e 44}.zl.4ol^l=71-?
    (a) + ^l
    + a4q= P 7l]q +r-l7l9l=7I? lt2.rzz) (a) ufolols-rE "JE= 3.s g/cm3oli, g$q "JEi z.g
    (b) (a)"ll^l +q ++9 qqzl B+ t4g g/cm3ol4. E"J^qEqqlg +=E ulrfge +\}g El,
    =91 ^lolel gsq qB
    +6t^lj-. E"J^ElE4qlq "JE= +ololgEe+ El6fl
    (c) fi $zfel olulzl ?91 ?J4 I x 10-18 y$ ulia| al ¤ aeE qlt}6lETl? (b)xd qe s+q el6IE, E
    q "l A4ol q 41 43zl EE +^I*zl AC6I 'J^El¤.q+lg Ceo EzI9 Ed ErJ 4zf=
    z*E4. t9l
    =zl, TJolY
    ^19. ^lls
    + s^l tslE t+.zAol4. H "JlqS+]H]g "J
    u2.usl++r+ gr] ElE4lE dE.E= 7Ig6lE ol- ge.z1z13 E= 414}6}^19..
    6716J+. olql q6}q ¤H6l^le. 12.123 HlEallq qrJ4q 4B6l+ qlq^l+ q +g 9luJrl9 H
    12.116 &c| i.E(Nazo)g Na flxtz} a+4, &4 flzfz| $g-r4
    g El= EI dzlE flzlzluloll.r.l dEqs 5E4l g+. ol
    Ell HlE4lE dEtr= rlbz}?
    +e s.7lqE E}]}ill+3= 714i4. "lBzll
    (a) {a}zl ?l:r. f.qle 9l+, O) ?z}oJ4, (c) ,Jat4.
    a:-J ¤zl=^1 565

    56.,t "J+ +41


    12.124 4q 4E= +q qHql^l EEgg zlHlp-e zl¤
    e=J E+.)

    6lE %I^lol+. (a) I so mot%e} ? 50 mol%oE ol+q4l a¤^Jol 7l* ¤iL, +baol ,IrJ Eg 4e qL
    6F:-g q 4q.oJ7l? rg 12.189 ol+6lq ol .#:E 4 B4.JzI? ¤aCol z|1t r+!EL, \-i{ol 7l-t} *g
    g +C6I^19. (b) +fl 50 mol%$ + s0 molyos ol+q ag qL B4flzP EzI zJ tls zls"+ +4- EoJs
    a 6J¤:g H zll*."Jzl? ol 6tso3 ++ 49 trl=71? tr ol$ ¤Ea}^le-.
    12.125 erlEltr. Al37.9o/o, Mg t7.to/o, O 45.0o/o (c) d+= g-$$ql ^l-&qq *E}. +ql^J
    ^qE(spinel)g =4EEg{
    g^J6J ++g * EteE bqql 9lq^l gq
    E+6I.= olEolq, EsE s.sz g/cm3o14. Eq 4ls ^llz16l=
    = 6J E^l4el aolT}8.0e A"J E%Lol+. Egl sEgHl
    ^ll+ol Eol+ Er.lq^q
    zl¤-trtrI ++6I
    = ^llsql E olfle_tr gr]sEgHl
    q fl= 4 flzl9 +E ea4^le. 4. Eq.fsrallr.1o1E EzlzJ
    12.126 (a) 4ololEEql^.] C-C-C a6J4g gEloJTI? (b) +
    4 54ql^q(E= E^l ^l+3 tr++ "*9 -ouz15
    ,*E H) olel +g
    flql^l c-c-c aEI4e golq_lz|? (c) 4¤g El"J+3 ^plq ^Iol= ¤B6I^le.
    r2.t2e (a) E 12.691 +ElU ¤4gg} ulolpoil,q ¤+ A6J ql
    +otgg "l qE g^IsHlEolrl-&Ezl?
    *-Atl zl* 4rg a.Jg q! e6JoJTI? (b) i1sql^l E
    U2.t27ls.8.4ql ++t A'J 9lBElE ole"6l{, +g H}+ql rll
    4gs+ HlolHg +olol-+!Ee. d+6171 9al-9 E49 zl
    + qlEE E!+=+Aal^ls. gg 4l TIAL HA #q^lE A.J+ qL A6}oJ7l? (c) E
    (a) 9]EHI9 +6J Hl+
    8.3q1 +4'J B+ A6J flBq= ol+6}q, +iqgp+ Elol
    (b) t+'JE 6,6E HI+
    ^JC Hol +ololEEE A+q= HI+ql 4dJ Ail Qlgrl He+
    E4qle{l Hl4lgg4lole(pEr)g ^JC E}+
    (c)
    5 7{a}.<le.
    lt2.tzsl:fl rz.:egl +Elu 44 eol, g4qlBelg +e^l.J * ll2.l30l+^'= +oloI.EE +aE r*=4. El+l ^llE * E^.lr.lE
    4eE ++q^lr, r/oJ + 9l+. TftL .Jat ¤EI= E ?olE s.+: Aoln, ++l ^lls'J 87IE gz}Tl Eq glq.
    g4ol +g rBql +4d a4 rJol H1]6JS dBol+.
    (a) E? r cm3 49lEq flE+^ gzlE += q 4oJ7l?
    ^rHql^l EoJg zlE oJe-+ +g A'Jg L+4
    ^ll+ltl 4lzl (b) +i.rle t cm¤ 1pp-9 oJ-e-,+EEaIH d=.sz1u4
    4-,-i, {+a 471 EoJ+ ^lH YIE 6J"J A.Jg ++.J+. u,l ull f;z|.flup.7IA6l^f. ge+.Jg e mgoJzt?
    H H H H H H
    t2.t3t ol$rJ lz]g.J^J6}E eI zlxl %}Hg:zgq^l F HI
    ¤¤9 7}96l= 7lolQ. Ferio35 BC6l7l 91el reoel
    rio3E HI¤¤ ^J46i BzI. q}*ol $dalrll 114.J+i1
    TLAal:7 2.s00 99 FeTio:= r,ffl6}= Ell gs6J 27I^l
    (a) 4 El +l4ql 46Iq -sHlBel sCg Ftqlzi? ?
    6J4g gEloJTp HI¤¤el oJ¤ +6}^le.
    (a) t¤ plE Hl¤:^lg *^ls.
    (b) ¤p]qjgfl 4c E4sEgflol?+n 7Ic6I BzI. +
    * 44q rtl6J E?,1 s-+gHlg +aE ri.l ^le. (b) FeTio:9 P+qL^l=Jg +dl^l91.
    g+= +5l.^ls.
    (i) cH37l7l rll6l-q ++ql"J +lzl6J a+(ol ¤ (c) FeTio:9
    ^lEql (d) g9.+ peo9 Efel e=JG)g +6|^le.
    q]= F"J tsllg gel"egqlol+j16J+.)
    (ii) cH37l7l zlEql q4q J.qtr 4E Hql +lxl+ a $saj rio,e] E+el e=*G)g +61^le.
    (e)

    +("1 ¤ql= j/ql Hl]g ¤qo +g{lol4j1 ++.) 12.t32 +4 flzf9 xlEg A ++ls Ll44^ls. al=el HlErll
    (iii) cH37l7l zlEql ql6}q .JEql +e^l6}zl +lrl+ d9 r+ nm"J? 7l= dg zlzl_r. 914. olql 6i*qb +
    A+(.1 ¤el= sC E]]g +?]o+g{lol4n 6J g^lel += q 4oJ7l?
    ^

    ETJ ¤4I E4I


    6"Jal= 1e20LJql FHI DuPo',t q^Hl Edl oE 4=q Bq4r+n S46lS.+. +6Jallzl-¤zlltr af"J $xlzj a;q1 I
    ^JE4 =
    8.4. r B^l qH olel4¤g ftl4lzl +^I+b ag Ezl ?*91 ql Tl-"1 gl= 4Ig ezlE 'dq47}ofr-l{ z.lrllaf, tszl."Jg
    ^Je
    r+. r5.g fu4"J zll9 flz}9l 4aI¤ uo+ a*ol zl+g + S ¤B6171 gl"hq dflg ¤416f^le.
    Elil s+.J Ezf +q
    'Jql el"l] ale 9l
    ^J4iIj1, 6B^ll= ^JE
    ;

    r
    7

    I
    r
    f
    ffi1
    r
    I
    I

    I
    "l
    u
    l:
    l-

    ti
    13.1 > E61l zt8 Ee.l +6l]¤ Ell E^l +=
    ql^Jb qE 9"1 .J"l4b^lE aq6J
    oEr{] +61 E4A BE E
    ^i46JE+.
    .Jql +dg zld 1o14. +6ll r+ae]
    + 7171+s6J +Bg EzlEol ^.ls
    4olqk zI¤4.J A6J4 qlq^l Hp+
    oltrl.

    EE9I ¤E 13.2 > sEl Ee{r} E6l|E -EE} +"-4ql +6ilq


    ^l 9*e +eol tsof 9lg
    trL +al]g +
    er+ +4qzl *e +ee ¤89 .lF
    a 9l+3 u}l¤ 4o14. Es+ +.-qq +
    qlqq 9l= Eeg .Jg, qE 5a"J
    +,]{ql ql6J:1EeE +6flE44 AE
    oJ+.
    fil1 08l., 1 1 8, 1 28qr,tt ++:d 7tiit, o-{il, r^1tq ¤tr= Er+6t tt.
    raJql+al7[g88g0ll^] El+^l= tH+ElolEE= HE Att, E7l, +elel.'J 13.3 b E6flEofl gEE += ?lrt +qlEql ¤
    g E-JEoltl-. 0l 80ll^1= Eg ¤qEtl'. 6Jg += is- oJzloJ, +A Ezle| +
    =-slE3 ,ll tszl E^lrJ Eel ++e+ g
    ^IolE
    gqBq, ql+89 I4E
    E= ke
    g +6l]6I= tlE, zl
    * tr-ql^J t=i6l.sFol +"J g6JE¤. *o{Gotution)ola}a ++ 9rq1.r'1 Eql
    ill.= kg gEql^l
    tr-l

    Eql E +"iEtrI.
    ,=o:, (1.2¤. ¤).
    "l4lql^lE zl;llel g;NEE "Jqol +
    +. t

    *9ol4l 6IE. "-!ill$ trF


    ^J46}rll
    r*lLl ai,llu| zl;ll
    gtrl. 7I6Jq qE 67i"J+.
    E +"lg + 9ttrt. qlE EE si
    *(sterling silver)9 E 7v" +42
    I3.4 e te4 ts5. E^tH E+S, gbE, EB
    r=6E= Eei6|¤. H zlzl .JHl4t +
    zlzl zlt)lE ol+qd +g gqlEtr, 7l^il +"-{o14. :244 E^ll + "-4 bE *^l Br'Hg 9olE4.

    "-4ol zltt "JHlzl.J Aflo)zl


    q$ql, ol tlql^l= Eall +o-qq ++
    13.5 F +eqel qH 844 CAe+e
    6rz}. =g¤
    E +EqEI9¤6Ir, *dol F9.'JzI
    +a4qlsqlqq 9l= 4 Eeg r +"-{el C$(component)olep e}= ++6i+. +,llE ?zl.J 4H. #
    .J+. ,ll4tlql^j ¤E+ utc+ ,Jol, .JHlzlse $ufl(solvent)Y 7l* =d
    sE, q=d LilBq ¤.4ol *{
    6}=ql, olEe +gCql +.Jtrt. +.-q
    Bg oJ-e-e +46l+ Ctsoll, 4"lzl 4E dE+ *aGolute)o14 I tF$E +gColtrI.
    r ++. ol tql^l= +.-q4 ++6J C+el Efl4 CAg HIIaII
    zI ++. +Efl Eg +,llE aE, $de^l 7141, olzll, r.4l= E6J 13.6 > Eeo;c gEol=E ¤^ll +Eg olq
    ^l"J
    +^| +etL(E&¤)!+ +^f +ql
    6l+ ++E(aqueous solution)9l SiJg 714 aolq.
    ^J(+&,ll)ee ol +q d goJEol +.
    E&ee tr59 +zf f.7l-H-+ trl
    oJzl-=tr +d9tr1. =

    < Ef^4E 6E 0l rlol3e Ax1| aA qel gAt IIE E+doll^l ?i


    Lf Hl*6lth E E"-{¤ ^lE6l-:
    4 i|lgsl aEol EAfq?]xlE
    ^{g
    (c, science fihoto/Shutterstock
    ^l86[q ^l-dfitl:

    567
    13.1 I s"6|l ul"t
    +qe + Eeol += Ee dalq ae4 e4IE q ¤¤¤4. +Eg ec6l+ EdE b
    qe q-s + 7l^l "JzL 4 (l) geol 6Ir., *6ll Bzl 9*E tlEilql^l q
    ^]tr lolalr.
    +q9 54 +e_+ irl4 EqTlq= zI¤4.J a.}J+ (2) +6ll !+dq +q6l+ EzlzJ ts=
    4I+9 eqlql gEl 9l+.

    +tJql qEJ 7,loJ4oJ ,"jEJ"J

    or(g)4 Ar(g;o1
    =-J
    rs.rollr'li-lH tr-qe-e. E4qq alzl.. tqg :l4l
    ^ll46IE,
    zlill=
    ^Jtr
    4q^l +"-49 BC6Jr+. zl4l Exls=e +zI+,rlc $$olrp 6J "J* 43 49 4
    e6}zl *6Ir. Elzl olt} zlill olzlzlfl q+q}+. ali4e-tr. gz[ gsoe-tr "J6]q E l¤
    ol +ulE
    =
    9t9rzlill f-o!o1 ¤^Jg+.
    7l^Jl9 g6Jg x|${(spontaneous) 4Col4. ol= Zl ts+etr+El ol{ gluJxl9 F"J
    S,olE zlEe "Jqtsg 9olt4. *471
    ^Jtr 4Jq^l +4|+l4-9.e EEB
    oll Ss_eyl
    (entropy){l 6t= gEql*ol ?zld4. Qle-eu15 tetlql^J q z1^116l +E+. zl+g q
    E alel +A^lE7l +7li;l4q E= alg qLJzlTI rl *g "Jz}ql rle "llql i9 4lel r
    te-eu]z1 +7I'J+: ass r4{i+. tr}+^l 7l^llE g6Jg 219 qle-+q= rtzl4z1
    4. :44 olull 419 $Btl= 49 E6Izl g.}Ell, ol++ zlill oJzt r
    ^Iolql
    EzlrJ ^JE
    ai*ol 29 s.zl trll+ol+. E= +zlt E(E+q. {fz}-ffiZ} e. +^ aE})+ aJ4 r
    +Hg qLJzl= 4lg flg'l .J++ql +++. 4lg elgq ai= Tlxll oJzI +el Ezlz
    ^JE
    zI+ 6z191 6ll*aJ+. q+ol qE 4Col zt94oJzl, "IUzl= Zl9 ql= +ul +7lel
    {lBul ,J^ ^}ol9 +¤ql e.ldl aegq. 44^.1 +qel Bce st}q u}= {eeulq +
    4q Ed ol+q{+.
    +E ++q E4-=ol dJ44 rll, tszl¤ol zJ-aj gxlzJ Eol4 844"J tlqql e.l6ll
    ^Jtr
    zll,*tszl ?+=rl$, goJg x].$!e_e. "Jqtq. olp] ?ol TlillEg .$zl9l g* 4l+ol S
    48, z}ts4gE 4ol4l g+. $+6tfl zlxll E{¤9 EzlrJ'flol HF *all E!# *
    of E + Hzl ullEol4. rq+ +rl]e+ ¤.4ol rillLi ull: g4.rJ E.l *"19 ¤C
    "_4^ll.J
    q+= AC+: rll iealzll g+. qlE EE -r.x1 gcl olg a6Jol 4E olg4
    ¤E] ol99 d.a 9l+a dlE ,. (8.2i1), rill: ^Eql^l
    olg4E EzI ^rolE .J49 4lzlgl 9
    4 5ql +6il9+. rEl+ gs+ 7l-+ilq= t 5zl g]:EtrI. glr|.IE olg!+ 7l+fl
    E4 ql4"l ,ll* oJo}zl ^Eg
    ullgolQ.
    ^Iole{

    7li{ eEEe.l olE E0l TlillelEErnl-silElol 91=71.?

    t 0 o o o 0 o t
    o ^\o
    {o'
    a + o
    o
    o
    lo
    0o o o 0 t a
    Arg l3.l + 7lx1l7l Eg Esr.E(E"4)= e86t: rlg4 alE
    =-ctElGl

    568
    13.1 E6ll rlE 569

    7, { Eoll .gcltl trl^l Lle q ?!lE+tr|-


    ^lE ^44'JEolE+0ll^1 =7t61=7t.rJ46tg.)l?

    +zlt EJol +o4 E^J"ll trlil: "3"J


    zllrrzJ9lrl +E q;l + qL Eol=zl, +E .llE *4 flz}q¤-,l] gztrl
    714 +^l7J E
    olql^J zlEB + 91trI. olqoJ E4+ .J9 ql= E9 czHroc] rJ¤
    =e 13.2q1 Ael6[Hq.
    ++C Eeol csHrz4 Ag ++^"j Eeq +49 ollE ts&qol xluH4.J Egg ap, ol
    g^d E4ol Eq +oI $9ol g trilb ol¤-{-lz} oJol zlull{Ql qgg t+.

    ^ll
    ++E EzlzJ ^Js 4¤+ +-S4 zJol *9 ¤Cql +q++.
    r. ¤¤ oJztS ,Jq +e-+g tlE zl¤¤ *+Ellot"J +4 E4¤ol -00 El] +e-tr EtlgtrI.

    z. Sqi oJ4¤ rJel +ql-+r[ z]¤¤ ++6llo]"J +,Hql^i ¤-d oJxLEol z]zltr +
    ^JE
    ,Jg EI=tr}.
    :. rl]e}¤-d .Jzt ,JE +rll-+e ^JE zl*ol ts^J.t ql= Ezl¤ol
    9." g6Jg rllol4.
    ^lE
    + EAol += Eeql +"1]g + 9l= cE= ol5 ^ll ++E EzlzJ ^JE zl+g t}44 z
    zlql fl=.J+. 89ol BCE Eil= +,]]-+A
    ^JE li+E azlzl +e-+e ^Jg
    zl+ q
    +rH-+ql ^JE zl+el aTlel Eli6I4+ rl trllolr+. ql= Eq ,fl4loJ(heptane, c7H16)
    =
    4 {l4l"J(pentane, C5H12)g ^l.+ $d6l +6l]q}+. ol EE= 9l"ll .Jele BElltg +rH,
    SlEll.Jg 84ol4l 6Iz[. + Eag EF ++Colr, +,ll-+e ^]E zt+E rTlE +
    e-+4 "t +,l]-+,ll ^Js zl+(Etlqql E.J "Jq)E aTle+ Hl*6t+. trI4^l g6Jg,J
    6116l+ Eol $.r, ^lE a6}(qlEeEl e7uol il"l zlg4gs +Eg Bc'JtrI.
    ^iolel=
    Eql i+g +ol= iol *9 ¤Cel gqlolEl. rill NaClg Eq + +=+. olf+ r
    +c E Ezle} olg ^tolel +rH-+e oJqol, Nacl(s) 49 olgE ^Iolel +a-+a .Jq
    4 E EzI ^Iolel +rll-+rll ^Jp +¤¤ ++e. "J* =zl trllEol+. ral 13.3i.lH Naclg
    Eq -+sE E B4-= Nact 4C EEql El]g'*+. oltrll E.lHzlE "Jd6l:=3 cl- 4g
    aJ.=op., gd6} ¤3 Na* f$ aSop El]g*+. olfi ol&-{fz} .Jqg lille+rl EH

    9 olgg qqg "J*, El^l "Jql +e-+4 ^Jg 4¤¤ ++e "J+ rEl. n4l7} +qlq
    EIE ¤.rll-+,]t z++E ?+qqo}"J E +zl olgql 'oJ"*g' +rJol B¤g+.
    ^JE ^Iolq
    _r.illql^J "J+ Eilg Nan4 cl- olgg E EzlE Eel.rAlql+.
    "lelt +er+ +rll E
    z[
    ^io]g ^JE
    z]+g EEllt[(solvation)41 6]r, Eol +rlg ol ,!.a z]¤¤ ++
    oll
    (hydration)4L t4.

    018-g+xl.gE 4r'E0ll^1, Eoil 9l= g^t 6 ol! aol Na*_e. efdltsTt? r 01fr=?

    E{! 8=xru+xl +a
    =a
    0lH+rt

    v\ &

    flEllfl trJElloJ
    ++0l^llE
    (c3H6o)
    -==E
    (cHCl3)
    .
    OilEJS
    (c2HsoH)
    , *
    E
    (Hzo)
    ;..
    fi..il
    \_

    (czHro) (CsHrz)

    arB 13.2 EEql gq6l.s E^l'Z 8E 4E


    570 133 E.-4el.5E

    E Ertet NaCl,ilolel Eoll-EE


    AfE rill= E6tlElll -dtrf.
    ^+Eol

    f.' aa
    i I ?,
    a oti
    ?
    .+I a! 5 rjOr
    I
    ?,

    t
    t
    *+ ta
    ? ic5 ,
    C
    a
    D.t
    ,F
    E+oll ?1= NaCl 3E
    i Eq 1= +ElE 018
    =q
    gr a 9, a a?',
    ]+." r:r"ii
    i{*l
    AfH 13.3
    =oll^lel
    0l3d -7i11 NaCl9 Eot|
    fetE Cl- ot3 +EiE Na+ ol3
    J:.i," a.+^,
    O b oo 9 t '

    E el1 NaCIP -dl^ll?.!(CoHr+) eg ++d EoHoll= EollElxl "J=71?

    s".l E^Je.lqlLlzlE
    +611 4dg "JHlzleE tlgulE E+= +EI*+. ql= Eq Naclol Eql +6l]9 rll -t 4
    Cg ErJE E¤ 4a(ms"+:3.e k|/mol)ole. uess Hzlg ^l-&618, +e-+4, +q]-
    +,l], *a-+4 ^Js lt*ol q¤Zl +.-qg $B4 Hs+q g6.13 +=zlE $ f !lr| e..
    (s.o¤).
    +61lr+Ce elBul EEI9I $flol gI= zlzl Ad a += 7l7l= 1eE rJ+Y]q.
    ^ll
    zrzH9 84 "JzlE ol+qd B94zI ts491(aa+a), m2114 +ql "JzlE ol+qd Bq
    =
    4zt E4Elq(la**;, ol5 844 +ril "Jxlzi ¤6JEE(AHg ) 7}zloltrI. ^ll
    t.(8d),.- nzH 8d AH+a
    z. ($ol]).;- mzll $ull AH+,fl
    3. nzH8E + rrz\ SEH : ¤-o-q AHe*
    a. (*d), + (*rll). .- 8'-4 AH+e : AH+e + AHg,1 + AHg+
    dAl qlBq EcI%+(AHs"r)3 ol5 ^Jl
    6}el 6Jol+.

    AH+e:AH+e +AHg4 +AHsg [13.1]

    ¤-d .Jzl¤9 B4= *d B4-5 ^iolg "Jq tlE 4¤¤ #71 +16ll .Jt qlHzl9 F.J
    ol {ea}r}. q+^.1 ol r+cg EE 4d(Aasa > 0)o14. u}}z}21tr, +eg a¤-a1zl 9l
    qI sool] Ez}el +EqlE qlLlzlTl 9-ea1r11ar*q > 0). +e "Jzie+ *ol] "Jzl oJ
    ^[o]E
    q tls 4¤.ql 9a]l rll H4l +c s^= 6Jt s¤(laee < 0)ol+.
    ^Jzlts
    13.1 E6H rlE 571

    gg 86fl at¤oll,\l, AH=a,oleTlelaHa!+AHsoHg 37lE uliadf^|q.

    9xl
    o= EEII
    E^t,J oJal 7fl8 Extz ?laj zflE
    EIll
    EIIZ ?]AI -coee
    tceiD d^***o" ?xl
    o o,Le e'l1d OE ,0tl

    orll (,o 6 %ioSo E^lZoJal z|]E


    ¤.oH
    t?-:?3
    q0
    00
    o {t
    o {t o
    o o
    to
    r! .)
    + + Ifris
    ?l E i{ m s] E
    iil
    EI do do
    040 EI GO
    d0
    El El iI
    g H*rt g do o-r
    q0

    -Q.OH

    H*'t

    I[*r=

    gE
    rl8 E6tl Ea4 -e:[ iL^]

    a.r.B 13.4 E6t| rl80ll+HJElts gl=4 Eal

    fH 13.4q1^J -H-=ol, fl= ^Jl 'l] qlgq a}g E}6l.H, llEl6l+ alql ql+
    ^loJel
    13.1q1
    ¤zll izl-91 trl+ + E= {tee +E}+tr}. q+^l +E Bce ts¤"144 g¤ \
    .J + 914. qlE +4I "Irql+(tvtgsoJg Eql 7Ig q, +6ll rlde ggoltt
    rf

    =q
    (AH+e : -e1.2 kllmol). ole+ 4a4 otr, e& oJE-ENH4NoJel +6ll= g-9ol
    Q(Aa+, :26.4 kJlmol). gEsE 'J6J ^Jrl TlEql 4+ oJ^HE gEol
    ^l-S5l=
    + g+qg +s +^d Eae 561 olEldJ E50l ^l=$g+(:I.J 13.5). o15 EEg E
    +"lqe+ Ee+q 44 Beg l1^ll^Jel g(gEe MgSoa(s), g+Eg NHaNo3(s))

    m
    sE +Cqq 9l+. qg heH Er+ 44 +eE EzlzIAqri^l gol Er+ 4i"l +
    "lol 984 gEE ¤.r_lrt+ '}]fl+. ol= +%l xllag MgSoa i 8.lol rl*6ljr.,
    NH4NO3 i$'lol ii+tf= 49 9"laJ4.
    +"l] 4d9 t1E4 Eslzt 4l*d* Ctsql 94q, r HI*ol qL B-dJe-E qL
    ,.

    cE .Jq+=zl= g + 9l+ ...,.--. (s.4¤). gg r+49 z|$zleE tl4q+ a6}ol fE 13.5 EJtt EfrLlE ?.1^EJE EEI
    9lt}. HlHql AH+eol LJ+ gts 4C.l4E, +ee t SaHHzl ?*.g Xol4. ol
    =
    c+ ?ol +Eg ¤d6l7l 916ll^l= +,ll-+e tls zI+(AHs*)ol la*=4 AHsaE 6Jt
    Zlr+ HliE Atr+ +E6l 7loI"J 6J+. q 4"tz} "l
    ^Idg, "l+C +e"l ++C +"Hql
    +^l ?+= ol+= ¤E.J+. ++c ¤-,ll EzIq olge.l qlqe ,ll+ zltrl. Irl4^j ol ^Js zI
    ¤* olgg Eqql gs6J ql'JzlE -H_tr-6}7lql ql+ ++6l.rl.
    El+6J ol+E, Erl 'Je +c E^{ +4e gEl"J(ceHrJ ag ++c +,lql +6llElzl
    ?+=+. E SzI=
    ^JE
    a+ +i AElg flQ r=r: (r I 2E). +el.J +qlql E tszl-E E&
    olel+ .Jqg ++6llot"J 6Jr+. H2o +zlzqE Eelq-= rll pe+ 9lHxlzl
    ^l7lelH,
    HzOeI C3H,, $z| rlol9 .JqBq rll$olQ.
    =.zl

    +B rltrol gE?]^1. E^16[^le.


    =E?l^l=
    (a)EEH-E0[I 8E 4EE i*cl,(l g^l==tr Eal/.le q
    0) EaIEJ g^F=E+E] Ertl-EEsl 86 4E= Bd-g rrl1
    572 133 Es4e.ldtr

    o-r El^l;r!
    lLoH 6l-il
    oo-r -r - Hls
    uo
    +Eg EE6I= r] *q^J= +"1 BCg Er_14 44r+ +.lg ¤C6t: e+q} Hi¤¤
    Hrll ++6lloF"J.Jtt. ql=
    ^4..
    qe ++e +g-r+ ee HI*ql el6l] e+I +'-4ql +"llg+.
    =H
    Ni(s) + ZHCt(aq) -+ NiClz(aq) + Hz@) Ir3.2l
    ol qlql^J, a44e +ee Ni f,$o1 olq4 Ni ++9 EoJ Nicrrol+. r +._49 +g
    zf,zx1tlE, Ni(s)z| olu Nicl2.6 Hzo(s)z} q+gEle=J 13.6). Nic12.6 H20(s)e| zJol,
    44 4zl.Iql "JC +9 E B{-= ,*: sl6J$g fE|g(hydrate)olep .Jelri 9l+. 4e
    4sE Nacl(s)g Eql +6ll^lAg qlq= 9rlal e+q} Hlg"E .Jol4zl ?+=+. :a +Eg
    1* 42,<1zlB Nactol q+g+. ol tl d^ll= F6ll +4E +de +Ese+El trd}zl
    ?*= BEfle.] +ag 3rl+g + 9l= +"-Iq ++ Aolq.

    B.2 lstrf t"44t6tlE


    r.ill ${ol +,Hql +71 .Jz}9 *E7l +7l6lit-, r a4 .J
    ^l+6tB^1, +E + +e
    + +4 gzlE i1illg sEr+ ?E6J 7le)71 Elr, r+l+ +5tr g4 "Jzt
    r}^l r4le+ eEl6[= ar+= =q+al
    ol 4ag +sl ¤^dE E]4 r+a-s.-tr., ?!EEt
    = =4oJ+.
    (crystallization)4-z 6Jr+. q+^J +zl ?+j1 Bot 9l= 84ol +.lql^l= olfl6J
    .Jq+rll =zfl6l+
    +Ellq= F 48ol B+. ol ^.1+g olql +$!ql +{,]l$ rlg-4 e+.
    86H
    _Q-z'l + Anll
    6
    =. ',
    O-il )lx1El o-.
    -Q-oI [13.3]

    ol= + TIzl Hlql 4AE el* 4E.zi Ag ql E4 B$(aynamic equilibrium)ol ol+qzl


    q, +"_4 +ql^] +eE oJg q oltl +7}6tzl g:+,,".., (.1.1 !).
    *"_4ol s".]]9zl g:g +44 ¤¤ ^J=llq ilg lrll, f +Eg EEl(saturated) +o_4olq. s
    sl +"-4ql +49 4 dzlulls +Ae +zl 9+g 4o14. +qTl "Jel +,l]E Es+ +s4g pl
    E ,ll g.q* +eE oJ¤: +eq EsilE(sotubility)41+rI. +
    +qd s",llql +qd +ee.l +oXE= 5C *=q1,ti +qd .Jel +,llql }$ + 9l= +

    + +
    I

    !e Ett qe3 gttrl ft36l'q NiCl2(aq)clHzG)E Eotl7t="JdE NiC12.6H2O(s)71-'J=trI.


    =+rt 8¤:dtrt. E-43 Ni B+el to4ol otLlat
    Nicl2g Eo4oltrt.
    .r.ts13.6 Ll4B+rlE^lHJB8E+-dt6tlrlEololLltl.8dE3gEf Ll2(ll)64sl3NlClz.6H2o)0ltl.0la[-ct==,:tr?:^lLHoll qe
    olE -d 7ll'J 67Hsl +el E^l'='*r ?l+.
    =
    13.3 | $aflEoil B-d= += ?l^l- 573

    Enti H110fl ?ts E.-qqE ot^llE+l4E0l f* +01-


    o")*71?
    ^11 =
    0l EEoll,\l E.-flE.Etrl tr]
    ^luel
    "dP g0l E6t|fl 0l^llEtt 4E

    + TH
    ffi +
    rloli-

    i'
    I

    I
    t ry Et
    rlEE+ Eq4ql Tlsl 0l^1lE{t Eo-{oll^l aPJel 0 l-^11 Eat E.-4ol EJ

    489 Zdul(seed crystal) aEot


    =8ilE
    arB 13.7 0|-^1lE{l 4E I]EE] to-4eE+El9 EE g.+9 Es43 loo'Coll^l 100 mL9 Eoll of tzo sel of^llEtl4E¤ E6H^|Z tlS
    "CDl^l LA):^171trJ=flt|. 20 "Cojlll 0f,\ll=5 AE9 E6H-E: 46 g/100 mlolE+,
    ,(l,\161 20 r
    to-q3 rfs+ Ea40ltf. 0l LfEq tqoll
    ol^llE|| AE ._leE zpJg EtrOl Eo_4oil^]
    =g= =golErl.

    gel 4.x=Jg "51q, ar+s 7I4{l +ee +sq LI"il Brll ¤+.
    ql= 5E 0"cql^J Eql ql'J Nact9 +6l]E= E roo mr* zs.t sol+. olaS r gEql
    oJA6J EB trl] Eql +¤ + gl: al4 uacrel oJol+.
    ^J ^JEIE +Eg "JE
    EeI +.-49 "JE= ql gs6J +eE oJE+ zlg "JE +eg ¤-6H^l7lE, r 89*
    =s
    il(unsaturated) $olo1r1. ole+ aol 0"c E 100 mlgl NaCl 10.0 g9 E6JalE +Eg q
    "*e +eg +ul^la + 9l= *xllqol ?lzl ullEgl BE9I ¤-o+olr+r.6J+.
    4A.J aaql^l ssi +".49 +E= rll $,s-qt +4E oJ.trr+ rJ Bg "Je.l +eg s.J6t
    E +"-49 "JE + 9lq. rq+ +Eg ltEEl(supersaturated) +s4ol4l1 d+. qlE EE
    +g gEql^J o[.rilE& dEg Es] *"lg "J= tr]g, ^J^l6l gEE *+H, ss.z1 Llq
    Aql qr+ +6llE7l- Aa+qlE B*6tj1, s-E +Aol +6l]¤ tl4E BZI ¤+. r+sp+ +
    .-4ql fl= +de Be +EE+ +g *.tr e 4ss+ +sqe E.JA6I4. rEl+
    =4l6ls-e.
    ts"t gl= ¤.4 Ezl-5"1 eas}dl.qE aa ^Jcql g*21 4B6l El]gElqo} oJ+. 4Ie +
    4 4.4(44x])g .-;eH, 4* +Ael AA9IE +l.J Hgq,g zll+6t7ll qq eaol "J=
    "lzll, 4*q Lill ${ol e}41 ¤zHal+ sE} 8.lol E4(:e rs.z).

    A trEl-8e4oil Etr= E7l-dlE, qEZl E:l=)l?

    13.3 | soEilEql "c6"¤. #. oJal'

    Eeol +E EAql +"Hq= ^dE= + EeE Cgq 9=6J+


    6J . (13.I 3). E.qi +6l]
    E= gEql E=a}rl, TliIel a+ql= .JqqlE 9=++.
    574 13Ar Eqg dtr

    E 13.1 Eql c11tl Tllllel +6l| +E-ttrll tE 4E


    E (20 t, I atm)
    +6]]EE AC6I= q +q6t= AZ E$Ell?-l ^Js e6J6lq= xI¤4.J 46J4, +44
    EIIZT
    +El] oJzl rla $$o121"J, sodlE9 Helql r.ll.J Feqg +eJ+ +Ell
    ^Iolq +"J"J
    a=d
    Tldl k/mol) ^Iol
    86l|E(M) s.l
    ^JE
    zl¤¤ +E ,]4trp6tl^l Eg + 9l+. Eql 4e q 4 7Vl 7l^)14 +.llE= +4
    N2 28.0 0.69 x l0-3
    u s,13.19 zl.E.E trB, +z["]ol 4ei= +q]E7] +7].Jr[. 7l4l +z]e] +rl] Ez] ^]
    O2 32.0 1.38 x 10-3 ol9 .Jqg +E +&qoJql, olag tsxl9 a7]el Bz]+ol 4?J++ +7t+r+ ,, .-. (1t.2
    Ar 39.9 1.50 x 10-3
    ¤). tr++^J Eql ql-J Tlzllel +6llEts $d(zl;ll)4 +,]|(E)
    2.79 xto-3 ^Iolel "JE 6z191 44 ¤zl
    Kr 83.8
    *trIb 49 ol zlEE.J+ 9l+. "JHl4sE += oJ^l-=ol El+B rll, +e4s",ll Exl
    oJqol ,Jg++. r +uaq 4*:z +eel +4E= q 4{!4.
    ^tolel
    $r|| Ezte+ 84 tsxI ^iolql r.+]z[-{l]z} qlqol +z16}rl z}+6}71 ql$ql,
    =^H6l=
    +c E4l= +c +4ql d4 += a6}ol 9+. Ee +c"J s"J olq4 +^ e.Jg Bc
    g + 9l+ ,--., (r r.z¤). trIE^l Ad Ezl, 561 E ts^Ie+ +A A{tg BCaJ + 9l= +C

    Ezl-L Eq += a6}ol 9lr}. ql= ?C Szlql o[^]lEg Er+ E= Hlge. d.J4. o]


    ^llE
    E4ql= E tszle+ +i a6Jg=q
    Bcg + gl* rJ* +^J.J c:o ¤6JrI o fl4E Hl

    *# dxl*ol 91tr|.

    :o:
    lt
    cH3ccH3

    0l^llE

    Bol $zllz[ E= El¤tr 4ol= ag'H0l=(miscible)'o]ep 6]-]r., ^l.+. +


    En+ ol^llE
    zl 9+= ag 'EgqrlElE(immiscible)'olrp 6JtrI. EE++A gBE"J 7l+fl9 E4 g6J
    9zl g*E4. A zlzl s.J qlEql flffia- ++^d Eeol+. c-c e6Jg ++^dolr,
    c-H a6Jg ag ++col+. E+ $z[ eo3,o1 q]aolq^l s]oJ c-H a6J.idqzl¤ol Eil
    ++ {-4lg+. +c E +zte+ ++c +El+a Ez}zJ "Jqe +e4 Bcg -dso6J dtre
    +E6l A6tzl *4. ++C E4l= +C .qqql +4 9*= a+ol 9l+. r.al 13.89 dl^lloJ
    (cuH,Jol E.ll 5zl *¤¤ trq +i1 ?l+.

    ;3
    a rH 13.8 dl^lloJ=
    r*9 #zl EldJEg +^s+ +i gz}tr ol+qd ++^J g4ql +47171Eq 9l+. qlE
    5H E B.2ql ¤49 "J¤9 *zl El.JEg E+ +C'J oH7lE. z*z 94. olq+ EzI5
    c9 zt+] #zl E]qIES 9.n9(alcohol)ol+i1 6J+. o-H A!+e +i A6Jg edg +
    9l+. ql= Eq q+g(cH3cH2oH) +zl^= E e^Ie+E EE "Ji.g44E ^ls +i 4
    Elrl Ll:rt. dl^lloJ= =r|'
    EE+=ar g
    v I 4) I rrflEoll ?=oll 9l^l-Lttl: x. 13.2 E4 E^iloJql qitJ oJ=.gel +6|15.*
    ot=-9
    EI= Eoll t]|-d E6l|.E' CoHuoll tl|El E6llE.

    CH3OH (methanol) oo 0.r2


    CH3CH2OH (ethanol) oo @

    CH3CH2CH2OH (propanol) @ @

    CHICH2CH2CHzOH (butanol) 0.11 oo

    CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2OH (pentanol) 0.030 @

    CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2OH (hexanol) 0.00s8 CO

    *oo: 9?gol +4q1 gd6l 4oJ4(miscible)E ag el"l++. *oil.r t9= -ol oEg/100 g *ull. zo "c.
    13.3 I SaHEoll g-Bt= +: oJ^l 575

    H H
    H
    H-- H
    H H
    H
    I

    H H
    f,/\Jol nuTlfL ol-E
    vr t' t' | ilL
    + ollEJg Ext +4 eEr ollEJ= Erte+ E E^t ].tolel -od
    lo 3e-dl,tll oJ(Co H r z)P
    ^tolg +^ ^
    I

    =-d Eoll E6llEl^l Lr=trt.


    A:1913.9 oHTPl gq6|.ts +
    =-'J

    6Jg ¤CB + ilq(r,J ts.e). r


    e4 +A-+4, +,ll-+,11, *e-+,11 ^Iolel ,flg OHTE
    5zl r4E0ll,
    Er[+4
    =-ct3
    +Es{oll Efl-.J
    61ts

    cH3cH2oH4 Hro9 gBE r]lql^J rAl +szl ?++. rSol gqlg ull tszl +aol E6tlE=
    =7t^lZ+.
    r4l E6Izl ?+=+. :14oe. C+ol gd.EI rl +Hlq= tEEulE +7lY +a4 ¤C
    .il 9,1 9l= E.Jg 6Iq, ql+ge E4 Ed6l e*g + 9l+. H zoH
    s t:.zollrl='Jigg +^d6I= Ea gz1s1 fzt E9l 4* "Jag9 +6llEql g6J
    H

    g +E 4q1 ;qalr{. +^ gz}9 +71+71.:++ *c oHz15 dd Ex} .Iel 4}e


    ++e-E Elr, ts4+ dd rJ +ql+AaH 4F6J+. trI4^l .JagE Eql q.J+6li C' OH
    E= AA+q. HlEq q^lloJ(c6H,4)r+ eg ++C +"Hql ql-J "JigE +"l]E= + H
    I

    +C es}+^ ^l+ol eqe++ 6zlt4. +a


    Eql ql* Eael +.ilE= Gll^\7)Y %IBg Ee ,-}]el +c7lE +E <l1^\7ly ars
    =:dl^l'al
    13.10 E^t+^et"gaEE I
    L014. ql= 5E +eq^l oHzl$ |zl +44 E ^IolE +4 a6J 4E7l tr+zl
    ="zlals,
    G.7lt;la_, ar+49.E +uilE= +7I'*+. f.EJ 13.10)= OzH9 Ba
    =+7r-.(c6Hrzoo,
    E ol+q4l E4q szHg oHzlE ,*j1 ?lq^J Eql 4+ 3 +=+(17.s.cE E 1.00 Lql
    +=+). HiHql ^lol=sdl^lloJ(cuH,rg
    830 gol +z7l Hl*olzltrJ. gE oH
    =+7^e+
    zlzlnE zl++qq fl-L- colFE Eql g +zl 9*=+(2s'c9 E 1.00 Lql 55 mguJol hE
    rI).
    +oJ6J *,l]-+49 4Etq $d 4HzJ9 g+ a4= El*+ Ae +s+ gtlEg olg
    q .I Htrl.

    +^l+ EzlzJ .Jqg *= Eee ^lE +6161+ 4t*"1 114.


    ol "JHI#'El+o} ag EI+.J ag +ql+[ike dissolves tike)'4-L rJ+61 +48 + gl
    +. ++c Eag ++c 80l]91 + +:+. olgc +er+ +¤ +ae +^J +'Hql + +=
    4. rlololEge+ 4¤ ,J*:aE +e r.ill= rill 'l]9 ,J.J ed.q qlEq *c *,llolE.
    ++c ¤-ol]"lE qqqlE +zl 9+=+.
    :.1¤r6i HlolEttlsr +8^J HtolEttrJ

    Hlol4"Jg .Jil$
    q4 += ++q^l gq1r9l ¤6;19 += olHzl= rEol TIzl= 7ae gga3 + gl+. rB 13.119
    +E_+E+q4 +^=71^\t 9tq. ql=5H HlolEiql ce+B Ezt. Htol+EJ A(qlqts.)= ql+ a +a 7l4l .Jig
    - ^l+g
    olLl. oH7l7I EzI9 oI+ zlg ++g ilxl6}!_E s. 13.2
    Eq += HlE, Htol4"J A. D, E, K= ++d +,lc+ zl
    = q dE fl= a
    %r-=4(++c)q +=4. Hlol4"J Be+ c= +¤-^dolq^l E- ^1¤. "J?gr+
    +^t6I+. trI+^.1 olfl HtolEI
    "J3 rl9 ++Col4. ElHql Elol4ql c EzlE trl zIeB^l
    ql A xltlqzl ?*zl ullE9l, ol= Hlol4EJg f,.+61+ ¤.4E
    g,H"J d,+lsllo} El+. HlBql zl¤rd Htol4"J3 e45ql u1 +zH9 oHzlE Tfzlr 9lq^] En+ +^ A*g ¤Cg + 9l
    ol4"J AB 4te_a E_.r +ofg
    ^Ie.qlzllr
    u1o14 +. olEl* 3q1,q -H.H Hl-ol4"J cE olg AE
    =+ol zltlqn 9lq. =+i^e+
    "J AE+ql d4zl t*zll 617l fl6ll +Etl "Jol
    ,JL+.
    eI qE Hlol4qlg +¤-Colr, ol{ u1o14u3g ++d"l +H g+ ¤.41: 13.7, 13.48
    576 135t E.-4e-l¤E

    Erl 8E 4rE6lE
    E^te.l t|1+Ee +=8
    t 17HE +d7l E4 8a 4f86lts
    47fi9
    =tr71

    H-
    H
    o
    H
    HHH H
    I

    H
    H- -H
    H2

    HtolEtu A utolEIoJ C

    Arg 13.11 HIoIEIBJ Ael Cel Exl +6

    13.10)0ll 9iE oHzlg +4= Dll=71(cH3)E ileJ6iq+-r.7El6l^t 0l 3+


    =+-".^(ral
    Eoll ttl-d E6llETl=+i^q'Hl-il.6tq olg1l 51fl=7t? e7E;lilL-)t, ,J^aldtszl', Hl+6tfl=
    7l?

    qFjl 13.1
    -e-oqlE 7c6J ql+

    tlS 4 EEol +=d EollE EJ^(CCl4)e[=d EDtl?] E ol! +0ll tl g ql46l'^le.


    C7H16, Na2SO+. HCl, lz
    ^lgEl = =:^l=

    E4 +qd + +,|| + 6I+= ++C"J ^tgE+ *r(cclrol > H= qlrlll


    .a, q= 6I+= +c.J E(uro;o]'1. 4 +eg q e +.J EI.gE+'li + E^= 7l* * +ol= ae Fq,elz}? 9l
    + 9l= +'ll= *=4. ql++ol CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CHz- oJ F+ElEq
    =
    +t+ s*Eol+.
    filE +eq slo+lg olg^J"Jzl Ez]
    =^[g.ss.'^], +eol
    celzlE ql+g + q+. e4d.J a+, :a=ol +c.Jzl +
    +C"J^l= ql+B + ilq. ++d +,H= ++d +4ql ql HH HH H ,aH
    oll trl =.* HlH, +C +,H= +Cq olgC +aq trJ +4= \:= \:=
    HsC
    4'Jg 4+6}zr. '-q-C--6,.C-CH, \H
    E0l CzHro9 Balfaolo-a ExlCola ++ColEI.
    lr-- lz--
    HH HH
    Na2SO4 +6JEg;f+r+ Hl;-+g s+6Je olg aq] E+.i.JE (a) -dl^1lg (b) Etrl
    olQ. HCre d7l gcE 7}ol += + Hl++ gaE sq}6t
    +c olflz| $zlol+. rr= dzl ¤=ds Tfol 5="aJ f zJl
    = gi= s,*q+
    of'
    E ++c olgzt Eztol4. 6|e|.r] c7Hreq ctlCY'ct
    Ir(++C +A= *CoJ Hrou-+ ++d?l ccLql EJ + + ,ra-8-arr, H -o'.- H
    HlH, E3 Nazsone] HCI(o194, +C +Ag q + +ol
    (c) ol',t1lE (d) EJA (e)
    ^tE+ =
    =
    +,Hol4.
    =
    13.3 I E6HEoll E-BF= += E^l 577

    > s= qlr{|2 HHHHH


    q+ Eeg Eql q+ *ollszl 7l6l.L +^lqtr +g6I ttttt
    (c) HO-C-C-C-C-C-OH

    ^19.
    =o

    HHHHH
    ttrtr
    HHHHH
    rlttt HHH
    H
    (a) H-C-C-C-C-C-H
    lllrr (d) H-C- C_C-C_
    I ttt
    HHHHH
    H HHH
    I ttt
    HHHH
    (b)
    H
    tttt
    H-c- C-C-C-C -oH
    I

    H
    I ttrt
    HHHH

    EaJ Erl
    l^lle+ olillg +6l]E= "Jqql 9dl bql 9rll g6.r'9 Ezl *b4. HlBql qH +,Xq .ll
    t zl4l9 +4E= +,I +i.il 9E zl4l9 Y E .JHol 6zlgi* 67I*q. g-qol TlxllE
    +4Eq1 "lzl= ¤5Jg ol4}p+ *r
    zlzlzl Tlilll}4 +E^J9E +E¤ 49 eq ?E :
    "l6ll6J + 9l+. ¤¤q
    aJ 13.12.+ EB6IH, zlxll tszl¤.ol +._4ql E9zlE +Ee+ +qql
    ^J
    g=+ *4 Exlz| zlzlr.re-E E"lzti _Ezl Eg6I+. rH r:.r29 94 *zl9l t
    6ts E^lg slsEE 7H+: olel6J tr-HlEl= 4as Ll+BrI.
    olxll rfl r:.r29 +rJql 9l=+7lql^l Eol= ai]H, q^Eq 7t6[q +E
    99 zlllE "J+t+a ^J46lzI. Pvlz}849 eEIeE A46rH =.Jqg ,l!l *qe tr] Atg
    + EllE 6ztoJ4. ol46J .J4 6z}g Arls^1, Tlxll ¤.zl¤-ol Eill -tr84 +qzli1 +sq
    ^Jss EqTl= +E7l +7}'*tr|. tr14^J +slql^l zlill $dlsi +^l ¤¤ql E$rf
    ullzi
    zf f;zloJr]. + TlAl E{¤ol +elq E9zlE +EeI8d Exl-pol +"lee+El uu}4Ll
    s= +E7l zJold ullzlzl zlillel +6llE= +716J+. ole+ gol qH E4 +qlql rll6J 7l

    m Es4 +l0ll 915 zlrll9 +.8 gqol F utiTi ElE, EBol+flEl+ E"-4011 91ts 7lx1l5-8ts olgzl S6lE7l?

    *l
    'oo
    go
    $)e
    @e t
    a + TelE + o
    o o
    e

    I
    i
    "tirn".
    i,
    i

    I
    o'
    ;l
    o o
    o
    o oo o o o
    o
    otannl
    Bivt
    4rLEl
    o/tE.
    E{Anl -Hel.El
    tl PJg ol.Lr6t EJ47l E6llE

    afal 13.12 7li1lE6llE0ll 0l^|= galg B-BF


    578 133 Eo-4st 5tr

    AIE +qE= +q flql 9E zl4l9 ++ "Jq"il 4Hl46Iq ;!4+Et(rH


    13.13).
    7lE7lts 4 TlijlelExlsoil qal ol-J
    ^ldsl
    r Sqq Tlal +611E
    ^|ol9 +fl= Henry HEt(Henry'slaw)q e.l6ll ++4
    fll Sal.Ezlr 3EE ¤Edt^19. zJol *48 + 9l+.
    Sg: Pg [13.4]

    {zlrJ srts gulloll 4'* zl^llg g"llsol4(.JH}4etr gtEtr +4u


    1.00 4). PeL +"] +lq *Ezl^i19 Y E "J4ol4. r4r
    kE Henry B4 8+
    (Henry's law constant)e'JelTl Hlql ol l3-+ Alg +4, +r11, g.
    -a ^J+ol+.
    E
    "=ll Eql q4 qsEl. qE Eq Eql EIIEI N2 Tlille-l +"llE= 25"c, 0.78 atm
    MM glrJ e.zs x t0-4 Molq. q4^J 2s'C Eql 46J Nz9 Henry Bzl tL+:
    0.50
    (s.ls x t0 4 mollL)10.78 atm :6.1 x 10-a mol/L-atmol4. Nz9 *E "JH
    ol -f ullz| 9H, uenry Hzlql E6ll 2s.cql^l Eql 4+ +6llE <iE + tslloJ
    e.s0 x rc-4 Mtr +7t".Jg ql+6J + gltrt.
    +llgE xllaBzl-= +& gEE 4ag oll, "J4ol ga1ls.9l trlzl= g6J
    I ol*'il4. ol=g ol&s+ +i5
    1 atm-H-rJ +g "Jqetr Bq ilg+. B
    0 0.50 1.00
    ol +zl +ql^J g4E, +E +l coz9 H E
    +E ge(ahn)
    +A6J+. trt+^J co,9
    "J{ol
    arB 13.13 rfl-d zli1l9 EaHEts zlill9 ¤-6llE7r aial-q co2@)71+"_4 +leE zle tt4s uui4494(=g 13.14).
    =oil
    +E gr.ajq gHlall6Jrl. E6HE: E"_I r=J
    mmol+oltl.

    q* =:,*l '

    ArB 13.14 Tlillt6t|E= gqolA^--Joll qal A^-dtt EJLt=Esl+Z0l ga;= q tEoll^] Co2)18
    0l g8-sttl-. 0l= ts4 9loll ?ts CO2 7l^lle.l +E oJalol zJ4dlfi7l tt[IEOltt oHekra/shutterstock

    ql4l 13.2
    Henrv H*l 4ltt

    2s'Coll,\l s{fll +l0ll fl= 4.0 atm9 COe +E gr'aioe it|g EaJ E-e. 4"1 CO2el tsE= Zl,|!6l'119. 0l 8E0ll1l Eoll r}l-.J COz

    9 Henry 8.1 8+E 3.4 x 10-2 mol/L-atm0lct.

    6tlS Atr +6llEE +9= *r, BE +s i4= + xlr.lolu|. ol


    E4 HenryBzl tL+(k)e+ cor9 Fts oJ{(pco,)ol i"lxl XP corE ++'Jqr+ Henry tf AE + zlel +s +zt
    .]r', +.-q ? corgl t:E= 4l+61+ ETllol+ e+.Jil.JtrI.
    xlq +qd cts-E zlzlL Henry Hzl, 13.48 > .5r= qlr{ 1
    ^l ^F&6ll^-l
    e"dlE(Sco)E +oJ+. 94* gsq^l E^ll I zl^i19 ++ .Jqg f ufe u35
    EOl Sco, : kPco,: (3.4 x to-2mol/L-atrfi)(4.0atflI) flq. r++E +g + +.J ag qg 4"JzI?
    :0.14mol/L : O.1.4M
    (a) Henry Hzl tfzt + Hl]T} qq+.
    13.3 I S6HEoll gBF= += oJ^l 579

    (b) Henry Hzl tfzl ¤RleE > .H.= qH 2


    =fl+.
    (c) 9ill +9 Tlill Ezlfz} eHlol EIHE+. E+4ol g4a, 2s.Cql^J 3.6 x 10-a atmg cozg BE
    (d).-q^ll +q Tlill +zh+7l. + Hl]Tl. qfl+.
    "E *¤¤ ol$ *il, a=J +E + co2E ]-oEE Zl4I
    oJH

    (e) "-{zll+ql fl= 7lzil ez}E 7H+q= Ep}zl S4 6L l a

    ¤-5. trlf
    ral +4U ailH, {++el 14 +eE Eql q* *6XE= +"le_l gszt t+61
    13.1sql
    E ?ztt4. :7El+ ol +zlqE 49zI 9lr[. cez(soJr9 4*, gEz[ +7]g++ +6llE
    +col o[{seE Tlgqd+.
    riil gar+* 94, Eq 4* zl4lg +qE= gE ,*+ql lrl?+ a^++(:e 13.10). fr
    El& +ql E zlzt* fx¤ol trl-F6l]zlE, +?]rl Lil+ql^J +71 %r-¤-g B + 9l+. olag
    +6Hg $utzJ9 +7)71+"1 u}ee unflu]ezl rllEol4.
    uffilziz]E, tt]*ez] q*4^lE co,9 +6llE7[ AA4q co2ts)zl +Eql^]
    "lar+
    uu|!+srll gtrl.

    80 "Coll,\l KCISIEBtiEts eg Ssoll,\l NaClelEEllE,elHlr. E^.sl8:6flE *de oiL F 7lrll^l.0l0ll 9]^lal"flts7f?


    g rrll olrqElTl-?

    CH,
    100

    90 i -1 -i f 2.0
    G
    80
    ot
    80
    ru
    o{
    zo
    -a
    olI CO
    ffi60 -E
    -ED 50 ,fi4 1.0
    \-
    O
    i40
    oN
    t30
    u
    I He

    10
    0 10 20 30 40 50
    0
    0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 8E('c)
    8E('c) A:.9 13.16 E0ll tH-.J Lll Tlrl 7l^llolEEoll tttE EdlE 7l^ll8
    a.LB 13.15 Eoll tll-d E Tlxl olE eEr'El':ErEsl.gEoll tttE E 0ll^l 8^ll "JaJE t atmo+ 98611l+^l-d e+, E6|lE9 .J91ts
    a[ls mmol/10lrf.

    Et ,l"llel rJttl 1t+

    $ $allEE.Jflol 67l6fE^J +7lt;l7l trI$q, oJ+ +


    zli-ff 4. trlEi^l +++71d"Hql^l gEl-g Ell= AA6l g+elot
    7lE Eg6f= at++= e"-q 4 zl;llel $alls.ql +$= 7l EI+. +6Ig zl;llzi pzl %I=qq g.JE ¤"1+ += +iil
    gqot 6J+(lEl 13.17). Blq Tlxll= 6l]+Hql^l A +qlq4 ql^i 4+ol g^J6l+ d* "Jz\ flo1l.r.1o1c1. ol 4+e {a
    *zl,J. PE "Jflol q ,Jg *ql^lE +6]]E7I
    ^JB6l =.
    zEql g6}.3 Ela + *+Hg oJ_e-rJ+. ol Bg oh
    "Iq+
    =,
    580 13.} EalE ¤tr

    4s9+.
    d"]l *+Pts 7l-E!4 r=ol E+6}= +71 + e4= e
    Eetr 4rll++. r olf+ gEol eiE+ ^J$zll$ +xll
    (biological fluid)91 46J ¤:6llE7l gd *71 ql5
    "ll5.l+.
    5E roo ftql^l +96I= A++= sI a atm9 "Jqg La+.
    ol oj{o}oll,r.l es%g g$r+ s%E 4}A gq}Eg oj 0.2 atm
    9 .t}^ ++ "Jqg 444ErJl, ol &aE *E .J43 e+
    AfH 13.17 Tlillel E6t|E= gaiol qal oJ=
    *zl t atm9lll +E+,ll= +E *q4 rJ+. 4Ii9 ++'Jq
    Tliil= =71'Et0ll =7|--dt|..
    AI++= EA 7l^]le.lE6t|E0ll +E= T|SqoFzrtl: ol LJ+ solzlE Egol |olzl:1, corzl E Hls_e up3.q
    ^fE6[=
    O illstudio/Shutterstock
    xl *6[z1 9o+ co, +-qol H]^86J4. cozE Eql 4"]ol
    + nE^Bn, ilH4'J + 9l+. ei= TI\I $ol fu]]ap
    =46I=
    A+, 4la 5^ qBg ql^l 4la dE "l ta
    dg
    71,]]olq, Egg Fql^l"J g
    ^llilql^l 4l4g + ?lzj
    u]iE9l, %I6llt}+.
    lrzl zlzt = E^ll7l-E + 9l+. HIE +i= EArll^Iq^l +H ¤+ E4l: 13.s9, 13.60, t3.lo7

    olgrJ rillg Eql ql* +6llE7t gE Eslql ell


    Tlille+ +EZl ++61+zl= S4
    g al] -H.E ol"llg + 9+. TlAl= EI+oJ ++Eg 7lg6lB^ltr.
    glHxlzl zl;ll olzloll dgq
    q +Eql^l EuI4+e+ zl;ll {tr]l_+ rJ+. tr}4^l +E7l to6}E zl;ll $a}lE} rJA6Jtr}.
    HlEq E4 olg^d -r,ill goJgg 7IS6IH glHzlzt j1iilql dBqq +^d olg=tr ++
    qd + Eql E6l] +slgtrI. gszt t+6IH ol$rJ a;llel +6l]E7l +rI.J+.
    "I4r'l

    1s.4 I t"4 EoE -U.^lH


    +"lel bE= C.J4ss E= A*4etr E^lg + 9l+.'#3tdit"te;', r4I'd6J
    (concentrated)'ol+= +q= +slg d^J4e-e s^l6l= ql Hlr,
    ^l-+++. +4E t:E7I
    4 4Ie +.-qg'#+'4r 6Iq, +EE +.-qe'AdI+'4r "J++. a}4z]-53 +"J"J "J
    =
    Hg ^l=8-6l-0l *.E= d+4eE E^l6J+. E++ql H zlxl %LHg ¤uJHzt.
    E="t H4EE, ppm, ppb
    +Eel ,lt} rJ++ A=J4.J s.<1 6 dl+= +q +ql 9l= CEg ¤* UIE&(mass
    percentage)E, I-I+4 ?ol i9d4.
    ¤Eg e"* EI+g(%) - +E +E dE9 "
    +Ail x' loo
    A%i
    [13'sl

    4dE(percenOE'tooB(per hundred)'g Etrlo}zl trllEql e=} EBg 360/o HCl4 g4I +


    Eg +'-4 t00 g 691 ,161o1 36 s sElq*+g +4UE+.
    -+"-qE
    ql+ Sg +E9l +E= r4"Jffi(ppm, parts per million) E= ge{E(ppb, parts per
    billion)-E s^l++. ol e* EEg4 +^l6tr}. Ezl ¤-"19 ArJ ql +Aq AEIHI=
    "Jg
    +16ll +6I= fz}4e4. 100 rll4lql 44 ro6(a million) E:. r0e(a billion)S ^l-S6J+. q
    +^J EI"JES9 49= +*r+ A4.
    ^JEgppm:ffirto' t13.61

    1 ppm +Eg *el E4"J(tou) e6 t g9 *¤9 sEI6t4+, *"-H t kgg r mg9


    LoE9
    +eg E6J,*4. Eg "JEzl- I g/mlolu-tr_ #g ++"-q r kgg +qE 1 Lol+. tr+4^l
    I ppm3 ++'l 1 LtrJ 1 msE +eg E+++.
    13.4 Eo-4 5E E^lE 581

    +¤ Eeol+ B"J Eeg 4l'il 6l+ +E= ppm E= ppb-+, s.^l*+. ql= trl+E
    g¤+ + Hl^el zlrll :.1+ =E
    EoEE 0.010 ppm, 4 5 r Lql 0.010 mg9 ulAE sEJ6l= *
    olEl. ol EoEE r0 ppb9) 6llB.J+.

    A Soz 4--o43 Eo4 rqqg 0.00023 9er sozE -81961r ?tc[. sozg EEE ppm Egr
    e ppb gol.oJTt?
    I conrzl? E?IEE
    qF{l 13.3
    tr7 eeJsl *eJE bEel 4lt
    (a)0.100 kSelE0ll=+i.^(C6H1206) 13.5 gE E;l]/.1;1 E"-qE.J=flt|. 0lE"-qql^]8tr9 EaJ EEge gDloJTl?
    (b)^16l-+ gollZn2*tl5.4 pg Eol ?irf. znz+o1 5EE ppm Efle g0P]71.?
    ^\e2.5
    TtlU 1 x 10 6gol=tr 5.4 ttg:5.4 x 10-6gol+
    (a) E4 +4e.] r++(13.s c)e} +,l]E r++(0.100 Ilel 13.69 ols"6t¤ ppm$ 4ltI6JtrI.
    ks: ols+q ^l
    too d7l +q,.it-, +aE e=t E+¤-3 4l4I o=- ol 7,!"j
    _O-zl
    ed
    ollo} tJ4. ppm : x 106
    +"-4E e=J
    atq
    ^l
    13.sE ole"6}q e* E+sg ahI6J+. +a49 e 5.4 x 10-6g
    x 106 : 2.2ppm
    *e +A(=+i^)q {eln+ +q]($E a=Jg g.+ aolq. 2.s I
    E0l > .H.6 fflxll1

    3* uIES(,t ): =+a^el
    e* x 100
    E so.o gql Nacl r.so g9 s,fl'6}r. 915 gololl,r'l Nacl
    =+?4E o-- ol zlF-l
    _8_o}l
    =o e* EEgg 4lr}6l^1s..
    13.5I (a)0.029to/o (b) 0.03007o (c) 0.0s13% (d)2.9t%o (e) 3.00%o
    x 100 : 11.9olo
    (13.5 + 100)g
    > EEi o4lrll2
    atr ol +Eq^l EE e=d. EEgg (roo_rr.s)yo:88.17o
    tl$+ sE +qe A"*ss 6}olsgi4} i¤{Naocl)
    olEI. g.e-*+.
    3.62voz g'Eq +"1 2.s0 kgol Eq fl= B +E
    0) eq ol a+, !-aq Elol=-E:flfz| +qA+. I pgg Naocl9 d*9 9"ttz[?

    E+8, ETE, EH E.E


    +4= +"_4 6! eI zl] olt}9 CE E+q 7lz6J Eor +r1gg zl+
    ^l_g-6J+.
    +._l + C+
    9 EES(-ole fraction)3 10.6¤9 trE trl-94 aq.
    ,{-l rJ ol -E--^.
    c+q sEs: [t3.7]
    "=ffi-_ft+-
    zls_ xy.JHI4etr g+sg LlEtrllr, +d cee x "Jql olell frzlE ++. q= EE
    gl} +E + HCIE SBgg xucrE ++B't. HCI 1.00 mol(36.5 s)4 E 8.00 mol(r44 s)
    g .tr.El6l-= +Eql^J, Xucr :(t.oo mol)/(t.oo mol+8.00 mol):0.111o1+. EEgg +
    ,Iel +Eq ?lE E?lzI d4g o-+ tglzl $.= ZloltrI. +"1 + EE cEE ra=Egg 6J
    ¤ rolqol ++. q4^l HCt ++elql^J Xn,o:1.000-0.111:0.88eo14. EESS ro.0
    ¤ql^Jel zJol, zl;ll$ +,1"9 n113 ffialzl"J, .l4l +.-49 +{*e 4lE zlld.g +=+.
    ^ll4.sdq^l
    i4t EbE(molarity, M)E tzldl ld-4. +sq + +eE 5bE: trIs=rI
    ,J.l c9El4.
    gtsE: aeg ?-lEl+
    E+
    "1-
    a_.19
    [13.8]
    582 13* Es4E.str

    qE 0.500 +Ed Eql +6ll^14 0.2s0 Lel +'lg "JEE Na2Co3


    mol9 NazCo:S
    =q
    +"-qg EkoEE (o.soo mol)/(o.zso L):2.00 Mo)q. 5+E= zldg }.gdJ rll (4.6¤) ,=-.,u--

    ql^l +E 4"1a, +.lE +qE r +qql E+g +e9 "Jr+ ¤+^la ql f-so6l-+.
    =g6l
    +"lE EiHE-E(molality)E metr- .E^l6l-=ql, +eq S+ql 714q} t.s t9l"l4. E
    g tE= ¤-Ell I ksql fl= +49 5+ol+.
    =q
    gB+E:ffi
    +aE 5+ [r3.e]

    4+^l 0.200 mo19 NaoH(8.00 g)e[ o.soo kg(soo s)e] E-g 4q +Eg +EH, r +a49
    NaoH Eo EE (o.zoo mol)/(o.soo t<g) :0.400 m(a o.qooI=g r-" E)oltt.
    SbEe+ 5g bE= 49zl Hli61]^J d4l gEo 6J + 9l+.
    .E]-"E= +EE +qql E=6Ir,
    . ]e-e+ ]-o E!, +rllE d=6}ql g=ql+

    Eol +4"J ql, #g +._4E EB boEe| +r-"E= ixl4 o-e 44 rJLl.9l4alE r r<g9
    +,H: r kg9 8.-44 44 rJjL, t ksg +o-!g 49 r 19 Rulolzl ollEol4.
    gEql rI4 4=Jol H6I7l glsEE, +sqE EB EoEE gEq ¤.Fg Ezl ?*L4. :
    44 9s H+ql q4 +._I9 *.\z| ffiqz]+ 'drL6IEE, gbE= gEql q4 H.J+.
    trl+^J +alg qtr gs H+l oltlql^J trll, dq6}= EoE9 ++l= Eg t.
    ^l-so6}j1zl-5J
    E ol+.

    EiETf oHg ErtE, or +e-o-4er Eg tsE= E.E-E-ert za,tr,71er 2J


    A ot,-'= +e-o+e-r
    4a=7t?
    =71
    I
    qru 13.4
    ffim ¤.V t-r-E al|t

    sE 25'Col E 25.0 ml0ll *G E-4E'J=flt[. Eq 6 Ss(mE ZltJol^Ig(t, Eel "J


    =+i.4(C6H12O6)4.35 =+i^slE=J
    -E= 1.00 g/mlolt[).

    mflFf
    rtE 4q ge?*g ol+ql^l gS mol-tr u1
    =+n.^(cutt,roJ9
    s*l Eg EoEE 41416l-= E8loltrl. flzl ${(lfa:.)el ¤+ 9l+. Eel "JE=^l^so6I¤ mLEkgo_tr Ei¤+ 9l+.
    *=ie} +,ll(E)g kgiE g.I"t 6J+. gg r-"E= +e(=+a^)9 5+E +,ll(9E kgfE 4b
    4o14.
    3Fi]9 54+(180.2 glmot)2 ^l-86l-
    ',rj
    Molc6H12o6 : (4.3s*.u*,ro.,(#r***r9@*) : o.orn, molc6H12o6
    qr++= g+tr ++4I++.
    EE 'JE= 1.00 g/mlolEe +rl9 A=Jg (2s.0mt)(1.0oslmr-): 2s.0s : 0.02s0kg

    13.eE Eg bE= 4lt}++. cuH,,oue1 Eg +E : o o?11i"]?Il'o' - o.e64m


    ^l ^Fso6l-g 0.0250 kg H2O

    F H,# SB1l1 (d) +49 Ea=Jq 44 *tlalA4 zJa,*4.


    qH +Eql *oIS ui Hqc +,HE e+3 + ullTl q4l (e) *¤9 5A*g "Joto}
    aJr|.
    6tflE+. ol .rfltr$ +.-qq +eg EJ Bq^l +AE e+g > !{* qtrilz
    + ul]7[ q4 49+. "]zlE +._{9 Eg r-" E= 7l+ +"1 +sB{](croHJ ao.s g9 +zs g9l H.J *9
    I 5g LoEeI Bli/g ql "lB4l rlflizt? =Ffl(czur)
    elggbE-(ru)ts gutoJz}?
    (a)f ullz| s 6) Hlss rJa* (c) E.J fl+
    13.4 8'-4 5-E E^|ts 583

    5E tf+lslsJt
    zl¤9 El=+tr, q1zll r:.sollrl trq AilH E"E ++lE tls
    xjlrzlollrl ul]g zl-fl dl4
    =
    H++g + 9l+. gg tsEe+ +bEE t}E H+le ql4l 13.6q1^J4 aol, +.lel "JE= g
    -stro|41 g aolq.
    qEl
    F 13.s
    gEtr+ Eg 5lie.l aru
    g^t +E-44 trBfo.E 36vool HCIE E-El-dtl. 0l E-4011^1 (a) Hclol EEE= Zl^trl,'.lg.. (b)Es4oll^ Hclol E=J 5-E(mE Zlt
    6l,\19.

    Bilt dill e*g TtAEl^l Y= Aol ++614. C+d roo g9 *


    Eq +qA +"1 +9 +e e'* EEg"Jg ol$a|{, f z} "-4ol 9l+n
    alzl. zavo HCt $ololE e Ho 36 g4 uro 0a g

    ,l *dg E"E9 *?lE *d(ucr)el bE= ahl6l+ E4 (: r0o g - 36 d9 EE-6Ii 9l+. g+go1+ 59 *E= Zl
    oltrt. 116l-71 916l] +d(Hct)9 rH+¤ g4g ulfolot 6IEi. gE

    xE! +e4 8,119 d*.1+ E+q +Eq t+l(e $-g 41416}11 96H^j= o-"ul](H2o)9 :H+= 5+e +,il6ll
    =Ad-qql olap, SgbE= 4l4l6Pl +lql^l=kgfE H++al]o}dJ+.
    '$ E+9, E+9, Eg tE)E H+6i= 9lq^l +"-49
    *01 HCIE E+ : 1ru *r"1 (... : o.ee mor HCr
    (a) HCr9 E+¤_g +6171 9lsl]^l HClr+ HroE e* *r.rlrnl!9l)

    g 5+tr H+l6J +, 4 tt.z* ^l-e"6J4.


    Hzog +f :1unrnu1(##) :3.6morHzo

    : uct9 Ef : 3i 0.99 :_ 0.99 :_ ^.,


    ^'ct rucxll .*=+ + HCIE E+ + 0.99 46 u''"
    O)+"-qql^l HC19 Eg E"E(z)E +"I48 rl t:.s
    HCIE (a)91,<l 7a1-fQ. ue}
    = ^l-stl4. =.+:
    +rll(9E 4%r¤ o+ s:0.064 kgol4. Hcre] E.g*=:ffiffi:tsm
    +"+E +q= ql+q +EE 5bE= dzl
    5.871
    4l&e + S+g +q6I+.
    > E5 ff|ril 1 > jr* qlr1l2
    40"cql^l Eql .I+ 4la 2131E +4E= 89 r rB r.o Eql e*s.tr' E*61= ,(l$$ su4
    3.62vog NaOClg
    mmolol4. ol roEiEEge g"IoJzl? 8q4ol ll4. (a) *99lrl Naoct9 EEg, G) +aqql^l
    (a) 1.00 x 10-6 (b) t.eo x to-s (c) 1.00 x 10-2 Naocl9 gts bE¤ zl4}6l-^le-.
    (d) r.so x to-2 (e) 5.55 x 1o-2

    ire qFil 13.6


    l:M t"{E BE& AfgrJ gg5_4 alt!
    ga[H!I!zzs s= s:--b|= Eo-4el "JE71 0.876 g/mlolt[. Eo4elEE-E(M)= +6t/.l9.
    =+fl1(c7H8)5.0

    6fls
    s*l +q4l *49 ae}(s.o g), *,}]9 4*Q2s g), *99 "J 4(rl t:.s). *d(c,HJq 5+= +eE gfel54=*.qeP
    e.(o.szo *.lel E]-"E(M)= +61+ EElol+.
    e/mr)e+q q 4l+9tr1. +.-|el +{= Saqel e=*(+¤9 4*+8,I
    4g +.lE EE"EE *eel E+= +.iE L+e +b aol E erJ:5.0 g + 22s g: z3o g)r} r trJE_tr+E] +8i4.
    584 138 80-4et dE

    '*! (r !

    .]ilzl
    oE-etLol F -,- L czHsg E+: rr.og.,r,r(#H#) : o.os+,nor

    "JE= +"_4E A+g +qe E+6J trll


    *ol mL: rrro*r(o'olutr) : ,ur-t
    +"_491
    ^l-*
    ¤+.
    +bE= +E9 r-lqB +e9 E+ol+. +tsE : (
    ;:ii=; )= (zqs##)(ffi )
    : o z, u

    ,Jtr BE a7l7l4*6lr+. 0.05 mol4 0.2s Lg a+, gb olg¤4E z)ft67 mggEElt4. EHol=^lBql *:A
    EE (o.os mol)/(o.zs L):o.z Mol+. +9 E.]="E= gtrIoJTI?
    99 tr91(motlL)71*i1, +eq e+E $a fz1z1 + zi4 (a)0.017 M (b)0.022 M (c) 0.8e M
    olE + gol + +E izI"J o.zt MoltrI. (d) 12.6 M G) as.a M

    +si +,ll9 A*@.zzs rg)4 8"-49 Pul(o.z6s L)71 a7l > E=qF{2
    ql^] Hl+61s*e, E+.Eel gts +E9 a_7\E Hlt6IEt. Ae er+g ES E*6F= +"lE g
    =El^llE(c3H*oJ4
    E7l 1.10 g/mlo14. ol +"-qq^l (a) E4^llE9 Ets b
    (o.os+ mol CTHB)l@.22s kg *r]]) :0.24 m

    > E= qlrlll
    E, (b) EEg, (c) E44lE9 Er-" E= 21416I
    =4^llEE
    Ellol= eJE7l t32s g/mlolr, 100.00 gql ca2+ ^ls.
    ^lHg

    13.s | ¤EJ^J
    +Eg q¤ 844 Ca=e ++6J +,l]e},l]+ r}q4. ql= EE ++6J Eg o'cql^J q
    ElBql, ++"le rB+ *9 3rq^.1 e+. +"-49 q=dg *+zl +l"lq qlB{]
    = ull, olel* ¤rJol olSE
    =
    4olg +F"_lg zl-F7}g
    B¤zl"ll ?zlal*.g 9l+. dzlg +
    +4e +s49 g=dg ++6J Eel #=EE4 koJge.rl tg gEql^J elAe.l 4#
    7l-:i6}4l 6J4.
    q=dol *-olzl_r, #=dol Eotzl= ag .J(+E)q Hlell6l.r ¤:¤ "JzI9 ++elE +
    ++ +.-q E Eq 4 d 4 ol 4. ol +l 6J C Ag EE¤(colligative property) ol r+jt'JtrI(#g
    ddJql E=+trI-= elulolr., 5$Ce $.d 9z}.f9 da"t4 E4ql e-l=6Jr+= 9,lol4).
    q=A 4Hr+ #=e sE ole]ql 6zl "J4 rllflr+ il+"JE +9Col4. +eE }ETI
    Ceql C=*zlee qBrll ¤6&9 ulzlixl H{ flz1t3r1.
    oJE LHaJ
    +71
    EtJ 8zl oJq "lill= :aAE +7le+ ¤Bg $zlfl4 ,.,r,.- (u.se). f;zl oJ{(vapor
    pressure)ol* Szlzl E^lle+ B¤ql 9lg trIG ?g +Ee+ ¤+ +E7t eg ql) ?zl91 9
    611^J trlil=
    "J4ol4. +rl Sqg +Cg + S= Eeg ulgl${(nonvolatile)ol=p a}
    a. +71*qg +EI.ll: EAg flBd(volati1.)ole|-:r 6J4.
    qgc "-4^Jl +,l]e+ Hlflgc +eE +cE +"-4e r59 s!+g +EI6l+ $leeulE 5'
    7I ull5q 4.$!q+ ,¤cgtrl. d4lE ¤:,l] tszlE olBl6-J 4aql E6ll +"-4 .J4
    ^JEIq^l
    slslr, r_tr oJ6ll +71 ^J4e 7l4a 6I= a6&ol *olzlzll g+. r4sE Hlflg¤ +a
    ol ,il, +rilsl 6zl "J49 ++6J +4E ?zl .JHe4 *olzl4 g+(feJ 13.18).
    =4g
    Hlfltsc +ag EEI6I= +E 9lql il= +lgc +,H9 +71 .Jqg +"-! + *ul]9 ts
    ql Hlell6+. olfl+ +Al= Raoult HE|(Raoult,slaw)91 E"ll A*4s-e s¤gtrL +"_q +l
    ql 9l= 8,l] ?zl.ll el+ ++'JE(p+e)* +E + +,l]el EET(x+q)ql +++ +,HE
    +71 sq(p3.q)g +-t aal rJLla ol H4g ¤E.Jtrl.
    13.5 l=gd 585

    O +l'Jd EEtl "J^t < f.B 13.18 oJaJ LflE Hl


    =71
    pl'Jg Etr "J^l,7lo4^ll Eofl +
    O ot+t"Js EE grl oil .-4ill 9-l0ll g,lE
    671
    =^fl61-8,
    el "JalolrJA-.Jtl-.

    p f oc
    Hl6lH lll
    -Qxl i]7l
    C t_
    L (-
    ")
    t- + t4

    E16l H l9.l gd EEo I Tlill dfElloll^l E^F=4


    =^H:Ero-trul
    +E7l'rJ^-dtrt.
    ^+q
    8E0l rt^lol+olTltrl.
    =g
    Pg.-4:Xg,i.P$q [13.10]
    ql= EH ++t E4 Gzl .Jqg 2o"cql^J pfi,o:17.5 torroltr,
    =+i.4(CoHrzOo)
    E Eql dzlalb EqI 9:azl "JC6Irll +zlqr, A"lE gB&g xH,o:0.800,
    XcuH,,ou-0.20001+7 7[46]z]. ll r:.ro9l tr]sH, +E 9lql *= EE 671 "Jqg ++
    + Eq +zl "Jqel s0.0%ool4.
    Pgq :(0.800)(tZ.s torr):14.0 torr
    El+ltsd +eol fzllrJ9Er,rl *olzlE +lgc +4E +rl sqg 17.5 torr-14.0 torr
    :3.5 torrol4.
    Gzl "J4 4B(lp)3 +eE EB&(x+a)ql AH]4.J+.
    AP:Xgg P$q1 [13.11]
    q+^l Z*a:zl Eql +ot 9lE +.lq 4*, *zl.Jq 4He El-q-r+ ?.1 'I4B f ql
    t}.
    AP : X6uH,,su Pfi,e : (0.20oXtz.s torr) : 3.50 torr

    +eg fizla]eE;{ "Jq+= +71 .Jq qlfle 84ol Ez}.=, olgolE +41fl
    El+lgC
    ol +e.Jzl9 d^ll r-"Eql q=.J+. +71 sq rllH3=.gtolr., qB+E"il Eil++gc
    I zte +esl ¤:++ +eE aiildq e_l=6l.= 4ol otul4, +e .JzIg +Eq E='J+.
    1 ks9 Eoil NaCt 1 motE ts7|.61-E 1 ks9 Eoil C6H12O6 1 motE ts7l6lts ri-=.c1.5e1
    A
    I ?l
    I
    oJ+o1 L*0lxlE Esz1c1 4?7l,,J?)l,0lLlE 11=.71?

    qFil 13.7
    gojsl 671 oJe{ 4h!

    25'C0ll^1 trJE7[1.26 g/mloJ Hlflgd HlE6llE0ltf. 25'C0ll,\1E 500.0 mloll Eel,illal s0.0 mLE zlalG
    =al^llaJ(QHBO3)e
    oJ= Eo4ol
    "Jal= ZltJol'llg(E. 25'Coll,\1 ++-d Eg 571 "Jqg 23.8 torr($$ B)01r, ++-d Eq "JEE 1.00 g/mlolrf).
    =71

    6ll'J illel Raoult Hzl(^l 13.10)g ol+6}q 899 6zl "J99


    E^1 +qd +ar+ +rfle.l +irle+ +aE "JE= ol+6iq + al&.J + 91trt. +.-q + +,l]el EBg(x+,x)e dill +.-qE
    "44 +71Sqg 4l&61+ +4lol+. E+(c3H8o3 E:+)ql qloj $ull(Hro)el E+Hl
    ol+. =i++H2o
    586 138 Eo-4std=

    Eor +E + EE SESS Alt}6l-71 +l


    ollrlE cauaOi Efel Hro E+E AA
    c3H8o3E s+ : (so.omLqn8e6,(ffiXffi) : o.os+*or

    dlot "}4. H,oE E+ : (s00.0m1+r7o,(ffi)(ffi) = 27.8mo1

    : molHrO : 27.8
    :
    xn,o o'976
    -.1 Hp I ,,,"1 crHro, ,?.8 + ofifil

    +"-4 + 5E +71 "Jqg 4l&6f71 +16ll


    ,<J H4g ^l-S++.
    Raoult h,o: Xu,oPL,o: Q.976)(23.8torr) : 23.2torr
    +q +"_qE +71 .Jqg ++6J E9 6zl oJqq Elql (23.s B4q 4=+8, z0.r.6oll,! 10.0% +7lglg ,J^^l7l7l
    torr)-(X.2 torr)=0.6 torr *oltlut. +71 "Jq qlflg + 9l6]]^J= d4l too.o ml9l ulgg,t3 +e q E¤ Ezl-aIot
    aoJ crurorE gESg 4 ts.tt9 4d49E 4l 6l'=7I? (+, HltlE "Jg= o.ezos cm3ol4.)
    ^F&6Iq
    4I6J + 914(ap : Xc,s,o,Pir,o : (0. oza)(zr. a torr) : 6. 57 (a)0.0rr237 (b) 0.11237 (c) 0.12a8 (d) 0.1282 (e) 8.76s
    torr). 13.119^l-&618, +++*rl]9 6zl Eqes+q > E.E qFil 2
    ^l
    *e49 6zl "Jqg +e-trr^.i ¤921ts +ztBq +E +zl
    lBn
    +++ Eq +71 Sqg uo'Cql^J 1070 torroltr, qIEHI
    zlt z]] q E*gql+E614. Eg gi+ *gg ?zl $49 rro.cql^J 1.00
    =7}ol=r}ol
    > HE qlrill atmol4. +o+ol Raoult Hlg trI=+= 19 z|4tr
    Hltl(CeHJ9 +7l"Jg 26.1'Cql^l t00.0 torrol4. Raoult .ll, *'l + qlgHl EEge 9"toJzt?
    =+olEE

    +tg{
    +Ee qqlE +lgC CEg F zll olt zlzla gl4. ql= EeE +rl "J43 16*:75 1611o1:il., PE+s -22 torrol4.
    B zl¤flg olel zlzl +lg^.j E81e-l .s.-!"14. "lel+ g6J
    = q4^l +eqel ++ "Jqe +g+ aq.
    E¤. 016]]6}7l +16}]^l + +lg{ qzllg olt} +._q Ae+ BE ^J laal = (0.::)(75 torr) =25 torr
    zJrN uxf({zl^l qts {ol ${oll qts aol *'ll.Jzl t P=e.qr:(0.67)(zz torr): l5 torr
    +6lzl trJzt). +q flql flE zl8l9 ++ "Jqg Raoult Bzl sq^] +lg d;] 6zl "J43
    ql 9611 494 zJol +q4l+.
    : PUA + Pg+Sl : 25 torr + l5 torr : 40 torr
    Paa
    Pe: XeP"e, Pn : XsPi
    zI ¤+. ¤ rl +ltsCol 9lE Hldol ",*g++ +7]|71tr) E+
    +.lq dill ?71 .Jqg Els.r+ A+. 614: ag;qale{.
    Pdll:Pe+Ps:X^PX+XEPB
    3zl 4 Hldel SEge az]l sqql 46J HI{IE *zl oJ
    mol9 {tl(cuHJ4 2.0 mot9 E+91(c?HJq gE}5
    1.0 49 ulge+qd4(^l lo.14, 10.1s).
    g
    ^J4ql Ez[(xsd:0.33, X¤+r = 0.67). 20'Cql^l ++E] : ?qlgs :
    +71 |u +a
    +EX*zr: P.rat 40 torr 0'63

    Hldol*.lgl glq^l= tzl ExIg 3370= +^d6t7 ?lzl


    "J, rag+zlq 9lq^l
    gz|g 63zo01l olszl g+.

    t
    * zl4 +lgC ^JEg golala 9l= oltr- .-q^ll +aqol +
    7l tI4E ¤Bg ol+r fle 4, 4 fltsCol ?l= CEq +
    'I I 't
    rt. r,'
    otr trJ E*4 B Xol4. ole+ Ag
    ^Ide flgC
    ,il 7l7I
    tl' ^Jql4
    ¤¤¤ EE-6E 9l= g!++g EqoITl(Eb ++fzlos +
    !. !r,
    46[7]) +]El 7l+oJ z\zzl fl
    ^FSq= o+ille =o+(distillation)9
    E| r,.:,r-- (1.3¤). =o+ts Az.il6l= 6'J zlzl BHola, 4
    +EIEI C+^q^l g+E zl+fl, 4d ¤e, Sg+ # +
    =" E= ¤edql^lE r
    * 461+ r+aE ="+olrf(.f.H 13.19).

    a rE 13.19 olel aP tg4e +E-e 371 E-atEe] *ee,a34-^F*qa gl+.


    Fl"Jd =+=Joll^'t
    dE= Eal:g + ?ltt. oDifferR/shutterstock +{ g+ E4l: 13.67, 13.68
    13.5 587
    ="Jd
    ol+ 714lE olg zli{alol zl+El= zlxlle cEqn :,2.":,, (10.4+l), 0lg te{(ideal
    solution)$ Raoult Hzlql uls= +"-498 {Eg+. zlrlls-l ol$ ^Jql= EzlzJ tlE zt+
    ol 4E fl= aql^l a8zlts ElH, +"jq oltr- tr-q= ts zl¤-ol di]lzl_e_-e +"J6Jg EL
    +6Il. 9l+. ee EJH9E ^la7l E+ g6}9 +=G +e-+e, +,ll-+,H, +e-+ql
    ,Jel t]-E 4¤-)
    "l^J +._4q 9,lolrl S4-E=g ^.lsz[ *EEzl *=E]. dzll ¤-o_4ol
    7l*
    d+ ol^J +"1 ceg +4.J ql= +¤ bETl ltr, *d4 ¤:,ll EzI9 zzlzl ulfap,=
    +^tt +zlA .Jqg 7Ie uilol+.
    ql+Eq +Ee Raoult Ezlg C+6}rll tr+ezl ?*zl 4lg"il oltr 3-9ol otqq. qE 5
    H +sqq^t +q]e+ +a rlE zigol !."olel +,l] E= +er+ ge
    ^IolE
    .Jqg ^IolE ^Js 4l
    +Er+ E6IE, 671 Raoult Hzlql Eql qtr-6}= *trtr} q a6}g 7l7lA) a
    =
    4G ?zl .JE 4Hol Raoult Hzlql 96ll qltlq= {tB+ 4o}zlz,ll ¤4). "14 H}q]tr,
    +s4ql^J +er} -$u1l ,r.l.o1E ttE 4¤-ol +a AEli]H ql^J qE ,J6J tr]], ?zl SEg
    Raoutt H4q q* qltl {ltrtrI-z}otzlz]l E4(6zl "Jq .llHe Bzlql^l qltr-s]= rtB+
    4zlAl gtrI). Hl+ oltl +aI os+q ^JzlE g7|7I gq+E r:trg 4"lzl 4gq qldl^J
    ¤i|= +^l6J 4.o14.
    =
    ## eE
    xllrr.s¤4 r1.6¤q^l ++6J Eeel +71 .Jqg tqBr, ol# qBal ^JEsql
    ^F*
    d+71-= gqg*4. +'-!E tlEse+ #Ed "t q=de +-?+ +,119 A+e+ qgrll +
    Hlf.lgc +eg Bzlalfl +"qE 671 sqol *old4. trI{^l f.eJ 13.20q1^J +"_q
    =7t?
    I *zl "Jq +de +++ *ql *zl $q +dql ulall olr.llE olEg+.
    a4illE 4,L}#:dg a+7]l$qol I atmg 419 gs+: A*zlq6|4 ', (rr.sS).
    +Ee ++'s +,|]trtrt *3 6zl .Jqg z*zl rllE.ll 89ol 1 atm9 ?zl .JH{l s$alzl
    +l6li^l q k+ ¤5:E gse .J+. 4eI^.1 +"le_l #=ae ++6J +rflel #=dE+ q
    k+. ole+ rJg aqzl:18 13.20q1 +4+ 9l+.

    ++El Eollel ¤at c=83 *ealE l atm fBdol


    z3^I +d4 EJLI= E= *3 EfS, 0l E 0fafl01l
    =7lg *UEl qEe
    olE qE=ol itoE{ Ert
    tqq e+, 1 atm #EdolHtrt E= EEoil^l
    +=^4 57lg +dg,JLl, to_401 ++:d Eofll{trt
    *=Eol trl ts=¤ HoJtrt.
    1 atm

    Eill
    ++Et Eilt
    EoflE
    or
    =7lS+

    _=71 olal

    Tlill

    .e.oHol
    ++-d SEllol
    4!EIl flgxl

    \-/
    Es. ATu

    arH 13.20 g=E e=E Eq +E 8Es Z8^q de ++ej A"-4el AEE +dE LlEfLHr, +E^4 dP
    Eqq dEE +.NE LlEfLJtl.
    588 138 Eo-tst dE

    +-?El +qiql q+ +.19 #:d sE+ +e9 gg tEql E=6J+. rEl+ #=d s
    # "JzI7[ +z]oJ^], olg.Jzlq +als,ol ¤-d
    .Jz]9 d4 r-"Eq tslrll*+= 4* zl4
    sllot ++. NaClol Eq *9 4, Nact r molgl EI6lt^J +e otz[ z mol(Na* 1 mol4 Ct-
    ol$eE E4¤ trI E4g olgE +E CE
    1 mol)ol
    ^Jdg+. *4ol =B.J +ql +q^l
    9E: van't Hoff ll#(van't Hofffactor, i)E -r.EJ6llot 6J+. ++6J Hli6J ,1, +rfie+ *"-4
    ql q+ #=dq Hq+ +s-n+ aq.
    ATb : Tb(+E)- ru(8,t1) : iKam lr3.rzl
    ol ru(¤:.1)3 +EE #Edolr, rr(¤.,11)E ++dJ +,l]q #=dol4, m!
    ^lql^l
    *
    eE gg*E, KrE +rll9 Eg *ts¤ cE {lf(molal boiling-point-elevation constant)
    (4 +,lq qldl^J {ezleE aaq= Hlql
    ^}+), van't Hotr it
    zlfol4. Hld6ll4E a
    $ ; : roll, d6lleE 4+ i abe Eeol +,Hq 9"t4 olgqlqL+ql E+.J+. qlE E
    H Eql^-l NaCl9 4*, i:221Yl4. rI4rJ t rn NaCl ++"-4q ql'J #=d ¤=*4 s#
    eg Elaqle r m 8q49 #=d sEg + HI]TI gq. rqEtr #=d sE(E= qtr +
    E +gC)ql 5^d *dol trlrl= ¤6-&9 Aq6l qltr-6lzl +l6ll^lE 84ol {all{olzl, ul{
    aH4.JzlE ot= aol +96l+ .:r, (4. r ¤ + 3 d).
    q# LHAJ

    E4l^}!+ ilill^Jq 4eI "Jq +Cg a}=!dql^J "J++


    -.:ri (11.6¤_). f.al 8.21q1^J +
    .19 n}+a -o-rz| ++Ei Ei]E rs+d gEH+ *e ag B + 9l+. oli f-o-!ol tf
    =!zl
    a3 o-{illts r-f *? 7zl
    "Jqg z*zl ull$ol4.
    +qq q=dg ¤Bq^l +++ .8-,ll ¤Col ^8CEzl ^l4L6I= gEol+. zJlrr.6¤9
    BE, rille+ Eill
    ^IolE ¤¤g +4rll: dg d+detr+q 4E +4sE ^J4"6J+.
    l
    H r:.zrql.! +EE r$+dol +++ Ealg d'+dBtrl *+= Ag dr]l g + 9lr, E6J
    olag -nzll-Eill B¤ +dg trI4 9l: E= dq^J q=de ++6J 04
    ^[¤ol+. +qE
    4E q=dE+ *+.
    #=d sE4 u[.$z[z]e, 9=d 4H(lr)3 vant Hotr zl+(,)=i jlElq] +e9 Eg *
    roll z$u14o3u1.
    ATr:4(+o-l)- rr(8rll) : -iKrn [13.13]
    Hlel t+ &= E:J ol=E LIIEJ gg(molal freezing-point-depression constant)ol+. +E

    > rH ol=E
    13.21 LllaJ= Ll"

    EILH= dE][ z3^4 ca ++ l atm


    -d 8ollsl 8g-d Eq +
    E=,^.ll
    !,f, .E- =c=,\tlli:ol
    /\lq.QoHol
    tL o-i ooo -z ++El EilltollE
    - Ei{
    c= Hq =71
    "Jq
    =+.
    of
    an
    ++3J EoflE -QoHol
    o-l
    4"1
    ozt
    otz{
    Hi
    l=X{

    ++-'J rill Tlill


    Eo|]el=71 gq
    ol=E

    -90Hol /\l=x1 ++:.J EE||g q:E


    o-l EoE

    LTr -9E
    13.s l69¤ 589

    x. 13.3 3.J g=E eE, tt+et E.J q+E LlleJ


    ^J+
    30tl x{
    oo
    } +}-=.r{1".\
    6LE\v/ xt(clm) E8 ot=E('c) Kl'clffi')

    E(Hzo) 100.0 0.51 0.0 1.86

    Hldl(Ceso) 80.1 2.53 55 5.12

    ql+g(c2HsoH) 78.4 t.22 -114.6 r.99

    ^lgs+ E4(CCI,)
    76.8 s.02 -)) 1 29.8

    61.2 3.63 -63.5 4.68


    =_tr_tr*i(cHcl3)

    e +++ *ol]tr4 *e gEql^l 9zl rllE9l Ar# gE ftg ,*=tI.


    qq .JHI4"J +,Iql 4troq&9 Alol Et3.3ql +4Ll-91+. eql^l E9 4*ru:
    o.st"clmE +Et+ ?lErll, olag Hlflgc +e "Jxt7I I z-tr \o| 9=++"lq #=d
    ol f,fal +,HE #=dH+ 0.sl.c ++= 49 9"laJ4. +"le gEI4sE
    "lt4 o-a
    4E6Izl ?*zl rU+ql E 13.3q1 +4ts tr-+ {tg sdEi #e +..4q g 4+E+.
    Eq & 7i9 t.se "clm"l4. tr14^l Elglg^J 84 'JzL t m f8.-4(1 m c6H12o6 El
    0.5 m Nacln] eg)g ++6J EE q:dtr+ 1.s6'c *g gEql^l grll g+.
    +aql E"l] g^Jq= +._49 q=d 'l]Hg ++6}ril g+6J ase, ageq zl-Fi| +
    +"lel ^l-& "l Eeg ?uJ *zl9l EsI rJ+.(caclJg ^l-8'61+ dol4.

    A Eoil +ot ?r= 0rrr Etror Ee] B=E= 0.51 "c a7r"^raEl.. orae uE^r Etr9 tsE7r-
    I
    I
    r.o',g= e.l'l6lETt? (.u 13.3 d4)

    qHl 13.8
    *ts8
    xl'=^i +Eo4-e. Hl+lgd, Hld6t|trE oll=zJ! E-et-dr|.. Eq EaJo_e 25.0%9 0il=il! I.
    :st6l-= qtsEE =al-olgcH2(oH)cH2(oH)= =al-oI=E
    Eqg E=Erl /l^i6 l'^le.

    6tlU E-25.00/oqlBHl=401t+¤:ololTl qlEql, *a4 +ql il=


    E4 Hlglgc, Elddle g4ol ?*s125.0o/o 5q fl= + qlB{ EE e*3 44 zso g4 7s0 golE}. ole}
    .-{el q=dg 4l&61+ Exllol+. ol= +lEl^]= # =4ol=ri
    eg "J.g ^l-*6l-q +.+9 Eg bE= 4l4}g f ?14. ¤zl
    #=dn+
    s=4 q=d .IBg 4ld6l+ Tlol $ealr[. Aruel A4E 4l+6171 +l6}q gg #=e sE tI+eI g
    =d ^J
    g q=d 4H ^J+= + 9l+(s 13.3). +Q4g #=
    9.E+ q=d 4H
    nEl 8,t2, t3.139
    ^l ^l-s4q #=a q=dg ^l_s6J
    e7l ?16]l^l= +,HE #=d9l lrog rjop,
    g 41416[7] +]6ll^l= +E bE= Eg *EE 444oF + er+
    +. ¤91} 1000 99 +Eol gl4r 714614. +"lol 4*e +rHE q=Aql^J ATrE uBllot *trI.

    Eol +o-qE 5g r-" E= ZI&6IE 4+4 e+. Cruuor9 Ef


    e=' _r-E
    -E_E+
    o! - HrO9 kgf

    : / 250ge.*t1.02\/ I molC2H5,O2\/1000gJ{zO\
    : _ ^_ m
    5'5/
    \ zsoel+P )\6LtsEnl6or/\ , wrro )
    al r:.rze} r:.rr¤ #=ar+ q=EE H+= LTa : iKum : (1)(o.s1"C/nl)(s.37 nt) : 2.7 "C
    ^l=*6}q
    4l{}6JtrI. LTr: -iKn: -(1)(1.86"CIwt)(s.37 wt) : -10.0'C
    590 138 30-4stdE

    .r}4^l +E9 #=dr+ q=dg dzl 4l4I¤+ a4:4(+.1)-4(+EH)


    2.7"c:4(+E)- 1oo.o'c
    4(+.1) : to2.7"c
    A4: 4(+q)- 4(a"EI)
    -10.0'c : 4 (+"-4) - 0.0'c
    4(+e!) : -10.0.c

    +e.l +++ +qlB+ *99 Afzt q gE H9l= Tlzl (d) 0.050 rn CH3COOH (e) 0.20 m CpH22Ol-
    q,{"Jg Tqalr{. =
    > Id.* ftt8t2
    =
    > Ha qlr'il 1 0.600rg4, *?BF^ ++ gql
    gg EEL6I= gil
    qtr ++Eol qbdol 7l**A=7l? =-+E+.(cHCt3)
    6J7j =z16l
    EA"J +aBE(C10H18O) a2.0
    =
    (a) 0.0s0 m CaCl2 (b) 0.15 m NaCl (c) 0.10 mHCl +Eg q=dg 4l4}6l^le-.

    tf+ E^J

    ^JEZIE +oS* "+4 ^JE+ ?g


    6J^d EAg s6J6-J Eeg H}F4C(semipermeable)ol

    4. olEg +"_44 d+g ru Bzl arg EzKql= 5E E EZDE 4e +89 rE +a=


    E4q E"4^l{+.
    $ull $zluJol F zH9 rI=.r-"EE +"-l
    ^Iolql
    +q fl= HIFES Eo46r-+ 9l= tlqt
    g ^J46ll HzI. g 4l+ +._4(+eel *e r"E, _f44 +,119 +g +E)eE+q q d6}
    +"_4(+g +del E" E, l4Lt *g +,HE bE) o E 8,lz} 0156l+ +E= Hlql %r-6}s
    E olE6I= +EH+ 4 =4. trt+^.] +e9 bETl *e +"_Iql^l bETI +g +E-g.E
    $rH Ezt9 oJa| ol.['o] gl4l 94. ole+ ?g n+Ag EF E$(osmosis)olap 6tj1, +ofl
    I "JrL olt+ 6J.tI +¤ +E4 t+ +q +e_E gq+^-l *"_4ol eg +EE 7lzl4l g+.
    Eie| uxl.*ie] 8l+ It0ll ?]b #ei gg se+ $0ll ?lb Eeq-H.rt ri tsE7f ilet EEes Hl"&riB, o{Bxl ¤ 1,lil71?
    *71 Btsoil^l
    Ul oHiI -tnl
    O- TIol
    otaE
    617l ?l6H
    =,J41
    7t6l= gzj=
    "e.oH
    ++-d Eofl a
    dF$r/et 'zJcl.

    oo
    a o a a
    a a a a
    OITL
    9^-l Oa o 1O a t
    EOH O1 a a a a a o
    "J^[
    ao
    o
    aa a a o
    o
    O
    jl a o e
    o a a a 1O
    oo a a a a
    jO HIEtrI
    a a a 1O
    aa a o, a o a aa aa
    ta a a ara
    ao a a a o aa
    o aa a
    o o a oa oo a a a to t a
    aa aa o a ao aa a
    a ao aa o
    a a
    a? I .-i* .-I+
    +_La +.
    H2oE oJrf olE¤. ++Et EEoll^l: g+ HJ-BFoll
    flGl^l
    E +Oil^l EE +e-+ H2Ool 6=01 ,Jrf qafll H2ool
    o ldLlrt ol[L nlEq olrl
    =vIt-t.

    LaH13.22 AtF "J8= EEel 5E7l-tJ tse +o.-e EJFqt= E-d -d +Ele-E+E1 tl= +EleBsi Erllsl olE rl8oltl. AFg'= EE
    g+0ll fl= "_I^ll9 +0pl Lle)l rl]Eoll EJgolH, .l gF+"1 "I^il tsO )l ?J]l^lE= 6l= Lll ggLf .Jalrl ,Jrl.
    AfEHollll "_lsl
    13.5 16gd 591

    azJ 8.2+ HIFEq +49 ++.lr} ++* E ^lolql "Jq+= AIF ¤tlg trq
    el6l]
    +a 9l+. uz|+e g+ql E¤ rE6J6lr- 9la, e-=+q ++"-qg se-6l.r. 9lEl. il+ql=
    Eg F6ll g+q^l egf og Eg .Jat ol+ol flal g+. qat^J "J+ +._lg +ol: +
    szl gEL a+ B¤ql^J cLil 13.224 +rJ"+) 4E sqll +H +olE+El ^Ja sqE
    ^'lE
    ,+ol7l q+ 4^J Eel d44 ol#
    H+rll g+. AIF ¤tlg H+Zl 617l +16ll s+q=
    'Jqg +EE EF?i(osmotic pressure)ol4 6Ir, fltr +4t+. A]F"JI+ eg el+ 'Jq
    g +"-4ql z16[8, :LA t3.229 e-E4q] -H-ol= 4aH .J+e.l "+ill +ol= ?JAl C 4oltrt.
    ,$F"Jg ol,$ zl;ll H44 +^I6.J flv:inRr s^l++. tI= A]F*, v= +'19
    zl+, g+, ^les
    oltr gsol4. ol
    +rl, ,=van't Hoff nz +aE Rg zlzll
    ^J+, T= ¤4 ^l
    g 446|E
    n:{tt
    r r,/*,
    : |MRT [13.14]

    Mg +EE EEoEol4. qts +"-qql 'l]+ *F.Jg +"-qE E"Eql el=6t71 ql+ql tFs
    I +BCol4.
    F.J6J dF"Jg r*= + +a4g HIFEqE E46lE t+ ¤tle "JqLlzl g+g 4o14.
    ole+ Ag + +.-49 Eo*C(isotonic) $olol=p 6}l, 6J +Eq dlFg.ol trJ *g. 4*, ol

    +s4g A6.J t,E +"-4ql Hl6ll 4td(hypotonic) +.-4ol+i1 Ei+. E6J q Tl6-J L"E *9
    g Eg +Eql ula]] l*C(hypertonic) g.4o1ep eI4.

    A 0.5mrl0.2omol KBr Eo-4 6 olu. A0l


    ^18d?]71?

    ql=
    nlF ¤{}e ^Jil4lql ,fl+ +e+ Egg ++. Eq 4e+Ee ++4dol+. rilE
    49(intracellular solution)ql El6ll rAlC.J +a4ql 4¤*z[ +zl]ts ?*, =e t3.23i']H E
    g +Igtr olE"6J4. olull r.llEE 93uJl, ol $Cg *¤(crenation)ol4r dJ
    ^llE =q$|l

    *xtg qe?¤ Ea1rli1flb sqr{17|"flatitr +0il^1 r'JElrlE, +g IEh tC 6 ol! rl0l golH ri?l7l'?
    T=^{ ild.E= E E^tsl grl 0l- LlElL.lrl

    I
    -E_q -e^l -!.E
    'J3 Etr 5E

    \ Ltq
    ^L
    -QIl
    o= l-E
    or .L.-q
    rL o= IEE
    -Qxl o!

    E8d4loll ?l= 4E+= Bd6lZLl'++6trl g=q. z8o-{ fl3 +0ll ?1^l6J 4El+e] +E #A +q q^l-d 4e+e.l EE
    ^18"4
    afg 13.23 4e+9
    ^lls.E=
    Eft AF Ed Eol 4E+
    ^lls0l^l
    8ul^11f7[E +=0[r, Eol 4E+
    ^1lE
    +o+
    =GleE ^]ls:
    EJdoln
    0l7i0l8E0l EJtf.
    592 13* E.IstSE

    +. ^lls rllEql Hl6ll


    ^ltr-^dfl
    +a4ql
    ^lls7} +olB,
    5ol .(]lE q+E olE6}q ^llE= r}
    rl6}:-ql, ol 4cg *¤(hemolysis)olap qlq. E tr g.Jtsg d+l"J + H=
    o
    ^JEl]g ^l
    *g zld AEg E6lq g"Jtsg sf,6].= 4u-4 ;.<|(intravenous(IV) infusion)E
    ^l-S+
    4. ol4 ,J+ 4+ 4¤7zI +e6I7lLI +eq= ¤^Jg ulzlolzl +16}]^1, HIE^I AE +
    ^t
    +"lg ^JlE +"lr+ a¤. E" tlc $o_{ololo} of,r}.
    qru 13.e
    d+oJE 4l{f

    25.Cqlll Eo_4el EJE ATF"JA 7.7 atmolr[. --J._{z[=eE= 0l+= Es4e] g!l.E7l.?
    =+i4(coHrzoo) =E-E=
    6fi* * Na*g Cl-q + oJxle o1g516}E-tr, CE ¤lt}.+g
    E{ 2s'Cq^l cEE r$F.Jol 7.7 atmE +qe .L B"+4 NaCl bEi 0.16Mol+(O.rss M NaCl *93 oJzls 0.310
    E"
    tlol¤. ol= EE zl4l6t= +4lol+.
    +E9 r-" Mol B+). o.L6M Nacl893 Ar+e_E o.eo/oE +4qln,
    = =+?.: ole+ e3 g+E^l "Jq4 ilEI.
    4e AlFs4 ZET! f"ld,"Ire al r:.r+E olgo|g L"E +"_4e ^8r_lq4
    ^l
    ql ql"l] + ?l+. ul{flpolzl rllEql ,: rol4. > !a* qEll
    = =+i.\= +.gq qE 4*ol*"19 +F"Jg fizl{1zlv_tl?
    Sol rt: iMRr
    II (7.7 atm)
    (a) *4 tEg A^ O) gE 4H (c) *,119 dzl
    M: *: : 0.31M (d) gE 9? (e) *el qtr aE dlB s,+
    1,y(o orr,ffi)rrrr*t ^IoJ
    > ts,*qFtl2
    ssi .J^J
    +Aql^l +"_49 *-E='ll4 a=* E4Ese s^1rj 20.0.cq1^.1 0.0020 M +=-tr-\.(cr2Hzo,,) *99 +F"J
    4. o.:r M Z+a-a +.-491 e* EEgg 5.3o7oolr].. Nacl 3 g"t.Jzl?

    +"1 9l= tlF BtIg ^JEqI4


    q]= *+. d+ t;+q
    sol= '-+"1 +E +5- ¤tlg
    F6ll^l tstsIzlB^J ,13 eoJ="= e-r4=+. 4*7]|"*g *^lg E= AIF ¤
    =iol ^I+ir-g
    ^J
    ql+ql
    ^llE ^[ole]
    +rJ "i a4 ^IEql tEol "lf+ et]g AE++.
    olaol d6]E
    vlPzl +¤q se= P6(edema)g "JerJ+. Eg dlF ¤^J rllEql +84 oE EoJql^J
    4E +rlE ol*-*+. rlzlzl9l= r7le+ ¤=Jql ¤"J 4.Jql gl= ,d.F ¤tr-4
    ^ll+g
    agE6I"l +Eg rull]lzl_L erel¤q +-e-_
    e_tr4{ g4ol -H=94.
    ^llEEol
    0.10 Lt NacrEq49 8+gP o10 M KBr Eo40lAFSErf Ae7[?
    =71,4?71,otLlE

    6B¤9E+E1 *eBFel ,Jt


    +Eg +gce +4.e1 Ed=*g +a6l+'JH 6el 6ILIE 4l+,*+. ql TizlE +gc +
    q- aol+E +49 54+g +a6I= ql + g+. olae q4l 13.10r+ 13.11q1
    ^Fs.B
    +4+ 9+.
    qH 13.10
    o1tsT LflaJ sts *t+.{ eBotr+El EtaotE 4lt
    rl^lol HI+|HJ.S HlEoHtr EE= 40.0 eel CClaoll rl^l EE 0.250 gE +q U=flt|.. 0l Es4el E8 E=trP ++-d EEHe.l g=E
    Et|0.357"C tl tstl. Etrq EEaJ= Zllt6l^19.

    6ilff I 3=6Lg zla_e .+d9 ge=Jg +6t= E4loltrI. s. 13.3

    Eq ccL +.+el #=d e-={Arb --0.3s7'C), +ar+ +4l ql E6[8, CCla $ul]$ K6--5.02.Clmolr].
    13.5 593
    =gd
    fllEl ll 13.124 LTb:iKbmg+Eq Eg +EE
    ^l-&6lq
    6J + 9l+. ulzlu-|e-tr, +ag EA+e E J r++e+ A+.
    +g + 914. +Ae l: rol+. 5g t
    Hld6leolTl rllE"ll u}+^l +eE rB+(0.2s0 g)5 zl* E Zl++ E+tr ++
    Ee+ +4E e ccl+)g ^l-*6}q *eE E+= 4l& olo} +4.
    oJ(40.0

    =tJl
    ll rE.rzglrJ EstE:#: d#;tu:oo7t7m
    tr++^-l +.-49 *rl] tgg *4 o.ozrr motg E*t4. 8d
    g +Ell(ccl4) 40.0 g:e.s400 kgg "J=+. tri+^] mol *3
    ol E-\L
    ^l-so619 (0.0400 kg ccrrl(o.ozrr :2.84 x tO-3mol *?
    9-oI kgeef4 )
    =!-71
    OfOO=--]=lL

    +ee.l EeElef Eeq EJre+oltrl. Ee%i:


    0.250 s
    : 88.09/mol
    2s4 10*_"t
    "
    > E6 qlr{|1 (a) 7l+ ¤%l (b) azlt (c) aql"J (d) (e) al%I
    olxl el g^q zlfii zlfr ff =.qlullgfl
    ¤EJlcDH22or r), toJGuHziNoJ, > H5 qtfil2
    (c r8H2 r Nor, r+B(c6H 206) 17e.8'col+. "lag q6l
    aEll oJ
    tsql ql
    " fl (c8H r rNor, r
    tlH(croH160)9 +=dg
    + 6l+ol+. zfg mgg gl*g(d: 0.78e s/cm3, 44-
    80 k:4}.\'clmel qbd ,llfl tI+¤ '/*a-c+. "l4E 5
    q=dg -114.6"c, Kr:t.99"clm) t.so mlql +99 e+g ,*= +71 = EA 0.186 gg ._q4 elq zz.01ggl *S.
    ql, q=dol -lls.s.cE qEr*+. ol pl4 7l+= q'- g ull, ol g.JEel q:dg L76.z"c7l qfl+. ol +eg
    A"J7I? Eer*g goloJzl?

    qFjl 13.11
    *FoJge+q Ee%rel4lt
    qE EEE= s:d6lE +tEel A+"JE +¤6|.q, E,+trg EtraJE Eoll 3.50 msol EEtr= EG 5.00 mL9
    =86fHtr1. =EE]
    ,\l.e Eo-{= U=fltrt. 0lq 0l Eo-{ol dFg= 25"C0ll^1 '1.54 torrflcl. EH-4E01 HlE6tltr0lalr 7l8dE, 0l EE4Eel Zl
    =traJ=
    {t6l^le.

    6ilff al&6J + 9l+. relTl gE= .cq^l KE EI+r,


    +16l]^l
    = torrgl^J atm9.P Ht+qot qI+. E+ StEeI +
    E{ tEaE er*, +EE +4ql .}]* Ctr4 t}F'J9 zl +F'Jg
    iE, EzI%Eg r*= +EaE Ee-+g /l{lalf -$zllol "-49 Pul(s.0o mL)E
    ol$i]].r] +aq E+E.Jolt4. of
    = zluJe-+. ge+g +61+ ,JBg 8¤9 d=.t(:.so mg)9 *
    +. *Eee HldofleolTl 4l$.ll i:1ol+.
    4el gE(T:2s"C)el tF$(n: 1.54 torr)ol
    ?"14.]r., n aE E+e ++E ¤4.
    <19 9l ?lo o-+., 4 r:.r+E ol$allzr-l +a4E sr-"E(M)

    Eol 13.14= +.-q9 5]-.E= zl4}6lE +


    ^.1
    gr+ 44.
    ^l-.*6|q,
    o__ _ r _ (1.s4torr)(*o*.,) _...
    : 8.28 x r0*+
    EsoE: #:

    +.-49 +q= 5.00 mL: 5.00 x l0-3 LoIEE +Eeq


    E I.L
    alL
    g+: (8.28 x to-smol/L)(5.00 x 10 3L) : 4.14 x 7O-7 mol

    gerJe Ee IEB rH+ol+.


    gerlg ^lE ¤*9 r.so
    mg:3.50 x t0-3 golr+. rH+E E+s +b
    lloloe q¤r+ a+.
    Ee%I:g ;ffi-*,:8.45 x 1o3g/mor

    +el zle tqolalE da CqoIZl +46J f ?lzl 4l$9l > E8 qlfil1


    t+'J +Ce 849 Ea%hg A4q+ =.3 *Bol4.
    =
    +Eee +t 2,3, 4, +e 449 +Ea(+9]ill)ol +^
    594 133 Eo-4et dtr

    e6JE= 442]|4 tlE zI¤¤ 5:4q zl Ee +aE BC6lEzt? +Eeg ulddlde ++6}^le-.
    ^lE =E6}r]l
    +6lE^l +EJi{= olE+. dill +Ee +q}!l= +.-qql^l (a)t (b)2 (c)3 (d)a (e)8
    6J +fls z++6J + fl=q1, ole+ ag +-J!l= +EAg
    ; sf, Slrfl 2
    '471+4'qa- ++. tr+lille.l Eeelol 2s,000 g/mol9l rll 2.0s s¤ +E+ "Je.l s+qlql +q +E
    e+ +E4eg ga+g+r 7l-c6}z}. f*ol ro.oo mr_oil =E^+olfll
    0.100 L¤i "JE*+. olEll +EE +Fglg 2s'Cql^l 1.21
    kpaol S.4. E.r-l^4ol HIE ¤.A+g 4l4}6}^le.
    0.0er6 atmol4. +"+ql^l H ,l]E +Ea ++l4l71 4^l +

    van't Hoff zl*


    +EE +gCe +e "Jzlg ddl bEql E=++. .Jzlz} ulf iE d6He slq^l tfl* olS9 +e+ eq.
    van't Hoff
    olgol5 E l+ +als+. 0.100 rn Nacl +Eg Na+ Eeol Hld6lleol+r 7[a.J E]1, ol zlf5 4+q= aHl
    "+4^l
    (aq) 0.100 m4 Cl-(aq) o,too mo\71 ullEql, q=A .ilgg rI+ +gcE ¤xilat9 Hlol4. qlE^J q=E
    'l]Bg ^l-+
    (z)(o.roo m)Q.rc'clm):0.372'Co14. r44 q= 6IE
    =C¤
    d LilHg +zl 0.348'coln,
    ^J+g
    trl= dqleql r]l6ll^lE .
    El+61trf. ql= EE 0.100 z KCl +a4g -0.344"cq1^l t ':ffi[13'1s]
    ^ft(+ai})
    +. t$ xllaJ4S gql 46ll^l c}+^l *fl* ole+e+El aa
    ,Jd4eql ql6J olE4 +gc4 +cg +gc
    ^tole.l
    iI g + gl4. ql= EE Naclgl rllollr.l van't Hotr
    ^liy 271
    ol= olgS,rlol$ {{zl4 .Jqq 9E} 4o14. olg=g SQ. NaclS slq}^l +9'J cl
    oJ 7l]9 Na*el6J ,l]E tr ol
    +E +ql^l gzlolTl tril+ql Hlql d6IE olg5ol f$;|r +q7l7l rllEol4. K2SO4= e++4 +gB + Zl9 K*e+ +
    +a4es "J4 E4 g+. rSol +41 gl= 5o3 ol$$(ion 7l]E SO42--s ol-folzlzl ull+gl van't Hoff z1a3 3ol g+.
    pair)ol+= 6I+E Ezle u1-g;jc|(=eJ 13.24).:131Ir e + +._qql 4+,el dxil<iq ql+ dETl fle_$ zjl{la}i rJl il
    B4"J $zlfts Aio}{ qa. E+^l q=d .llHE Aa6I q^l q}4ilg B 4o14.
    ^]-s6l7ll
    ,{ g+(g=d e*. +7l.Jq qlB. ;JF"JE A^++). += *g t.Eql^l q3l Eaql .116il +c¤ van't Hoff zl
    += Hq +r 91ts E 13.4q1^i F zlzl a.3-9 E + 9l+.

    o Na+
    o cl-
    aals, q4e ddeql ql6l]^l , ilql g6}.9
    =tri.
    +"-4"J++ , {}g s+Ei^l t?lB olgiql 7la+ Tlqilql
    trJ #e

    7lq),lB3t;lrll g+. trI4^l d6]le +"-4q flq^J "lgtlE


    cE= *g +"-q"J++ a^*+= aEg eg + 9l+. E
    alls, olgE d6|7f *-s-E *g++, ; fiol zl{fieE$rl
    J 'J zio}litrl. r ol+= olg.tdlE Crzl o1e- d6}r*ol AA
    $ql u+4 z]rt;lzl{lEol4. oJ+E A-Jg zJtrJ tdzlol

    t \ r+ gzl6JtrI. d6l-= E oJzl-=.^lolq d-E ++E


    oJe fEq \Qzl ftzlali+, d6I7I =4]6l+ aig++ +^++.
    \
    +d ¤+ E4l: 13.83, 13.84, r3.lo3, r3.ros
    !
    X. 13.4 25 Cq^1 qal E:Eq cfl6J van't Hoff xl*

    e h
    I
    I -tE
    o+

    I flgE
    f=e^
    NaCl
    0.100

    l .00

    r.87
    rz 0.0100

    1.00

    t.94
    rr 0.00100

    1.00

    1.97
    nr 7l.lAl
    1.00

    2.00
    6lLtol olPS
    K2SO4 2.32 2.70 2.84 3.00
    AfH 13.24 0l887l5zJd NaCl E-4= EaIEJ Na+(aq)el
    MgSOa r.21 I .53 t.82 2.00
    Cl (aq)HU Ofllaf ol8grE s-ef-sltl.
    13.6 Eeo - 595

    13.6 lEe.ol=
    qq Eee azl9lE +,Hql +E 4 zJzl"J, zl+H ++qI +,11e+El E4zI ¤
    ^ltol
    rl. Eql +&g El^ll6J dE oJzI= 6q qlEql dxils rl 9lzl *6Ij1 a+ Eql 7I4*=
    q. +a s= #uI"J g4E +cg dE "Jzl+ qt+89 tszlH4 :E4d q r7l qlEql ol
    4* d,.Jol "Jq*+. HiEql ++"-4el BtI oJzKg +Eq flq^l= ol8, ¤ts +.-4ql gl
    q^l= tszDts zltrI. ++4 + 714 oJz|.tlo1q1 de4ql ts4.!_4 q il, +q
    =+a^e6JEE rdEol SE]g AEE rezl rzl 9+e E& EXITI
    I g6}6lq^J ole+
    =^l]*+.
    Ag +&E +rJ Bql= =-Eo;c Et(colloidaldispersion) E= t+61 ==Eols.(colloid)4
    L -J4. geolE= +.-4r+ H.J gqlEq aalcrr-g Eeol+. +Eile gEolE= 7l
    i{, .lAI, rilloJ + 9l+. 44e) ql7} E 13.sql gzlqq 9lq.
    fz| zzli gElE.g Ee.o1=e1 +.-qse ¤+oft: ql ^h*g + 9lrt. ¤EolE oJzl
    9 zlES s-1000 nmvlzl ge.J4. +e "J^l+ zl$ol s nm-H_r| a1-5-1. zllrztf .:.,;t, \tZ.e
    ¤)ql^l t +]tr Ee=g.lillq +41^l7lE $eolcz| g+. oJzl= +oJ a
    =solE gzl zzlzl
    ql tszls TCHzls 6Jq. ql= 5E C"-qql +I^= dg6l+ 61lE=trElg
    nmoltr, E{eJol 64,s00 g/molo]4.
    6.5 x s.5 x 5.0
    Hl+ "Jzl-b Ll+ 4ot^J :7EE E4Iol ¤"l4.llrl a"J6|41 _uolzl"J, lEg
    =eolE
    qg 4}+^la Atre rq. qq^.i q6IZ+ g
    'I++9 E_e.o1=- +E6l #6lzl ?*sH
    FB6trll tr.Jq(ql= 5q +eE +f+
    zlEJq BEIA +47I Eql E&5lq
    =trol
    il:
    gol4). rl$ol :r$$ qg 4}+^l7lzl ullEql fH 13.25i1H qol E^Ig F4g
    =-EolE
    .Jz[q 9aJ HE &+g EJEETt(Tyndalteffect)41.
    41 9 *dol _U_"J4. ¤eo1_. o[E
    91, B4 7l-=& ,l?]ql^J zl¤ztEsrl Lts= rJd E= #ol4 +Eg F6|q +e= qH
    g g + 9lril *+. E= rl6ls Ag dEE Etqzli ?+=+. 7[^l%]d ]EEHg xl*
    q +el Sgq +E ^4tr4 4zl ?9 ts{-E=4 zl9 .Jzl¤"tl E6ll^J q rTll &+ol
    ^qg
    gqt+. ole+ eg ol+s 6l!=9 ++4¤- trlrll gtrl. 6117} A ql, qloJqE+El g qe
    trl Bg 4zlE E"rlql+. +=qe trl &*614l qj1, *g4q L+49 F46Iq g + 9l
    Zl ¤El.

    tl+^J "J A+^J Be-o;=


    zffi igaf, gEolE= ¤d{l]z} EqI olelq} pEolgi iE Elfd(hydrophilic,
    =EolEol+.
    E 13.5 Ejloltrol6+
    Ee.o;=g1n Et(t0flei ee)Ee EL(ae4 e=)Ee E-eo;c grll qt

    7llll 7]|4t 7]|1)\ s*(E+ +e4)


    7li'll Tlill aqall qlqE+ qlzH

    711)l zlzll l.^ll qIqE¤ ¤zl


    "-4xll
    .-q ill Tlill 4* 7)* a4
    e4rll aI4l *z]l oo
    -1-TT
    "lal
    EAt E!l lzll + qlt=
    n4l l;-ll 714, Itill 4g. u|,r.lEj_tr-

    z;ll lrll .lill :l.i'llfxll ulr'l


    ir.4l rill jr.4 rlill + EA +4
    596 133 30-49 5E

    > fB 13.25 !tr¤oll^l EJ=


    Erl e=+ +4= E
    d= -Et+6lr ?lr. =eolE
    sJ+ +al= _j

    E._4E s:-JoE "Jrf.

    T il

    I
    i

    il

    li
    s 7
    tl
    /l J

    ,
    I

    ¤.g +ot6l.EJ s- 1s4,S(hydrophobic, +g dq6hL-)o14. Tl+d Ee


    olE= *q^l ¤E.J +Er+ TtaI +^t6I+. 9lq^J s.^e} 6}^lle+
    Ed6l-= Tlxlr 9l= zl(group)9 trttrt4 dE ^l*ql
    ,Jg +e'* Eeg +C6l-= 44 E4b ++19 E ez}el d-E 4+ql E
    e +xg!71?
    aJl !5S1.$o e *2194. rliC EzlE +i$zlzl dq fl= Bzt9 qI4

    E^lEE ?lel tl+d +d7lel Edl'= E 7l= ql 9l= E tsr1e+ Eq ¤q4 9l= %r-^1e-e. dq 9lr. ElEql rag a+
    E^l-= Erl q= +d EoHoll +7ll 6H
    =tr| C"J +C7l= E Ezle} tlE 4I+6IE,rl -E.Egl 9lril ¤+. "Ifl a+Czl
    : .JHI49E 414+ ei= E6J6II 9111, ++ d6l-= 7l^1a- 9l+(r=J
    13.26).

    u (1
    A
    I +d7lE=
    olE EEtr=8
    GCal
    ^llEqr'el
    xltr'$rtl' $e-?
    .l+d
    ^lE
    Hli:Bt6lfl=71?
    015=0il gl^l-dr[. 0l= EH-{E .]

    a
    tt* ^+d =EolE=
    qH %IH9E .Jdq+qB E+q E4Ig f il4. :B
    zl ?+eH Eql ql+ A+C
    =-eolEq
    z|$ {a}rz} z}zl ullEql, A+¤
    $eo1c' Eql^l E4gtrI. "JAsl^l7l:6J Tlzl *Hg i+C oJzI _sE
    a:lH 13.26 rJfd Eeo1. "J^t Tl+d7|ts ql ol¤.g +zl^l7l= 4o1r|(:al B.n). (g{(adsorption)p EEq Eq
    zrt| E^P[=+oil^ A],r{1,!o+ +^lE + ?1
    E= 6l] raJP r Glolrl.
    =rl.
    ae E6F=g g^EolEE,,l.ie
    E|= 7i, rall Eo-!oe uul^1Lfg
    5+e =z1l
    rtat: ag g^l6Jtrl.

    > rB 1A.27 EtrEl BolEoil


    rl
    96ll?JEEI'EJ 4#d Peo;c o rD
    @
    t @
    E^tfl 30l80l
    g?L l=
    o-
    xtQSl
    o o @
    =t -o=
    OITL
    H tH_]a{

    e e a+dgrt ^+8 "Jrt


    rl @ e
    o P
    4^ll olE
    \_./ /\
    \7
    o
    t-J

    6(')r:
    -QoH
    @ (-)
    e
    o- aL
    -v[
    s0l3 \_./
    13.6 Eeol- 597

    GIE ExlrJ Eol /.Eilolett ol8¤ 7lE,JE *ee Eo1g7lh7l?

    018

    + 1
    rTd ll OlEl il^lJ olEl
    o e! tTd ad

    +
    e

    o+
    +0 gg
    7lE
    o
    o+
    +

    ArE 13.28 E+ollll .\Ello|.E|| 0l80ll el-zf 7lE 3^]lol oJEEI

    9t= ag elulall, *f(absorption)4E +s4. ++= "'qlzlz| 5¤ ¤+6J rll Eol "J
    +etr 5q7I= 4.r+,Je ag x++). ol g+ olgg E4 ^JE z++6lq oJ

    dEJ+. E^lql ol*6J Eeol_= "JxI glgl ++g olg ^lolql Hlgqg 5 =EolE= +ql^l "Jzl-=
    ol .r']tr. E= ag EoI
    =+.
    4+^d ¤Eol== EEE tliczl"I E6I^l E.+ "Jcs+¤ + gl't. qlE 4g zl#
    BJgg aidol4. q4^l 7lE BJgg E+ql^l =Hql4lql r5
    g d$6lq Efl s{ql ,lE"+g BCEI+. 1q1o|_et ^l/.sldoe =416lzl ?+r1
    AE(sodium stearate, rH 13.28),
    s3 afs$ a+^J "J+(+c E= dq= E)olrl += +e A+^d(++^J) "J+g ,*: q
    H Eee, E+ql^J zl$ .r]^¤ldg "JAEE aol+. ole+ Ag qlAsl+ -^qlolat ¤.ol
    eE i+^d olgE "J+4 7l+ Elg ,J tla z++ "i a+c "J+r+ E9 ^Jn 4+9 er+
    ol+.
    ¤e.o1= .JCs+= "JrJE ip+4lqlE +i,lglzl 4s.g + gl+. +4E +ql zlB-ol i6L
    q EBg .g.sE+ ¤zlle*H B6ol +elll ++. B= ¤E +
    trll dE4 p+
    z ^qlote4}
    q4se Hl*d +4= z*E sl*Eol glt}. ol p|6J-=-g a+¤(+^d) "J+r+ A+^J(+
    +c) "JEg ,*=+. ol 3rI6JEg AtL .}l9 ,(lBJg +sl6}j1 ia.Eg E"l] zl+^d tsIolEI
    qlglelr.lzll5a1z11 yi=rt. Se|(emulsification)*'+rll ^JC'g *61q. qI ErllTI rl
    Ezilql .rl:.sld99 il= ag 9"1'J4. i4zl + ql.l+(s 13.s). +zJl ^Jcg E=
    =
    Eag f:4xll4]1 c4. rl+olLl-+E d-*.g tEE g]q -H.E, Be slql E*ol #Elzll
    olfl s+.ql EE=g A¤4eE a+^d "J+4 i+^J "JBg zl
    ^l-Sg ag "J + 9lrl.
    _E
    zlil 9lrl.
    Ll- tr ol zlEl-f_ HIE{ z
    A+O att f ao

    e "-49 +*d +E e.J all-e.3E ql (hemoslobin)S E'-+6tj1 4e+ +ql 9l= -dlE=EHlel 8syo7| +o-4 otr+q AC
    ^.1
    gln, ol=4liE -d+tr+q dillE 4 +Eql dB.Jtrl. * +¤+.
    EJ 4e+ HlE6Gickle-cell anemia)E'J441 +dEql 9l g+^dE go;e- olulLtlE +Bq qq^l +a4 Hpl
    'J
    qC, -dlE=EHl Ezl+ Cd-ol otqn $pal {l}z} $zl 9l zl"J*4. AtL4e -"lE=EHl +zl= -cH2cH2cooH
    ?+e ¤Ellql 9lq^l Eql ql6l.q *g +6l]E= ,*=+. trI4 zlft zl\:L 91'. olulL&g E'-+6Ii ?l+.
    598 133 Es4E d:

    HP *dBoln. +s oJ+ E+ etJol 9l= f;{zl$ z}zl


    j1 gl+H, r=9 zl^lg Hlat'-4.J 6llE=-qHlElg B+6t
    zll ¤ 4"14.
    ol$ pa{c-e e* *
    soJ zlB+ Hle="4 ee, ^JBg
    +lqi6}= EHol "JF9 ds} r+Cg E6lq qerll zl44ol
    -oH a=zl u?6J 4o14. olaq qll* ++4.J 6llBi_e_E, ol e
    3a EA H9 zttl ^t+=g "J44ol-q S zJg9zl ?+=tr}. 4r+^l
    -cooHTlE +^dg Eq ql6J 6llE=.Ptl EzI9 *olls B44otz} +461= gqlql^l * E$ 4B+ tl¤69 zf+l
    9l zl{*4. * 4e+ Hl¤+ol 9l= $z}el aflr_fe
    Eo} ^IElg 4E6|zlts B9l
    d4* rf4lzt 44.
    t_l Ezl-L -CH2CH2Coon rl¤ol S,j1, r zt4"ll **C
    (^+c) "J - cH(cH3) 27 "J ga g+.
    I

    L*,
    -cH-cH3
    CHs
    Hl^l/\t
    stod Hl^l^l
    "too
    ole+ ag {0}i {{}ol il= ¤qle.l 6ilE=trHlg *d^l
    4 *l4sl{r.lzloil Ll+ "Jzl-=E +dq4l *E}.
    ill._qql
    s.q}
    =
    13.29q1^]e} pol ,r]lEz| t EolqE Fl5?.141 6J
    =El
    +. t E.oJg ^llE= E.^ll¤g EeElil 6}jr, -f.-tr "Jql ga a.fe 13.29 ¤8 4E+e+ ..t Eg 4C+ 8A 4C+=
    U-ilE, -"1"+elr+,.JH zl*9 Ad4e oJffi z[{*r}. o1 6x10 3
    mm s-Eoltt
    ^l=01

    o4i1 LHqFisl
    E_-aolE +E
    7l4l Ezl+ EztB.ql *ul4lal-= ¤+ +EE qtr ar+ +=6171 {z}zl .rj$otr +zloJ
    += ag tozlolld HllS.trI. S+ ^I+
    tlE(mean free path)i +84 +E
    ^folql
    Ezl-$ol
    ol*i* B+ rl4E 9rlaJ4',,.,. (10.8¤). TlillEE EzI4s ol# 7l4l +zl¤ol ts+
    4eE +e^l6}al sE6l-b 1ea rla4g.+= 49 tzlat4 ,:,'-' (rQ./!).
    +ol] Exls=4el +E An+, +._4 qlg "Jzl+ +e^J6I4l ¤.zlolzll g+.
    =EolE 7l.J'* g4.Jg,l]+
    E Ezl+ *r]] 92l..il ulull ql* r7l qEoil =Eol
    +Eql ++. alzluJ ol
    e+ ag +Eol ,ll* *ol "Jq+a, aq4se Eeol= .JzI9 dzll ¤.zl"Je +e^l6}rll

    ¤4. ole+ ?J? a* Brown #(Brownian motion)olap 6J+. 190sLJql oI.J+4.Jol


    q^I4e-tr Ell+ 6s-6J "Jzl9 ol5..ll q+ B+ zll*ql q.J tllA4lg gd^la
    =Bol=
    4. 94tso1 qtl6l+ 44 rJol, .C .jilql^l Ee.o1= oJ44 a7l7| ¤+ zt+
    flezl 5}.Itltrl(E 13.6). e-i.$ Brown gFE 016ll= =++
    zl= zllsql^l+El 9E ¤^}.ll ole

    x. 13.6 2s c E+ql^1 l^lt + t6t7t ?18 E.-e.oltr +sl 4ltt! B+ rt+ 7dE

    7E gxlfr(nm) Bn xl+ il-E(mm)

    I r.23

    10 0.390

    100 0.123

    1000 0.039
    13.6 Eeol- 599

    7lv$l qo],t;J Eotql ++qj1 9l+.

    EEJ qHI
    .a.al 7ilL{
    6 t 'ttE

    Eoll 0.441 99 CaClz(s) 0.100 Lol Esq= .JEfltl..


    (a)dE 0l8e-e SEdl EoliElflEfr 7|.86|.H= ttH, 27'c011^i 0l
    ^l.B==q AF"JA 27"Coll^l 2.56 atmolrl. (a)oll,t'l 4lttE ArFgEtlE ell 4t3^l dB6l'r,
    Eo-qg ArFgt= ZltJ6l'^19. (b)01
    Eo4el
    =8EJ
    0l E-4011 9l= Etroll ctloH,! van't Hoff xlf(i)E Zlt6l",,.l9. (c)CaClzol E"-4 E!=tr|ts AH= -81.3 kJ/mol0lr[. Eo+el 116 EE
    7127.o"ColP-, 8E= EEloJTl-?(E, Es4el trJE= 1.00 s/ml, ulEP +.ta Us-K, E.-43 ++l0ll E +dol gtqn 7|¤-dt[.)
    ^71
    6tlt
    (a)tlF"JS +4q]= 13.14olq, II:,MRTol4.
    gE 7:27"C:300^lg ^l
    K. 7lz-ll tf n:0.0821 L-atml E L_ : (O.44lgaael2\/1mol CaCl2\
    E6- \ oroo L )\ 110 e.ael, )
    mol-Kol4. caclz9 g?d=
    "t +qe+El +EE E-bE
    flC6}tr trl-s=r+ e+. : 0.0397 mol CaCl2/L
    =
    7I+d olg A6J +6JEg ,Jd8ll¤oltrl ,,., (4.11.1.
    + :3t. rl4rl caclzt: -f-^ olg(ca2.)4 ul*4 ol9
    (ct-;"= +C¤trI. .$d6l +6llqflg ql cach BglE
    019+61-0l r.il z]l9 zl]9 Ca2*4 F 7HE ct-)g It : iMRT : (3)(0.0397 mo1/L)(o.0821,1,-atmlmat-K)(300 K)
    "lg(+
    CCqLq. 44^J al,$g +FoJg tris=4 e4. : 2.93 atm

    (b) d4a +gcg dzllziS 4lc<ie+ 44. 9lutofE .l


    gE
    ^tolg 442]|4 ts
    r=g ^I+e-g
    zlgol ol5
    g El,{}6l.71 ullEol+. ol a+ql 9lq^1. d6H¤ol d4l
    4 o.tr. q- {rol$9tr
    "lalel=xl= auJ6lf-vant n(+a<t)
    Hoff ulf+ +gr+ a+.
    II(HI ddl eql ql6J 4l^}at)
    trI+^l ol +._qg ulzl caCl2 ¤.._4ol olt<i 3 44lql 2.56 atafi
    :2.62
    2.62 oJ^le 44q= a^]fl 4s.d+. (0.0397 mol/Il) (0.082t It -atrf. I mol-K) (300 K)

    (c)8o-4ol 0.03e7 M Cacl2olr. d^il +q7l 0.100 LolE,


    (0.100 Z)(0.0397 molltt) :
    +eel g+= 4+4 e4.
    0.00397 mol

    tr++^J *"-qg "JE *ll g^J6l+ gF+3 q+r+ e+. (0.00397 mol)(-81.3 kJlnol) : -0.323 kJ

    +"lg ol g*g g+6}q gE= rtzl4z1q. gE E


    +el e ^IolE +41= 4 s.zze- +qxlq, +*r+ e4. 4 = (ts19 (gi)(ar)

    *9ol s+ql9r.I3 q: +0.323k1: 32t ;olcf. 0.100 L


    +"+E e"*g (roo mr)(r.oo glmL): r00 g(#_s. *zI r)
    oltrL trI4^l ¤.E H+= - '
    3231
    -' ).773K
    (4.18yc-KX100C)
    KelvinS dal gEeI rJS az1o14 e,:L: (1.4p;. $o-!
    +E7l0.773"C azl gEi 27.O"C - O.773'C : 26.2'C
    =:7t6lEtr
    600 138 30-4st 5E

    sEg6stq
    E61l ut¤(13.1tr) +'-qe t
    E4ol trtE Ee dillql J"J6lZl e +EE rte bE ++l." H+g + 9lE|
    &¤ EI .Jq tlE zl8¤ E0ilEr
    ^JCgr+. ¤.,11 Exlq +er+el E=J¤(13.5tr) +eE 5dq +4l$ol +q + 3zr gxfel $roll
    (solvation)4I .J4. *"llz} E"J trI 1li 4L¤¤ *i(hydration)
    E+61+ +.-!E E?]zl Cd9 property)olaln
    4a 6JE+. Eql^l olgd Eeg +"ll= +^J E. tszlq E+ EEI =B¤(colligative
    .J+. +gCe +71 "Jq ,-IB, q=A t..]lfl, #=E eE. dtF"J
    ¤ olg9 +p+ql E"ll^J .JqU+. +.-!g "JE trll dill flgq H 9 So;.4;q-. *21 "J4 4H3 Raoult HE|(Raoult's law) o -tr E.rl
    +: "J+ s= S+'J +E 914. *'l BCe ¤+E dgq HEI +4. olgEe4(idealsolution)3 naoult H4oll E+=trI. +rl]-+rl]
    (ts$ r+A)e+, o}+el
    tEeEl$ E+e| t+6t= +a! d$q * "l +e-+eq EzlrJ C4 Blf,6ll^J +rH-+Aq fl"lrl tsxlzJ -J
    zJ{til?zl$ E4Iql E6il +E6lr,ll gEl.
    e.l ilols oltt4 45.ee+q H.q+4 gtrl.
    "J6Lq "*e *"-lol
    s.ilEErt E6llE(13.2E) es+ +E4 +^l 9+: +e ,JE ¤B HIflBC +¤g E+6ln 9l= +.le +++ +,lltrr+ #=dol
    g E4ol+. +6ll r+Ar+ r qr+A.J Edrt(crystalization)E E +E+. EJ EE 9E tl*(molal boiling-point-elevation constant,

    ^]q 'Jqt+. hzl t*3 +eq B¤ql 9lE +'-!ql^l + +A


    r)| f,4oj +"lle+ Eli6ll^l +e J^l t m +.-!q Ell6J #=
    $ Ell(saturated) 8o-!9 BC6fE^l eg +Es 'Jqt+. + 49 ?tE L+E+UE|. ole] .$.rialzll ot=E rfial 8*(molal
    =il
    "-lE Eslql
    g.0-+ "JH+ +eE ol
    4eE, +Eg tcEr
    "Jol f)i
    freezing-point-depression constant, i4a3 +r1l 9+ Hl .il.tr'
    (unsaturated)4I +4. ¤B s"E &trq +eE bETI trl rE, rli +e oJ^l I m +.lql q6J +.-49 q=d 4BS 9,1t14. S
    ol +"-49 E}E:il(supersaturated)ep 6Jr+. 4gs+ +qg E"Ja E Hs+= 4 LTo:;yo*, AIr: -iKrmql ejd +qdq. lE van't
    + ^J4oln, +eq ec,4ql e.l6i^J +o_l_e-_e.tq *d.l .J+ e HoffrFi(van'tHofffactor)E, +rlq^l +eol H Zlel E^l-= B
    r.l¤ + 91tr}. qB 5a ¤Eql^l Epl +.lg BC61+ ql gs-6-J C6l+^lE +4UEI. NaCl I molol Eq + 4, + 99 2 mol
    +eE "$g r gEql^]9 *d9 8tlls(solubility)4n EL4. E +A "J^l-= ^JC6JE|. _r-Eoe #Edr+ qbdg 4r+ q-4
    se ?g +Eg Hld6HA +.19 + BI AE +7li+Aq e^{}+.
    E61lE0ll gBg += ?lxl(13.3tr) qE EA +ql flts'* EAq
    .le+ ee nd.g += rJd6laqlE 4+E+.
    +6llEE *rJql q ¤-i!ElBl= a.ql Eufl^l Alzl4 +e^16|^l3l
    SF E8(osmosis)$ HIFE-}$ $'tL Eg +'-qql^J q 11+ +E
    a6}J+, +e-+,l| ,r.fol$ rlE zi++ Hli6ll^i ^Jrfl4fl EzI
    =
    ,J +4-+4. ¤-,11-+,ll qlqzlql 9¤6JE+. +^dr+ olg etrE +rll E^lel oltlolE}. +qE oJ4l- olSo.a ¤FEt(osmotic
    ^IolE pressure,n)ol .<izlirll, olag 7l"Jr+ Ag ,lill "JqE +91
    d +43 +c +4ql +4qE= a6}ol glir., ++c +ae ++
    e +ag + 9,l4. +"-qgl .sF.Je +"-I9 SbEql Elql*E+(p:
    d 8,ll9l +5i6}4ts a6}ol 9l+('El++ gee Hl+t Eeg +
    ffRr). tF ¤dle ^J,ll4fl ilq^J +s_6J +AoJql,
    tr+). qE Hlge gqlEl: .lillE'#01=(miscible)'oleljl "J6I ^llEqg E
    n, I f,$^lzlxluj, olg q aql E^l cEE F+= rjlsL6}: BJF"_}
    ^le ^JB6l +6llq^l ?*= Eeg'=gqrlSjE(immiscible)'ol "s 4+6J+.
    4n "JoJ+. +a4 +rll ,<|olel f4 a.J ^JE zl+g ++ +61l
    E= a{6l+ rJl feal E6Jg +4. qE EH tszl-= rJql Eeol=113.Uo) +,+ +E-tr: =^l"J +,ll4lql^l e*5"J B,tI
    ^iE
    +^ a6Jg 6l+ ql+gr+ Eg s6J6J + 9ttrt. o_qi,llq ql6J 714 Elq flg "J* +E6l 49 oJzl-=g a=EolE(colloid) E= Eeol
    I +ElE='JHI49E. Henry E4(Henry'slaw), 4 Sr:kPr9l 9 E Et!(colloidal dispersion)g ^Jd6Jtrt. +"lnl 5ffi"J gE-E
    ^l
    6ll +4U Eie+ Aol, *.-4ql ql6J 7lillg .Jqq Hlql{L4. Eq ql ol9 +t EeoJ geolE= {xll{e-+ "*ol ¤+9:1 gltrL.
    6J ql++g rxl +e9 +6llE= *99 sgzl67}+ql q4 + ol=E + g sL g?.14 6I+91 7I^l%IdE 4I*g ryndau =eE
    ^Je +
    zlaJr|. rNalsE Eql ql6J TlillE +6llE= oJHI4 o-+ gs.z} r(Tyndall efiect)+-z. .J+. ++C EEol E= E!#(hydrophilic)
    +7l6Jql q4 z${}4. 4 4#8(hydrophobic)eE ¤+6JE+. a+d E:.aol=E ¤ol 9l
    tr EoEb EU u4#(masspercentage) +71'qlq^.1 e6l tsagr+. ol "Jql^l zl4 s49 dE-ill(E4,
    Ee4 tsE lg(13.49 899 =
    t(+d e*/+.1 ez})x 1001, E{EJffi(parts per million, ppm). g
    6}x]l)= E4 t}E ++6}= strq ge +C E: d6l-= ts gz}
    7lE+e 7l^\a 9l7l qlEql zle 7lE %L
    9#(parts per billion, ppb), Etsgg EoJ6ll^l q 7l^l EI'J"J ^J^sldg +zl6fi1 914.
    0l+6ll A=J4gtr
    g4 ge a+C ¤sol== r= sflql d6l-= ts 9uI9 Sar$
    4EE -*^lg + 914. E--s(-olarity, M)E
    5:6ll ¤e-e ¤^ll6Jtrl.
    +--q ElEl"J +aE 5+e AE+4. :JtsE(molality, ln)i I
    pE ol^fl
    c'. .lill 4ql^l 7l zll +^IE +Ii1-94 "J +e^J6J +rE" +
    ^J

    uI9 zJe:tsB +a9 5+e A96Jtrt. +EE "JEE $triE, g


    +^f6l-Zl Brown #(Brownian motion)g'JEI.

    ql'+ ¤al ot
    :s
    BE E+-d +01 qal5e qEE + ?totot -dtrt,
    ** =ril 601

    . *Hl*oJ Ee*
    Hl*"J Egg +"J+"48 HzlE sd-6.t1 +A S+ E4l: 13.6r, t3.62,13.6e,t3.70
    (13.s¤).
    ^l¤¤
    Ezl+ Eln+ +6llE +alE 7l¤.+4(13.1¤. 13.33). . +"lql ++61+ *'llg ?zl.Jg 4tlaJr+(r3.se).
    ^1, ^Iolq
    +{ S6 ¤!41: l3.ls, 13.16 +H g+ ¤i4l: 13.63, 13.66
    .+6ll i+Aq glq^J BBE qg4 +Ag +qlEql Ell+ +ZlE .+._l9l #E¤ eE+ q=d qiBg 4l4}i.J+(r3.s¤).
    zl¤e}4(tr.z¤) +B ¤+ #4: 13.23,13.24 +H S+ +^\; 13.73,t3.74
    ."lr,lql^l r,ille+ zli.llg +qlEq ulrl$ $sel ar+ql qdl 7l .+EE dF'Jg 41ar;1t:.s¤). +H ¤+ +41: 13.77,13.78
    ¤'++(13.3¤). +A ¤+¤!41: r3.3s, 13.36 . +aqE +gCg ol+6}q +eelgee6tg 4l&.JE+(r3.s¤).
    . 7li.ilel
    ++ "Jq4$aNs,r.1o1E +4lE 7l¤6.Jr+(r:.1¤). +B ¤# +^ll: 13.7e, 13.8r
    +H g++41: 13.37,13.38
    . +E4 EEol- iloldg gg;3r|(r:.0¤).
    . EsoE, Eg bE, E=+9, a* E+9, E"JES9 .r-"E= 4l& ^Iole.l
    +H S+ ¤i4l: r3.8s, 13.86
    6ln, :7E,r.folel rlE g+|g fle(r:.+¤). . A+C ¤solEel4f{ gsolcrt qBZl E+ql^l
    "J{cl+l
    *¤ g+ E4l: 13.47, 13.48 i flizl ggajr(r:.6¤). +H ¤+¤.41: 13.87,13.e0
    . +grdol f9.q,lxl 7l+6ln, van't Hoff
    ^l+q 4ql ¤BtfEi

    -=.o Hl-e- l
    Or- E O i
    .s":ftP" lre.al Tlrll *6llE7I ++ sqr+ +¤gl: uenry H4
    . dEE B* u4tsg(y") = o - a- ou-
    9-oI -4.o'l /(l ll o'l z'lE+
    e o ..
    x too [r:.sJ eE* Esgql+6J5E a9
    g"qg **

    '{89 +9 ^J+9 a=J x 106


    ppm: +"_l_Q-otlo'l UI"JES(ppm)ql+qLtE AE
    EzlF] Ir:.0]
    o-- o=d

    . cEg Ee¤: ^d+9 5+ Irt.z) EEgqI +6J TE AE


    EE ,^l
    +LOUaOel
    qol _+. E A

    -Q-zl ol F -A.
    ELr
    e o* o e-

    +._!9
    e
    ?-lEl+
    I

    [r:.s] E.bEql +.J tsE ael

    .EsbE=+ffi# ltr.sl gB tEq +"J bE Cel


    . Pg"-q:Xg,X.P$,i [ta.to] .&e491 ++61-b +rlel +rl "Jqg Ah]6}b Raoutt B4
    'L4: iKtm lrs.rzl *99 #=d sE 4l4I
    . LT: -iKrm [t:.te] *o-49 qEA LllB Al4]
    .n=,(f)^r:iMRr [t:. t+] *e49 +F'J 4l&

    oJ+ +zll
    tso.E-H.= 7fl8 13.2 q+ rHg ololgrf +9E E Ezl zJ9 tli zI¤¤ trq
    13. I rI9 SzlE ge e ulz| 67161= +^lE Lf g6}^ls. [13. I 3] [r3.r¤]
    =+.
    -!
    I
    o o
    go
    , a {8

    (a)
    ?..s;
    (b)
    o

    (c)
    fie
    602 133 30-4stdE

    (a) E EzI9 flzl-6 "Jolgr+ eql+ gzl^= ol- 1o1212 13.7 trI¤-rgg rel seE 44\n 4"14. qtr a"l E
    HlolE}El
    : ol-r?L-? ql g +n. olB aol
    ^1,J;ql
    e +E^l ql+61^le_. U3.3¤l
    (b) rl-g 6 K*H+ Li+ql^l ol¤-+rll z++ol ol+ *td-
    ^JE =
    E ¤E+ AE?
    a.Li*71K*ts.+ ¤*.1 zI4.
    b. riel o13E1- 9lHzlzI Ke.l olgsl qlqzltrq r+.
    c.Li+tl K*B+ olg Hlxl-=ol zt+. 33
    .jlo'"
    c
    d. LiTt K-H-EI EJET} zlEI. de
    e. + E4 q Lu.lTll Hls. 6J+.
    LiTI K-ts Cp ''
    r3.3 lzl ollulzlzl +g +.J d6l¤ r*= olg5e +CE F
    gC jzx|E {46lltrz}. [rr.rE]
    ol

    .taoo.
    go .?;. *
    c ce
    (a) ol lr,ll==$ Eql ql6J Sdlsz} F"J6J7I?
    (b):.Bzl ?+48 4zl qlLJ^l7I nille+ 4zI qlLJxlTl-
    tat" e
    o
    =
    +g .I'xll 6 qL r,ll7} Eq 3 +A=7p (+e-+"l] o:
    .\.Ig zl+g + aalql^.i F.J6IEtn zlA6I+.) ulolE|EJ 86 uf0lEIoJ E

    13.4 7lz,ll g6J¤ql +{} El-g ¤B 6 *,g 4 + 7}xl: ? [13.Ie]


    r3.8 tlgq^J +7le+ d+6}n 9lE E fl6}q TI+ tq
    (a) zlx11 Ezl-s=g
    ^lE Bq gq4 9lq^J Ea]-a
    d-8"61 q +*+. +^l Eql^l uui{u}eE^lEE
    *g# B + 9l^l+,
    .Jqol+ Ugqql 96tl zrll g6}9,Jzl ?*zl ullE"ll
    ¤ q ^ltol zlE + *¤¤ol H++ ag *eEJ + 91trI.
    7l^llb +E 7li-lle+ t4l+ 4lqlq.
    1l+ tLqE 4+ +zl6lE trl "*g %Lgg g + 9E+. EI A
    (b) E+ TlEol o-qilltlql^J 4lol^l ?*= aaH, + ,lal=
    +E a Hal *¤ol +<l]fia 6l*El. *e "Jgg EE
    4lolzl 9*_s-q Tlxltql^l 4ol^l *=r+.
    ^lE
    gEql^l E=
    Bbdg *i"l Eol #Al 6}fltr1. += rl+E a H4 %I
    (c)
    "J9 Tlal g6J+g B4^IA4E Ag 7l
    ¤e Eql +oI 9l= 4zl 69 zl4l Ezl(&4, d4 E")4r
    ill= Eq}^la + 91trt.
    61f,+. qL a+zl *g7I? rqE F Hall %I¤-==g +E
    (d)7li'lli eqlqH^l 419 ql=sqzl eTli;171ql+q 7l qlzlr [r:.+¤1
    xll} ? E4 o-e E= Elge
    ^i.J+. r3.e rl-¤-:.H* + gEq^l Ag +.-4ol B4 9E E.Jsl +El
    r3.s El-S 6 EEI +Eg 7l* S LI4U ag? r ol+E ¤B6I
    .rle.
    ¤+^rE +ElU aolEl. [rr.+¤]
    1r3.2¤J (a) gE Ecl.il trI4+._qel E.r=.E7I Hd+71? ¤Bat^le-.
    (b) gE Hclq Ei+ +.-l9l Eg r-oE7I E6l+7I? ¤E6I

    oo ¤ lr oo C D li ^lg'
    ao T
    foc ooo ao a
    O6 a
    o lj
    o a
    \r
    (a) (b) (c)

    13.6 Eql 4+ HlgC zlalE +6llEE Hlig A+, flx}*ol 6


    zlafi(Ar < Kr < xe) #!e +6ilE7I +7ltEl= ag "J
    + 9t+. +_S ¤B + 7l* A++ ae ? [r3.3¤]
    (a) zlill5 +rlg++ 5+ql^l Etqql El 7}4*rll qH^l
    25"C 55'C
    E tI++qE zl;llz| \$ + 9l= +rJol B4l ¤+.
    (b) TlEl= +ze++ +tqol 4xlzll 9r. tr}4^J E B r:.ro rl-9 rH3 flBC *ol]p] ol +,lql ulflgd *dol Yo}
    ^ls+E
    Apl4*ol q 441trI. glb+"_49 +71 .Jq +dg Ll4U 1o1c|. [r:.s¤J
    (c) zlz115 +Zg++ 54 +^ doJB rl + g + 9l+. (a) *.-49.+E|48 dg q! A"J7l?
    (d) zl;115 +49++ 5r+ es+ +.qg q e "Jtr + 9l+. (b) +Elle+ +Eel {rL #:dg gutoJz}?
    603
    =* =rlt
    EEll rEl(13.14)
    rs.rs r|* ¤Eol "*izl EBI=zl= "5"I^19.
    (a) *¤-84 tE 4*ol +A-+,H ^JE zI+tL+ rJ6IE
    +ee +,nql +g aol+.
    1.0
    O) +e{g E}= EI gq} $gq= o}{} "Jq Ztoltr}.
    (c) tlE.aul9 +rlE gEiq +E]6IEI.
    a" rr.ra rl* ¤Bol "*Ezl, Eq=4E "J6}^ls.
    (a) NaclS Eql +zlEl Hltl(c6H6)qlE +xl ?*=+.
    (b) Eg 3j{fzf s{EE zlzlt_ j)a_ Hldg rLq^} E_
    Hlezf oo1z1 ull$oll Nacte Eq +4"J {dql= +zl
    o]_LrL
    EL-l .

    40 50 60 70 E-olg lJ-n zl+ol Hl4l-olg {-n z}+ts_+ ,J6l7l


    (c)
    TfC) ullgoll NaclS E"ll +ul"J Hl4lql= +^l *=+.

    r3.il qlFEee "JEqd *dol :l4]1 7ta6}zl-. ol +dql + l3!rs rl-g 4 +Eql^J 7I+ 6st +e-+4 ,r.Iol9 trn 4*9
    eol +ol 9iE o.z M *9 o e. $d6l il]g +, ag +eol 641r r.z¤)E zlzla|.rle.
    +o]. il= 0.1M +olql Br^ttr|. ol +d9 .azl BqE o.zs (a) Hl{l(cosJ + ccl4
    rol4. :Hql i+Elu ar+ eol +F"+ 9p9 pulzl =4 (b) E+ Elltsg(cH3oH)
    r. 7tc6}r c.F"J¤. ra"6l.q ¤Bql Eg6}gg q +d '.il (c) E6 KBr
    + +._qe.l +q= q1+6t^le. [r3.se] (d) o}^llE+olEg(cH3cN)+ HCI
    13.16 +g 4 +"-qql^l zftv +st +e-+rH ,r.|olel rla {¤-
    BEIE ^l46.}n, +ql-+a ^Jg 4+ol zlzli tree $
    o_!g +96l-^ls.
    0.1. M (a) E 6 KCI
    (b) Hl4l(c6H6) 6 curct,
    (c) E 6 ql+g(cH3oH)
    cqt 46J AH+ezI +q Ag ,*b olg eEI clElEol ?l
    0.2M trI.
    =
    l3.tz 4* + ++e+ ae.-4xll-"IxllqlEdg e +EtU ae? -rr.rz(a) olrpjggEq ++4.}71, olq$ 4sl +^l ?*A=zI?
    49 q= E^ls=g +-q Eal e4= +4u+. [r:.6d] (b) AH+q, AH+a, AHen 6 ol- u3-o1 7l* ge] <tg
    ^JE
    =
    '/*A+71?
    13.18 g+.JEH Eq +olE 9o301 ;|z|gltl4.
    (a) ol 8"ll 4ae Bg H}+alzl-, +g HI*.J71?
    (b) +"-qol BcqE ol+= +E.J7I?
    oooo
    o aa oo
    o .ttL nrs ("1
    ^l
    13.toll^l ol- o3;o1 4^I qlqzlq 6flBq=7|?
    q-. qlLlzl
    (b) ol

    t' ,
    o EJ+^lql^l 6}01 6J^d-gg.J7l?
    o
    Eq Liclol s.6l]qE z*, aus* : -37 kllmolol4. la*,,,
    13.20
    (a) (b) AH+a, AHe* ? ol'. t'3"o1 7l* gq Ag ,*AY7l?
    =
    n.n + ++d +71 "-qill.J dl4l.J(ceHra)4 flql.J(c?H,Jg 4
    .J4.
    (a) AHs".!e o}q 1I¤ ?*Y71, gq Zig z*Ezl, oil
    =
    7WAY7I? =
    (b) dl^ll"Jr+ ilqtg EE Elgs olEe] +
    ^le d.JEl.
    oo o oa oa trtl, +?]gq fl= +++
    "lil5ql EloI ol 4l
    a a o "_qg "JE
    ao oa E {EEq= G,litlE7l. rJ46l+7t, olqB oql 7}z}
    a O
    o &71?

    (c)
    604 133 Eqg 5tr

    8.22 Eql4al rsr *99 elgulzl E +le8 ktlmotgqlE H 13.30 .J4U(ofulL&)3 E4 q^l.J + qL aql El g \AEzl?
    6}.il- Eql 4t rcrE SaNEE t44g-E. $Q. ffi f ol
    q+ Btlg 7l* S ¤B+ ae ?
    (a) Effi$s- Eql 6J^J ++.
    (b) g.J QlEtrt]= Er-l6J 4014.
    (c) E6J flgEl: E-E
    ^Ja
    zI84 K-Br olg ^JE zI+
    g #= EJI gssl qlBq4 ula|{ !to}o} o.}Q.
    (d) KBrg Nacl4 eg 4E gEql Hl6ilg4elol r+.
    gal.u
    sit EE, E6llE0ll gS= +ts ?lr(13.2E, 13.3tr)
    13.23 gql 4t cr(r.ror)r.e H2oE +d]E= ls'cql^J s 100 g rl-rr r"l ;-qlolE.l!(cH3(cHrr6cooH)g E!} ^].gsl E^. +
    B zoa go1l, 3s "cql^J E 100 ggl 324 sol +oI 9lE ol qL Aql 9 6*dbzt?
    *99 ts "c4xl aA6l ts46}8 ad.g ^JCElzl ?*=tr}. (b) 4ol+^ll.J +ql^l qL aol Eq trl
    ^|ol=s6'r^-ltr+
    (a) ls"cvl^l B4E +E+ uleFi, -+.s], +s+ + qL 3+d=zp ¤E6l^le-.
    'ti'
    4"J71?
    ,/CHr-\
    (b) ol
    ++ +4oE B4E 8"lol B4 9l= +?-l *zl S H,C -tl- CHT
    Eg +flg ull ?dol ¤^Jslzl ^lzlil+. ++ ¤^Jol H,C CH,
    gqt i!.JzI ?
    '\ ,/
    CHz
    (c) ¤¤ ^JEllql^l dCg eAg e*e? Etol8^lloJ
    ^loEBafiloJ
    13.24 Eql 4aJ Mnsoa.HroE +6llEE 20 "cq^l E 100 mLB
    13.32 {FzllE 'J4 ^F*q= ol+Ee+lg Eql 4+ +6llEz}
    70 goltl.
    l ol6}e
    mg/ml q!
    zll;J4ol4. Ezl- +a4 ++(sl^q,
    (a) 20'Coll! 1.22 M MnSor.Hro ++.-qg E+ EE+,
    ol
    fl^I, +e4)ol Eeel Eq 4+ gaNe9l 7lq6.I=71?
    r+Ec+ +"-! ¤! 4"J71?
    "lv ts^l +aq qL ++(sl^q, ¤^4, *e4)ol ol gdq ¤ql
    (b) Mnso+.Hro +.-qq L"Ezliolxlzl ?*g a+, +eqol
    E]l+E+^Jql 7lq6l+zl?
    e+, ges| $erlolz1E'Jzl ?loll,tlE qtr dBg
    +4"floi 6l+7t?
    B.2s -aH 13.lsE +ll6l.q, 40'cq^J $ 100 goll q*q ol.gC
    n4l= 44 +o.o g4 7l6J 4+, ssl +aqol q4lEzl aa r
    6t^19.
    (a) NaNO3 O) KCl (c) KzCrzOz (d) Pb(NO3),
    0l+reE
    8.26 :aic13.lsE +n6lq, 30 "Cq^l E zSO goll +ol- g'st +
    e4ol 9E cJl geal 4 gE oJ¤ 4lt}6l^le. 13.33 q+ 4 tL + qL aol dl^lloJ(cuH,r)oll cJ $ $iz|! z-|

    (a) KCIO: (b) Pb(No3)2 (c) Cez(SoJs a+ql q6iq o1..,$$ {$a}.rle.
    (a) CClae] CaClz
    Ttn E+ dl g d 46}zl.
    E tcH, (oH) cH (oH) cH2o Hl
    (b) Hl{l(c6H6)e} gq^llE(cH2(oH)cH(oH)cHroH)
    =r]
    (a) ol5o1E_E Hlge 4l"J aee qtrl=z}? ¤B6I^le.
    (c) *rll .J&(c H cH c H2 cH zcEzcH zcHzc o o u) e] o|41
    EaI tql ^J7l= EztrJ .Jqg +
    3 2
    (b) E BzIe+
    E4I(cH3cooH)
    g6I^1e.. =r.l^]l=
    13.34 trlg 4 rdl + qL aol Eql q A +E7]? 4 a+ql ql6l
    13.28 71 + Eg 4ol^l g:=tr}. El-g + 7l* il'J+ olf+ q q ol+E ¤E6i^le.
    Y7-"J7l?
    (a) r.|olpedl^ll oJ(CeH
    r Jrl /'(C6H
    1206)
    (a) 7lE +z|7r E-H-EI "JE7I=.+. =+7
    (b) EEEg&(CH3CH2COOH)i+ rEsqg4I iE
    (b) 7lE Ezl+ ql++ +^c+ +^E +cqq 9lEI.
    (cH3cH2cooNa)
    (c) 7lE Ezl-7I E-H.E+ ESzlol
    =4. (c) HCl4 gEl 9lB(cHecH2cl)
    (d) 7lE EzITl- ¤i-E-trI +71'Jol tEI.
    (e) zlE +zI7I ¤i-H-trI #=Aol tsr+.
    13.3s El.g E lol "*bzl, E4bzl E+61^le.
    (a) SEzI +¤++'ll++E TIAH Eq rl $ $ir].
    (b) gs.zl +¤++ 4+Eq olgc a4l= Eq q e +
    Eg dedql^J 96l^l-8-61+
    *,llol4. .l 6 ++^d +e
    -r.reo1,r1g(CH3CoCH3),4189(cHroH),E:+{(C6HsCH3),
    9l zlzJ 4EI6J +,llE qg l"Jzt? =trI.
    EA 605
    =^l
    (c) Esl +.lg +g gEql^l *3 gEE B4^la ql, 4 O) +al t75 mL + s.2s gel un(No), .2 Ijzo
    s+ +"1 ^JEllql 9ifl48 +"Istr+Q Lx11z1 33 o (c) e.00 MH2so4 35.0 mLE 0.s00 L7l qE+ Bf, +.1
    4¤Elrl {lzI5J+.
    E. r:.as +g 4 +alg Eg bE= Zl.t}6t^le.
    (d) E5I +a!9 gEE +olE, !-F -n,ll= +7Flq +aq zz.a g4l +oI gl= {4l(cuHJ
    ^}¤p] +A(ccD
    (a) s.oo g
    E bEE EJ TI6Irll 'JE +.^ItrI. (b) E o.:so Lq +oI 9lE Nacl +.so g
    13.36 rJ¤. 4 E+ol *=zl, E4=^l rjJ6l^ls. 13.46 (a) E t6.O mololl KCI 1.12 mol¤ +.J +.lE gg r-" E=?
    (a) rJE +E F gEql^J Eq q.J q!.J zlz]lel $ojlr z *"19 EJETI
    (b) 0.12 +l6i^l= +EEHI(C10H8) roo.o
    E Hlil++H, *e gEql^l q + += ag "Jrll 94. g9l 9r(sJ H gE \9"t 6I:7I?
    0) 4+eE ol$rJ ull$ gql ql+ +dlE= *q49 ae nqz t rql H2so4 s71.6 g9 E+61+ +& +rlE "Js= r.szs
    7l +7l6Jls_ rJ^oJtrl.
    g/cm3olrJ. rl*¤ Zl4}6l^ls. +sl + H2So4E (a) 3e* uI
    (c) E* $szi ¤:zlg+=.7lall EzIe+E +^ A6Jg #q eg, o) geg, (c) EB r-oE, (d) E-'-oE
    4zl ollEll, 'l]++el Tlillq Eql ql+ +6]]E= gE
    13.48 ol-^itr4l(Elol4I]J C, C6Hso6)g i8C ulol4"Jol4.
    7l+7lz;J++ Ai6JEl.
    (d)eE7I +rlg++ .JS olSC jlalj= Eql q 3 +zl E zto gql oi-r'a-E-.ll s0.5 gol +oI ?lE *"-49 "Js= ss
    oLL rL , 'Cql^l 1.22 gimlol4. E++g 4l&61-^ls. ol-^=.-ts-tq
    r5E"1
    (a) 3%I EEg, 0) E.Bg, (c) EB bE, (d) E+E
    13.37 3o"cql^'l 5 6 gE TlriE Henry Hzl 4-15 3.7x to-a
    11ae o1,qe+olEg(CH3CN)q "JE= 0.286 glmLolil, 4+g
    Mlatmolfi.30'cql^l Nzgl 45J r}f3 o.ox to-a Mlatm
    oltrl. ol + 7)4171 1.5 atmgl glg ul, ?+ 7l4l4 +6llE=
    (curon)9 "Jg= o.zsr c/mLolEI. CH3oH 22.s mL*
    e8.7 mlel cH3cNql+q +.lg "JEfl+.
    4l&6I^le-.
    (a) 89 + ql+gel EEge?
    13.38 6ll+Hql^l qlTl + or9 *B oJ43 o.zr atmolQ. -*. t3.l
    0) ol +alg E9 +.s(z)i goloJzl-?
    el Bzl9 ^l-s6lq, 4zl"J
    Henry eso torr, 20'c9l
    ^lEel (c) P9zI sJAd+l17LA6IH, ol +al + cH3oHg 5*'
    sslg &as.^ +Hq orE 5r-"EE
    ^l +71tr
    al&61^le_.
    E(M)Y?
    Eo4slts5(13.4tr) 13.s0 E+fl(crHJ9 'Js= o.s6z g/mlolr, A}ols$l(c4H4s)
    13.39 (a) E 483 gql NazSOa 10.6 gol H"t 9lt: +'lql^l NazSOa el "JL= 1.06s g/mlolQ. E+fl 2s0.0 mloll 8.10 99 r*l
    g* EEgg 4l&a}^le. (b) 3(as) *4¤ EJ *(eg) olesl¤ +q +.lg "J5s.+.
    2.56 gz EEI6JEI. 99 LoEE p ppmoJzl? (a) ol +aq + r'.Iole-ElE g+¤-9 al4}6}^le.
    13.40 (a) CCl4 tzsgil Iz 0.035 mol9 sd-61-b -a-orrq^l olol9 (b) ol+EE Egr-oEE gotoJzl?
    E(I,)E A=* EEge? 0) EI*E¤ kgB o.oozr sq sr2* (c) +ole+ +aq +ulrl6J8tl4l TlcdfB, ol +"_l +
    s.e-6}n 914. S.2"9 LoEb H ppmoJzt? {oleglelE+EE?
    =
    E rsa ggl cH3oH 14.6 gol s6Jg +"-lol glEI. r3iltrl-g 4 ++"1 + +eE g+= 4l4}6l-^ls.
    (a) cHaoH9 EEgg +6}^le-. (a) 0.250 M SrBr2 600 mL
    -r:er(b) cH3oHE a.6t EE¤.g+6f^le. (b) 0.180 mKCl86.4 g
    (c) cH:oH9 EB .r-" E= +61^19. (c) ?*e-e. 6.45o/o **a-^(c6Hr2oJ 8o-4 rz+.0 g
    13.42 qlEg(C2HsOH) +zs g4) EllE(C6HsOH) 20.8 gg +oJ + B.s2 r++ 4++Eql={{++aq g+E 41416}^l!-.
    "_4.1 ll4. El-¤¤ Zl&6}^le. (a) l.s0 M HNO3(aq) 255 mL
    (a) 459 5E& (b) 1.s0 llr NaCl i*9 so.o mg
    G) qlEg a=J ESg (c) de}e-+ 1.50olo+l-E-\(c,rHrro,,)fS9 zs.o g
    (c) sllE9 Eg bE KB. r.xile. El-¤- 4 ++.-qg ixll6l= %IHg ¤B6l^l!-.

    1143 rf+ ++aqel 5r-o E= 4l&61^le-. (a) l.sx 1o-2 M KBr 0.75 L
    (a) *9 250.0 mL f Nrg(NoJz o.s4o g
    -13i3(b) 0.180 m KBr r25 g
    (b) +E 125 mL + LiClO4.3H2C- 22.4g (c) d*e-+. 12.07o KBr +"1 l.8s L(ol +"-49 "JE.= t.to
    (c) 3.50 M HNO3 25.0 mLE 0.2s0 L7l qril Ef, +.-4 g/mlol4.)
    13.44 E|g ++g$ E+E= |lta}^le. (d) AgNo3 0.480 mol9 s-J+ +alql^] AgBr 16.0 g¤ ?
    (a) *.-4 0.250 mL 6 ls.o gg Alr(sor3 d^l7lb ql gs+ o.lso M KBr *9
    606 133 Eo-4e.tdtr

    13.s4 +g 4 ++"lg a46l+ *Bg ¤B6I^le. (c) *99 #:ee ++.J +Ellel #=dtr+ ++.
    (a) -r:ll (uur)rsore.+4 o.rro M (NH4)2So4 *o-! r.so r (d) +'-q9 #Ede +++ +4lel #=etr+ *trI.
    6) .a8l *4-egq 0.65 m Nazco, *e4 zzs s
    pJs.i
    t3.62 Hl+ltsC +e4 "l4l +,ile +"-qg "JEHEI. ffi {$ol
    (c) ¤=*"e ls.07o pb(No3)2 +o-q 1.20 r-(ol -sg9 *=ul, Eal=zl $ uj:of.rl e.
    l.l6 g/mlolQ.) (a) *99 q=dg+ui]= e7|6]lE H6lzl S=trI.
    (d) 6.0 M HCI-tr+El sa(OFr)z s.s gg ++^la + fl= 0) +._qol 9Brl ^8zli ili,ll= ,lE ++6J +4ol+.
    o.so M HCI +o-4 (c) 899 q=de +3E +Ee| ++6I+.
    9,119d+ A& ++qqg 16 Mol_z, "Js: r.+z g/mlol (d) +"-qelgbdS*d9 E"E9l El46lq +7RltrI.

    -1355
    +. +.lq HNo3el e* EESS?
    ol
    =
    (e) 9! gEq^J= +'-q flel *,119 ?zl"J$ ++6J +EI
    13.s6 sEl]+ 4l+ .JEqol
    +s"_qg e=J9E NH37f 287ooln, 6rl.Jtr+ *+.
    el

    "JsE o.so S/mro1;1. ol +Eq EE"EE g"foJz}? 13.63 g I Lql I g9 Bg +.14, E I Lql
    =Fa:(CoHrzOJE
    rsz a-*e i4el ols +.qee +CE il+¤ qgolq. e=J l0 gE +t.e^(cr2H22ou)= '+g + +Eol 9l+. 20 "cql
    o e 80.0% c$+ 20.00/0 zr9 4d9= r*= *g
    dFg azso ^J
    4 +"lE 6zl.Jg 4l&6}^le_(+,ol gEql^l +?+ E
    kg/-'9 gEE,*=tf. 9 6zl"J* 17.5 torrolEl).
    (a) ol J'ill +Eq^l zn9 EB:-"Ei $ulolzp 13.64 #i6J Eq 67l"Jg 60.Cq^l t4e torrol4. Ag g+E
    o) ol *eqql Eznq g+Eb ButoJzl? E4 qBHl soJat} +'-q gE ?zl"Je 0o'c
    =4ol+3
    13.s8 TIEll oJ(c8H,0N4or¤- 4 qel ilq^l gaq:
    ollrl 0z torrol4. Raoult Bzl9l el6IH. ol +Eg ol^J +
    ^}+8lolq. oil ol 7L9
    ==-tr-tr8:(CHCI:)S Sole .J 7l-qlql +o-qE bEzl0.0s00 a u't:
    z9 41, r:^es t"l 338 Kql^l E ZOO.O g4l ZZ.S 99 sEl(C,zHzzO,,)E
    (a) zl-41.J9 e=J EIEgg g"I.JzI? 7I4q axlldJ +eq 99 +7l.Jg Al4}6l^le(Eql ql'J 6
    G) 7}ql"Je.l ¤'+ge guloJz}? zl$ z|-EE ++ Bql +q4 914). 6) 40 "cql^J +7l"Jg
    2.88 torr *izl 9la}{ 5 o.r+o kgoll zldl 7qo} p :r-P
    o -aJ g{1 3"+¤- 4l^}6}^le.
    o =+ol¤(c3H8orE
    o o e 13.65 (a) 343 Kql^l E r2s ggl zA.s g4
    6fq =i.l^llfl(C3HsoJg
    +"-q +lE 6zl"J9 4l4}6f^le(Eql ql6J
    7l
    +
    o
    o o"o =7ll6J
    zl$ x[trE +s Bql +q4 9ltrt). (b) 3s.cq^] +7loJ
    I to.o torr *+71 9l6}q qeg(czH'on) t.oo kggl z|
    I dl +qot g qIEHI 3401¤(CzHoo,)E e+3 altld}^le
    --+" (:s'cq,t1 ++'* q+gE 6zl'J*
    Ttszet.s"6ql,rl H2o9 +zl"Jg l75 torroli, ql+g(CrHsoH)
    1.00 xl02 torrol4).

    ,t4lE

    rrss "J+ulfl ss + qdb +ql^l co29 r-oE.= 4)a- 4.6% 9 6zl"J9 torrol4. Ag e.*el H2oel c2H5oHg
    400
    sEl6}q e +qg ElE9+.
    (+ulEl)qlg.J+.
    (a) ol+slql^l ql+gE gBge got"Jzl-?
    (a) "J491 atm, $EE al-a-ol4r. z[{afr.,
    ^ldq]^.1
    ol
    (b) oldl +.-l4H aEEi+n 7IAtr Efl, 0:.s'cd.,.l ol *
    coz9 oJqg 4l4}6l^l-e-.
    *E ._49 ?zl"J3 g"I.JzI?
    (b) 4lgg 37"ctr- z|{a}r., ol co2el Ej=oE=
    ^ldql^l (c) ol*.-4 ?19 ?zl + ql+99 EEge ts"IoJzI?
    9"I"Jzl?
    13.68 20 "Cql^l HIdl(CeHJ9 *zl"Jg 75 torrola, EFgl(CzHJ
    13.60 4.\o/o(f,ulEEg) co2E EEI6I+ +71= tI^)A Es6}tr
    n¤:ol E4zlr, ffi q +E7f E"Elg4. ole+ ,J+ +71
    3 22 torrolu|. H1414 E+flol ol^J +.19^356jr1-l zf
    Ag .ll. (a) 20'C9lrJ 6zl"Jol 35 torroJ +a49 3d gE
    9 L"EE (a) Eu4E&, (b) E.:-oE+ EB6I^19(+, I atm, gg? (b) (a)ollr.J zltr$ +q 9lE +7lql=461+ HIdE
    419 lz'c-E TIA6JE1). gEge g"loJz}?
    Eg¤(13.58) 13.69 (a) 0.10 ,?1 Nacl ++.1+ 0.10 z c6H12o6 ++-Er+ Bl.il.6}
    13.6r Hl+:lg^J +an+ Erll +rle +"lg "JEfltrl. rI.* d¤"I .l #:d.l kSzL *821, oLqE ,Je7n (b) Nactol *
    trJ-6}^l 9-.
    "*=^1. E?]+^l= 614E+n TIAB ql. de4-qs 93 Nacr
    "_qql^.] Sd6l
    (a) *99 qbeg +++ +,llel q=Btr+ k+.
    +"_49 #bdol 4lt+ #=dtrtrt *+. eil r;1,{}zl ¤B
    0) +Eq q=d3 +++ +,119 q=dtr+ *+. 5I^19.
    F+ 607
    =^ll
    B.7o 4 ¤-aol lo%(Ae"tEl)tr Eq *E +.9 +8"q9 g=dol 13.81 +lAzI"Jg ^'ll+
    irlq6]+ Eiol+. +e4 210 mr
    ^]lsqg
    +7161++e_E L|g6t^le. ql ol tr^ 0.1s0 g9 .E!+6tn 9l: +.-qel tFoJS zs.c
    +z-tr^(crzHzzorr), e+ A-E ollrl o.ss: torrol4. {olaz}oJ9 Eeu}3 got.Jz}?
    =+n/-(c6Hr2o6),
    (NaNoJ p].JE
    13.82 fzl Eq +q 0.2s0 LE +"-qg "JEfltrl.
    2.3s e&
    r1^g- ++.lg #=dol +7161.= +^le +g6}^ls. +F.Jg 0.60s atmol4. +71 pltlE
    2s'cql^] ol +.-qei
    0.120 m 0.050 m LiBr, 0.050 mZn(NOz)z ol Hldqleol{jl ,lA6J q, ol +71 plll$el gA*e
    -ts.zr =+n/'.
    8.72 tr++ ++Eg q=eol ai6l=+^lE +g6}^ls. ErtoJzI?
    0.040 m 0.020 m KBr,0.030 rn qE M cact2 ++"-qe1 +lF'Jg 2s "cql^l
    0.0t0 0.674 atmol
    +. +Eg van't Hoff zlffi zJl{la},r19.
    (c6HsoH)
    =E^llil(C3H8O3),

    qg -ts-s:
    13.73 s. 13.3E ol¤-6iq +.-qq q=dr+ #bag [13.84] -8. 13.4q +qd z]tr.E E 41, o.o:o ru NaCl *.-!4 o.ozo
    ^IeE
    44 4l.t}6}^le. z K2Soa +'-q + q! +aqel q!:$ qflol A ==t4?
    (a) 9lES Go.zz rr 34^1lE
    EtrolE(13.68)
    (b) 2.45 mol6 +sgdl(C'oHs) 0.240 mol
    =E.tr.* r3.8s (a) zlillEuJ "JEq{ Ee.o1=r1¤46l+7}? 9l :dzl,
    (c) E o.zso kg f NaCl l.s0 g
    g rqopxl gfg7] ¤H6I^19. (b) l8soEql Faradayb E
    (d) E raa g 6 EFa^(c6Hr2o6) +.tz g4 KBr 2.04 g
    ql^lE +q}6l .Ja"J # E^fe.] +ElH EeolE¤ :4ie+
    13.74 -s. r3.3E ztEE ol9.o6Iq +g +'-4E q=44 #Edg xllaalfl4. ol gle4E +oJsE +._q+ +E
    44 4l4l6l-^1e.. q^l *E+. 4gg ts 4xllEol=eolE:+E.J^1,
    =EolEoJ^l
    (a)
    "ll+g G o.zs m Z*=n olBzl +Eg + il=zl-?
    (b) cHCl3 So.o g 6 9lz,ll9l(croHr) zo.o g
    13.86 7t+ 4¤6J B'g dq6}^le-.
    E tzs g 6 NaoH 3.50 g
    (c)
    6J o-qillT} EIE el{ql gEol= tr-e-E E&¤ 49 (a) ¤,
    (d) E tso c 6 qlB{ 0.45 mol$ KBr 0.15 mol
    =+olg O) qlgd, (c) *, (d) qqE¤ol4n ++.
    r3.7s -s.00'cq^l q= *99 "JEzl 9loll^lE E t.oo kql 9l
    +4ril'= a+d e"qlql fl= a+C g.e"lE(E= a+C
    Eql H g9 zf6llo| i'].|zl? gEolE)E "Jas}^l7l= cI'JEolEI.
    ={ol=(czHeoJ --r3s7 +rlq fl=
    13.76 10s.0'cql^l #b++E9 q=ag gEtoJzl? r++ + ,I* ^+c
    +g ++x]e,?
    [3'zzzs.Cql^l E 0.3s8 Lql ollulil(CeH8o4) 44.2 mg3 HoJ (a) CH:COOH (b) CH3CH2CH2COOH
    +Eq +F"Je gEloJTl? cH3(cH2)ilcooH (d) cH3(cH2)rlcooNa
    (c)

    13.78 ul*59 LB 34 s9 gg EE|6}J fl4. *301 Nacl(d 13.88 qq_+¤g qlTlql^l ¤'e-6J saolEl. 4zl ¤!9 qqe¤
    4lq Naclol e0"/, oltlg)-e"J aCqq fl41 zlCE rll, qlq_E¤ol $,= qTle+ Elildlq s.Eq Eg
    ^l+
    +7t^l7l=71. +^^lvlYz[? : o1-,qg
    =zH7f oJg
    20.cql^l Ht*Eq +lF.Jg 4l&6f^le_. 6l+ fl4el
    +Eqlgilg Hl^J^l+ /r-Eql/r-=- tsg ql qEE ¤B6I^le-.
    gxfg [rpa[E+ 6l+ ae.gol4. ccl4 36.0 ggl =+i.
    o]=4lB X4149 zlal{ ++.4etr+q +Eqag ad^lrJ + 9l
    -l3refl o.oa g9 E+alE +"-qg #=dol o.as'c 6zlel4, ot 4. ole+ Ag 449'${(salting out)'olep oj4.
    E4lgilg ge+3 4lt}6}^ls. -1r:sq (a) rJg L"E9 ,J9
    d4eg ^Fs"g A+, E= ElEaol
    Ag {Ee e{ol "JqqAETf?
    (b),* tru4d"l 94ol "JqqH, d6IAg B7l AE+ *
    BqA-#qd t}E 4+ol ,J611^lb7f, qlollzlbzl?
    (c) rlE=i +rJ6J + a+7r, g^l ¤^J-ol .Jq+=
    ^JElqI
    ae dqldg A7I6}E EEA$ Eelr+a 9lb ++E
    E Eol d6leg EElaITl ql+olq, 4+^l +Eeq
    ) fa|$ {{ol E4alr +Eqeol aA6}rll EE}n 6J
    0lEeilHEl
    +. ee ^dEI+
    r*e.l= * += a+=. 94 dtle
    flzl.g olgSol BEeql ,J614 ¤+qq *E4e EH
    13.80 ,I+g .J?gg n=.Li 7lE-e-e+El Eqalq, rllxll$ uJ ql 01916}.9 BC6|Al qq Ar+4etr E+ql^l +Ee
    E= EJI Hl4l o.roo kg9l s.oo g9 498 .Jag
    ^l-+8tr1. .cql^l 9 .Jxl d6lz}0ol qq +EAol ed47l ql+ol4i1
    g +.J g-"1* +. r ttrl. ol zle ef,e.l 4*B Ba 6J+. ol F zlC9l Eil6lq EE6l^le. ol + tl\ zl$
    gE ga"*e g"I"JzI? g +E6l7l 9l6}q qtr ao+g gs,t7}?
    =Aol
    608 133 Eqg.5E

    13.e0 ulrL= /.qlole{} 4E(cH:(cuz)r6coo-Na+)rt aol, d (b) f$zll5 ql++ s}'fl¤sg .+e-+ g6JEoltrI.
    ^+C
    El4 E= rz?-l 6 qL Y Eol Sg
    +d ++r.l ++¤. E+ 7l-^ln 9l= pIEJEE +c ^qlo}-e.4} AEE
    ^+c aEg
    qq gl4. /.qlo}=t .r?-l'7f q
    Epha +Eol 4le+ El aBg +6J 4"J71?
    n d6l-= Itlr 9l= Y Eol 'tr1?-l'+il
    ^J46lzI.
    (c) +g4lT} E¤ xI4E EE B ql
    ^1146|qn ^4o}gt
    (a) I}lq Eb E?-l + qL +Eol gql 4# BoE qlgAg Bd6l= ag +e6J + 9lg
    ^Qlole4l^EE
    9all *,llplzl- + 4 a"J7l? aolq. olaS qE Ezf,J /J.E zl+ EIIE"JTI?

    OJ+
    ryl. E*II
    l3.el nTIoJ(CuH2rNo.)9 'zFft 9zl' eElle+ +i+9 g++ (b) ?7I{9 + Ei gi++^ Bql) + 6}
    BEI(Z}+ g7l
    4 Bql(crTH22clNorE zt* ¤zl B4b
    El-e--r+ A-e-4, +b ^J44ee +&d.Jql. ql l.Jzl?
    HCt 6J rlle+ ei}o}q g++^ BE{e di}g + 914. + (c) xI* Ezl ¤4 ?7foJE Eql ql"J +6llE= ql+g
    ti gzl-= s.^16}
    {a}zll trolz} gl6}q E_E tsA gz}e+ 6.70 mLtrJ 1.00 solE|. q+gql^l z|+ g7l BEllg 7
    zl= ?t9lE+. 44E +449 4¤aJ 7ll+E +^ flxfE E+ +Efl +r-" E= +61^19.
    TIoJ
    zlqil 9l= Ei gzl-= +4.Iq, 4 ts^= trIE gzl¤ (d) g++^ Bqi 77Iq_1E Eq ql6J +6l]E.= E o.aoo
    4 ql ,]|el Aqlg 6ti1 9l+. mLB r.o0 gol4. Eollrl gcl+^ ¤49 ?7IoJ sEt
    (a) azloJg + eql(^l+ g7l E= gcl+^ ¤4) 6 6l +"_lel E-tsE= +6i^le-.
    +E {}qzlss isd.Jcll, qL aoJTl? (e) zt# erl ¤qlE szfoJ r.oo kgg ¤olfc 84tr d

    E+6l+ ql 18.0 M HCt e.++aq q mLTl gg-sl7l.?

    o cl- H o
    il il

    HeC HaC- C
    -N +HCl .- o

    o
    iTloJ gaf+^ ?7foJ
    (xl+ g7l)

    13.e2 +=.-Er-(cr2Hrro,,)9 4sal +Eg trlg Eql f,=s^ 13.94 .JH}ie+el ee +EEql ¤z116}= r$,<|rj zl;ll r-[$
    E +.J + ^Jgstr aaq B4^lZ xlla;|flcf. s{ ^l (nn)9 ¤zllb 9P ol*
    ^lqq 9lq^J dz}ql
    oll=. zl?
    zJ"l ul'J Flq r+=Jel +a1)-71¤.._qql^] a8 ,lJ.Elle 4 TkCol ?l+.
    ¤qfl4. +g rll8ol "*=zl, EH=zl s:^l6l^le. Eq 'l]+ 4EE +.11E= 7.27xto-3 M
    (a) 30"C, I atmoll.t.l
    (a) 4*9 +3-e)-71AAss 4=E + Bg +._qg E s Tlag ql, ol gEql^J Eql 4.J ai$e.l Henry B
    tr4'14.
    Et a tr-++ gEIoJTl?
    O) +e}q +a_E_)-71aag.e 4=¤ +. 4= g?146I O) qq zlxlle ?C¤ ^lE7I 3.sxro-6EE&9 4Eg
    4 BB t4z} olq+. gaJ6|n 9l+. dill oJE rz atm, 30.6ql,rl ol zlill$
    (c) 4e}g izet-zy aaqE 4=g + E+ql flb + Eql Bn sEHEl. E+ 4Ee-l $bE= 4lt}6}^le-.
    r-e,^ ac _B.Eql^J +re^ gz[zf ol$s]] {s} r3.95 .Jill ¤Eq eI o.tozoE eeJ,es fxNaJr]. ol
    f,ae^ e47I gal-E.= +Ee+EoJ6IEI. =+?^E
    L"EE (a) ppm, (b) gB r-oE-e, +61^19. (c) 8'-49 E}.
    13.e3 ql++E EnTlE Eql 4^t a pp-9 orz| \of Xlolo; E= aa6.l7l 9.16l]^l= qtr a!-7l. c] $!_aJzI?
    ¤ + el+. 13.96 Hf*E + #9 E"Ei 5-50 ppt(part per trillion)ep Er
    (a) olag H mol/L9l allBEEzI? qfl+. ElREol r: pptel ;¤ s4l6l.n 9lqr ztAB EL
    (b) l0'Cql^l ol bEE e7l +16fl^J: E +19 oz9 *E Hf*E r.o><ro3 4flql E+qq fl: +E rB+= 4l4l
    .JEg gulqol6l+7I? (l0.Cq^l org Henry B4 6'l^19.
    tiE t.zt x 10-3 mol/L-atmol4.)
    5-sf EA E^ll 609

    13.e7 ¤++ql ¤4dlE Bel alql 6l* LoEE e.0 ppbolrf. |q


    flE +"-!el +Eol 442|4EzI?
    (a) e.0 ppb +"1 49 Bq +l-"EE 4l&61^le. Z14I'g +l zlt¤ zfc6J "ll, ¤Bq EE:.t*.9 trll F Hl4
    (b) ol^J
    4q qtr TIA$ 6110} {+71? ,.I +._lg PgE gol-qlz}?
    O) B r-"E e.0 ppbQJ 60 m3 +gtl g.q= q rtsE Bol r3.r02 ql+g(cH3cH2oH)E AtL4 e #=eg 78.4 "colLl. 7l

    =4]6l+7I? +c tsld6lle e.ls 8ol ol gEgl'(l roo eg qltrgql+6ll


    ,r.es of,!1tr+olEB(CH3CN)g B:g gg Eq+6iq 4"J"J +a qflg Ell *99 621"J3 7.40xrc2 torrol4. +e9 E
    g +ol= ?C r+zl *,llol4. of^ilE+olEg9l * r.so e=Jg gEloJTt?
    M LtBr +qE "JEE 0.826 g/cm3ol4. ol *99 (a) E r3.r03 +¤¤ nEjalq 0JO0 m K2so4 ++o-lE qEd¤. zlt6t
    g*-E. (b) LiBr9 EBg, (c) cHrcN9 e=* EESS al
    ^19.
    4}6f^le_. (a) ol¤ rJe-l .Jqg +^l6J a+
    r3.ee trg+ 'JHIE tr|*6tAl 617l +16]] ^I+q: F4 ¤e (b) van't Hotr xli(s. 13.4)= olg ,Jq "Jqg
    ul+{4 qlEg ^l.S6Iq
    e-l+^J Eeg B+ tsxl-zlol czrHsooJ rqt a+
    (crurou)E +.J gqlgol+. 3s "cql^l gELE +le.l +71
    r3.r04 ol+E+ +^(csr)= 46.30 "cql^l #a, "JEE r.26r glmL
    $Eol s torrolE, g,*+g E*g ql H g9 czurosE ol+.
    620 kgel El4gq Ti6llot 6l-b7l? (:s "Cq1,<1 ++6J qle
    (a);llzlafzl *b +a 0.250 molg cs2 400.0 mroll H9
    99 6zl"J9 too torrol4.) I ql. ol 899 +2.+0'cql^] #=4. cSz9 Eg #=
    13.100 0.115 mol Hzoe} E+E "J + S= gE+ A# EB6lb d g-e ^Jt= gtrl.J7}?
    +Eol 9itrI. 30.Cql^J ol
    +"-lq ?zl.Je 25.7 torrolr-1. O) dlqqxl 9*E olzl p]'*E s.:s g9 cs, so.o mlgl H
    ol $saofl.! +++ E9 +7l.Jg 31.8 torrol4. ol +.-4 .J Ell, ol ¤:9* +z.oa.cql^l gb+. trl^l pl6JEE
    q^l g+ rEq 5+E 4l&61^le-(f,E: gs+ iEg rJ
    5e"*g g"l"Jz}?
    d6ilet {$ zlQa}r)e). [13.10s] ggzllE ol+qb 4Fgg Lic,H2,a1o2el s[41]oE
    r3.r0r + EIAE zs 'cql^J "Jql¤
    ^JzIq B*r+.
    6J tsl4qlE L}EIB+. ol gg 2s'cql^l E roo gg- 0.036 gol \i
    0.0s0 M Hlflgc. uld6ll4 is9 :o.o mrs 89.4. s +. ol +Eg AFg}3 57.1 torrol4. #g +'lql^l ol
    4E ul4qb 0.03s M Nacl isol 30.0 mLE -Jfl4. ol
    +qq +bEe+Egr-oE7Ian, flEgol Sd6l "llzl
    + Hl4e+El 1l? +G,l7l gBql EB6l-flrI. E4a zp4a3 q, ?_lfgql r]+ n+E+^lq^l n tI9= 4l1J
    (a) 9e El4ql flb +.-49 +E.l &+zlAYzl? qL Hl
    6|^19.

    OJ+
    EEJ +4I
    13.106 ¤+9E+i(EAe+ g+9-flg ,*= El'*E)= Azvl^l El El(*ul: 15 mL) +q *= oz9 EfE
    =oluldg
    $ulle r6-a19+. q-gql +-* sloJ+E=g 2s "cql^] E Al4l6}^le(qel'J49 r atmeE 7|A++).
    F 7l,qloln, 2s"C, t atm 5F9EB4. .Jqql^l Eql rI E6llE(EaJ
    + +615= d* UIESe +{,Ifltr}. =+e+EJ^
    CFa 0.0015
    "/.)

    (a) 4 ¤F9-EE4 s+ +Eq Eg bEE 4l4}6l-^le.


    CCIF3 0.009
    (b) r++ Bzl.5C¤eEd" '.3+zI EHIE, E+g +4 A
    cc12F2 0,028
    B t,q) + Eql 46J "l 7l8le.l +6l]EE 7l* e ¤E
    q+ag? CHCIF2 0.30

    (c) C4t EST] BzilE zlzlL 4olt +olqlrll trllE= + U3.l07l Ctr'4.J ill3(az'c)q^l eE9 4zl.J(t.o atm)4 doi
    zl{- zll*;l*91, +7lql .J
    o-!;ll(liquid ventilation)E
    -,?E 4eq q F+e t^E +"J + 9l= +a E4E
    il= Eql YE Nz9 +61lEE 0.01s s/Lol+. t7l= E
    78 molo/o Nr.E aCqq 9l+.
    -,$olz| $olali 1o14. oltsl6J o_lillE + 6'J 7I^l=
    (a) !xll{ oE ++E9l ¤9 t r"ll +E N29 E+= Z}
    CF3(cFrTBrol4= p]6JEol4. ol eq4lql 4
    E+efl 4}6.f^le.
    + 4I4 +6llEE oqi.l 100 mL%I &^ 66 mLtl +=E+. (b) 100 ft E+9 "J4* +.0 atmol4. ol zloJoll,<l po-!
    +7lel Hljr'6l-zlE, *zli Pu] zli 2ry"4 +4= 7l Nr9 *ullsE EoI"Jzl?
    zlr glq. "J"J +o}7l pI6JE ._q4q Eslg
    .tIlE 6.J H f4 Eg6l-==+efl (c) {ffizf z}tlzl E Etso + L+g EI c.l 1 LB H mL
    aql Elr.6lq tI4E =.zl 9 Nz zl^ll(zl9 %Lg BqlE)7I !9Fe EJ=qEzI?
    610 133 Ea49 dtr

    u3.r08l rl-9 #zl EeEg zls] glg.ul tl(kt/mol)g nq6ll !- (a) 9ol9 4+el +d gxl-el, 6d g^l +9E dzl4,gl
    x}. ,il^ LO
    'il-r=i
    o (b) BARF.el +d B fl^l-++19 dxl u]lxl f4E +E.J7f?
    il
    (c) ol .$olgE TlgEl +c flzI++le +tt+ag r*=
    cH3ccH3 32.0
    0l^ilE ag qL 4"J71?
    (d) ol$((cH3cH2cH2cHr4N*)g +rl 7l
    ^l+EoJE-t.
    olol3ol+. EJoJ oJolgrl qrg ol+
    = gElE, qE golgol ^I+BoJEts
    28.5 zl ++c +,Iql^l 7l* * +
    oil=illg^tol= gg ^Jcg a.J7l?
    =
    13. I l0 (a) "J8lB +7lql^J oI¤ z.oso g4 t.oo M +& 15.0 mL
    E HI+^14 +i
    Tlill .rleg u.hEfl4. Hl+ol SA¤+
    H 30.4 Tladlql^l ol EJ*ql ql+ +¤ *+ HI+^lg 4n,
    ^J
    =
    0flllEgEll6f0lE
    dg +4 rlElE g+E 4l4l6}^ls. (b) +.-4 99 +E=
    CHr
    r22 mLol4. +qq += zlzlle.l $flr.$ +^lg-tr]1, 2s

    "cql^J +d TlillE ++ .Jqg Al4}6|^le. (c) 2s.cql


    ,/\ Eql 4+ +A9 uenry HzJ tiY z.s x lo-a mol/
    H2C-CH2 24.7
    ^l
    1f0l=trEe4oJ L-atmol4. $.991 \oI 9l= +4 7lillg ¤i+E q+61
    ol alg zlil ts^L=ol +"lql +oI 9li E¤3 9ol-
    (a) ?ts9o1 s+tlE"I+ += ag, olE +71 E4lq zI+ ^ls.
    .JzP G)ql^l fcz| 5E ag +^16I9=Ell, 4*6JzI?
    d-= E^r+ gE Hq¤ ol+6lq ¤E6I^le-.
    (b) dl^ll.Jg +qle
    ^l^&B
    A+, olE e+tlEel +dlE7I l3.t I I El-g -*'Y 2s'Cql^l zli-le+ +671E A4 Sqol I atmoJ
    qtlofl E_^le. ql+gE a++ qq.t ql, +"&l 7lil9 gq q{} +dlE= +4U+.
    "l$utl HE{
    zl? fa
    ¤t}9 +q14q ezlrJ ^Js zt+3 ^l-S4q (a) 2s'c9l,rl sq} +E 4.0 Lql Ei]¤ cHnk)E +ul=
    olrq¤ ¤B6t^le-. E= gE, E= Sq6l.ql^] gEtoJTI?
    I r 3. loe] +gg gag gol+Eol+. G) tselfa aI'JE¤9 (Eql ql.J)+6l]EE qql.J<ql
    q.J<qlBd +ol+. ol +^JE qBqlol ,I+ +^d"J
    o .o-
    \/
    CI
    z.B /F-
    E, $zlolzl q+.Jrl-?
    //\ 7\ (c) ol tsE++i p+6J+==g E4
    "luloJ SztJ tin 4I+
    OO F F
    * z*tzl?
    (d) 7I^l +E++4 +6JE.el Lewis d +4E rgl^ls.
    (i) (ii) ^-ll
    olr= gzpzl n 46Je= zlzl:t_ 9litll +6IEql
    qB =461r
    F EI z. d6Jol o.
    d6Jtr4 *Cslzl-
    Fr". =71.49712
    I ...J (e) NOzI N2Lt O2-E-trI- Eql El e. += olr?¤ ¤B6l-^ls.
    P
    / (0 H,si sql fl= q++E zlxll!-Q Eql q g +=4.
    F I \F
    F Hrs= Er+ "lE ExtzJ Elg +g Ailzl?
    (g) sozb -Eql fl= 7\416 Eq^]E +6llE7I 7l* 71
    (iii) =
    ;]lol4. sozb E4 qlg ,*Y7l?
    "lrloJ +47J
    CFq CFs 7lill E"-llE (mM)
    F3cYcF3 Csa(,llBl"J) 1.3
    ,CFr CFs
    rag q... /o-<fr|, CFs
    B
    czur(9lHlt) 1.8

    \ At' FaC czHa(9lE{) 4.7


    F,c/l'o/ \^
    FrC Y
    N2 0.6
    O2 t.2
    rrc-(CFs
    - CFs
    CF: FaC NO 1.9

    (iv) (v) HzS 99

    zlloJ eE+q +olgg'BARF'4I p+E+zl¤ol BB"I9 Soz r476


    ol gHlzt.J Eq= ol +qE E+ +^I6l-El.
    =Ell,
    dc dzlErll 611

    t3.ttz 4 A+E!l9 flE("JE:o.s3s


    E.^Jul71 1.0 mmoJ -a"J4d iEr+ Ag sl6JEg ${oll,r] u}ol
    ^qlo}fl+
    gol4= +4=
    s/cm3)g E o.soo Lql Bflqq +q-r+ Ag *3-ol 9ol B^d6J4. sloldS f:j zflofl.r.J fu! zll
    HE}. 9 tsxl¤ s+6J+. cmci Ed, +,L gEql 3I+94.
    2li(s) + zHzo(l) + ZLioH(aq) + Hz/d) atE BdEt ztE Ed{t
    nal \
    HI+ol SA¤+n ,lCg q, ol HI+ +Eq qlde g \,/ / otet

    EloJTi?
    W/fts^@
    a#
    cmc
    lr3.l l3I 3s.Coll^l oi,rjl$((CH)rco)e-l +zl"Jg 360 torrolr, E aeo
    6zl oJ49
    .tr-tr*.(CHcl3)9
    E-e++ E+e-E+
    roo torrol4. "I^JlEr+
    ?ol "f* +4 a.Jg BC6J+.
    = ¤tuLNP*
    ^lE llE gd4ltrJ+{ill 0t0lg
    C1
    cmc olt9l^J +e{gl C¤e +46}rll E*4. : ol]?E
    cl- C- H...
    I

    ¤g6I^le.
    (a) *99 sqE(qE &+ CE)b cmcoll.<J +46[2l +
    I

    CI
    7I'*rl.
    Ag E+E o}^llEr+ ol+q{ *93 rs "c
    =-e-e,s__e_E (b) +.19 olg dEE= cmcgl^l +4614 Et4. : ol
    ql^l +71 oJqoltorrol4.
    2s0
    +E ¤H6l^le.
    (a) ol^Jat¤+4u48, ol+.-q9 ="7loJ3 lultls,fl
    (c) E|$zlg-o- +aq^l"J Ele qe g4= ¤+
    (b) +.19 4t¤ Hl*e.tr, o}^-llEr+ =se+.E gB--a- ^+C
    gE= ,11g.619+. :-oEz| cmcoll
    tsg 4C(^ase < o)oJzl, E¤ 4C(^ase> 0)oJ7p ^qlola&
    q, f.4r. a4ts ^EE
    q ole+ z3g q$$ ,rllzlz|
    13.114 +aq9l .r-"F71 "JZl upln |,5-(critical micelle concentration, =d6J
    4E.9 tsEe+ qB4 g+qq 9l:xlE
    cmc)E UqX:-.e.oil EB6IH. "JHI4etr'ZlE g{zll' ^qlolil&
    ql+6I^le.

    IE ¤41 +41
    :fl r:.ragl 96iH. +++ *qlql Hl6il +.-4 +el +lgc +,il n ^J46J + olag B* .Jr gl= aolEl. +++ *Eiltr
    914.
    $zfz| zlill,$ee nut4+s7l dxl ?+g olf+ +e +z|7l -s. + +"_qel ?zloJol *3 ol#zl. +eol +"llE zlffi ulzl {lg
    H9ld rl*E ag +,}l EzfTI E?]zJ_eE Eil llzl rllEol4 ol olqElE rlAg AEE+ d¤g ¤Zl6l^ls.
    T

    {
    \

    \
    \

    *
    T \
    \
    I1 \
    i!

    [! \-
    / rLr \\
    ) il
    r

    \ Ib

    I { I

    t/ ,
    {,
    fr
    .:
    rt tttr fil,'c ",
    /
    14.1 F g3 4sofl gSE += ?lrt. ++ +
    Eel olql ¤6'Jg += "J^K*.E, Hl+
    Ee]E?]4 tt4. gE. +,1t9 Szll)9
    tl++alql 4oI zl¤*4.
    14.2 > EJB +E E+ +Ee+ +rJ +Eg iI
    olql qlql EIg+. r4:1 HI+89 ,J
    +E P S¤ Asz} tI*
    + HJE 4==
    ^JdEE
    ^E slol'*Eq
    - qB4 g+q=^l$.J
    oI
    I

    * olBtrI.

    14.3 > tsEet+EH5l tl+EE+EeldEl


    4 oE Eqd +E tl+E ol+6}q EI
    + +EE C+zles e'¤dl-b %Its-J
    Etqt HJ30l golLl'= Ejl0l= rlZor eilq tror+^= HJB +E tszlg qE4 acg + ?ltszl
    o_IolBrI
    e Hlz4 Lalzl T.!:dElol sJ=El= ql qE, E =J, rE= H LJol
    =alq". ^l.Exl
    ollolEE+EZldl.= ofrfolcq1^E9E6t] HJ- Et|? E4 gqll^l +E6l- 14.4 F rrl.= ts.E.q E51
    ^lrJql
    qE
    ^lrJoll
    *-EE H+= qBAl +E^le_+ 44
    7l qaJ+. +al= El.-+^l.E^1, HJSel SdEg'J oll-lal HJ30l golll.= +Eoll
    4=71-E HI+n. git. .Jit. olil H]
    E trd= 7l.E "J97[ ?,lr[. .JotE4.
    ¤¤ qls 59
    14.5 ts 3s.e1 u.13 +E Hl+ $Eoll ulzi5
    ple} HISol gqLlE +E= E.i8 *E(reaction rate)E-|.7 6J+. Hl* gEq g6}.9 go1ts4. 4++E HI+
    ol {"Jq7l 96|]^l} +CE} qlq44
    +E= ee6l+ 6}+el 'llrlq=e gE= e¤61+ 1o14. EI* + i16I= a1l+9 9lHxlzf gs6}+.
    E= gETI *g ql -Elzlr, gETl +¤- trl g41l+. g^lEE 4
    g+ g"Jag ++ F q_lill 4q^J "Jq+= +oJ* ^Jr-l ¤tlg 14.5 > HjB 0ll7.lLl= HI*Eol ^J^JEe E6t
    ^L
    +t[6]+ 3r]o] +¤+ H]=_,,.1 44* +Es tl4qolo] +r]. :aCZl : tr4B EA"J qI-& 44q+ee+
    q7l +l5l]^l= illLllel 8s.z1q+ s,Ee+ ^J*s,ol sxlq= 401 B 4 4s B4"l "lBzll Eq^lbzl ol6ll
    6JE}.

    f4ol4. r4+ EE E#*zI ol*l6-J 5C.J aaql^.1"J g4ol=


    49 .l-.-14. ++ 49 E.J EE6r: He 4^I +E= *+q ql 14.7 > +Ey +q^l7l^lEJ dill HI
    +4t lrE
    +^lq= +EI+zl ?t= +,lE qgg
    HzlE -tr=6l.71 96l] Algg EqEq= 4*zl "*ol ll4. ++z]t gqEn, E^.+-r.6I= ^JEE4 +ql
    q7l ++g++gf "Jql, olEg uHuJ z-azllgrJ +E.J+. 4olx} ql +6lq .JolE4.
    Ee 5E +ql ++g++*flE illsol -3"czl-zl LI4rJg +g*
    4. ol4t *g gEqld= HI$ +E7l Hd u]]4 L-dlzll, olql q
    + e+g++%IflE *7)7J FEg + 9l+.
    qI+ +Eql +¤g ag ++b elqlg +otE i[+ HJB
    ^-.E=
    (chemicalkinetics)olap eI4. olE &84 +Eql^J+El o+Eql ^t
    +q= "J^[c 5l+] flig +rlql oFTlvlT\. E]"Jqi s+6JEq
    ^Jd
    q +s6J Egg +trI.

    < EEg=qAtfl(arctic ground squirrels)-L ill8= E9 cl=trrtxl '*=9


    e^J g tr 6 trEJ 018 Egt EEg + ?tr[ rlEf+lE8 2-3f0frf +rlE^]a
    011 E¤ Eo1^1 11183 r0"czlxlgalr, lql q* tEoll ttlE hl+Afg qr
    g + ?tl. cdktirol/shutlerstock
    ^i8

    613
    +qL HI++EEe qB4 HI¤-ol "Jq4Ezl HI8 +Zl 5'.J slqr-¤elol 9"t4 #9
    zlr. ^JcEl=zl ql ql.J atrE 4l+61+ ql ++6I+. qB4 **ol $olupzl olall
    617l gl6ll^J= EI+ +Ee+ rq ¤6Fg Elil= "Jzl-E olo]lo]lo|.J+. q¤ HI+E +Eql
    4qI ¤84 dH= EI+ ,1rlq+g ¤¤6t= ql +s_6J +4¤ 4l+.J+. HI+ qlrlq=
    (reaction mechanism)olt e}¤¤ol rjdge E6|= +414 r+4g- $x1. ffioll,tl ++rll=

    4o14.
    +E= AA6E ,JEg olflalr., q1-o- {rgl So}g Elzl= oJzl#
    ol tlql^l= El¤'
    ql= Eq +^lol +q6}= +E= ad6t= oJ4s=.g +9"J71? 3o1 \aE
    ^J46lt B+.
    +EE qB4 AC6l-=zt? zl-Fz| a\z\zlt:zl Hflzl+g EEI4+9-71 dql fle+ 9-g Ea
    S qB4 ^llzg f ?lEzI? ul+ 94zt olel* a+ql 4,* E= 6llBg zll.',143 += S,^l
    EJ, EE +E HI*el \uzl Ae fl?-lql e-l"ll ¤EEg
    "J + 9lg 4o14.
    TIEA ?JE EE ++-d +J^
    oll g*rfE 3tr*i.lg
    ZlE46t44r qHEltsTt?
    uute
    14.1 I
    'Jt +Eql oolti,ht
    ft. oJzl

    Hi* +E.il ¤6}.9 += Lll zl-zl olzJ.= ++rI A+.


    r. Hl¤¤el Eq4 tL4 HI*=e HI+g 6171 96lq !.ol7ll gr}. HI¤: $zlflol rJ u$
    4 +E=g++ q u+erll EI¤-ql+. HI+e fal +.J Elar+ H.J Hlso eE 'l-ts +
    ilirll, fr$(homogeneous) HI+g t}¤¤ol -Ei zlillolzl+ E+ EiJlfl 4$o14,
    H9(heterogeneous) HI¤+ HI¤¤ol
    ^Je += rlql ?*.14. $;i'J 4aq^l=
    q}¤¤ol d+{+ +Eql^lEI *8ol .Jq\i+. trl+^l rill$ rEtJ6I= $f"J HI+ql
    j1illg sE4ol Hg Ell HI+ol q uule4l "Jqt+. q= 5q E.Jql qlol4s
    ^J=
    .JE ¤EllB+= E"J B4zt +lql^] +6lqq q Erl cEetr *+g+.
    2. HI¤¤el t"E 6lLt g¤.-r. ol^Jq HI¤+ tEzI +ztalH 4+Eq ir+q} EI¤-g q
    clltl(4 20Yoa ttd6pll^1 TfgE uu|tr211 {eg+. ql= Eq ,Ja+g +1:20vo= sE}6t= +71 +ql^l: L4rll 4zl
    a=+3 EZrr Eztl
    =HlEi uJ, f,fal 4lr 6q1.<.19 uulEzll +e=E|(ral il.1). HI*E *ETI ?zlgi+ Hlg
    "lLt^l,J u alll {Jffi(FerOr)E
    tJarEq.
    +zl¤ol +E6l+ {fzt +7lt;la_ A+4c-e +E7l +7t*+.
    r. eI* gE Hl+ +E= oJHI4eE eETI ?zt5J9l
    "t4 6zI'J4. elE =q ++E
    +'I^l7l= ^I+c ElSe Brlrq *g gEq^Jtr+E dgq^l q u+szl {flg+.
    gE7[ +7tE]ql r]4 Ezt9 ¤E.tlHxl.=. Tzlt;lAl ¤.4 ,.- (10.7¤). +zl-=ol E+
    miq4l +E"6|E +E qfz} Botzl-n, +g qlqzlE zlzl:L +=6[= ao]str H]*
    +E7I +71q+ 4o14.
    +.4ull9 34 $ull(catalyst)E El*ql^l zldg aElqzl ?+eB^l +8 +E= +71^lv1
    Eaol+. +Ell= Hlso eE olz= +Ee.l ++(+EE ++ql q+ ,llrjq+ol HI¤)
    =
    ql ga&$=+. +E]]= qEl C$illql^l +.s_6J qgg ++.

    EzI +=ql^.i HI+ +E= +4¤ ,JE +5


    HlEql E=.Jtrt. *E elszl +4El++ Hl
    Ear EZll
    10070 t^ololl^l
    gLtts rJE+e E46t7tl E+":B +E= +ot{E}. rq+ +Eol H}so eE ¤dgzl +l6ll^J: a*g #g + 9lg 4E9
    **
    ule zll tlEilts(Fezor ) 3 8d-elcl. +EJ qlul4= zlzlt-.4l.eg a6Jg ¤CB + 9lE+ zl6J+ H-6Je*e +E"llot ,*4.
    arts 14.1 HJ8 +Eoll tH-d tlg E61l^l olEl,* qlxl# ++6J 4o14.
    "l
    5Eq BAt tl= 7153
    ^le gSoI 7l?l
    C2EE)l Ll= 7ri1 .gE6er u3gor s-BrE HJB'1^r 7ri1sr ?E gaJE ,ior HJB +Eo1 ,rxl
    -ztrl. = A
    I = eee +qg7t? =7t^r7r=

    614
    14.2 BJS +E 615

    1^qlHl's-Ar
    ta.z I 1-O -tJ-
    qtr .Jel 4E(speed)* +q{ ,rlzJ(time) zJ4 {ql^-l .jqq= {s}(change)s {Egtr}.
    + +E= g+E trilE E,r.lz.l 4lrflg EHI.JtrI. ql= Eq 4_FilE +EE 5d ^lrJ EoJ
    q He+ql ZLFTIE 9lilE^J ++Utl-. trl+ql^l* xl-Fz} +EE trF ++l trI"JE
    ^lrJ'J
    +9lE 'tElu+. 4 EgI=J("}.J ++le +a.J 9lil)g ^l7J 7J46)7J ++]tr +d)ee +
    E aol+.
    ols] $rlalzll, +q HI*E +E(HI* +E)= ++l E= ^JCEE r-"E
    ^lrJ'Jq H]¤¤
    HslE *qlq. HI+ +Eg ++1ts HF a'J EL"s(u/s)oltrl. +bEtr +39 bEE
    aE. +Ag ,<lzJe-E +b aolq. =
    fg ag 7|tr-e_l HI+ r + B= ^J46H trt. 4 EJ4 *E o.or molg A,
    il.2ql^le+
    4 El+4 *E o.or mol9 BE 4441, *zlE 1.00 LE +"lE ?14tr+. HI¤- azloll r.oo
    molel Az| 9lgEE I E.EE. 1.00 mol/L:1.00 Mol+. 202 ME+ + AE bE= o.s4
    A6fgL, BE tE= 0.46 Mtr ?zlal94. A 1 molol HI86lq B 1 molol ^JCqsE *.
    Eq 6Jr= ¤dal + 49 k"EE 0.30 M, 89 E"EE 0.70 Mol+.
    r.oo Moltrt. 403
    ol HI*el +E= H]*E A7l igq= +E, EE
    ^JcE B7l s^Jq= +EE +4.9 +
    fl+. ga.J 7J4 E.J nE ¤*(average)
    ^)7J
    +Eb 89 EoE EE|%Eq ^Jd H3r+%I
    ^lrJ
    o-e. +b aee q4g + ?l+.

    Bel ¤+^Jd +E: 'H'f#t


    _ hqld tBl - hql^J tBt :4lll
    tz- tr af 114.11

    [B]ql^je+ rJol qtr E]E^lql qlgE= +tsEE ++u4. ral^ Ez[.J B+(A)
    ^Fs*
    4l+aql^J ala&g u a4 ,J4 ..^" (rl s.:, 5.2¤). ql¤:E :a7l+El 20= EqI Bel
    =
    ¤+ ^J^d 4E(rr:oaql^J tz:2}znlzl)b +*q gq.
    ¤+ +E: '*tf; _'d?'" : 2.3 x 1o-zMts

    EEtEoll^l 304 + Asl E+¤ q|*6[^19.

    0n ,*$ nouQ

    a
    a oaa

    a o
    0a
    1.00 mol A 0.54 mol A 0.30 mol A
    0molB 0.46 mol B 0.70 mol B
    LazJl4.Z A ---- B-tr Tl=dEl= 71.94 HJB r[¤ +trl= 1.0 L0lrf
    =af^rol
    616 143 +-+ EJ8 +EE

    HI+ +E= HI*E Aql {EH^JE 5.J6lrll +49 + 9l+. ol a+, AE +EE +
    4E + ?l+.
    ^E
    H4
    A9*l+^E+E:- 49 Esle*
    E"E alAl
    lt4.zl
    At
    ^lrJ
    ol
    ^loll^J
    [A]7] a^6]= L"Eg¤ s^16]71 gl6il g(-)E +E= ^l-&6J
    a9 gol-E B
    s7I 9l+.
    s+4 oE +EE 6Jt o}el tte-s sa¤+.
    [A]7] a^d]E-+ A[d= ¤+ol+. ¤+"J a[A]E oJ+s ul-Tzl gdl (-) Yg= ^l-soJ+.
    B +zI 6J 7H7I rll"t4 A +z| + zHzl EE, Ael ¤+ AE +E= Bsl B+
    ^JCg
    ^Hlq
    ^JC +Ee+ E"J6I+.

    E+ r+-
    ou ^E : -4141-
    At -0's4-!4--
    2os-o
    1jq0M :2.3 x to zM/s

    qH 14.1
    7 Ute{ Bt +E llttsPl
    rzJ 14.20li1+olT.l^[e= 0lE6[q 20aql,\1 404Dt^lolAel EE +E= Zludl^|.".
    ^,E
    Ntl'J (i) 60= +, r210.84 mol
    =4^=qlE =4'*+.
    tz:202 ^l-"lql^] a9 5f 7JiE rr:+o
    E4 AE tE= 20ag 4l o.s+ M, 4o=9 4l o.:o Mol+. (iil r,:o:aq,rl
    ol A4ql^lE ¤t HI* +E= 41116l+ E4lol+. aql^.] h:60a trl r+.
    ^lA ^Iolts-+
    (iii) t' : +oac+ b= 602 rlololl,t.l qI+E *+ +E=
    4C ¤+ EI+ +E= r-.Eel HElll(atAl)g ^lrJg HEH}
    (A,)e.g +b aol+. Az| l!f,-$olstr HI* +E= "JE Zl 7.0 x 10-3 M/s ol4.

    oE qlETl ?l+q (-) +s= (a) eI zlzltrJ $o14.


    ^l-&,*tr}. (b) (ilr+ (ii)214-o14.
    E'UI
    (c) (i)4 (iii)ol 4.o111.
    ou -+ __A[A]
    dja^E _ _o.3oM - 0.54M
    At 4os-2os (d) (iile+ (iii)o1 4-o1s1.
    : 1.2 x t1-z Mls (e) *oJ 4ol H4.
    > .H.E qlr1l1 > E= qlr1t2
    a4 A.24 dEol 60a F.J 4lqqfl¤. ql A7l0.16 mol tH r+24 4E= ol+6}q
    ^lrJ +4
    oaql^] 40a
    ^tol
    B9I+. trtg + +'J ae 9g 4"Jzl? ql^l Bel
    ^8cq
    q6J Bt +E= 4l4l6r^le.

    rffl {E ulaf
    ^lrJql
    gs+ +E(cnHscl)4 Eol H]+6lq +B gng(c4HeoH)4 gtlg ^Jc6I= HI¤¤ ^J4
    6]] Ez[.

    c+HsoH(aq) + HCI(aq)
    caHect(aq) + H2o(/) [14.3]
    - g.Jqq q}+ol olF
    0.1000 M c4Hect ++Eg "J= + oa({f,-go1 7H^lq= i7J) 4
    "J"J ^lrJql^J c4HeclE *E= +A+qr ^J46lzI. E 14.19
    g+ + gql 9l= qlolqE
    E|"J* c+Hsclg ¤+ Ag +E(sE H4l1 gql +4H)= Zl
    ^l=s6}q ^lrJ 'J4ql46J ^Jl
    tlg + gt+. ¤+ +E= zl¤-9 soa ^lrJ ,J4q^J aA6}J a olggE al+ ai6t=
    ag + 9lr}. HI*ol d.8q{4 HI+ +EzI +46F= ae AB4.J ¤r}"Jr{ , aa+
    .$
    14.2 BJ8 +-E 617

    814.1 c4Hecl4 ¤sl HJE +E. rl-E-


    ,tlZ r(s) [c4Hrcl](110 aJ&*E(Mls\
    0.0 0.1000 4
    1.9x 10
    s0.0 0.0905
    t.7 x to-4
    100.0 0.0820
    1.6 x l0-4
    l 50.0 0.074r
    1.4x10'
    200.0 0.067t
    1.22x lo 4
    300.0 0.0s49
    1.01 x l0
    4

    400.0 0.0448
    0.80 x 10-4
    500.0 0.0368
    0.560 x l0-4
    800.0 0.0200
    10,000 0

    +Eel Hs+¤ c4Hecl *,Eel _zrllu(:al 14.3)ql^lE


    rlloJ
    q"Jg + 9l+. q4 +dg zl$z\zl zJaolu, = q1 E!301 TlgB0ll qel*rJ +E"b a7t6'ib)1, u^6E7l. oJ8
    ^ltql 6t711+xl:5lb7l?
    *+E IrJa6pL ag'J+ 9l+.
    +
    CaHsCl(aq) + H2O(l) CTHsOH(aq) + HCI(aq)
    .L7l
    |lu
    .4_c
    14 0
    :
    Hl+Eol+ ^j^d$q +E7l q+ q$rll E6l= f 0 aoll,\lel
    ,r-,-l
    tl r-
    ^ltql 0.090 E-.-l
    7l-= +4ql= rH 14.3e1 r4ss+q Hi*g +rJ +E 0.080
    \ (^71+E)
    =-

    t
    ii
    (instantaneous + 9l+. +rJ +E+ ++ +
    rate)E ACts
    roll^lel +rJ +E
    g"laJ4. +rJ +E= 5d ^lrJ
    ^ldql^lel +E=
    0.070 ^J2J
    =^la fql^]sl
    =4+
    ql^l +dg zl¤zlE.+q +*+. rH 14.3q1^-l ,:0=e} 0.060
    ddg 7137t

    r:600ioll^jel ddg 44 dd4 ¤des'l-El*rt. dd U6 0.050


    9 zl¤zli r ^lrJql^lel +rJ +E= +EId+.- 600aql^l Fri
    f : 600:Eo{l^1e-l
    U 0.040
    g +rJ +E= +d6IElE, rH 14.3q1^J Eol= ++^4 zl U6
    E-L-l +-

    4d}4¤g "J571 9l+ +¤d4 +zldg *=trI. ddg zl 0.030 A


    U
    ¤zlL +¤dql qle +4d +ol9 ul <lol4. 0.020

    )_aL );f _ a[c4Hecl] _ (0.017 - o.o42)M


    E/rI*a--- at -- (g00_400)s 0.010

    :6.3 x 10 sM/s 0
    100 200 300 400 500 500 700 800 900
    !}eE ¤Hol= uil+ql^l ¤Eol H= 4+, +E ,tlzJ(s)
    =E.fr
    (rate)4E +q= ++ +ia= 9"lql4. r:091^.19 ++ + :18 14.3 Eel H=J(CaHsCl)o1so= ,t.lrJol -Er+e +E[1.! r
    E= HI+el i7l +E(initial rate)u|.z .J+. ¤+ +Ee+ + A[lE

    ,J +E9 iloldg olallalzl +l"}]^-l, zl^E"il¤ 2.0^lrJ t'oJ


    esrrloJ +d619+a E4-. ol A+ ¤+ +E= 4e milhro)zl"J. gd + qL
    ^J4"l] ^ld
    ql^lg +rJ +E= +E4lql +4+ <tol4.

    .++ Aql^l +dqE+El t*6r7l 7l&7l|= ac6IE Hc ¤ + ?i4. 'lzJ+49l sl+6}+8, ^l+ 'J4ol 0q d
    trlE g+ +E= +rJ +Eql +d5l= a9 "J aol+.
    "l4tsoi9l.! ++g ^lrJ ,ql^lel saJf9
    ol (-)<1.
    =6J =
    -dlclHscl)lilolq.
    619 143 trt+ rl3 +E=

    qH 14.2
    EJEsI+t +E 4lt
    ral 14.3= olEdlq, f : 0801^l C+HgCl9 +rJ 4E +-E(^71 +EE 761.^19.

    6}lS >Haqfl1
    54 4 ^lAq r4sql^l +rJ+EE {{al"i.$xllolQ.
    LoE trl-g + qL aol :H t+.:9 r:1000aoll^JE +rJ +E
    ql 6l]r*61+7|?
    r{lc! r:oaql^lE +rJ +E= E7l +loll^l= ,:0:aql^]E
    (a) t.Z x tO-a M/s
    +dql El]+ 4 9 z1&zl= +Elot *EI. ddg +4¤E
    glHeE:4sgl +4+ 914. 4d9 zl¤zl= +zl+9 H (b) 8.8 x 10-s M/s

    Ei+g +¤+9 HE+*e-E +b aol4(olae Hplql


    (c) 6.: x to-s M/s
    ^lrJ (d) 2.7 x lo-s M/s
    ql6JE.r-"Eg Hs+.]+).
    Eol rlzJol oollr..l zroa-e H+tr trI ddg [C4HeCr]: (e) 919 6tEtr+ =.+.
    0.100Mq1^.1 0.060M-tr AA++. tr+4^l a7l +E= trl-+ > H= qlx.il 2

    al +L+. t fl r+.:9 ol+6}q ,:300aql^.1 c4Heclg +Z ag


    Ar A[C4HeCl]
    :- (0.060- 0.100)M +E= AC6l^le.
    =-:- at (rro-o)s
    : 1.9 x tO-4M1s

    ral 14.30il^r uutE a+Ei +^rqe +E6r'^le. (i) onq^l 60oa EE +E, (ii)
    A f : oaoil^lel ^tolol
    +rJ +E, (iii) r: 60040il^lel #zJ 4e.. zlt= -E.^l golE + ?lrl.
    I 6H
    =

    u3;- a_,Eel E|.6+JE

    7I^J4.J d B EI+ql ql.J ¤Hq^l AE ig


    +EE Bq 4^d +Ee+ rJoloh.J+=
    -
    Elo+*Eg E9tEl. ol4 ?ol 4 r+.:9 slqe}E+ C+HgCl 1 molol oll"I4 1 mol9
    ^Eg
    c4HeoHTI4CE¤- +4U+. Et+^l c4HeoHg ^JC +E= C4HeClgl 4E +Ee+ oJil
    +trI.
    A[C4HeOH]
    .t-=: -
    -+ -A[C+H'C]]
    af at
    slE+E +41711:1ol ol{ A+= qB4 {Ai.zl? ql= 2HI@) Hz(S) + I,(8)
    =q -
    Hl*g 446]] HzL +4= Hrel iE +E "l H,4 r,9 {C +E= +A6J i gl4. ur
    2 motol +.rg oll uzq rrzl t mot
    ^Jcqss, Hrel aE +E= Hz4 rz sc +Eq +
    ulf (twice)olQ. qL ag H]+ +E-E rl-strzlE qB4l acq-=zlJ HL Hz, rz t qe a

    g +a6lL+ql q4 <Ie + EI"J+ i+ol7l t4. ol ErllE 6lla47l +l6l]^J= elql=*Eg


    rEle g.e.z} 9q. qL ^d+g +46|=zl EI+ +E{}3 ?olo} 617l qEql Hrg 4E
    +E= 2E LI+q i4(o143 ¤¤ slql HI+^IE 4lfol4).
    o= : _1 A[Hl] _ A[H2] _ AI2l
    -!zMAfar
    'JHI49E trI-g HI*ql^J

    aA-tbB-cC+dD
    +E: ++4 A+.
    .
    +rE--;
    r- ra[A]--i ra[s] ra[c] rA[o]
    At Lt -; Lt -A At lr4.4l
    14.3 I $E$+s tsa] 619

    EC q}¤¤ol+ ^J^d+g B^16}z1 9+r HI+ +EE t#oJ A+, ^l r4.4E CqE ^l-B-
    dtrL-

    qFll 14.3
    t¤Esl ¤¤ +Eet ,J&*q aE +EB oJrJ
    1l7l

    (a) rf8 HJ8oll l9.=el4.E +Ets tt49 8d +Eel'qE EZlTt o^)Ezl?

    2Os(g)-----3Oz(g)
    (b) q! +zoll o2ol 8d 4s LlodlL7l6.0x10-5 M/solE, ea +l0ll osel 4E +E -alo3l/ar= g0l.P.!71-?

    6tl3
    E4 +qd +e E+q HI*4g +6u^l ^JcEel ^Jc +Ee+ 4lsJ t4.4ql +4U AilB, +o+ Hlg"4E ZI+E 0l+6}
    ^l
    q HI+
    HI*EE Ag +EE falf $xilolr[. +E= ++4.

    EUI
    (a) rl ta.+91 +4t a^lH +¤ "*+ +g"49 4l+E r Alo:l r A[Oz]
    ol+6IE trI.gr+ eq. -!2M3Af

    (b) (a)"ll+4U ^lg 58, orzl +E A[os] 2 Lloz) z


    (-^to3l/^r= +94 eq. ^Eq= af 3 af 3'
    a.=.3llqe}E4ql s4.= .7.E6IH o,9 ^JC +E= : *?/'X#H)
    o3e] aE +E-E +&B + 91trI.
    Y (uo,.,o-' : 4o x 1o-s
    mol Or/L
    s

    : 4.0 x 10 sMTs

    > E6 0lr.ll1 (c) 2A + B+3C


    ++E +A ^lrJql^l E4 M/sg 4re. (d) +e -+ 2B+3C
    ^7l4.sxr0-2
    AEqr, Ed szl 2.oxto-2 M/s9 4s.E ^JCqq, E (e) A+28 3C
    4 czy 6.e x t0-2uls9 4=e. ^Jdqi1 9l+. tr1g + q -
    > EsqF{2
    ! aol ol HI+ql ql6J slEe+Eol4Ezl? q¤E HI+ 2 N2osk) 4 No2k)+o2k)ql^'l 54 +
    (a) 2A'+B -* 3C -
    t9 Nzos9 +6il +E7I 4.2xLo-7 u/s48, tzJ (a) :
    0) e -+ 2B+3C No2, O) oz9 +E= gtrtoJTp
    ^JC

    14.3 I EoEgl'4-E'Jzl
    HI* +Eq qle bEq ¤6Jg g++= 6J ztzl %r-He azl bEql 4et azl Hl8 +E
    el E=cg aa6l+ 4o14. ol ElHg ¤H6I7l +l6l]^J trI+ HI+g.$zJall trz|.
    NHa+(aq) + NO2 (aq) Nz(g) + zHzo(l)
    -
    ^lAE ++tr +C
    NHr** Noz-9 +E= EL+s +A6I4LL sd6.J Nr9 PtlE
    ^lrJe-l
    6iq HI+ +EE s+g + 914. NHn*, No2-, N29 elq[=]e4 Alizl E+ 7J7) EllEql
    olBl+ El* +E= EF Ag 1o14.
    814.2Y HI¤¤ + 6l+9 *EE Eel^laql 44 zzl tI$ 4rzl B+Ag ++Llli1
    .rl rs.+= ce+ D e.lel 5e5ol Hl*ol {a!q= :..J **6J oJeE ^drdgE "*7'1 ?}=4. ql= 7E 4'?J4l7t 4l*,
    ddE Bd dq ^JCEI= 4+71")q. old BJ¤,Er+ ^JCEE iE +Ee| ^J¤ +EE +44e 4=q14.45 trI=zl 9*:+.
    ol +ql^l jtE6lE -tr= HI¤+ 14.4= rl=Ei.
    ^l
    620 143 at-+ EJ¤: +EE

    #.14.2 2s"c +¤-qq^1 oJsb ol¤-El olEt olSel oJE 4e rte.


    g:d ua
    1 0.0100 0.200 5.4x l0 7

    2 0.0200 0.200 10.8x l0 7

    3 0.0400 0.200 21.5x to-7


    4 0.200 0.0202 10.8 x l0 7

    5 0.200 0.0404 21.6x lo 7

    6 0.200 0.0808 43.3x lO-7

    Stlslrl %r$g oBnJ "Jg +EE 4#: Beer H{tr

    HI+ol t]4q= F"J H}¤¤ol+ bE H4¤ ^JCE9


    7[ g+6t= 5^d r]t]s +c6J + glE+ ErJTlE "*i:4.
    p}.J$ol=4
    q qlE Eq HIk)71 Hr(g)S Ir(s)s EElq= HI*q^1, HIe+
    ^l-Sg+. {zl{lE
    6171 91611^'l +"J*,JH=ol
    g B+(E= %I=)61+ }.qg 0l+{+ ++qL4 *Hol E Hr.= $$olzl"J, rr= B+^qg 84. tl*ol {dqB^] rrz}
    6Jqq qq. ¤+qL4 qI8 +E9 e+= qlTl] HI*-e.J+3
    ^Jtqs.e,
    qI* s.JEel tr44o1 dd 4qd+. Et+^l
    E"*zl9 olF"ld4. E*zlGpectrometer)t
    ,,.1e zJgl --r HI¤¤ +4 +A617l +l4q 4q+.J ular9 zt,rl"Jdg
    ^l-$
    ^lEql Edl
    g+qzlLi F+q= qE o#3
    =,86t=
    *zlol tr f ql4(=e u.a).
    +. Hl* +Eel +Ag +l"]|^l= t}¤¤ol4 CCE +9 614 .r.e 14.s= +*719 7.J elE 44d 1"14. {
    El ,ltlql^l JJgeE+q EJ=q= Hq
    ^Jl7le+.(l-R
    Fnl6J H9 r]lzlE Eli6JeEr{1, ^lEql el6l] -g+
    0.4 =
    g qg "3$ g4tzlzt +dq}'i. I2E }-E7I Solzln
    EBTI= r, :iEE
    14= "Je]
    =7totl r ^qol ad aq4ql q4 Hi* e{}Eql 94 ++q
    Hg olol +7I6J+. tri+^l re l4.4ql^le+ aol
    ^l'+^{ ^ll7l=
    =E-dtr[.
    =
    4az\41EB6l-= qE "Jg Ald-al g+.
    100 mgll- El3zl9lrl a=q= q9 "Jr+ ^lE$ bE= qtr
    =
    E
    .TT
    - 70mg/L ¤+dol ilytl? Beer Hzl(Beer's law)E g41L tI
    - 4}ly.g/L
    E 0.2
    L}mg/L ++zltr+E] olel,* atr= zld4eE eg + 9l+.
    -
    - rmg/L Beer $!ol$ qg g+dl+ EeE }.Ee+ s*ftil*
    Hq "JrlE +41= +{'}]E
    ^loltrI.
    A: ebc [14.s]

    ol A= +c¤ grJE. eE E* al+(+,'ltl


    ^lql^-l
    0.0 He_l +tlql^J +d¤ 9+.JEE b= qol E"il6}
    400 4s0 500 550 600 650 =d),
    ntA(nm)

    fH 14.4 qA tsEellz0l cH-d 7l'^lBd


    ^trlEeJ

    I
    ! I
    J
    ( I

    !.Jfl aJl^/=all^= g^l trJ4{El8^l )a=71 718tr)


    ^l-E
    afH 14.5 EEJTlel +8 e^
    14.3 SEel+E ts41 621

    =Es9
    z3ol, cb9+6I=EeE 5r-"Eol+. "i+^'1 ¤* E+e+ tEg +4lE ^l-&61+ dEg aE4 E + *g a
    EE E"Eoll aElql6JE+. 4++9 siqt al^l-+ zllEal^l¤g ol4.
    zllag e1o'3E.9 azllE *"1 *.E= 4l1I+ *l]. +rll4eE +H E4l: l4.lol, t4.to2. ¤{l ¤4lExll
    seer B49 qqB=g rlEg de ,JEql^l qE
    ^l-so6J4.

    gl4. ol zl.-eofrl [Nor-13 fzlal t[4q]^J [Nur*]E + 6[8, Hi* +E= +tsH7] g
    HH

    +(de F+ 2E ulna]l -H.+). [No2-]= .JA6]41 +zl^la 4lE [NH++]-= ql Hlls +zt
    14 l), HI+ +E= ql ul].e +7ldJLl. olel.J ar+E+q :izl q1-o- +E=
    ^l7lH(dE
    [NH4*]ql HlqlQ]g "J + 91trt. [NH4*]E "JA6[r1l +z]6]E^J [No,-]E +^]6]41 H5]^l
    7lH, +* +E= ag %I^ls.E g6.E9 +=+. tr14^J HI8 +E= [Nor-19 +Eql 4H]
    qt++r aEg 4c + 9l+.
    q]* 4E.zl. HI¤¤E bEq E=6t= ag E^l5lE ++4 aq.
    ^leE
    +E:k[NH4+][No2-] tt4.6l
    .q t+.ozlH, tI* 4sz} Hl¤-E bEql qB4l E=61+zl= Hq +: ^lg -^E H*l(rate
    law)ol+r..J+. "JEI49E rl-g HI+
    aA+bB-cC+dD
    ql q+ +E Blg El-q-+ rJ.l ut4g4.

    +E: klAl^lB) lr4.7l

    "JHI4se +E Bzlql= Hi¤¤E $r o3tu3o1 aql +E6I]ot t+. ^J+ k* ^-E


    =46}=
    gEE
    tl*(rateconstant)4tr *+. /cE a7l+ g6&3 B.=+. EIE^I 9.=.z14sil olul
    6J g6&9 +:zl= AAg + 9l+. olq +4^J= r4.s¤ql^l ++6J 4o14. zlf ma\ n?

    4illtr zfg AE Cfol4. ol4l + ull$flzluJ, q¤ HI+q 46J m4 r9 "Jz1l qE, HI*
    4¤ql^J 'JqLlE ,+ +Al HI¤-ql 4+ ge AB= Eg + 91trI.

    & +E Af+E HJ-sltsEoll g:Br= "J=71?

    qtr HI¤-el +E H zlr}


    "14 Hl+E
    :-" roll.r.l$
    Hl+ +E= .JH +E ^J+(k)E ag 4l
    &g + 9l+. qltr s r4.2ql il= ¤C rE zl-E= ^l 14.6q1 ql.J6l-E trls.r+ aEl.
    5.4 x tO-7 M/s : k(0.0100M)(o.200M)

    _ s.4 x 7o-7 Mls


    ku : (oolooMxorooM) :2'7 x 1o-'rM-ls-r

    .E r4.2qlq= += gg zl.-eE.<l-$aJlE ,JZ * Ag Eg + 9+: Ag q.JE + 9I+.


    qE HI*E +E tr'+ ZF+ +E Bzlg E+ .JE, "J9 -r-"Eql^lE HI* +EE 41&
    6J + 914. ql= EE k:2-7 x 10-4 M-t s t, m:r, n: t"J 41, 4 tt.t* ol+dltr

    lNur*l :0.100 aa, [Nor-] :0.100 Mql^Jq H]* +E= 4lt]g + 9i+.
    +E, : 1Z.Z x tO-4lor-ls-1110.r00M)(0.100M) : 2.7 x tO-6 M1s

    A 4s.54; +EetEg-d .j+l= 7l^l=7t?

    HJt =l#: +E'J4qhlsl al+


    ql++el HISql ql+ +E H4e q-*r+ a+
    622 149 at-+ fi8 +EE

    +E:ktHl*E tl'[H]*E zl' "' [r4.8]


    m4 n9 H.!E i]*(reaction order)4-z +q. qE Eg NH.*4 Noz-9 H}+ql^1g
    ^l#
    +E H4g +^l ^J46ll 84.
    4E: k[NH4+][No2-]
    [NHr*]el tlizl loloE,E]¤+ NHn*oll q6]q "JiHfirst order) H]*olE]. H]* +EE
    Noz-oll ql4^lE "Jil H}*oltrI(zlf rg +E Bzlql^.i E¤qzl *=El). Ei{t EJt i}+
    (overall reaction order)t +E Hzlg +r}.11= 4 EI¤¤ql +EI il+E tlol4. trl+^l
    NH+*$ Noz-9 +$ql^l dill Hl+ il+= t r 1:2oll, ol HI¤+ oli|(second order) HI
    *o14.
    +E Hzlql^J zl++ EI8 +E7I4 HI*gE bEql qBAl g6&9 E=zlE "Jq fr}.
    NHn*4 NOz-9 HIg +E= [NH4n]ql 1zlla,9-tr E'J+. [NHn+lz1zul]zl s]E H]* +E
    :2Hll7I94, [Nun*]z]:ullz[ E]H H]+ +EE :ullz] 98, 1 ol{roll.lE utt!z[z]olr].
    olel Aol [Nor-]E 2ufl, 3uflg qlqE H]* +E= 2ufl, 3uflz[ gtr]. y]E 4s Bzlol t]8
    Eql q6ll oliloJ a+ lAlrolEE, +EE 2HI dlE HI+ +E= 4(2)r:a)uflz| g+. E+
    tE= :uHe alB H]+ +E= e([:]2: e)Hl]7] g+.
    q-ee dE4str Eqd +E H4ql q6J P Ttzl += qlol+.
    2N2o5(g) ------ 4No2(g) + oz(s) $r: r1Nro.1 114.91

    Hz(c) rz!)
    + zHr(g) +E: klHzlltz) [14.10]
    CHCI3(8) + Clz(g)
    -
    -+ CCla(s) + HCI(g) +E: klCHCr3l[C12]1/2 t14.111

    +E Bzlq s7l¤ zl+e+ +B *+ +*4q Alizl gzl6t= 4*zl zffi llzlr alQ.
    rq+ 4 r+.sq 14.11ql^li-lH 6J^6t oJil6I= 13 olrl4.
    qq* Hl+q qlfl^lE +E B4e d¤4 oe EC9q.t t4.
    ql+Eg +E Hzlq^J HI$ 443 0, 1, 2ol+. :aBl+ HI+ zI+7| ++(^l 14.1l)otA+
    *+"J +E B4E "*ol E + 91trI.

    r[3olHJ8oll 1116ll,(]
    2NO(s) +zHr(g) -.-----}Nz(g) +2H2o(9)
    d:d4oe Eqd 4_E gr.lg
    +E:ktNorlH2l olrf.
    H2e.l EiETI + HtlTl ElE, UB +-E= Ljl HtlTI El4l=7t, F Ht|7[ Elil=7\, H6lxl gfl=71?

    qFJl 14.4
    gg {soil ol:li }Eg "c6Jg +E ,J4l!.|.
    s{1,!71

    A + B ------ C HJSoll,\l 4_E : klAllBl2o l+.


    4 ,s^lE HJ8
    33 AE, .?al^4
    LfEflflq,#e^q
    =-dB=
    BE Ll.ElL.Utl. HJ8 o o
    =e
    +E7l"=71.6[E +^18 LlE6l^le.
    =--J- o
    (1) (2) (3)
    14.3 I tsEel+E E^] 623

    atlff zAE 4 {}zlq= 3ol r0zli Eq 914. Bql 4.* HI+ il+7}
    E{ +q1l ^l tz}ql Eq il= +9 4+71c}e.Q. o14o1 q +-e_Ee, +E Bzlq q4,ri [n]z[ tA]trq +Eq q
    s6}g "ld+= ag "J + 91trI. E[+^] BE EET!7l*
    =
    9"latE Ht= 4 HI¤¤E r-oE7I +Erl= 4o14. +E E
    44 tzt .JE +C s_aEg ol+4q, qI* 4gzt +7161 gElE(844 +ol 7[* "*3 {).1 4sz] zl-1t u[=r[. f=
    +^le si+E# '+96l-= Erllol4. 2<t<:el f,,tlo1r1.
    =
    4tEt 4l +49 +qTl rJzl oll+9l, 4 ="+E *q ,l]+E + > E* ffldl1
    E H4ql Bq^l 4 txlq q6J +E= 4l+B + ?l+. ol {lxlloll,r-l H}+ +E^lol +E:ktArtBl4n 7t46}z}.
    E_g¤E EI* 4szl +7i61+ +^ls +g+ ag qL
    Eol tI4 ril: H34 * sz1etr H44 * sz\zl E9 9i-e- ^I
    E= .AEL a"J7l?
    -+L
    -+!
    .!.zI t: : (a)1<2<3
    +E: k(sxs)2 t25k
    (b)1<3<2
    /*zt z9li *gq + zzli4 -H.44 * ztilzl Eq il-e--EE (c)3<2<1
    *^l 2: +E: k(7)(3)2 :63k (d)2<l<3
    ^Jz| 3ql= 5-94 + rzHel -H.4^4 *zzllzy 59 9,lo o + (e)3<1<2
    C-zl 3: +E: k(3X7)2 : L47k >H=q|fl2
    +E7l7l* v?c13 oaqr3x12)olq, 7l* iBI= A* uzt< +E:k[A][814r 214.3 q, qdlq +4U sE.+g H]
    (,.J2| :)o14. u14,r] {rE 2 < I < 3oltr}. + +E7l +zt6l+ +^'lE +g6l^le.

    trJgl
    +E ^J+q =zlel
    Elelzlzl qL s+o.L t}Sol ^Jql4ee EHIE-a Lflzl= oJoE_Elr g ql, +dg ?*+ rt
    g +E tfol4. .JEl4g-e k alol 3H(-10eol+ ol.Hrl a+) UEI= HI+g g"lolq,
    /c *ol leE(rool+ olEEt zle A+) Lfl HI¤¤ 9"lel4.
    =
    +E *+e-l ++l= +E B4E dill +* ,}+ql IIl4 4eq. ql= d8l HI-& il+
    =q
    zI z"J HI89 a+, +E
    ^J+ ++l= +Sg "J+6Iot *tr}.
    +E9 +91: (+E tl+el ++l)(+Eg +91)'z
    tr14^l trE bE ++loJ EbEe+ t+l"J aE +4'}]E q+r+ a+.
    ^l^.&61+ ^lrJel
    ,i=?
    +E tr+el ++l: (r-" Yfl,' : Y+ - M-rs I
    E9_l ++l), Mz

    qru 14.5
    EJt ir+q 4E tr+ u+lel a{
    I
    (a) 14.9et^.1 14.11011 7l+EJ HJBE Eill oJB x6g gEt?.!7[?
    ^.1
    (b) 14.eel +E E=10il rflEl +E 8+sl .J+l: +%.oJ7l?
    ^.1

    6ll? B0l
    Et + TtzlE +E H4r+ EB B}Hql ++ pgeE, (a) (a)
    ^l
    14.e HISE +E= Nrosql qi6l^l lzlola, dill4e

    dill Hl+ il+, (b) a Hall HI+ql 4+ HI* 8+e.l ++l= +tr lilol+. r+.rr HI¤¤ cHcrrq ql6}q 1ilolr.,
    ^l
    E= +xllol+. cl,ql ql6}q rfio1q. Eal^l dill HI* 214; 3lzolq.
    (b) 14.e9 +E Bzlql^]
    fitq dz,ll HI$ 2145 +E Hzlql s^lB zl+E 6JolEl. + ^l
    E ^J+ k9 E9l= +E B4ql +4+= +E9 SHI4"J + +E ++l: (4s tl+ t+l)(bE ++l)
    g(M/s)e+ r-oE(M)= III+^l
    ^l-&4q +q4"E
    kq 44 Eq^l
    +.J4.
    624 14Ef Elqf EJ8 +EE

    +Etr++er = i=g:l
    EoE B9
    :\.:,-'
    M
    (a)
    (d)
    M 1l2s-t
    1v1
    zlz
    t-r
    (b)
    @)
    M tl2s 112

    PTtlzt-rlz
    @) Mtl2s-l

    d4l HI+ il+7} H6iE +E tI+E +gE EoJ+= ^tdg > E* qlrlt2
    +9"1+. (a) zl t+.tooll^l qI¤¤ Hz9l 46J HI* 2145 gottzl?
    > -H.* qH 1 (b) 14.roql q.J+E^J+E ++l=#9.JzI?
    ^l
    al r+.rroll,tJ +EtI+E +fl= trl-S+ qL a"J7l?

    4_E Ezl Etg +l6J a7l +-E olt


    .I+Eg EI+ql 4,* 4s Hzlol r|e-4 ae .JHi4 ¤4tr E¤g+= ag Sql^J Eit+.
    4E:k[HI*E tl'[H]¤¤ zl' "'
    trl?+^l +E Hzlg aat+= ae +E *i m4 n¤ ¤cal* dol4. ql++E HI¤-
    q^l HI+ ih= 0, r, 2ol+. ol e9 *+Eql^l Hllfl,Fol, a7l tEql qE Hl* +EE
    Eq¤ ol+6[q H]+ il+= eCB + 914.
    +E Hzlql 9lq^J EI*g 4E(rate)E *Eq 9=6IzlEI4E, tf(rate constant)t -f
    Bzl ?*4E Ae
    =!.q6I+.
    "l tr-el A+Eql^J ¤H6lAzl"J, +E tl+(e44"-e **
    +E)= gEe+ +,119 Eql ¤6}-9 *=tl.
    =x[q
    qF'll 14.6
    a7l +-E 1I-E_E+E1 +E E4E'J{
    HJB A +B --_ Cql,\l Ael Be-l ,\l5J EiE= 37|.^lE A7l +E= a?J4)l +Brl att.
    =al6[q =8affi1,
    t-d E6 tAl(M) tBl(M)
    =;l45.,(Mls)
    I 0.100 0.100 4.oxro s

    2 0.100 0.200 4.oxro s

    16.9 x t0
    s
    J 0.200 0.100

    0l 0lE6G (a) ,J30ll rH-d 4_= E^1, (b) +E 8+, (c) [A]:0.050 At,lB):0.100 /\/oJ rt|1ol EJ8 +E= +61.^19.
    ^lE=
    6ll'J +qd ,IEql^l 4e9l Elzl= g6}9 0l+610l
    LoE Hslzt
    E4 +qd s.ts HI¤¤el soEe} a7l HI* +Eq qlsJ a HI* ^l-+ql mal n* +6J+. $) m4 rg.JE, +E'$44
    ol4. EzllE (a) 4s Hzl, (b) +E tr-+, (c) soll +qzlzl gg9 xlEE gso 6iq +E *+ k= +e + 9l+. (c) 4E
    gg tEq
    'l]+ HIg +E= +61+ 4o14. t}+e+ HI* ^l+= +614 qH, +E H4g ole"alol fol
    z{tet (a) +E Hzlg tr]-sr+ ag B4ol4. +E:k[A],[B],. d tEql^-ig +E= +6J + 9i+.

    &01
    (a) dE 14 zE ullalB, [A]= .J46[a [B]= 2EH7t qfl+.
    tr|+^l ol zleE [BJz] +Eql qBzl ¤6]¤- Elil=7] !_
    +E1 k[A1]-[81]'
    q +q, Bql ql+ +E 849 il+E +6J + ?l+. 4E1: k4n lW
    dEes+q +Ee+ bE alg B-qH 4.o x u1s k[o.1ooM]a[o.1ooM]'
    to-s
    4.o x to-sW k[o.looM]'[o.2ooM)'
    ol +"1 qBiH 7x:6ololo| 6Jtr1. qel^l 4s H4g e r: (tl4n
    ^lol
    ql ql6l] oxlol4. ol{${Ez} 1s]q-5-$a}{E 9"lol4.

    dE l4 3ql^J, [B]= "JCa[4 +xlq!*B, z]eE+el 4Er _ k[Al]'[B1]'


    iAlql 46J +E 849 il^+E +6J + 9l+. +E3 kIA3]'[83]r
    14.4
    ^lrJoli
    nl= EEol E+ G2S

    d¤eE+q +Ee+ r-" E <lg HsE: 16.0x 10 sMTs klo.2ooM)mp.tooM),


    4.0 x to-sW klo.looMlm[o.tooM]n
    tAlTt + ullz} ¤ trll +E= +uflz| e.lIrg, Bql ql+
    ^:2ol:t_ 4: (2)^
    +E Bzle-l 2zI"Jg "J + 94.
    olelfl p!$$ B4l rq6lH, r+s=E +E H4g e¤. + 9i4. +E: /<[A],[B]o : k[A],

    (b) +E H4r+ de lE xlE= olo" o|{ +E tr-+E eg + 9l+ 4tr


    I : '.
    4.0 x l0 sMls
    : 4.0 x l0-3M-l s-r
    LAl. (0.100M),

    (c) (a)9 +E Hzl4 O)el +E ^J+= ol+6IH 4¤.rl e+ +E: k[A]'z

    tBl= +E H4ql eElqzl ?*o o-=., Ae+ Hls"g Eag


    : (4.0 x 1o-3M 1s 1;1o.osolr;2

    B"J B= HI+ 4e.o15 ru44. : 1.0 x lo-sM/s


    =zll6llE
    AE +E Hzlg eE4 BE =-a.3 %r-Bg dEl 2 E= 3E t. (d) H6Izl gr=+,4u1]
    E= ol+6}q +E7l *r,ll 44}q:^l= q.J4 E= aol+. (e) +ul] 5q94, =q\iq.
    H6Izl S=+.
    dE 39 'llolElE ol+6IE ul-q=ai rJ"l 4ru9+. > H.E qtfl 2
    +E-: k[A]r: (4.0 x 10-3M-ls-1;1O.ZOOU12 4I+ dAeI+dg Hlgo e-s+q El-e-Eel xlgTl+$q9+.
    : 1.6 x to-4M1s 2No(g) +2H2$) +2H2o(g)
    trt+^l +Eql ql6J 44 <F-} Bftzl ¤ "*41 414]qq +E
    (M) [H,](M) -Nz(g)
    g:d EE [No]
    =7t+E
    (M/s)
    B4ol 4E de<tqlE A 4+¤+. x 10-:
    1 0.10 0.10 1.23
    >E6qFfl1 2 0.10 0.20 2.46 x rc-3
    +19 ql^llql^l ++qd HI*, e+s.-- c5 r.q6lz}. BE 3 0.20 0.10 4.92 x tO 3

    :-"Ezf fuflz| 9H, s9 iE +E= . HlEql


    AE bE.7t +Hll7l qE, Bq ag +E=
    (a) ol HI+ql 4aJ 4s
    Hzlg ac6}^le_.
    (b) +E tr-+¤ al4}6}^le_.
    (a) $alzl ?+=+, H6lzl ?+=+.
    (c) [No]:o.osoM, [Hr:0.ts0MoJ ol] +E= Zll]6]^le-.
    (b) 2Hll 2tsil
    (c) +ufl
    =q*4,
    5q94, zul|
    =qB+.
    SqkI+.

    14.4 I q+ tEE ,JE:l


    ^ruql
    zllTlzl +E E4g ol+al.ts +E ^J+e+ EI¤¤ +Eaoe+q HI* +EE ah}
    Hl]g
    6J + 914. ol eql^J=, +E H4g Ea'J H++6|q EI¤¤ E= ^J^JEE EoEe|
    ^]sE
    +41= +49 + 9l+g ++g 4,o14. ¤21.il gs6J +4e trlzltsElol+. q4
    ^lrJJ+E
    Bol trl4tsql q+6}zl g*g{{E, EI^IE AqE gqd !e ol+6J i il"lo}'*+. ol
    *ltl Eg¤ 7l* ?J+6J +E Hzl"J giL oli[, gi] H]+ql 4s6l] g aol+.
    oJil tjt
    Hil EJEi(first order reaction)$ HI* +E7I 6J Ttzl HI¤¤ bEE tzll+qlEJ 9=61+ HI
    gol4. [A-{dE] ¤EIE E}+ol "Jil.+H, +E H4e q-q=!+ e+.
    A[Al
    ar
    +E: -li: k[A]

    bEql q,* +E q=cg Eq += "lel'J BEilE +E H49 ulB¤ +E ts4


    (differential rate law)olrp +q. 4$ol+r B4=
    "14+
    rlAg F6ll, ol +Zl.;+ 4E
    ¤ +E Szl(integrated rate law)etr gai4l ^letr H++g + 9l+. "l 49 "JiI Hi8^lql
    Ael a7l +E([A]o)e+ E"E([A])E ¤+^l7l= alol4.
    ^'l ^lz rql^JE
    626 143 el+ rl3 +E=

    ln[A]1- ln[A]6: -kr E= r.,ffi: -m n4.t2l

    4 r+.t24 a;-f 'ln'g z}¤erol+(++ A.2). al ra.rz¤i rI¤-4 zJol C4tr +E ?l+.
    ln[A],: -kf + ln[A]6 [14.13]
    zl r+.rze} 14.139 [A]p] tAloE B9lz] ++H LoE9 ++lgE. 4"J + ?14. zl
    "lule]
    AI tlEllg El¤¤ +E+H, 4 r+.t29414.13e-l tE ql4l Sqg +E 9l+. olqoJ
    L"E-$E zlflol zl-r'ofl 13 oltr zli.ll $zl(ro.4e +z)ql q+^l-+6J
    "J4*gEql^] sqe
    tE (n/Y)oll A tsl46}71 ullgol4.
    .J7I qISql^J zl ru.n9114.139 qEl %[Hg.s 4"J + 9l']. k, r, [A]0, [A],6 4E
    ^11
    <ig .JH 4"lzl 6IL|= +6J + 9l+. trI4^J ol ol+6[E tl+4 !g
    ee a$$ eCB
    + 9l+. (r) t]*+ 5C ^lrJql tse Hi¤¤g tE, (2) "J{"+E ^lE7I Hl86l+ ql
    ^lz+
    g9-* Lo E7I
    "JC+ ++ql Eg6r= ql g.g-6J ^l+
    ^la, HI*E
    (3)

    qFil 14.7
    11SB gil HJ8 4g Ezl9 olt I
    12"CA Eoil^1 olEJ ¤=^llE6|l HJ8¤ gil HJSolq, +E g+E 1.45 y.1olrt. ol ¤=^ll ggBrol 6e 190il 6+e 1!4
    =ol7l.
    5.0x10-7 s/cm39 EETI- Elflrl-. E+ 8E= 9E(8E. Eet7l. +Eoll B:*= +^l ?JEe -Er')6|.q-r" 7lE6l]], (a) r|.3 6tl 6E 1"J
    g=rilel tsEE EoloJTl? (b) ¤=rilq tsE7|.3.0x10-7 s/cm3.E ,J^atalU gDlLf
    'Jtli7?
    ^lzJol
    6fi3
    E^1 ol EI+g "Jit **o14, *.Ee+ ^lrJE 4aol +qA ztel E^ll (a)9lrlE +E t+,
    ^l+:r.ul-r. HI¤¤E
    .a.716r--

    +. +610l d+ ae rtr P B3 qI+E(A+z]l)E .Jol4. E7l +ol{7l'llgql, 14.139 ol+6}q rE F Hi*E9


    ^l
    E+ a+El7l-5c tEq EB6l+ q ac E"EE 7g + 914. +rll 0)q8: z7l +8,4+ bE :a
    tJ4. ^sq: ^lag Er +E t|+zt i"ld.4. ol ?* al ra.rg ol+4q 5
    "llot
    c E"Eoll EB6l-= ql zl+g+ gltrl.
    ^aq= ^lrJg
    rE'./ I

    (a) "Jr 9l= <ig 4 t+.t:ql Ell"J++. lnfSfx]ll,=1, : -(1.45yr-1)(1.00yr) + In(5.0 x 10-'7)

    4ltlzl= ^l+6}0l s=+ + Hall aJ.el ln ++ <I(+


    ln(s.0 x to '))9 4l+6IE 4*r+ Aq. ln[$5:x]]1,='r, : -1.45 + (-14.s1) : -15.96

    [¤+x]ll,:ry.E 75[zl ?]6]ol atstrrE q++.J e, *i


    [4641]':ry, : e-1s'e6 : 1.2 x 1o-7glcm3
    = ^l-s+tr|.
    tAlp+ tAloE tE trfl7l agg +q6|4.
    (b)
    ^l
    14. t3ql [t+rll],: 3.0 x 10-7 g/cm35 ql.J6l-E
    ln(3.0 x 1O-7) : -(1.45yr-r)(r) + ln(5.0 x 10-7)

    ol49 rll qdl^l EH 1: -[n(3.0 x 1O-7) - ln(5.0 x to-7;17r.asyr-l


    : -(-15.02 + 14.51)/1.45yr-1 : 0.35yr
    7dtr > .H.+ qlril 1

    Ezll (a)ql^'], r.oo'J H-g *9 fl


    .r-oE(1.2x ro-7 g/cm3)E 2s.cql^l e&e+ ol{}.(Nro5@))7t s6ilqq No2k)e+
    4 :-os(s.oxro-7g/cm3).E.4 ztoi"t 6J+. E4l o)q^l + or(g)E ^JC6l-= +¤+ "Jir H}+olq k=3.4x10-5s-rol
    qd bE(3.0 x 10-'slcm3)= t.00LJ + ts3 bE.H.+ q Z 4. zzl Eqol 260 torrt Nzos ^lE7I2s.Cql^l BElq
    oluJ +osli ILJts.+ 6r+= a4 "Jil6J+. Et+4 q +E $4ol oso torrz[ E]SQ.4. zzl444]9Ezt?
    ^l7Jol
    t:0.35 rE 4'J6J Bolr}. (a) 5.3 x 10-6 O) 2000 (c) 4600 (d) 3a,000 (e) 1e0,000
    14.4 I nfg gsel E4 627
    ^lrJoll

    > .s.6 qFll 2 (cHJzo9


    =zl ${o1
    r35 torr9 rll, razoa +9 .Jgg
    stg.Cql^] 4ol{lp 9lrl(dimethyt ether, (CH)2O)E e 9"toJzl?
    6ll HI¤+
    "JiI H}+olq, +E ^J+: 6.8 x l0-4 r-'o14.
    (CH3)2o(s) --+ CHa(8) + Hz(s) + Co(s)

    l4.l3g ql¤-ol 9zI **.Jxl olHzle+, +E tr-+= a4E+ oll ol+pl4. ol


    ^l ^lg
    y:mx+b4=. "Jit 6J+4s.e g'¤g + 9leq, olull z3 z1&zl, bb r ¤¤ol+(++
    A.4).

    h [41: -P1 + ln [A]o ollB 0l0l4l-t0lEaJ

    111
    y: mx+ b

    EI4^l .Jir +*ql^J,


    ^lrJql
    4t m;e1,9 r4g= z)$zl zlol -k,7 ¤¤o1 ln[A]0oJ zl
    dsE +4++. q}+ol oJifTl olt-lfl zldg Eg + fl+.
    "J;<l HI+9
    qltr Ellg ololi+olE9(methyl isonitrile, CH3NC)ol olCAal'J o|.tlltr4
    olEB(CH3cN)e tr+q= HI¤¤ d46ll trz|(ral il.6). dE4 o.tr ol HI+g oJxtol_rr.
    .+, +E EJCI$ tl-g-r+ ?ol ¤ + 9l+. 0[l1lEL[olEaJ
    ln[CH3NC]' : -kt + 1n[CH3NC]s a rg 14.6 ollE otola+ol=
    o11g ololr4olEgol
    7l^ll {l48 gE(lee "c)ql4 HI¤¤ +4619r, =J (C H gN C)ol ol^lltrLio I
    E aJ

    =z116}= ^lrJoll (CFbcN)e E*El= g^l.UB


    Irl= "Jq Hol¤ 14.7(a)91 +4H+. rH 14.7(b)= qE .JqE zItsErZt E
    =eJ ^lrJql
    slrl zlde-+ +Eltsg Jnq ol 4d 71&71+ -s.lxro-ss 1ol4(94tso1 ol al
    e ztd +4 qeEl =+.
    ?i9o} 4q, f
    q*lBol +oJ a4= r4sE slg trilg +aqc ql
    Eql {zlrl ++ ar} 4+ 7lol7l9lg + 9l+). zld zl$z)zl -kolEE, ol H}¤.el +E
    ^J+= s.l 1o-5 r-'o14.
    x

    olzl HJt
    0lil ElEi(second-order reaction)9 eI* 4sz} HI¤¤ +EE 4+q Hlql6r4Ll E|
    .E.Eg
    ^lE
    E + TIzl Ei¤.E Elq.J+. ++6lrll aITl 9l6}q HI¤¤ Aql ql6}q 2iloJ
    'I+ql
    vl
    ln P tl] fE E,(lE :zflszl4.ldolatE. olrq-d EE + o^)=71?
    =E=
    160 5.2
    a 140 ffir

    ! rzo
    ol 4.8
    4.6
    HI roo oI
    U 4.4
    8- 80 z 4.2
    4oo f
    U 4.0
    540 3.8
    20 3.6
    0
    0 10,000 20,000 30,000 10,000 20,000 30,000
    'rluJ (s)
    ^tzJ(s)
    (a) (b)

    a-LB 14.7 oll= 0l'0l4Ll0lE=el 0l^llEt-l.olE=eq Efl HJ8oll tti-Lf +E xlE


    628 143 at-+ HJ8 +EE

    EE [e + B .--- ^JCE]fl H]¤¤ r,]z-]all Bz[.


    [A ----* ^JCE]

    -4.E - -4Er : klA)'


    Lt
    trl4$qg ol84q, "l ulEE +E H4e q-s_r+ eol olzl Hi$ql ql* 4E¤ +E H
    zl e. +4.J + gl+.
    "
    11: kr *
    lt4'L4l
    tAlr ielo
    ol ra.r:rtrut.!z[z]_a, ujl z]zl$ H+k, r, [A]0,
    91oue, ol {toll,!,!l z}
    [e],21
    ^le.zJ
    gE
    zl *"J +"lzl <tg 4l4}ol 7l-b6[E]. ^l r+.r+E zlc BEIo:mx+ &)-E E¤g +
    :14. t}Sol olil+B, r9l 4EL r/[A], rqls: 4dg Lt+qlr, 7]|971+ k, y 44? rl
    [a]ool4. .Jz]e+ olz] sE B4g +ts6]= e] z]zl %]He roil 46J ln[A]P] l/[A],E r4
    E= 44:4 EE 4,o14. h[n],oll 4t :4gz] zld.lH, r H]¤+ .Ji]oltr[. r/[A],oil
    4t:.4EzI 4dolE, r HI+g ol^lol+.
    qFll 14.8
    4E +li tzl-e.-a+El ,J8 il+ 44nl2l

    300.coll,\J 0ltat tr^el TlillclE6ll HJ8oil rH-d rl37[,Jr[. [NoJtu)


    Noz(g) No(c) +LorG)
    ^lE= ^lrJ(E)
    0.0 0.01000
    - 0l^[oJ7l'?
    0l u8e No201l rl]6u g^toJ7l, s0.0 0.00787
    100.0 0.00649
    200.0 0.00481
    300.0 0.00380

    ntl? +4 ^l?Jql q611^J E^l6l] 84.


    xl¤ ln[NoJ$ t/[NoJE
    E4 qq HI¤¤.el +E7t +qaeq, q}*ol 9 q! 6J r4r,z} 4deE +g+8, r HI+ol $xlQlzl, ol
    ^lrJq^lE zltxl "J + 9l+.
    z}flzl, olzlolzl$ "Jottr= E4lol+.

    =01
    ql+ h[Noz]e] l/tNot= tn[ttoJ r/[NoJ (r/u)
    ^lrJql lNorl(M)
    E^l6l7l 9l6l-q, aqal zlE-eP ^l2J(E)
    0.0 0.01000 -4.605 100
    El trl-*E ahlg +q+4.
    50.0 0.00787 -4.845 127

    100.0 0.00649 -5.037 154


    200.0 0.00481 -5.337 208
    300.0 0.00380 -5.573 263

    rH il.84H ql'J l/[No,


    ^lrJql
    :ellsEJol zldol4. trl+^l ol * 250
    -4.8 \
    sog olxf +E B4g r+E+. + E
    -5.0
    +E:k[Nor]'o]4. ol 4C9 zl N
    o
    g7ltr+q z N
    No2 4q} 4E. -5.2
    A 1so
    lc:0.543 ^Eql
    Z
    tf<t M-' s-rg +6J -5.4
    H )
    -^. ol rL
    --l-
    ^l
    "'l . -5.6
    I

    -5.8 50
    0 100 200 300 0 100 200 300
    ,ttz(s) ,ttZ(s)
    afg 14.8 No2E E6t| USoll qA4E rfe
    14.4 I
    ^lzoll
    ttl= :iEol Eol 629

    > leE qlfl 1 (c) (il4 (iii;o1gO.


    'A + ^JCEE HI+ql^-], tn[A] 4 ^lAel r4s=
    7lg (d) (iils+ (ii1o1 gO.
    7l7l -3.0x 1e-z r-rg zldol4. ++9 tll+ + qE aol (e)EE 4*"1 *4.
    *.JzI? > H= qlrll2
    (i) ol ql¤+ gzl +E H4g tt}=tri. qlxllq^l++flH No,E +6ll HI¤¤ Norql ql6li^J ol,(l
    (ii) ol Hlsq +E tl-+: 3.0 x l0-2 s-'o14. H}+olq, +E ^J+= k:0.543 M-,s-1o14. E"J Szlgl
    (iiil tAlE a7l -r-oEi 1.0 Mol+. ,tl Noz9 471 +E7l0.0s00 Mol+I B 41, o.soor.lA
    (a) a;! zlzluJ 94. + HI¤¤E Eo EE 9t ttz[?
    (b) (il!+ (iilz} *.*.

    ocil."Jt
    .Ji[ H]+q^1, H]*E Ael tE: f.s 14.e9 se^4 +daH EldB
    "e. [!3 e olE g^l-H-t8at
    aA++. [A]7[ aa6]E H]* +EE ololl ulullaH.<J 'J^6]rll g+. git
    2^1.
    ^lrJollA
    ts-lB(zero-order reaction)e.l A+, Ael 4E +5i= tAle+ ++6ItrI. S^l
    ?J3¤;El6t7l olaig^l=7f?

    HI*q HI* +E B4e +g=r+ A+. Ao

    +E : -ii:k
    -AIAI
    [14.1s]

    ¤zI HI-&el 4E¤ +E B4e +94 A+.


    [A]t : -kt + [A]o [14.16] ol+t Ht9
    =/\t u o
    q7l^l [A],E. rql^JE AE r-oEolI, [A]0= azl tEoltrt. ol
    ^lA ^lg
    zldel %I4^letr, y ¤sg [e]ooll. zl&zli -kolq, :fl r+.rgl *E --------]*
    4 dgE +4+ 9l'1. 7lz7l: -k grt'JB
    zi*.JHI4?1 ¤iI Hl¤+ ;.xtlel sHql^l zlzllzl ts6lls-l= HISol+.
    s.Eol E6Iq= Ezt.+ SA6l 'Jq 9lqH, TliJl tr-qE Eeol Bol 9l ^l2J
    E +, egql^l Hlg" 6t= BzI9 fz| ol{r}:_8, +* +E= .Jd6t+. a.r.H 14.9
    ^ll01l HIE
    q4 0J3= nzl aEE]= g

    HJAI ^tHJBa[g^[HJ39

    qtr HI+g EJil7l(half-life, hn)* HI*Eel EoETt Z7l +E {tE ¤H}(A],,,,:;[A]0)ol


    q= q aE= m}=zl= ¤E6l+ ¤4.J *H?lrJl, 5al
    ^ltol+. Hl?zlts HI-&ol 9"I4
    gzl E]8ql^l q f-c." 6]41
    ^l-s."
    ¤+. m]= H]¤+ +rJ717l *q.
    .JzI HI+g A+ tAl, qldql [A],,,,:+[A]05, r 4tl9l hn* 4 r|.Dql EllE6]H ++r+
    ,JE+.

    .t"ffi
    ltalo
    -- -ktrp
    lnl: -kt112
    hl 0.6e3
    hp k k
    174.17)

    4 rze.*El, .Jii ++ Bzlql^l frrzE HI8E9 =zl +Ee+ rud ag "J + 9l+.
    r+.
    rfl=g HI+ol 116}6l= F.J qlrJzli "JA6I+. ql= Eq qtr +rJ HI*EE +E7l
    0.120 MoJ a+, + 4E +rJ717I zlulE llo.rzo M) :0.060 Mol g+. "J Hq *rJ7l7l
    q zl+E +E= 0.030 M-tr ,Ja++. I t+.vz ol+6lq .Jil EI+ql^J kE "Jr 9l'tE
    630 143 at+ U3 +EE

    hrz= 41.J6J i qla, ElqlE hn= *a- 9l+E kE 41418 + 9I


    +.
    lee.cql^le.l q1g ololr4olEBel .JzI zl.4*A +*ql^J ^l
    h
    k ,Jq 4E bE EEI 4r7l:al ra.1ooll +++ gl+. Hl8ol Tl6J
    o
    tif El= +.J ol zlillsl LoEE "Jqql cElql6|trtr ol r4Eql^J:
    a
    -"1 75 -- tt/z -t- +E ql4l'JqsE +Et'}]fl+. 4. Bal] HlzJzlE 13,600=(3.78^l
    zo Oql^] "Jq*{. ol+ 6J H9 ta,eoo=7} q zl+E Elle ololi
    A
    U +olEgE Sg(+ bE)e HIE H], + !+ EoE9 rl4tr_ +L*
    37.5 ---+-- \/z +.
    "Jit HI*E a+, HI¤¤ bE= +zlzl os
    .J4+ rJ4*
    ^l?J
    ¤HI4 A^i'Iq, 4 ,J4e hr,"ll 4BtJ4.
    0 10,000 20,000 30,000 ^lrJ
    ,tlzJ(s)

    arB 8E
    1ee"Coll,\1 DllE ololaLlolE=Jol 0[^]1tr
    14.'t0 A 10.0 g9 EEE s-g-d Eoiol gi'HJ- -dtt=, dJ.JTvl
    ^11

    #a HJ8oil rllEt U3 +EE4 o + ,-J= EEe.l reJ+e-?


    L|.olE=J_e EEEI=
    llq ^1.4 ^l.E I ^,o
    =.atr2;tlE =q.
    Eil7lollAJE EEEJEI trllE

    -tr ts4.(cFC)E .Jel 4l +qlEg zl ]e.l -u_atrJ


    I
    CH3Br(g) + H2O(l) .------ CH:OH(aq) + Hh(aq) [14.18]
    =tr =+e_-tr
    .J 9.¤+g +116l-= Eetr e .Jel4 9l+. E += c+fl s+:eg rlqd-= Ell cH3Brol $ulu[ ieof, qgg 5J ,]
    I 9-=6 ulr] zl* Eeg trEI,Js] ullQ(methyt bromide, t.Col gl=zlE AC47l +lull^l= al r+.ra9 el*ol gu}
    CH3Br, r.uJ 14.11)ol+. ol alql$g !E r{9tE 6}E:B-olxll 4 mtEzl f-Eln ¤6AoE ql}qzl dql *e ql7l6q^l
    + trI"J* Eoiglrl tsr.l ^Fsq= Ede. 4rlql ql"Jstr CHrBrol sE
    HI+ol $ulL] {qq:4=
    uulez'll
    rl4l4 o tr. lq s,000EJ ^ll4q=
    ot= aol ,l]+ +s6I+.
    ^J4}qfl+(1esz,Jq
    qq 4J.aq Bo}fltrI). C+Aql^l d-e +1tq He ++ zl+E *g 4zlfl9l*l cH:Br9 ¤+ +Eg +Ad+ a
    6[o] c-Br a.Jol gqd4. olull
    ^Jc¤ s. flz]zl-o:9 E 3 oll* qB4. r olf+ 4zl *91 ¤zHaLE a{ol ullg g-
    qlE +rl^laq.
    *6ll^l dqldql^] E^t6f7l "lBzl ulEol4. 4+1, 4Elzt
    EE"Jp+qB3 H[*Er]g ,l]+ Lfl H]¤¤ E*6]= + Eg 4¤"J t}+ql^l * +ooozll ol*9 4zl ^lE= 4A6l
    "J6J
    qlrlq+g E6Iq *g 4zl+9lrl zlag+. a, E_E"JgI q¤g +aJoH .+zl E?# 846}9+. r
    +4(}9E+q, CH:Br9 4zl * u159. ,rlzJ(atmospheric
    l="1 time)S ql+'J + 9194.
    residence
    cH3Brol .JzI HI¤¤ EEI +.llE+.a- 7[Ag q, 421 *
    ar=+oe 6,l/\t 4+fl r15;.
    ^lzJg
    *9 4zlfl"ll,r.-l CH3Br9 HI+7ls+ +¤ol ?l
    +. dEl{}etr+q, *e 4zlfl9lrl tr.EqlE,llB9 Hl,Jzl
    O.8LJoll s0% A4 '*3 Efl713 ts o.s t0.rLJeE ql=qq4. qtr +q{ E
    d¤ cu:n' r.leE = cll
    ^lrJql^l
    ¤t sovo E6]]q= 0.8H, 7s% E6lq
    :dB-Jol^1|e, 5 r.ouJol a4= Col+. o.sLJel elzJzlL Eli4 *g
    r1l

    ueu+ oll=Jg TlAolzlEJ, -s=+q C4t +tlg geTl= ql= +*61 a


    ^lE
    ^lAol+.
    leeTEql +^ll 4Eql^l dtl+Eg z}}slFvl^l Es"Js+
    Eileg +Al4etr $lzlalzlE A44q+. Bl+ bBzl oE
    BzlqtJ A+q= alz}q$.zl"J, 2013Bel d^ll4l iEl"Jg
    leeoHql aHIg Hl6l] 3%o-e e^49tr1.
    ^l-Sil*ql
    +¤ g+ E^l:14.122
    a.r.eJ 14.11 rtl7lfl0ll,\l ueusltrllBg EEli "J 7]E
    ^l+
    14.5 8_Eef HJ¤i +E 631

    qHl 14.e
    .Jil.tsJ¤.E cJ,JTlEt

    c+Hgcr4 Eel HJ- oJ^f HJSoltl-. (a) rts 14.3= 0lEdlq 0l USel [jJ2J7l= +dl,\lg.. (b)(a)oll,r.l +pl HJ#71++El +E 8+
    +61^19.
    =
    Ii..r: ,Jtr F E4l HlzJTl= 680=ql^l g"i*ott}6J+. oltrll +E
    5rr,; |_Ee,| r4:.tr+q
    Hi8el *rJ71= +6Ir, r. +^l ; u11 z$a|{ o.o2s Mol B+. r.4s= zf^ll6l g
    ^l+el =
    q-E_E ol=
    +rJ7l= ^FS5lq +E {r-+= +6}= Ezll.l+. "J + 9l+.
    > E6 qlrll1
    (a) H]rJzlE +6171 916ll^l qE :'E= dq6l:,1, :t +:E7l *d ql4lql^1, zs"Coll,r.l N2osk)7} Nor(g)e+ ozk)s E
    Hlol El= ql 34= rlzJg "J.l-Eq. 6Hq= HI¤+ "Jit H}+olq, k:3.4xro-s s-'ol$.4.
    =
    rl ol+6}q HlaTlE+q +E Tloll 2.0 atmE N2osE galofjr. 9l= +E .Jq
    (b) r+.17¤. ^J+= 4l1I++. ^lE7t
    380 torrE Hcl6h= ql aEl:,tlzJ$ $ulolzl-r
    Srrl
    (a) r4 E-e.*q [c4Hrcl]g 2.7)7"lol 0.100 MoJg 'J + ?l (al s.7 h (b) 8.2 h (c) tt h (d) 16 h (e) 32 h
    +. ol .J^l- t}*g tlzJzli [crurcl]ol o.oso ME +i > saEql,|l2
    += ql ael= ^lrJolq, :4gql.<l 9lg + fl4. ol d (a) l4.ug ol+a}q qzll 14.uq 7l+g ¤+xll9 E
    ^l
    3 * l+oaql 'Jqt+. 6]]ql 46J hDE 4l+I6}^le-.
    (b) k= +61-71 96l] !
    rt.rzg= ol+6lE (b) &6419 EoETI a¤- iig t/4ol q--- Ell AE)= ^lrJ
    . - 0.693 0.693
    g +6t^le.
    k 2.0 x 10 's
    ttp 340s
    '

    olil HI+ q q= Hl*el t}?zlE HI+Eel .r-"Eql el=6lE-E, HI* 4C +ql Hp++
    +. .JzI HIAE 4EB +E Hzl ^l 14.12q1^l tAl, ql^lql [A],,u:]telo=, r 4dgl rrzzE
    4.J4q HlzJzlE +61-= 4 r+.t2==- gflq. 4 r+.r+oll olel aol q]oJ6[= %]Hg zl+6]
    H, olr[ H]$el t]zJzlE +g + 9lt].
    l1 - ,.L

    lt^rr:krirz+[,\]o
    2
    kttp
    lAlo [A]o

    *-1
    tr z:f[A]o l'14.191

    ol a+, *,Jzlb ++EE =71


    bEql g=+r}. 4 z,zl +E7[ *g++ q]rJzlE
    aq{+.

    B g^l HJB9 a1z;tli HJ-el A7l E-Eoll el=61=71?

    J
    14.5 | EEel',Jt qAE
    ^-,E rlE
    gE +7}ql q+ ql++E ]tl-q} HI+ +EE 6zlaJ4. ql= 5E "JzlF q}+e Btl arH 14.12 EE= gB ErllTloll^l g
    GlLl-= Et-E gB US9 +Eoll g-d=
    rlql 9ig ullBtrl ¤eql 9lg Ell q 94 +Eq ee-tr, 4Ee +g qltrq q-E\6J Elr.l+. ar+,JB HJ- rlgEoll^l rl
    gAlql^J trl E4 zt+rl. cyalume' B+r sl4zl4 zJol H¤ ts^J6l+ ElqI g%Ig uulBzl gqLlr,,ill4o e q PJ3'!01
    +A6ll BE Hi* +Eql trl7lE gEe-l S+g.J f 114(=414.12). g8-sftl.
    632 148 6l+ BJ8 +EE

    dll4se +a¤ gE -CI.4= HI+ +E Hzlql qBrll HI¤


    s]Ez}? +g +EqldE nulE Hl*e gE d-+ql q= Hi* tI
    0l rz}lEel qdol q.^l gqtr + ?lqr
    =+'*3,Je_e f9 6zI rllEol4. ql= 5E re 14.6q1^l trgtE .JzI Hl*"J
    8?16l37t? eliae]Tl? += e}l rBrl ?J37t?
    CH3NC cH:cNg +^l 6JH ^J46ll gx|. zal 14.139 ol
    -
    E}*ql^l +E ^J+: gr9l 46J 6J+"Jg trq +E ^J
    gEql =+.
    ql+ 10'c +
    3 x 10-3 +, + Hl* +E= 4+ +461 f;zlalirll,
    zlts ullol4 F u]] 6z]t4.
    CH3NC--------+ CH3CN
    iE
    6 e +o
    trA,J
    2x1o-3
    3 HI* +E= El¤¤e-l +Ee| gE F 7[4ql E+ ¤+g tsb+.
    Ez[ 9E"-E -.'*-, (10.7¤_)ql *E E$(coltision model)3
    =r]+
    g6}-9 ¤H6Jrt. +5 E¤E +s_
    ez} +=ql^l olElq} + 7l^l
    1 x 10-3 .J ZlHg +*ol "J"l*zl +ldlr.l tszl-=ol +56llot'J4= a
    ol+. aB g^J6|= +E gizl "*e++ E]* +E* +z]e+.
    qr+^l HI+89 E"E7I f;z|$ffi +E qizt Ar+
    4ee HI+ +EE 6ztoJ4. Tlill +F EztEeE+q &rz1 =q+jl,
    180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250
    EEfC) +7I6tE EzI +EE +71"61+ ag ga 914. tszl¤ol rJ Bal
    a rg 1 4. t 3 oilEJ 0 [0 l4Li0 |
    E zJo +4.J++, r5g rl ,9lzll(rl "*3 "llHzlE zlzl:L) +E6rr,
    I 0 llll-tr LIo lEgE E+q
    g Htsdlrl .4.E /\t ol -qE ol4^l rJllE^lol r.ll '7l.lol xl-q
    Luov||,\|-+o|-L+-LoJL||-O-.|lz|llEL

    Tiolrf.
    4 zl-i +E6Iq, ol f zlzloll q4q Hl* 4szl +7IoJ+.
    :r$zlu3 RI*ol 'Jq+48 ++,J 65s+ rl "tg +qe
    Gl^ll 14.11011^l
    ^lEE
    z[, + gH]= %]^loEE +=i"1 s+g+. ql++E H]+ql
    .J+E"J HlsoeE gag4. ql= .JEi4.J gEel ^ru
    ^l +EE "Jq 6[q ilE urp+ r,
    =H
    eElEql^J, 4 Ezk a'o} E 10'0H 7I* +E=dJrt. Hzq rz -EE +Eq E6Iq Hr
    ^Iole-l
    ,I ^JC9+E, El¤+ I=E qzl ?+ol ¤g 4o14. olar+= Bil, tlgql^] ol EI*g,l]
    + L44l 118++. 10'3Hg +E zlsgl ql+.J HE u¤trJol ElsoeE tsa¤+. +E
    qlEql El¤+ q E4 'J94zl ?*Yzl?

    Hll6J oJaf

    q++e-] HI*ql^J, ts^IrJe-l +E=e ezl¤ol H-6Jee E}]6Jqq fl= a+qEI E++
    =A
    HI+g "JeA+. += ^lql Bxl¤q tr-qlzl ulalol flzl_Eol ^ll-e.+ a*g "JEzlgl 4B
    + +llq flizl= AC.J+. qlE 5q +Eql E6li cl gxl-=ol .Ja4^l cl,z} q=. raJ
    utaq +l+ rH4 Ae EI¤¤ ^J46il Ezl.
    Cl+NOCI+NO+Clz
    HlEql :aBq oI4+ +Eq^l= F zli9 cl gzlT} zld +5614 *ql^J HI¤¤ol ^Jdq
    ?+=+.
    ^l
    gr^JEl qlLlzl

    EzI Ezl¤ol +E=g trl HI¤¤ .JezlL +g6-J g6J oJztTI otq+. 1s88LJql 1?ll
    El]6Je

    'J9 Elelz} Svante ArrheniusE tszl-=ol Hlso6}EJH qtr 4A6Jg ollulzl5 zlzll llol
    ol q}+r z].J6l.fl+. +E EBql 9618, ol qqzl= +E Ezlg +F qlqzlepq zl
    qI6J+. +Eq 96ll^1, Ezl-=g ++ qlqzl= plql A6Jg 4l+ +E6}{
    "JErlLt, ++
    4rl+, E= a.Jg ¤+6141 6[q r a4 p]q] t]*ol gqt+. eE 9lHzlz] +ztg
    El¤l¤ "llHzlE HqI^l7l= ql tsxl-=ol ,l]+ 4Lg 3E
    =
    .llHzlE zltlt_,l]+ A
    ^l-SgEl.
    14.5 3-=e;u.13 +5 633

    Ert4?! uJSol
    "Jol'J,
    at- a/\l =E,

    40
    5e=
    3
    =EE

    Hla+4oJ BJ8 E7l-=.


    ==.g3
    clrTt:d.sEl^l

    .,il&
    _=E Xl
    e,
    o=

    A.r.H 14.14 Cl flxlel NoCl E^[ trt+ HJ- gee + flZLl goe + fl= E^1.=E
    ^tololl

    a6l ¤.zlolB(ul+ zI9 ¤-F 9lHzl= r*r gleH), r5g trzl 9E E+E "Jozlzl *
    etrd ^lE +E=g gol4. :+eL HI*ol ^lliq= r1l geal 44+E qLl zl= ggrf qLjxl
    (activationenersy, D4r 5|=ql, gCEl ,r|+ +s+.
    "llulxl #3 Hi¤'q
    EI+ol "Jq+= Fq]el t|+g:aJ 14.1sp] eE|. +g d+= flq Hq a BFoJSE gs
    +¤ ol5.^l717l g16l] +g a+. tqg ="4 ? ^[o]E *H(barrier)olr]. aql Eg6]elH,
    gg d+= tqE +4zlzlzl ;rol olEg + 9E+ ylrl(putter)E ol+6|q +EJ -gF
    9lHxlE 716110} +trt. EIE +g.J qlLJzl= 716lzl g:gl+8, ro9 t=Jg 942|4zI9E
    of Lilqg 1o14. ole+ Ag B4ge, EzI= slE HIBoI .Jq+= E.J zl¤9 A*g #
    q qtr 3ld6Jq qlLJzlE gstr aJ4. ol ala qlulzlg.llHzl ,*HGnergy barrier)9
    =
    E ^J4B + gl+. qlE EE q1g ololiutolEgql^J o|.rjlE{olEgeq zl.E #a H}+
    q^J, olold+olEH9 N=c Y Eol ges a¤q+ +rJ ^J4= zd 4ol4l tl.
    "llg
    ^&.J + 9+.

    H3C-N:C:
    r\ --------) + H,C-C:N:
    \_-r' [",. I,]
    n/
    gra d+7l,g0fLI
    ^iot
    6lb^l= ae q3 ¤i +qE7[?
    ^llzl=¤ =g6f=
    Eel ?l^let=el ?tr iiol, 8rl"flq 447lel a+ i[01

    i
    L-

    arH 14.15 A7l dfEt|e[415 8Et| ,\l0l0ll ?l= 8EE Pl6H^l= 011L1^l7l"Jea;r1.
    =+5t71
    634 14"t A_* EJB +EE

    ral il.rcql^l H3Czls] N=C7l N=C7l


    ^IolE A6Jg =q^J
    qd^lTlBJE glHzlzl geqlg 4441 grt. N=czlzt +
    ol El8oll^j Cfll ollLjrl ilololl Hl6ll^J ollLJxl 8EE '!-J7l =
    s6l flEfl * c-c dElol ^Jc9zl r.l4ralr., ezlg "llHxl
    +16ll gs-d oll Lj x l= ol trl -d7 t?
    - polzlzl ^l4oJt}. tr14^l o[,t1lsu1o1eg eCql q]* f]q
    E^f7[ BoE^1
    35Et= Ed 3 Ezlz| Hlr4 B.Jd+ ?rJ ^J4= z]^lE+ alE rll gso.J
    c_N,l_-Jol C 9lHzlol4. olAg f.H 14.rsql^l +ol flqg HqTIE+ 6l=
    ,ll^l7l Hsc "lll
    ^l^J N 9lrlzl4 +^[6]+. +z]E azl olluJzlel- +¤- aEq^l 7]* +
    a-^ 26l a,q ¤ 9lHzl9 ilolTl g^dEI qLlzl(8,)ol+. tqg adql^J zli-l
    trl
    EJ]
    HeC
    Ea
    #rJE flzl¤ 7id +a]-= il¤EtE(activatedcomplex) E= Eol
    =
    otl
    HaC
    -c.\ .N 6Ell (transition state 4.7 6J4.
    )

    Ll
    H.C-N=C7I H3C-C=No-tr H++q= Hls"3 gg HI*
    ^l olrt. trI+^l H}$Etrtrl q *g "llrJzl$ z*=
    H3C-N=C ^JdE$:H
    AE 14.r6ql^l Eq +El. rq+ H}+ql^l 9lHzl HsI(lE)E HI*

    :1\
    +Eql o}+fl g"JE ?zl ?*i4.
    ,Jael 8.J +E ^}+= n,! zzlo\ q=++. 9tI4 o e r,z[ {$ffi
    arB 14.16 Dll=J 0|.014+0lEaJ(H3CNC)o1 0l.5Ei]loJ 01. +E ^&+4 ==a HI*ol n[}s+.
    .{Le{o;eg1s3ccN)E EgEl= u30il rfl-d oilLl^l tJEE
    ol HI*E qHI+e
    =9 **ol4E ag +el6l4. EHI*E
    gcpl qLl 4= aHi*g aEe+ 4q *(ar +4q a+. rqE
    e EqI+q^J g^dq¤ql EBdtEjE dH}+ql^1tr4 rl "*¤ 9lHzlz} 9ea1q. ol EI
    *E A+ g+ql^J s=+oEE +*Bq s=+ql^l g+eeE Hl*"] rl tH.l =H4.

    ZSl ral 14.16s1 tru=a'qu=otl rHEJ +E **=e 4*alfltr'r 7f=6l^t clL g-dg +E
    q=7n
    | t+rt.
    qtr EdqI o11g ololr*olEg tszl+ El= Ez[e+e] +$$
    E"]] +ts6J .ll'JzlE 9*
    ssrll .tlr,lzl ^JH$ ++{tr].. $A.J +rJql zlxll $xlel 9luJzlE l-Jg HgE EE+trI
    Tlrll +E EriEg tzlo}4.---, (10.7¤). ral 14.tz9 += + gEql^Jg g+ ql
    =
    uJzl $Eg +4'Iq, HI*ql gs,* qlqzl(E,)e+
    ^Jtr
    4iulaatH4. +g s-Eql^l ol#
    E,E+ ¤+ glHzl= r*= +z|9 +gol rl glolzla, ol.e olall Hl* +E7t q E4
    = =
    4l+.

    rg0ll^'l gt^4 +d9 rJ+e.q 8=u 1 11 tsoE qEAl LlEl-Jill?


    =c3
    I]87 geEl
    I

    t- EJSoll
    a4 qlLl^(E")

    E r3T
    ^l
    ol
    E
    E
    ts3 EEoll^1 U361.=
    Erlg EEol trlrq.

    E5 qtq^t
    a.l.g 14.17 + E^l=e.l EE oilL1^l .EEoll Elil= Es.q ggr
    ^lE
    14.5 e-Eef UB +E 635

    A .t,6t^tA *rajEBel B - c9 F Tlxl y-t8ol gt+r 6t^f B= Eal-J + 911, o; EEol pj86l
    A c HJ8oll^l B7t dol SEtlgzt?
    I -
    zlill tlqlE EzI dEl9l,<] 4tr+ a4q ee ¤+ qlqzlE ,*= EZIEE +gg +El
    .liE q-s-r} a+.
    f : e_E,tRr Il4.ZOl
    ol Rg Tlal ttf(s.l+ l/mol-K)oll, r= eEI gEol+. f *E a-7lql 4il olol
    ^lql^J
    qqE EsdlE, E,7l qal Hl*q dB4 {}oJ too kllmolg zlt-, rY dg *oJ:oo
    Kqr. zlC6}z[./E 414] i]3 r.s x 1s-r8oltr, olE ,ll* z]g =rl
    +iloltrt. 320 Kql^J Eg
    f:4.2 xr0-r7ol4. trt+^l 20.9 gE .al^ 100 kllmol9 qlLlzl= zlz)t-
    =:7}trJegE
    9l= B^I Egol 10Hl] oltr- +7I6.J+.

    Arrhenius 4.1

    Arrheniust: Hl+ql^l gE +7}ql q= El* +Eg *zlY Eld¤ +414a ¤B


    'I++E
    alg4(rB ra.r:). r= q+Ee.l HI8 +E +g ^ll TIxl ql4ql +4* 49 trlE
    ^li7l
    r+: ag ga6}g+. (a) E, Ei q qqrl= r*= tszl Eg, (b) ,l] aB 6E=i, (c) zl
    =
    ¤el u1alg *= +E +9. olE ^ll zizl oJzl-E rl-gg Arrhenius rl(Arrheniusequation)
    ql E6Jqq 9lq.
    k: Ae-E"tRr
    l4.Ztl
    q7l^l k= +E r}+olq, 4= gCEl "llHzl, Rg zlill rJf(e.:ra I/mol-K), 7: ¤ql g
    Eol+. gs Qlr[(frequencyfactor, A)= gE7] E6l]E ,lE .JC6]r+. A: +E HIE+ "t
    +Eql E6ll HI+ql+4.J ullalol g qEr+*H"l gl4.- r,9 zzlzl f;z|$ffi, rql s_
    +q= 9lHzlE 7|rl EzlE Egol 4rolzlse k {}ol Ai+{. qe}^l 14 pl "J46J
    At"J trll. n"zl z"zlgj! +E t+= AA++.
    qH 14.10
    gdrt oilLlilel tlg 4E
    rl.=7|' ee qlLlrl EEEE,*= "JaJq u- 8?+l| E^L

    e@ @

    Ej
    EJ]
    25 kllmol
    =
    oll
    15 kllmol
    20 -',
    Ll
    I :T
    ^l
    10
    T
    kllmol T 5 kllmol
    15 kllmol
    t
    __t
    EJ39 Tlg EJSelUg HJS9II-"J

    9lol 7l^l BJBE UE oJ^l A7l71elALla 7l'8ts q, 8U39 +E At+71'lte ,toll^l E to+ EEdt,\l9..
    ^ll

    .+E HIE++ gEql q4 +7168--E A: gE qC¤e TtzlzlEJ, xl+ *ele} Hlr.6l9g CIE 4C <tolE|. trl?+^l A:
    aE dl+s ^84oil"i.J+.
    636 143 tr'-.,f HJB 4-E=

    rtlS (iiil aE l}g q ¤-9 *-s-tr EJ=71

    gcgl oilHulzt *g++ +E (a) (i), (iil, (iii) 5 o1u1"3l HI+ +EE zoTl^l7Jr+.
    ^}+= 4xlr. HIgg B4d
    4. ar: +E t}+q ¤6Jg Elilzl ?j:=+. tri+^l +E tl ttl (il4 (iil
    +el+^'l=2<3<lol+. (c) (i)+ (iiil
    (d) (iile+ (iiil
    > .H.+ qll{l1
    trl-s + qtr HEIzI *.t HI*el +E tr-+E +71^l71b7l? (e) 4l zlzl E+ Hl+ +EE +71^l7Jr+.
    (il 9s ar > .E6 qlrll2
    (iil $CEI qluJzl zJc qHI+g Hl+ +E7l Lfl a+q unl$ +e-E Cg6}^le-.

    +F^JEI ollLlz;
    z3x

    49 ^t+6}ol HI+E g^dsl qlLlzlE al4}g +


    Arrhenius 91trt. 4 ts.zt9-JHql zl¤E
    rE f6tp E+*r+ ee !g eg + 9lt+.
    lnk : lnAe E,lRr
    tnk:ln, E'lRr11r1

    rnk=-L+lnA
    RT
    [14.22)

    111 mx+b
    ol 4g 4d B=I= r*=+. ln k 4 1/r9 zld r4Eoll^J 7lg7lY -E,/Rola_, y ¤s3
    ln Aol4. gflE eEql^l k= +c6}r., h ke} l/?ql ql* r4E= r4n, :a4 sE 7lg
    7le+El E,= 4]4I6IE gC+ "ilulzlE ACg + 9l+.
    F zH ol{t9 gEql^J H}¤:9 +E t}+= oJn 9leE, :r-4EE rqzl ?+r ^_l t4.22=
    ol+6[q E,E +g + glr]. qlE 5H rrr] rzgl^l qtr *+E +E t]+E
    ^lE += ¤E
    krr+ k24r. 7IC6I^1. 4 gE aaql^J trl-99 zlol cB,*4.
    E. +
    : ---- 1n.4, lnk, : -frr* ne
    E.
    lnk,

    ln kroll,! ln kzE rdllfl trl-e-Erl A+.


    rn k1 - tnk,: e #f, . ,"o)-(?D* ,,,o)
    gEq 4E els oJzlA9 Ee+ atg +^l'ti+H, trls-r+ zJol c4E + gl+.
    ,-k,
    ,"
    o,
    : E,(1 1\
    (Z -- e/ tt4.23l
    ^
    q¤ g-E rzil^J9 gCsr qlHzlq +E tr-+ krE oJE, 4 u.zto e+q qts 9E rrgl

    ^Je-l
    +E t}f k,9 ag a4l +g + 91tr1.
    qEl 14.11
    g¤rzt ollLlzl ,JUalTl

    eEE+ x.= qal 8Eoll^lel 0l0l4:Ll0lE=9 xl.al 8z HJSel +E At+olrl


    DllE es.fc) ft(r-')
    (01 rg 14.13elf.al{sq; +Elu,Jolrf). 189.7 2.52x10 "
    ^l"E=
    (a) 0lxltr-tr+E1 US9gdal ollLlxl= lllbl^le. 198.9 5.25 x lo s
    (b) 430.0 K0ll^lsl+E d|+,Jg gD|.?]71'? 230.3 6.30 x ro-a
    3.16 x ro
    3
    251.2
    14.6 HJ8 ollTlLl= 637

    6IIU -e:E B9lzI Szl ullE9l, ol


    Ezl-= ++l7I S4. tss
    ^19
    E4 q zlxl gEql^1g +E tl+(k)z} +q4 9lsq, +A l/7olIrE r B+l= r-1o14. :131o+ 7lg7lq *fl=
    =
    xolci. zl$zlE -r,/ncl 7Jr+. 7llll ,:r.i n Atg ++l= f/
    8rq1,t1 gCEl qlqzl(E )e| +E t+(k)= +6llot e4.
    oJ+(s. 10.2). -Lq E + +S <tg +6J + 9l+.
    z{tel ln kql urE r4sE zlgzlEPrl 4= +g+ 9l+. mol-KE
    ^l=s"

    4= "JE 4 r+.2t9= ol+4q 430.0 KoJ qlE +E tL+E 7lg7l: -


    E^
    R
    4l4I6J + 9l+
    Eo= -?l&71)(R) :
    -(-r.e , ron x)(s.srr#*X;U*)
    E0l
    : 1.6 x 102kJ/mol : 160kJ/mol
    (a) Ezl drAl ¤.E= ¤4 ¤s *+. rElJ' 4
    K-tr H+6llo}
    9=9 9f(t nq 4 +E tL+E z|flEr(ln k)= +el B{s+ 9lHzl= +n +4 + z}qtr 4lt}+ aql +E6}+.
    4. ola " e+4 o}4c+ ae s= Eg + 914. :B ra.rs9 r4s= 9l= eqEql.J4lzI ll4.
    (b) 9g rr:430.0KqI^] +E d-+(kJ= ac* ql 4 u.zz,
    T(K) l/r (K-r) ln [-
    Eo:160 kJ/mol, kz:2.52 x 10-5 s-r, Tz :462.9 KE
    462.9 2.160 x 10-3 -10.589
    472.1 2.u8xlo 3
    -9.855 ^l=&B
    + ?l+,
    3 k1
    503.5 1.986x 10 -7.370 ln (
    2.52 x 10-ss-l )
    524.4 1.907 x 10 3 -5.757
    / l6okJlmot \/ 1 1
    ru ) :
    \/1000J\
    ln k 4 l/r9 r4s= {d$olqeg 14.18) (s3lar*.r-K )\+ozgx- *soo*/\ -3'18

    trI4^'1
    -5
    kr
    -6 i : e-3.18 : 4.15 x 10-2
    2.52 x lo-ss-1
    tlztl : -E
    I

    -7 -n
    I
    I
    k1 : (4.15 x to-2112.s2 x lo-s s-1) : 1.0 x 10-6 s-1
    s-8 .1

    kr9 t+lE kz9 tglel Fg6[q, 430.0 Kql^-lE +E t]+


    -9 Y +ez.g Kql^lH+ 4gql +el6t+.
    -i0 > H* qlrt| 1

    -11 qlxll 14.lIE zlEtrPel 320"Cql^l trllB olol^'+olEg


    0.0019 0.0020 0.0021 0.0022
    1/71r-t; 9 zl4 #A HI* +E C+E +6lE trfg- + qe 4"J71?
    ls (q
    A.fg 14.18 J.zfls+ ?61.= gdsl qqrl E, (a) 8. t x 10 s-r 2.2 x 10-13 s-t (c) z.z x 16-e r-t
    (d) 2.3 x 10-r s-r (e) 9.2 x 103 s-r
    ol 4dq 7\&7lY
    ^1tr
    4= + dg q6}q 44E als-E
    > qEit2
    +q +g + 9lEl.
    .Ed.=

    fr-c zlE"J 4, qlrll t4.llq


    izlzt 6J +Elt zlEq ql
    7t&71:#:ffi:-1.exloa 6J HIE gzlA9 <I3 *9.JzI?

    trl!4Ll+
    14.6 | 'Jt
    +¤ slq H}+^lql= HI* azl9l Ee4 HI+ ¤:ql EdEol E^lqq
    :4* =46l+
    r8dEe =7l]6t= zl-^ll6J
    fl4. ¤zl9lE t}*Eol Es+6t=zlql 4* EzI +=q +415e
    +4+ flzl g*4. Hl+ol .Jq+= +41$$ E!= fll{Ll=(reaction mechanism)olelI 6J
    trI. EI¤-,ilrlq=g a6Jol #,qzli1 {dq: +^Je+, H}+q III.E gztg t}rl gil Hp+
    E zl* Ar.* +=ql^l zI^Jl6l-Zl ¤E++.
    .fJ .J4l
    'Jt
    sq^l ar+E HI*ol .Jq\]+= ag tsIfl+. ql= 5E q1g olola*
    ^IolE +E
    E^l-=
    olEg(CH3NC) Ezt A +E=g 9lHzlE =o;-6t{ CH3NCT} o},tJlEu}olsge x}4 #zJ
    g+ glal
    "J=rI.
    638 148 at+,J3 +EE

    /.-\
    H3C-5Cr-------> H3C-C:N:
    [",. I,] ->
    u|{z}xlE Nozq ozE rJc6}E H}¤¤ +Bd qlqzl= r*E No
    Noe+ o37} E}9"6l.q
    Exte+ 03 $zlz[ 4B+ tsI6]ql^l +E=6.J Ar+tr "Jq+= Aee -u.J4.
    No(s) + or(s) -+ Noz(s) + oz(s) lr4.24l
    + HI¤. E+ 6J +4lq^l .Jq+q, Eg EXIElE(elementaryreaction)ol4:z ++.
    +'J +41 EISq^l HI*ge +q6l= szt9 fE: HI+el ErlE(molecutarity)4r. eI
    +. "JE + +ztYI HI*ql +q+H ol q]¤¤ gElrJ(unimolecular) HI+ol+. EllEr ololi
    +olEgq zr;l +rJg .Jtszi r+aol+. F zll tl¤-E +zI ,J +53 E6J6l= +"J +41
    HISS olExl(bimolecular) t}*ol4l o'J+. NoeI or9 EI¤* olgzl HI6-olEl. +'J +
    4l HI+{^J ^ll Ez[7] E^lql +56]= a+= gElr](termolecular) t]*ol4l .J+. i]ts
    zI HI¤+ $Ez[ 4Col4 o]tsz] $Aql Hl6I El¤ol +61 *n. 49 "J94zl ?*=r].
    7l] oltlel Eztzl +z]4ss E^lql +EaJ 7lq= g{ 4}r, ol+l6J +E=g H}+ ,il4q+
    '-Jl

    g "J+e ^J46Izl *=+. l4 oE rlg E= +g 4Cg gEzI Hls" r+ oltszl. Hlgo eE


    ol+q4 il+.

    r13.Jg EZI Ulg ErlE= 018_l1l Elts7l.?

    R No(g) + Clz(s)
    -
    NOCI(9) + Cl(g)

    trl.JAl trll4Ll#

    +B Elq HI*rl"-e s^lq= .JaI Hrlts ++41 4lzlrl#(-"ltistep mechanism)


    =+ E4l HlgoeE +Cqq 9l+. qlE Eq
    o-e oJq+= 4*zl lla, olae fl+q= +"J
    22s"cql^l oirllg HIs"-g ^J46ll ExL.
    No(s) + Coz(j:)
    Noz(s) + Co(S) lr4.zsl
    -
    ol EI+e F zl]g +.J E4l HI+(E: F zl]g +g +41 n+4
    (elementary step))oE {qq= agg Eol= olB^} t}8o14. Hzl,
    0l rtsoll,ti E ,r,e_ r,L
    rfi. ¤:rJill7l 'd'dEE /lL -_r_, x_!
    HJB,, No2 $z[ I 4lzl +E6]q 4]a flz] il zllz] 4E Ez]e *A?Jrt
    L!,6'L_:
    iilTl-ri/.| HJ8"Be 7lE 7j e qE Es Ezt gz} + zllE co2 .$z|
    ^Jcg No:E co B^I9I +¤6Iq t}4
    ololl
    q u[ted=7[?
    q a61l
    =+.
    EoldEti Noz(c) + No2(s) .----- Nos(g) + No(g)
    EOI AEII NO:(s) + CO(8) .+ NOz(g) + COz(g)

    E1
    trI4^l EI*ol + t4l ollzq=-g.tr gqtqa g + 9l+.
    {7lq+.il^l +"J +{ HI-&ql qt 4E+ HI*^le E+ q6r
    EJI

    a erJill ++41
    oil
    H
    rl
    AHA{9 H, d8l HI*rl4E rl4e}*al"l 9E}.
    ¤rllE ql^lql^J, + 7||E +.J t4l HI¤¤ E+ q6IH trIg4 e+.
    2NO2(s) + NO3(s) + CO(s) .+ NOz(g) + NOa(s) + NO(s) + CO2(s)
    ol E+gE .J+ql 9l= +F Eeg d7j6lH, ,J+61 rs.zs*
    ut-g.ot xt6H
    ^lel
    zJe "Jat t}*zlol eqd+.
    ^l
    a rH 14.'19 Eol d|Ellel. 6zill= Eq +ts uSel No,E ol HI+E HI¤¤g olqr ^dcEs olq+. olag a H4l
    olll-l^IEEE
    E"J +41 HI*ql^J ^J^Jqr +.9 +4q^J +Es.lirJl, olag
    =rJi{l
    r+.0 i EJB DllTlLla 639

    (intermediate)4I.J+. ++rll qlaq=g 4+ ol^J.el ++illE s.J*+. 14.1eollrl


    =H
    f
    E ll*ol, ++ille+ dol tr4E EIE 7ll';olr}. +rJrll= "JAts ilz) qlEql q.JE|i
    +E 91i1, A+ql "14 EqoJ +E 9l+. HlEql dol tl4i.J^J tse4sE E.J46lq,
    eqle tsel6J + fl'I. rq+ dtrg 'ai1+' 71¤g ol+61-8, a+ql q4 4,<lzl zl
    t'6I7lE 6I+.
    =c

    qH 14.12
    Ezts,314 +rJillel ttE
    eEol ozE EeJEI= 7ld= F Ell DllzLl=E zlili zlo+ E|$qflq'.
    oe(g) ---_02(sr)
    +o(s)
    Os(e)+0(e)
    -2oz@)
    (a)01 oll1t-l=oll^1 4 Eg EZI HJqe-lE^lE= ¤B6l'^le.
    (b)Ei1l HJ39 El.+ Hl8^lE l
    (c) EzJrllz h 9leE ¤E6l^le.
    ^le.

    6tlU > .E= o4lrlll

    E4 + +49 qlrlq+ol +qflr,


    olql 46U (") 4 rlCE tr|gq F *41 HI* 4Aq+9
    ^J44 Bxi.
    tsxlE. (b) dxll HlaE s++ Hla^]. (c) +rJzllE ¤H6l+ A(s)+B(s) .+x(s) +Y(s)
    Ezllol+. x(s) +c(8)+Y(g)+z(s)

    4ts,)4 Hla +4lel tsztE= H}+4q^l Hl+61+ Eztfq .l 44q+q ql* 4-gE E* + *s as?
    "ll4q=ql^l + +41 t.i
    E6ll Aqd+. d^ll HI+^le +"J +41 HI+E HIA^]=9 (il ol$z| HI+ol+.
    tlol4. +Ai{= 6}+el H}8 *Zlq^l ^}Cqn, q= +4 (iil d^l EI+!g A(s) + B(s) + c(8) v(s) + z(s)olQ.
    q^J -
    (iiil E¤ x(c)= ol ,ilrl'l=el+rJ^llol4.
    ^FSq=Eaolo+, dal H}¤.4qiEolslzl ?*=+. (a) + E^"I"J *4.
    =01
    (a) d Bzll Bg +4 HI¤+Ezl9 tl¤¤u.l ${a}E-tr
    (b) ++ 04 (iilzt *4.
    "J
    (c) E J (ilr} {iil)o| gO.
    'J+zI HI*ol+. + H4l El¤+ + ,l]E HI9--E E4= (d) E* (iilq (iiilol *+.
    sololE-tr ol+z} HI*ol4.
    (b) + ,l]el *'J +41 el¤¤ ulalfl q-s-4 a+.
    (e) rJl EzJ EF *+.
    + > H= filr{l2
    2oz@) + o(g) 3Or(g) + o(g)
    trl"g HI+ql ql6}]^l
    o(c)= "JEq Ag oJ-e--e +4+-EE zlz6}q ++61 6IE, Mo(CO)6 + P(CH3)3 .- Mo(CO)5P(CH3)3 + CO
    Els- r+ Ag .Jxi t}$!$ E=+. q-Sq ql4q#ol x{"Jqfl+.
    zoz@) 3ozk) Mo(CO)5.+Mo(CO)s+CO
    - azlsl
    ol{$ Mo(CO)5 + P(CH3)3 .+
    (c) +rJllE o(dol+. H}¤¤E o}qj1 4+ Mo(CO)5P(CH3)3

    4CEE olq+. "lae ,il4q=tlE a H4 +alql^l (a) 4l'J¤ ql4q+g d4 HI+E HI¤4ln+ggaJo1gz[?
    (b) ,il4q=e_l 4 EAlql^J tszlE= 9Bzll 9Ezt?
    ^JCqj1+ H4I Bzlql^l aElB+.
    (c) 6zJ^ll$ +H6I^le-.

    .fJ il41 'J8sl +E,J4l


    zllr+.:¤9lrl +E B4e dcql E"H^J"J dcqqot 6J+= zJealq4. +E B
    ^idg
    4e +¤ *= e+q HI+49 A]+e+El qltlg + fltL olxll :1 ol+= olbllB + 9l= ^l
    dq e+ 9l+. EE EI¤+ at* oltr9 +g +41 HlsoeE ol+q4 flr, 4 +zl9 +E
    B4+ +E= Hl¤.E di] +E H4s 4}++tr1. olz] E .Jzll q4zle}, Hl*E +E
    ^Jql
    640 143 alqr BJ8 +EE

    f
    Bzle EI+ ql4q=sE+El aaE+ qlr, ol= dEzl.s-e sB¤ +E Ezlr} Hlr,g
    + 9l+. r-4 oe. olzll+H e .Je de4 +E H4q +.J6r= EI* 44q+g "JolLil=
    4,o14. +"J +41 Hl+g +E H4g ^J461= A+q trzl.
    ^14|6ll
    +'J +41 HI+g q+r+ Ae dql^l 4+ +s6|+. t}*"l +'J +41 H}8"18, ol HI*
    9 4E. B4e +4Ee+ zld4.J *4lz\ 9+. qlE E9 .Jtsz} HI¤¤ ^846l] trzl.
    d+CdE
    e tszl9 +71+7titJ++ "J4+ 7J4 t'"J HI+61= +E tslql6l.q *zld4. trf4^J
    ^l7J
    "Jts^I4d9 +E= "Jilol4.
    4r = t[n]
    ole4 +.J t4l HI*e.l A+, +E H4eq-Sr+ aol olitol+.
    A*B ----- ^gCE +E:ktAl[B]
    olrl HIg +E E4g +5 olEq^l ule. gg + glr}. Ag *ETI + HllTI gE a Ezlq
    s Bzl ?J+E+71+ HllTl¤4. "t&zl"zltr, [B]7]+ Hl]oIE A, B +E+71-F Hl]
    ^tolE
    ol+. trl+^l +E B4e iAle+ tBlql qldl 44 oJilolr dill4_e--E olilol+.
    E= 7l-!'o6J E.J +41 HI*g 4s Bzlol E 14.3q +q4 9l+. +E Hzl.l tI*9 E
    zlEe+ zldzl.J ¤*ol 9l¤¤ +4 rlAl +qtr4. r4+ *zl dxil +¤ elq HI*4"JS
    ts 7 El+ol P zl]9 +.J +41 E]¤_g E$a}izl5 .J + s+= ^|dg "ixl e+.}.t t4.
    L 14.3 .Jg .J4ttrt4 otEet+E'Jrl
    Eg ElI U3 -aE r+l*l
    =I[E
    .J+ZT e-ddE +E: klAl
    OIEZ} e+e-----StE +s.:r[a]'z
    ol+zl e+s.-----^JCE +s.:r[e][s]
    tBzl e+e+e.----^8tE +E:r[e]3
    $+zr A+A+B.----^JCE 4s.:t[e]'?[s]
    tBzt A+B+c-----^JdE +E:ktAltBltcl

    qFll 14.13
    fl"J Lf4 tltcl+E Efl qE¤,Fl
    rtE HJ30l 6,lLlol Eg Ezl uSeE BolLJrE:g trt|, +E E4lE ql86t^19.
    HzG)+Brz(s)-2HBr(g)

    6tlff 4s.:k[HJ[srJ
    s*{
    ^lol
    ?9zll, **ol t9 +41 r+co]?+r. 7ta6l.n +sl ol HI+ql ql6J dpg +46iq, HISol ^rue ,l]+ tri
    +E B4g fali sxllolr|. +E H49 zld4E ag "J4 qS4.
    =
    rlq HI¤-ol 6I+E tr"J +AI Hl¤.eE .Jq*+:7rdol gl 4=:t[nr][nrr]'/2
    o E.E,
    ^lq
    fl= Hi+3=E 4l+E ol+6tq +E Hzlg dE4 +E Bzlol, 6}+el +.J +Al H}+ol+a z|{a}z
    + + el+. ee +E Hzl4 4ezl qEq, HI+ Eilrlq=ol 6I+E +
    Eol HISol Hz t tszle} Br2 fl $zlg stl6l-= ol+zl Hl g +als qq flzl 9+q= aEg Eg + 91tri. tri+^J qI+
    *o14. trI4^l +E Bzle 4 HI¤¤ql qlql oJilolr., d^ll 3 HIE^I F 7l] ol^Jg +.J +Al= Eil4ot"J ++.
    4 0 e olilol+.
    14.6 UB ullTlLA 641

    >E*qll{l1 (d)B-----X+Y
    2 A+B +x+2 y HI¤¤
    ^J46]]
    B7t. "l HI+E ql4q (e)A+B+x+Z
    a B4l +41= ++g +E H4, +E:ktAl[B]= F .H6 Slrltz
    =ql^l
    u+=4. HI* ql4q+E A H4l Ezle.l ++4g qL a 2 No(g) + Brzk) -+ 2 NoBr(g) +¤¤ Bzi.
    ^J46ll
    .Jzt? (E.¤ z= +rJrllol+.)
    (a) HI*ol 6I+9 +"J +41 Hlg"ss gq*+l.
    7146t
    (a) A +e +Z n, +E E21-o- *,tle. (b) +.J +Al ,I4q="1 ol HI*
    -Y
    (b) A ----- X+Z el fl|q=se 4BdzI?
    (c) A+A+B +x+Y+Y

    trHAl 4PJLI=.sl +E rJt tr4l


    9zll r+.13e1 Hl+4 H EE 3rlE +83 F zll olt9 +.J +Zl qi*g Ets6I: oll
    zJol, 4

    4rl+sE .Jq*+. ,llrlq+E + +Aly n+el g^dsl 9lHxlE zlzlr !l


    ^E t}+e+
    q. qlrl qL * +Al7l4E +ZIEH+ gd Lr-lr, EI+g Azll +E= ,ll4q=ql E6J
    g ziai Lfl +.J +41 HI+E +E-H.+ uBl-= + s,+. Lfl +Al7l dzll EI* +EE z]laJa|
    E-tr-, ol
    +4lE +E ?!¤ E {l(rate determining step)rp oJrJ.
    +E 44 +4lel 4lpg ol;llalzl +l6]]^J + zl]E ,q+ {li$4zl ll= +E EEE ^J46ll
    .H.zI(rB 14.20). zl-=ol zld rglrJ +E E-eql {E6}q s;. zl+}a A= E"4++. olq
    4 +rJ 7]|4 2= zl+,q+ zl&i BE.Eo46E zld 3ql Eg*+. +-e EEE 5r+6I=
    olBloJ qa3 + 419 E"J +4lE .Jgtl4r C4g + 9l+.

    r+7jl: zld y zlfi 2 (A s+ 4l&a rE"4)


    2+Al: 2
    - zlfi 3 (B.qa zl4}4 ra"4)

    {xll: zlf;
    ^14
    1
    - zlfr 3 (A, B ,q_+ zl4}i E"
    4)
    -
    efr 4l&a Aq^l 6I+ E= r "lt}g 4l4l4zl rJryo1+^l ,llt4 floll zlz| $ol
    olzlf

    "JEl gl+r1 7}a"ll H4(re ru.20(a)). il¤ol zld 3ql Eg6l-= +E= 4lti Aql^JE
    lF gAlg Hq+= +Eql el"ll 4l.Jg+. q+^J r+Al7l +tr EtrE E"46IE .lAE
    +E ac +zlol+. rq+ EIE .q+ 4+}^ A9 E= 4l+I4zI dtr-4ee 4IE6l:7, ql

    (a)93?.
    ^l¤01
    s* nl{lA B¤ Ezl6l= +-E¤ e7i^l7lB, ^l¤01 rl¤ 10ll^l 3c>e 7l.b
    *Ezl6z1g t;!o-17l?
    A zltl^ B

    (a) Zltl Aoll,i'l Aszf ralcf

    ZITJA A 4lt4 B

    (b) xlti^ B0ll^1 +E7l L4tr1.

    arH 14.20 fte ++o; IEi EEollllol +E Ezl


    =E
    642 14zJ +_.J uJ8 +q
    =

    4lql 4&4 s9 4lt}4zl6t+ E= r oltl rAi H+8, rH 14.20(b)ql^le+ Aol ,.1¤ol


    4l&+ A= Eq zlB + 9lxl"J 4t^ Bql^l cillg aol+. ol a+ql= 2+4'71+E a
    c +zlolr+.
    u|{z}zlE, ++41 H}+e 4+ La *47l a4 +EE a4.J4. rH 14.20(a)ql^l
    cl,Jol, +E. aa +rll ol+el uBl= +4lE +E= aill +E= +71^1714y *+r+. rH
    14.200)ql^le+ rJol, ,JE Lfl +Al7l a {a}l +Al7l ol.qE, dB6t= EE}= +al= +rJ
    EAg ^JC6tr, ol} Lfl +alql el6ll 4ltrll culelzl *6tr +4$rl. qL A+E +E
    Ad +41= d4 HIAE +E H4g zltsH++.
    ual izl .J4lE Ats qHLE
    ,il4q=ql^lE !il +E Hzl ^tolE +al= ++41 ,il4q=E a H
    +4le+ a4l HI+q
    4l tr4lzl +E aa +4.J qlE ^J46il Esea] ¤r1l "J + gl+. Nozq co7] H]¤-6]
    9 Noq CozE ^JC6I= EI¤¤ 44611 -HzK^l ts.zs). 22s'C ol6tE ¤.s-q1,<1, o1 q1
    +9 +E H4g Nozoll qdlq olrl coql q6lq gzl.Jol dEzl oe EL-dd+. +
    E:k[No2]2ol+. ol +E Hzl4 +E]61+ H]¤: ql4q=e qH r]s-n+ ag=F
    +41 "llrlq=¤ ^J46l] EzI.. ^"Jrl?
    1E4l: Noz(g) + No2k) -i5 No3(8) + No(g) (LH)
    2*Al NoE(s) + co(g)g Noz(s) + co2k) (uul*s=)

    {x'll: No2k) + co(g) ------ No(g) + Co2(5)

    2+4l= 1+41tr+ gt
    4 kz>> krol4, ol= 6t^ll Nor(g)z| 1+4lql^l aa6l
    uBteq.

    ^Jdqi12+4lq^J +.'.1 a-e.Eg


    g"l*4.
    r+41= L4r 2+Aly uBlEs.-8, r+471+E ac +4loltrl. 4+! dal +gE +E
    r+419 +Eql 9=6Ia, dil Ei*el +E Ezlg r+alE +E H4r+ a+. r+41=
    =
    ol+z} Hl8olr +E B4e qs_4 g+.
    4E = krfNo2l2
    trl+^l 44q+ql 9611 q+g +E Hzle de4.e-e +eg a4e+ grl.J+. HI+E
    "l
    co: +E Hzlql eqlqq 9zl *991, r olf+ coTI +E 44 +Al ol+9 +alql^l
    Hls" dITl q+ol+.
    ol ,,.1{oll,tl 4a}{¤3 ol ql4,-l+g'?E'6}9qr
    "5"}zlE *=+. ql{q ,il4q=
    ql e-l6t ql+g 4s Hzlol dE4 g Eq*=+r "Jg += 9l+. "JdE qq +4lE ol
    +q{ += 4aq=ol t-"J+ +E B4g 714 + ilzl ollEol4. rBl+ xll*¤ oll "J"J
    ,lq=eE+q ql+* +E H4ol ¤C+ + "*zl S=+8, r ql4q=g Efl aol4.
    qFjl 14.14
    EltrJ4l 4l}lLl+el ^_E Ez,l ut

    olte|. trA(NzO)el E6H= + EZI ollzlLl=oll sl6H^] oJolLi.= loe 84EJtl


    Nzo(g) Nz(g) + o(g) (gc)
    Nzo(g) -
    + 0(g) .------ Nz(g) + 0z(g) (uut=)
    (a) dill u84g a^le. (b) Eill u30il rH-d +E E=.lE l
    ^le.
    -Hl* EI.J-E 9q s^l¤ +E oI4 ezF= *.J +41 tsJ*g +4lE +4BEI. qe+^.i
    ^J+ ft,nl kzE +E-6t4. +E ^J+E
    k,e 1+4l9l +E .:I+oln. kzE 2El4l9 +E ++o14. +q ot4 arl+ *.J t4l HI¤.el q+*ql 4-J +E *+E +
    EIU+. ql= k-,9 d H4l ,J*q qBJ+q q5J +E ^J+ol+.
    =q
    14.6 I BJ8 Dil7lLl= 643

    6Hff tt4l: Nozk) +No2k) .- Nzoak) ('H)


    E4 +4 A t}4 *yzl "Jqd 484 qlrlq+e +r1, d 2+41 : N2o4k) + co(g) No(g) + Cor(g) + Nor(g) (xHfgJ
    ill Hlgo4 dill H]+ql qi,* +E g49 {-H-ts Ex,llol+. oHlql fl+6J
    -qtr
    ¤e + dqlg +B6l-H x]oJE F zl]
    z{14 (a) +"J +41 H}¤¤9 q6}r, +Ax{= }46JqEr] el 44q=9 +Bol 7l+'614)Z7l?
    d4l HI*g +*+. G) A4 HI+E +E H4g Tltl Lfl, (a) ztl Eo E7I 4E Norge dllg +q6l{ azl E}¤:
    +E aa +alg +E Bzlol4. +E= +c++.
    0) azl EE7l4E co1gl-e dEg +q6|¤ azl H}*
    =01
    (a) F *9 +Al Hl¤¤ q6}tr El-e--n+ a+. +E= +ct4.
    2N2o(s)+o(s) +2Nz(s) +o2(8) +o(s) (c) HI8 +AzllE q'J'J + fl= deg +B6J+.
    .J+ sFql 9l= +rJal o(g)= q*el d (d) ,ll'JS + z}]q HI+ q4q+g +E6l+ 43 Ezl-b
    ^lE ^46Iq
    ill HI¤¤ EAI g+. 6r+.
    2N2o(s)-2Nz(g) +oz@) > -H.+ qu{ 2
    (b) dzll Hi+el +E H4g Lfl, +E 44 t.J +41 HI+ s=+ ol&s+ eie+ Hlgo6lq e&El olaee+ 4Ir= ^J
    E +E Hzlol4. Lfl +al= .JEzt HI*olE.tr +E H C.J+.
    49.Jit.l+. oak) + zNOzk) NzOs(g) + oz(s)
    +E: k[N2O] q}¤e + tralB gq+= aetr- d4g+.
    > .H= qlrll1 Osk) + Noz(s) NOg(g) + ozf)

    642+ql,\l4+flH NOzG) + CO(s) NO(g) +cozk) Nos(s) + No2(g) - Nzos(g)


    -
    HI+ql ql6}q ++4 ee q= + +41 Hi+ ,llzlrl#ol
    -
    de4 +E E4g +E:k[o3][Norol+. ql4q=9 +
    xll"Jqfl4. 841.il qt6J ^JEll +E: olrlolQa gg + glEzl?

    ufp izl .J4lE 4b trll4Ll+


    +7J4171+E A¤ +419 HI¤¤"J qlZ.-l=:ql 4oll 4s H4g +E6l+ ae drl *+.
    olTl+ otH ++41 Eil4q+ql^J gS++.
    ^J+e a H4 +A\71E4^J +E AC +41?l
    oJ qle, &F+ a^(No)e+ HE"J(Brrel Tlalt Hi+g trz}.
    ^J46fl
    zNo(s) + Br2(8) .+ 2NoBr(g) 114.26l
    ol HISq 46ll dE4ee Eg +E E4e Noql ql6l] olzt, Brzgl ql6H git"lE|.
    +E: k[NO]2[Br2] tr4.27l
    ol +E Ha4 +il6F= Hl* ql4q+g +olBzi. 6J 7[zl 7l-tsCg H]+ol A}Bx[ r]"J
    +4 HlsosE "Jq+= 1014.
    No(5) + No(s) + Btz($ 2NoBr(s) +E: k[No]2[Br2] 174.28)
    -
    qzil 14.13E -H-6 qzl 2ql^J t+6iH.=ol, *EzI HI¤+ ull$ E$zl ulE.il ol HISol
    t$zt HI+g otp 4o14.

    B Tlill HJ30il^.1= SExl"Eg Ezl u30l el| EE 4!nl?

    +EzI +8ol ot$ E q= qlaq=+ ^J46I Ezl.


    tE4l: No(g) + strfs)
    # NoBr2(s) (ull¤)
    z*A]j -&- zNosr(s) (!+)
    NoBr2(s) + No(s) [1.4.2e)

    ol 47lq=ql^l r+41= CHI*$ qE}+el + r+Cg sE6Ir. 9l+.


    2+4171+E aa +zloloE, ol +4lel +E Hzlol dill HI¤- +E= a4.J+
    644 143 at-+ 8J3 +EE

    +E: k2[NoBr2][No] [14.30]

    NoBrzE 1+4lel AHI+q^J


    ^JCg 6Aill'J aql ?L-6t+. 6rJill= -Id.E EoJCdlr.,
    .L r-o.E7I rll+ "Jzl*r
    gB4. tr14^J
    ^l
    14.30q1 +qtl +E Blg LoEE Ls= 6

    +illq E=6r4, ol| u|gz.lalzl ?+rL .JHlzl o.e= HIgg +E Ezlg Hl¤¤e, "JEql
    ge6}+8, rJCge g|d6ITlE +l.J+.
    H zlzlE 7lC6}tr, +?JAI NoBrz9 t.E= 7ll^l HI+E.J NoeI Brz9 ]-oE-E 'I+g +
    91tr1. +d NoBr2z[ E9]d6]r H]8 e6J¤ql 9ol flg CEE Be
    oJol +4921 ?]=+
    r 7ld++. g+ ^Jc¤ NoBrzt: Noe+ HI86Iq NoB¤ ^Jc6I4+ Noe+ Br2tr 4ltf
    6116}= *B=e aElg 7l-bcol 94. ol4,* + 714 7l+c +ql^J a HrI= 2+alolr
    gfl 4Col4. + dxll= r+419 9*8ollq-q-r+ ?¤ "JEzI4{ol4.
    -!t' NO(S) + Brz(8)
    NOBr2(5)

    2+4r='4o-E ql++el NoBrzt: +l Hl*q E6ll E6llg+a rElH l+4lg


    'Ic6Jtrl.
    4HI¤'4 ge]*ol E+ 2+4ltrr1mlEzll "Jqtqr g+ ?lr, olqi'J ol+-e .J6]l 1E4l
    el aHls"r+ qHI¤¤ ¤¤q EE.6l.rll g+. Ezl B¤q^Je+zJol, ¤rI*9 +Es+ qHia
    E +E= Aq.

    il)Slli? 5;,H?1?
    [NoBrz]oll '116ll
    EE,

    [NoBr2] : k.

    frtNollo'rt
    ol +4149 zl ra.:ooll q.J6|8,

    +E
    k,
    :,krk_1[No][Brr][No] : riNo12lrrrl

    9zlrl d¤"il^l eg +E ^J+ k+ k2hlk-t + aq. 9l +E Hzle dE4 +E Bzl(^l


    ru.zz)n+ "Jil+trI. tr14^l "JEzle+ olBz}4C5e ol+q4 gts r4.2eE rlrlq#g
    ^l
    4 r+.zsg alBrt Ell4q=tr+ "Jqgffio1 g{ q f+.
    gelzi-g.-e nI= +414 !fl +4lE+ S^'l gqB 4o14, nlE +4q^l ¤Bol ol+

    "l{4a z}CE}-e_Er{ f{{lE Lo EE "J + 9l+.


    qHl 14.1s
    e[-E_ e7l $4|¤ Ab qHLl+q +E. H?-l .SE.

    414.269 HJSoll rH-d otzllq ae qlzq=e.E+Ej 4-E H.lE +E6l.H= q, olriol d-d4ee +eE +E g4l7t gil-EtE 6
    B6[^19"

    lEzJt: NO(g) + No(g + Nzoz(g) (ffit=, EE)

    2=JAl: Nzoz(g) + Brz@) -a' ZNOBr(g) (!A)

    6rl'J Eql +E H4g +Elot,*trI. ol a+, !fl +al=


    oJ46J

    EAj En[= a7l E4l= r*= qlr]q+g +a, d4l H]+E + ¤lAzil N,o2E HI¤+e r¤-6}r fl4. :44 dql4 +E
    E Blg folf $zllolcl-. Ezle+rJillE *.E=EaJ6t7l 9+a, rll4lq +¤-EE r-"E
    4e! qlaq+ql^'i Lfl +.J t4
    HI+g +E BzlS d81 tr, qtr A+ql= ^JCEE ]-"Es s¤g+. tri+^l a H4ll
    HI+e.l +E B4g AA+q. trl4^'l +d LA tr419 Ezl +alql^.1 BB"l B{*$n 7tC6lr., Nzoz9 *E= Nog
    14.7 l+oH 645
    ^+E

    tEe+ g+^l4ot,*4. >H=ql$1


    Eot + B4l +417[+E aa +4]olE-E dxll +E: ztd-E HI+ 2p + e- 2R + s= ^J4.ll -ts_z[. o1 H]+ql ql
    6H^l oI?+E 44q=ol 4.Jqfl+.
    4e:trfNrolfnrrl
    rtzl.llrl BBol ol+qTl+r.7}c6lr.6zJ4l N,oz9 b P+P:-T (uul+)

    EE +*+. ol z[{o+gr], rtzllgl,<l cH}so+ qH}+E e+T- R+U (Lg)


    U+R*S (nll¤)
    40EE
    ^EL Ee rel u= E.JC+ +rJAlol+. ol qaq+ql E6il ql
    kr[No]2: k-rlNzoz]
    tlq= +E BzlS +E?17I?
    ?tillNzoz9 r-oEql qql^J 44618 (a) 4E:k[p]'z (b)+E=k[p][Q] (c) +5.:k[p]'?[Q]
    : (d) +E : k[P][Q]' (e) +E = k[u]
    [Nzoz]
    ft*or' > .H.= qlrJl2
    ol 4.g +E Hzlq ql"JalH
    H-trtrJg *¤¤ saJd+ ,ilrlq=E a H4 +4= +g
    k,
    4E : ir;-[No]2[Br2] :
    K-l
    k[No]2[Brz] r+ e+.
    t,
    EI+^l ol qlaqae dE Ar+e| 9,]6l+ +E B4g xll^l srr(c)
    f, zrr(s) (Eili$, $B)
    .J4. tr|Sg 7lqo}+. 6l-+ oltl94 zll9 ,llzlr-l#.1 dE Br(g)9 bEe+ Br2k)E Eo r .r1o1E +ZI4g +6}^le.
    4 os +gg +E H4g xll^lts + 9lgzlE s-E4.

    zl?7lzl s4 Tl?.lE HI* 44Ll=q EI6l]^] ^J46l] tr9t+. + 6t+el +"J +Zl +
    qoeB.Jqq-= ^Jl HI*ql qlEI ,ll4q+ 4+e+, 6lL|9 +E Ad tal= r*= rJ+6J ++
    Zl HISql 4+ ,il4q=' f zlzlo14. rq+ q +tle oil4q===E 9l+. ql= 5q q*l
    +ol ^Js+qI rJgE +rJ6Ij1 9+8, +E H4g +61= ql glq^l +rJxllg LoEE +^lB
    + H= A+$ql ql6H^l ul+7| E 4o14. Al4tl dE ql"lEle+ 9z16}: +E Hlg E
    7l f]6fl^l 3szll ol,!-e1 "*e +Al= g a e 6l+ ,ll4q+E 9l+.

    14.7 l+El| 4t
    toll(catalyst): zt4lg g+4ql slE4 HE+E 4zl g:-q-E^l p+E HI¤' +E= Hs+^l7l=
    Eeol+. ^J^ll qlql^J, 4zl 69lrl, E= Bl+ +ql^J "Jq+= ql++E Hl¤+ +EHg E
    +ee. "Jq+q. {-E4ee +s,* H}*q q .cr}4 "tr z}s"6}E +Ell= *zl 9lol] B3
    +84.J qle} ¤7zI ol-folzlr gl+. Eel++E +^1, L]I+, +71 g^J Eo4 *3 HIH.zl
    dl-zl ?*g qI¤¤ +1161+ +,llE 9z]o144 ,il461+ %r-Hg *zl 9lal B.3 ¤+ r.4g
    Tlgolr 914.

    tg +Ell 4.+
    HI¤: ¤.BEql^-l EI¤¤==4 +4E 7g rtfl(homogeneous catalyst)
    Ag ^Jgs
    =7l]61+
    +r. ++. *.-4tol4 zlxll$etr +461+ +"J +EllE ql= B+. qlE^] r+&+ +^ +
    *9(szoz(aq))ol Er+ 4IrE Edq= HI¤¤ ^J46il EzI.
    2H2o2@Q tH2o(/) + oz(s) [14.31]
    -
    +oll7l- s.eH, ol +¤+ ,li+ L4rll "Jqt+. rq4 "*e Eeol ol HI+g +,llE 4l+
    g + gl+. ql= 5q H-e.r,Je+ oleg &c +Eql^J 44IEl +ie+ Hls"6l9 HEEI +¤:
    "_44 +g ^JC6J+(fs il.2r.
    ZBr-(aq) + H2O2@q) + zu+(aq) Br2(aq) + zHzo(l) 14.32)
    -
    646 143 alqf U3 +EE

    ffir HzOz.Brz, Na+.


    oJ)f?
    8., Oz 60ll^l TlErll dBtrl7l e^{E LTEIL}|ts floJol Ets tr}E=e +1E71? #^4 Ee3 +0l|E7l-, SrJill

    EJB
    o o o
    =-EtEoll
    i.l7 Ltrlq
    NaBr +oil
    @
    p, p"
    ., I

    lll{
    uo -QoH
    o- =ot
    6l
    HrOr(oq)

    ¤> \."*
    )

    -i f I ¤ ) ooa
    g {' f' { o P o .rl

    ooo
    , *
    {,
    2Br-(aq) + H2O2@fl + 2H+(aq) Br2@fl + H2O2@q) -------->

    -------> Br2(aq) + 2 H2O(l) 2Br-(aq) + 2H+(aq) + Oz(g)


    e4 +q 4z
    arH 14.21 ng +ofl 5tt rl^t+ +47|. tl^ 7l^l|e E6HEI= BJ80ll^l +E0ll trl^l= +rHE B-s
    =rl

    ol{ol {zll q}¤.ol4E, rrEqle+ olgeH}+ +ql s}q}4 H+= 4flzl rllE"ll +Ell7} o}
    '14. :44 r+&s+ +^= al r+.:zollrl Br2@QelE EI**+.
    ^Jcg
    Br2@q) + H2o2@q) ZBr-(aQ) + ZH+(aq) + oz(c) [14.33]

    4 rs.sz* 14.339 6Jg -


    14.3101 g+.
    ^l
    H2o27l Sd6l +6llElE +49 Br-(aq) +.-IqI"l B:.rll, "lag Be"Js+ olgol EI+
    9 4ol]E ++6IH¤¤ 9ol.J4. rJ-trElE+ olgol z|,ilg E6[zl g:r. H]8 +EE ?zlx\
    ?zl ull+"l4. rql HI6ll, Br2=^JCqfl4z}(4 14.32) El^l +qElEE(^r 1433),+rJAl
    ol+. rH 14.219 Esl+ qE A+ql=+rJi]el +471dril e=g + 9l¤¤Bq +
    ^4
    aolq. +,H+ +7J^\ qL aE dzil H}¤.^lql +++zl *:+. fE+ *oxE HI¤¤
    = q +461a, +rJill= HI-& a.Jg 7lq6}+.
    ^14ts
    qB4 =!ql ^Jdq=
    gEl4
    +,il= 4I+61+7p +E 849 Bql(4 r+.2. +E:k[A],[B]j= rElB
    g6}9
    ^J+ k9 {HI aol+. Arrhenius 4(4 u,.zr, *:,q.e-E"/R\q| 4
    tril, +EI= +E
    6tE, +E t}+ k= g^d+ qlqzl(E)e+ = EIE oJzI(A)ql E6ll aag+.
    +'l]b E,Ll AE <k
    g Hs+^14^l qI$ gEoil ga}.$ + fl=ql, +gE + 7lz.) EIH9E "Jqg + 9l+.
    =
    14.7 I +rll ^18 647

    0l +Btl HJ30ll^1 P EZ|T|#^lldiE7l.?

    ++ofl uJ8
    4nll ulg

    x1
    EJI

    e
    2H?Oz
    oil
    q 2H2O2+2Br +2H+
    ^l
    2H2O + 02
    2H2O+02+
    2Br +2H+
    HJ39I T]B

    La414.22 40tl7l'fl= qsl HeoJ +0H7[ll$ r4l9 Hzoe E6tl U30ll tfl-d o]lLlrl trs

    6I+b +qlz} ++rH ++9 E, TokHLl 4* p, ?tg ,*Z zllgali {ol


    ^l]E+ "llrlq+3
    I, +s 6l+= +,]]7}+#el Hll6&9 E+oErAl A= +71^)vl= aolQ. ,ItI +4"J +
    ,l] Er+= E,= *+q^l .JHI4es +,ll= Elq HI-&g A4 gC+ qq4E *=
    ^Jaq-.
    El.
    +E]]= += Hl* ,ilrlq+g zll$rJeEal HI+E g$e+ qLJzlE *6 + 9l+. ql$
    q 4&sI +49 B6ll EI+ql^J H2orzl Hzl Br- olg4 HI+61J., r qqql Br,e| {le" = a[
    s+4"J F q}*ol .Jq\]+. ol + HI¤+ e}4l 44Is++^ +6ll EI*ql +,l] zl+ AE
    = zll+6171 ql$q, + E]* L+ ++ull EI+ql tslofl^l g^d:t} oilqzl= 7[zl
    ^Jtr*61 4Le
    =
    n flqot.Jtrt(f=J l/,,.n).
    #oJ +EH 1tE
    #g +ll(heterogeneous catalyst)E tl* Ezl¤9 tl4 +E ^Jg.E. +rlltr^],
    g+zisE -r.!ltr-s--e =46|=
    7l^ll^J E* qall +"-qtl HI*EI+ d+.J+. &Ezls.e
    =^ll6lq
    +-e.6J "*g HI¤-E=g Iill -trHE +ql ++ql el6ll 4lqE4. ql= 5E rfl '2r]123'4'u11
    g+E rl zfg +F++i Ezl.e EB^I,J + 9l+. H.J +Etl= "JHI4eE
    = ^l-+6}q
    ++ol+ ++ &+gE +cg+.
    E_t.J +rl] 4+e.l Z7l +4lZ "JHI4sE. HI¤¤E gEf(adsorption)o1r1. 949 Ezt
    7r s.Eql et+ol+ a'J HlH, *f(absorption)b Ezlzl Eeq Lil+E a"Jql
    =q7I=
    +E6I+.,.-. (13.611). g+g r.ill EEq flzt.-}.lgel +*Col lsaE rzl ql+q 'J
    qU+. +,l] zl¤+ sHql^l "JqLlsE +,HE zlleg ql oI+ EH4g 7le + ilE
    + %IHg EA 4+q gzl.+ olgrl =
    84, EEq flzl4 olg
    ^l-S,*+.
    3 =-E'J
    ot4 t$la_=461+
    ilzl o]l${l, ol$ ol$a|{ zl4lt} E= +q^}
    ^F$qzl ?*g A6J bqg
    E4-= riil sEql A*^lrJ + 9l+.
    #.J +,ll 4+el qlE^J, fi zl4lq qlgfl1 z)zllzl Hlg"6lq qEil.J Tlxll= ^Jc6I=
    EI¤¤ ^J46]] trz}.
    .z,E!3, + Hz(s) al;. : -1.37 kr/mor t74.34)
    - ?il|xr,r,
    ol EI¤¤ r+g H]¤:olzl"J, +uHzI s.eB ,}]+ L44l "Jq*q. rel+ qa, g?+8, E+
    648 143 alqf BJ8 +E=

    >.r.8 EAg +Efl rl


    't4.23 TC

    E +oH trEoil^.l gq+:oil=


    alal +^o.1 H19 []l7l!= EJA

    I
    t\ I
    I t a
    II t. I
    I
    I
    {

    H29[ C2H47[ H-H e-E'ol ¤oit! + H ?^l


    EEoil =+ 7t e+ EE= Elat o|5-etrt.
    =+Etrt.

    t
    H -.J tlltl C2Hail
    ^t+
    SdolG CzHs
    EtrI. =rJill7l'

    I I
    ILa
    \'{
    ,; ,t,

    F Erll H7l czHs erJillet oilBl"J(CzHo) ExtTl e+


    z3:95[fr^1.?
    C2H6E 8d:.Jtrl. EEOP+E1 EJOIII LI2JtrI

    Eg olrll
    ++ E"Jol Hl+e rEJ 14.23q1 +4u "llrlq+g F6}]^J dgql^JE
    =4618,
    dril "Jqt+. H^l .ilBfl4 i^zl ++ sEql gzi¤4. ++g H2e.l H-H ¤Bol #
    9zl2l 9H ++EEql a.Jqq ?lH u fl4-= Elr4 zhq-Eal sE ?lE "lEaJ+ 9lal
    ¤+. ol H ?lzt7} ++qq 9l= qgd ts4-E "J+H, c-c n aBg gr + +^ flzI
    +E 6I+s+ o ?6Jg B^d6I.1, ++_+i ,J o ¤6Jg F6ll s-Hql AElg ollBzl(czHJE
    ol o 4dJ9 Hlr4 E6li^1, *"lxl E4 flxlzl E +e H g4-= qI*H 6url
    ^JC+trI.
    c_H o A6Jg d7ll ^JC6lr qlel"J EzI(czHJE ++ .trBql^l gqdq.

    A gHJ41o", 3"J +o|]el.EEg +0|]


    =
    o]L aol u3 E--JEe+El al+El7l +lg)l?

    EA
    g+qq 9i= ir+E HI¤¤s ol+qA +E+ +t* oE^1, ol E
    ^r*9 Eg ^1tr ^lr.H
    HI¤+ ^JEg $xlalzl +l6}q d"J6}{ 4¤g +E+ .Jq+ot.J4. ol4'* alo+ EI
    =
    *Eol 4e6J +Es .Jol4zl fl"ilrl =+(enzyme)r]-a "JEi4 il= Aol4"J EgCg
    ,*= ^JEo+4 +EllEol tr*ol g,s6r+. ql++q Ea= +EIa Exlolr e4elg E
    =
    10.000-1,000.000 amu9 H9l= ,*YL+. EdE rEol +d^l7l= Hl+q qql ,I+ dq
    4eE 4}+61+ql, qqe + 6|+9 HI*q^J + B}Llel Eeql"J zle" E cEE +q 5ol
    6F|. qlE I+4IEI +a g6ll HI*e +s+ I++IEI +^=
    =q ^JE+4 44o14. 'J+ 4l

    +Ell$s7l
    $sg +,ll= E^lE qlTl sg 1|'-7lql +st qgg.J+. +4 +E= 7lg.J+ 6IqqE, trFq ed aaql^l uHTlzI
    I
    ""+Elolzl
    xs.:9 4Cg E= 4-FzI HI]7]7I^E + 7l^1 C 5q 9E "14'* sg EeE '&g -d+g + ?l: +=
    e+ &+ aae+ trl¤d +El+dol4. s.ql xl+rz} allzlzl4 ^ql
    oE 9t+= 43 Ezkalq. 44^l olfl Eeol 4zle uH
    t'"I+ "Jel g^ls} +r= ++g + 91tr1. qlEl ¤4lll oI dql uNzlz|:trsq ^lla6t= 4o1 $e;[r]. E]e +
    = =q7l
    14.7 l+DH ArE 649

    ull{$zl(catalytic converte.)=
    ^l-.$6}q
    ol7l6J Eeg
    ^ll4 +4 H{}71= ql*51 sg4.J E-+.J +q]E egap 91
    6J + 9l+. 4. zltli| ull7l7}.^-'. +rlle+ 4* roo-aoo ms FoJ d4
    aJ HEolq, 4.g9 6Izl"J, ol 5}g
    ^lA fq}
    +El] H+71ts zl-Eo4 El]T] e6yoq +sl+Ael cozl Coz$
    ^l^HE
    + 7l^l rl#. +4++. (r) coc+ trl¤^ +El+a(c,H/)= H2o-+, E+qrl, t}e+ e^E u\lfio]| 760/o A4¤+.
    &El^14 ol&s+ +ae+ Etr H+I^144. (z) &s] e^= g +,l] tr{}zl9 4.+ql q4 ^F+q= +,HEE aE.ol Qe
    g^lrl e4 Tlill-E E+^la+. 7l:6fzlEJ, +l++e "j= +'}] EQlzl9lrl+ g+
    ^l-8.q=
    =i zl.J C$olrt. E+g &pI +¤¤ +d6l+ Ell oll+ =ojl, 4
    co,caH), coz+ Hzo
    qlg eS^lzl4+ "JTtEq= B, +, e E4 Ae E+Eql
    NO, NO2 Nz * Oz
    - 46J zJdJqol +trt. grhEe E;4. ulLB ql EA'J Hl,r{t
    + zlzl zli$ ^]E +=
    olel6J $etr 617l EllE zllrJ. H]]7l7[^ ¤xflot= E+Eql 9q} egql q ".1
    o${l
    ql Ct4.J +q] =.ull$
    zl]g6l+ ae qqe Edol4.
    ^l.Hg 444. EEg &pI eig +flql zl6J5J ++ol-1 4}e+ EJ
    +,H= Hg IE gE H?lq^l a${olo1o; 6Jtrt. E+ +
    ql= Hl]7l7}^el q+l zizl ]d$ol +'HE gc zI4= Eq+ ¤:ql .I6il ++tI gCg ,*n 9iq. E46IrllE, ol ;!+e EI
    E olE ++6ir 2l+611^l gcg frzlollol6J+. E'tl +Ell +B+ q slfl6}r HlaI+. ,ll'J ^F&q= Eq;.g 3s70, 94
    Eq 6svo, EEq e50lo 4s.214u11 Hilzl9l ^FSqr 9l+,
    :4oJqL aAql^J fd ot93 +dq+ EoJ B^J6l+ EHTI ol elfl fr$$ ftr Bolsr.l 7Ie+ 4^l ol4ll^J d+qi1 91tr1.
    z|5el $zl$e| 7]|414 +4 Eql ++61 drJo} *4.
    coel +q4o9 ¤+= +{16l+ +,ll= "JH}4ee 3o1
    *¤ E4l : 14.62, t4..gt, 14.82, 14.124
    ++9 tI+Eq +l*+ol+. olBl6J Eae 6'e= HH7l7l^ 3+
    nl
    +olt= sE4
    VI ?'EtIl'Eolol
    el +,H EE ,Jg d+g slqlEl^la +a(f.al u.2a)ll zlxl L EH 4O-
    oJ+ElLtoll tsrl^l
    qq 9l+. o3;ol{(er,oJe} olaql EEI zlxl¤ +Ells ol
    +qa Ed r.oJel +a7I ^l-+g+. +,ll= E^l u}zlzl^9|
    a? f
    )7fl

    =46I=
    &l z1i11q1
    =:+4q
    o29 o-o aqlg E3r}^l7l
    .n, ole4 gzlts EzI¤ coe+ Hlso6Iq co2= Sl
    ^Jc¤ &r
    ^JCqI+. EE|+49 &+E
    q- {= 9r1-a1211 dB9ErJl,
    flxl gffiaE g:+ol "Jq+r c-H A.JE ¤Bol +lrl
    =Ei.
    dol *49 llrl¤+ +l++e NoTl N2e+ o2tr ¤|gq=
    I
    !l
    HI+ql ql6J zttt ag4oJ =ullolzlE 6I+. f-Bl+ + HI+
    tr# p
    ql^.] TI1I Er+zl.J +,l]= 4= HI+ql= iLl+71aAl 9O 9
    ¤qd+. trI4^l +=.+E +o]l ,r3gol $ea|4. 1a"A t4.ZI +nfl Eg|Tlel EEE I

    olzllolug SAlql all-E¤ + 9l+. olElpi ol+E, Ef#g tr"lq rJq,


    M
    I
    ,JE ErZl 'J01. 7t+e "JE*E [11 HJ30l t]
    r+&EI +i= E4 &+e E6l]al+ HI¤¤ +d^l7l= z|$eflolA(catalase) I o+= ote: +qg17t?
    4E Aa= E¤,6}.]I 9l+(^114.31). ral 14.2s8 i rJql 5q fl= TIBql 'Joll^l +=-d 7t=JEllol^7| H2o2
    ollql e-l6]]^J ol HISol +4eE +tlq= 49 -u-q 611. ^E E4 Oze uutell ES/.lAq.

    ii-tzl +rl] qgg 6l= Hl*g s¤ rlEl(active site)4-rl 6I= +rll .ll9
    54 ++lql^J "Jq++. ol zleloll.tJ HI*61+ E4$$ 7lE(substrate)ol4 )
    J. 6J+. +rflel rl=4-94 .EE(lock-and-key model) o.tr. rJ+61
    =oldg
    ¤Bg + gl+(:la u.26). zlE^lql + 5q"*: g4e+ zJol, zl{$ n.+ ,,,'O271111

    e_l gc z}4ql + Eq*= ¤EI= 7l^1Y aeE_ rEld + 9lrr.

    {olazloJg ^ll+E ^JlEEg +^J^l7l= +6ll HI¤¤ zlfE].tlzlrlE -| 9[ H2O


    4 Hq4le.l zlkoil ?-efl Etol+. a=J14.27+ zlolazloJ aiql eElg a7J= !11 )J 4
    zl! $zlzl Sg qle+ 9lg EIel E¤g Hq a ral 14.25 E^'= HJ- +Tl^lilrl.
    =+. t-
    650 143 ol-f HJ8 +E=

    TlEal SdE qL E^t7t gd tr1 36l"xl 3-crqqoF 6lE7l?


    7lE
    = ^lalql
    H I9

    * t
    + ,o

    6^ E.^-7|E Qit
    =:drll
    arH 14.26 6^ HJSelrf=41-E4lEE

    E^e+ Tleol A6J+ \*


    a+-214 4-t$J(enzyme-substrate complex){-i1 oJ+. El+
    a4 ru.26q1 rgd zI44 a_zllol E+ jlag B4E zli \ea '[4H.2]"J, 9C z]4
    : E}]^]lE ql +¤6l.71 qlEql 7l4ol a6J6J oI ¤4zt HB + 114. zld4 9c u}49 E
    6Jql= /.&+zl.-^5]-+zt qlq, a6J, E4}qol zl+.JE| ,, il r.2:l).
    +i
    zl{ gzffiol Bd ul.4e ql, qB olS-EE Ezl-Sol gds}qq q}*ol g+e
    =qa
    + 9ltrL qlE 5q Eaq ¤td z}49l 9l= at}ol+ ?lz}+_qe+q dz} "JE= E
    4+ ese;Ai ol*loJ gdal4aol "Jqts +=c9l+. EoJ gC zt4E EqzlE 4dql^-l
    zl¤9 B4zt il=Hee "J61] Hl+Col ul+ zl4 +E gl+. .J+ HI+ol "Jq+i1 +8,
    S^dEg 9C zI4E olpsree*l 4E zl4 Ezlzl r 44ql Eqa + *E+ ql+.

    ag EsE Eig gCe flqA+. olfl E49 EA q4l4l(enzyme inhibitor)4r *4.


    tl?5olu} B, +e Er+ ee "J+ +c ++ olge olfl *H o-e s^ gcg E8l6[=
    aeE gej4 91tr1. E El= +rq=g gc zlelTl. otu El= *ql Br+Bq, Eiq 9d xI4
    fl54rll 6lL Tleol gC x}4"ll * 5ol"*zl ?+Eq 6J+.
    =si: HI^JEEI4
    +,l]e+ Hlig ull Ezl-g CEe {l{ s84oltrl. EA e}C z}49lrJ
    "Jq+= 494.J +rll HISel ,l+= d*f(turnover number)+n 6}=ql, "JEI4 o-+ =
    B ro3-ro7 H99 <1"14. ol+41 d*tiz\ r4= ae g^d+ qlHxlz},l]+ *+= ag
    9ulaJ4. ¤H6J Elq4 +rlle+ Hlig trll, Ei= EI+g +E ^J+s E"J Hli ol^J+q^l
    7'l -A olrl
    -e. -r ,\A'1 .

    A tt8g LHEoI doJxl, 1L!?]^ltrJE6l'^19. 6^= USe.lE0lAIEH 011L1^l= L*=tf.

    > azJ lL.Zt alolArlge +


    a_+t zJ4l7t +EsJ 3l+g E
    4E

    "*+GI
    6}Ll0lt[. q EeP 7l
    =9 tr^sl Er'¤
    tr(t*!^l)O1
    EaE Eq^laloil
    l- F,
    il

    tf. =cl7l= =
    t
    L )
    I d 'tf-l,
    14.7 +!H 651
    ^J8

    er atai ?a -r.t i^
    ei= ^JBillql
    zI^J +st g^E +E 6t+tr, *Ee, e .L{(nitrogen fixation)ol{tr 4B6J 4o14. "J+ l.A 44'
    4!, u1o14,3, ssE 5 ^JE .?zl9l g+4"J Bg +ElEql q7l +ql^l gs6l+ BzH9l 9oll
    = ^J¤qq, "JPb rsz*
    ^JCE+. rel+ E
    91trI. f.al 14.28q1 +4U ailB, Ar= +"J ql^l trI+rll B $Cql E6ll +g4ss
    ^l *ol^B +
    ql= 5q 607o9 rC e^'= E.grE +d.6J EaoJ A4 r.A n+
    ^JEflg 56iq 4+4 "s ++++trI.
    6J B4E
    oltr ,l4EE9 ¤¤E tsl]¤Eol+ +e 4E E= s Hq (nitrogenase)el zl+ql 96ll
    ^}Cgtt. a.AE "JzJol4 4
    ol
    .Jg ei= Nr(8)tr d+I6Ia, ol NzE 4lzle q5o1z3rp. SEql= +zflolzl ?*=+. .Idq, ++^lE?]
    + =
    .Jg+e+ ae 4Eg +q+ql =st]lel
    ^l+ol #zl94E 4zl 69 gs6[+. ^l= ^ll+ql^.1 tsa¤+.
    Eol Nzk)E
    ^lEol ^l-[.g
    9l= ¤el.E A+6F= %iHol H}tr^l AA rA -aAi NzE NH3E d+l6J+, ol r+49 +,l]
    olq6J ol+ ull+ql, 7l- S.g *l ,l]+ g^dc[ q]qzl= 7l4L+. ol 4Ag E]+l
    "JqI clq4zt
    zl+tlql^-l zI8 6,qq}
    pl4 t}*ol *9.t214ts eEg *=+8, 4zl 69 Nzk)
    =
    (reduction) Hlso s-tr, Nq 4Is+ t4z} Nz9 0ql^.1 NH39 -3
    7I zJ6J6J F+6J+|E d+q= 44"J da o-E ei*4. e4' ac .tr.a7l N2= +g^l7l= qlrlq=
    ^l$ol ^|8-471q g gd6l-zll oloflslr. ilzl e+4. zfpellol:-$ EEL+ Y+
    g +E ElE^lH, e^ ;|A E^E g^d xlel= dol
    ;:4 flxl¤ golop 914. olelal EiE *+ !++ E
    ,i.:"-;:j-fsii,Y'l=' A(metalloenzyme)zp ajq. dol ;-+g 4IaI ^JEI=
    f
    dril E+^la 9lzl qlEql. 7l4ol 4iplqz+ ¤e
    el=-J q= dol ,lcql^l ++ 6J+ tr^= 5E6l +s"6f+.
    zE ei ra na'E "J+ +4rlFes+Mo= E6J6J+=
    ag 40q 'J EJ.JaJ4 g ^l-gol+. FeMo_-H3 olz|
    (FeMo-cofactor)+a EE= ol +a= si$ gC zlEl
    SEel
    ^lE!+
    EllTlE tr 4I+61+ age ^J484. ?A a{ 6-+el FeMo-
    -Ba olzfS ztllq Fe glxle| rzflel Mo gzITI -5r+
    + gzlql el6]] gag Eqlol4eal il.29).
    h" ++qI ^ll+ol ei
    =31^q
    j1A s^el e+ El]+ +d-6}:il.
    -' otEtlg E +s+ nc$ zfp + 914= ag ^JEE aole
    {N02 -)
    s +E 6}+oltrI. ol ac q+q ei= 4zl ?gl,<-l
    ^J44etr Brdol *3 q.Jr+ ^JE7llq1,r1el fet}
    ) E6Jg 4l+ +++6IE^l +"Je + il4. ¤a j1A E
    ^l6l+
    $.+H, zl+tlql ^JEol ¤z]]B+ gtg 4o14.
    ^7f
    +{ E{l: 14.86, t4.l1s,14.116
    arB 14.28 EA +gsl E+ E^.lE

    > rE 14.29 E^ a8 E^E


    FeMo-t/^ ?lll'trA ?8 64= \
    9=+ rE-Joll LtEl-LJ g^q
    +ale_t,J3 "J+ =e$l
    +elql^l
    ^lEel
    gaE+. 0l -^e.l Erd
    84El= H^ oJ^f= 7zll9^[ala[a
    Fe fl
    ltu
    K
    Y
    Mo ExlE s:gl6E, 0l
    g g^loil
    ^|.sl17Hsl
    96|1 E=EIGI 91r[.
    =P
    E_^ ?]^lsl Ele+ql fl^lZr E^f=
    3 H^ oJ^lel SEEsl Llq^l +
    Pg c4z;le q:+g 6[tl
    O Worachat Tokaew/Shutterstock
    652 1461 6t-+ ff8 +EE

    \l
    F
    TEJ qHI
    t/ 7HLtr{
    ¤.6J

    7lfll8sl Et(HCooH)e ts¤ 8Eoll^l tl-ale0l E6tlEtl. 300


    HCooH(g) Coz(g) + Hz(e) k
    -
    F40]lE6tl Uaq HJB il'+= oJilB Koll^l 0lE6tl U30l gq
    H
    o ,rtr
    =8Eflt|.838
    g ntl, HcooHel +E "J+ rll ,\lrJe] raflsE ral 14.30011 Ez^q do+ LIEILH ilr HCOOH(q)Pf +^H
    o'a

    flq.. 4aJ9 ZnO -r.illE U3 E7loll E7t6tE. tlel ?E gaj= EElraJ ol- 150

    1 4.30e1 q.al^4 dal' a0 I E:.Jrl..


    ^1?J0il o
    yz;tlel "Jil. UB +E 8+E Zlt6l^le. ts ZnO(s) u/c
    (a) Btl E6H HJS9
    HCooH(s)
    (b) Et Etlflznoel g:df-oe+El GIE
    E6tl HJSoll Lt|= + 9l=71.?
    (c)ol ¤E0il,r.1= EfSel Tl:d rlSE aldEl'7| 9l6H Et =EE
    +E gal=s gd 0 s00 1000 1500
    =7lel r.lZ(s)
    )J2:oe
    'Jqt
    g4 t1tloll E lel $EE mol/L Efle fa.l+
    ^l7J =E6lflt1. arE 14.30 838 Kgilll trl.= HCooH(s)
    u TfEdl.E, ola]-d HJE3 kg Zl{t'Joll clE BSE +4,1=71'? q oJ+ E61 ^lr.loil
    (d) UB iETl0ll E+t gal8 3.00 x 102 torrfltl. g8-d .gEe| o18 7li1l ="J

    =7lg
    TlEg nll, u3 EE zl9 gr'4e gElETl? HJ8 E7l9 +n171436 cm3a1E, EJ8 Se BJ8 E7loil
    -15 zlr1l9 E+ts ^lE01l^1
    gEtoJTf? ^180il^1 =q
    (e) Et E= SdEg LHi = -378.6 kJlmotolcl. Eill USel AH'= lltbl^|g.. HJ39 gdEl.0ilLl^l(Ea)tl fiq kumot
    =7le..l
    g q.
    olalr u3 ollLlrlE-E= zajs|.l] ae:laEa. AH", dol AiE]|E tr,(l6l,\l9.

    rilu PV (600/760 atm)(0.436 L)


    :
    n=
    ;= torffi 5.oo x lo-3mol
    (a) HCOOH9 oJqg torrol4. r4sql^.i
    3.00 x 102
    =71
    Z?)6XE ¤HloJ r.so x 102 torroll 6ll'*6}=
    ^lrJg
    q+ (e) H^l d4l qlqzl H5](aa9(* r.rx. ffi c)= tr|s=r+

    6.60 x lq2aolq ol
    ^lAol
    *rJzlol4. gi1 HI+ql ql6J Aol 4l&6J4.
    +E tL+E 4 r+.rzE-o ^l-+6}q 4t}6IE tr|s=rI rJ+. AH' : Allr"(Coz(s)) + A,Hi@2@)) - AHf(HCooH(g))
    k:0.6931trn:0.6%1660 s: 1.05 x 1g-3 r-t = -393.5kJ/mol + 0 - (-378.6kJlmol)
    (b) Zno -r.x.llzl-=46.J ull t}Sol 94 mleAl {BEee ol : -14.9 kJ/mol
    4isl¤E *4I B6]] HIS9 qul]e $-$$rli.<[
    .EHol A44 p, ilstr+El, f.B
    ol dlr+ t4.16xlH Hl+ qlLlzl
    dg "J + 9l+. olae w.J +,}] 4+q + qlol+. Es= aq4al rg + fl+.
    (c) #4i9 bE= EIEIB g ++le:a-lclele., +ql HI¤.E
    elzJzlb 660aolr kE ag nl_s-E 4l+B aolEi. /ce-l TOISEll
    tgl: s-'olE-e k <lg bE .*.^lq ++le+b +
    ^Fqo6J
    +6lEI. trl

    +8E +q"*Eql "++ HI¤¤ I mot%I ^JCE 2 morol


    EJ]
    (d) E

    ^J¤g+. :a4oe. oltt zlSl B¤¤ ztCE ull, el*ol otl


    Ll
    Aff
    $Eq9g ull .Jqg a7l .Jqg + E]]oJ 600 torrT| $ ^l __L_
    * gEe| 4 *3 zl4l Eqs.l =d9l^J HI+ol
    trI(41
    .Jq+a 9lzl rllE9l olt zl4 q¤¤ 7[46]= 49 q]
    E4ol+). oltr zloll4¤ ^l-&6}q 7l4lE g+= +q-r+ HT9OI IIOH

    Aol Al&oJ + 9l+.-o..- (10.4¤).


    sE "! ea gq 653

    sE "J 6e tq
    HJB +EE ,\lE(IlE, 14.1tr) rpf EIB *EE(chemical kinetics)9 +E E¤g t}*ol EzlE ,J +59 A4-e oJqt4-r. 213;j
    H.!8 rate)E t+dl"b E+EIel + Eotol4. HI+ +E E|. +E6l+ Exl¤9 3F 9lrlzlzl-=++ +E qqzl=
    -aE(reaction =.+.
    ql ¤6J-9 ib tzls=3 ql¤¤el E;.14 tlEH, LoE, sE, +Ellol+. **.1 "J9471 9t ald6Jel gluJzl= t¤rl oilulrl(activation
    energy, E )4n oltlE qlLl^lE r*= +Eol "Jq+E +
    6Jq. E,
    EJ8 +E(142E) EI+ +EE trE ++l ^lrJB *Eq Hsltr +
    E ts^l-=g flxl-Eol t¤$ qg1".6r",ed complex) EE dolgEIl
    +u4. gHl4sE +..I^J HI+ql ql6.J +E= aB ¤-be(M/s)el (transitionstate)E B^J6I4 El=ql, ol BJ¤¤ol
    +9E +48trI. ql++E HI+ql ql6ll $bE=,tlz.lel !|fE r ^JEI= ^JCEE
    H+q= a-aql^l TltI +e qlq^l tlqlol4. +E qlHzlzf +E
    HI+ol 41BHql q+ +E7I ei} L.El^l= ag g + 9I
    ^l6IH, 6l rq-L 6ll^l BJE^I t}*ol .Jq4i ag olqE+. +Eol HI*e
    4. +Zl *E(instantaneous rate)t Er-oE-^l+ r4uql^J EA g ololxlzl 916l^l= +E qI*EEol
    d{ zl$zlo1+. +E= ^JdEE ^J^Jol+ H}¤¤E ^lq ^lE 4a{L B6}oE
    ^lAql^Jel El].JElq ?lqoF 6JE+.
    +49 + 91i1, tsJ+el +qrJEsE+q c^J +Ee+ 4l-
    ^E-+..,.1o1e.1 tszlE9 eE qqzl= gEql E¤6I71 q+ql H]+el +
    4= +41= .J + 9l+.
    E ^J+= gEql r4 E=6J+. +E ^J+ /ce+ gEel +41=
    +set tsE(14.3tr) ^-E Efl(ratelaw)g +Ee+ br .'.1o19 Xg Arrhenius Al(Arrhenius equation)9E +qd4(ft = ee-EJR\. 4
    4 +4lEt-lEI44, trF trIs-r+ Ag BqlE 7l4L+. z\ t'l AE t'JE ?lrl(frequency factor)o l
    q, ++ol'J ol 4zl ql 4!l
    +E=/.[H]+E tl'[H]*E zl' "' $¤ol :14. Arrhenius {3 sF e:oJ
    SL Hllolg TiTl +E=+e|

    +E Hzlql fl= AI+ kE 4-E g*(rate constant)4i xl+


    "Jtr|, + Bqle r|*$4(ln ft :ln A - E,lRr). l4o-e. h k 4 r/r :
    m, n # HI¤¤.q ffi i[$(reaction order)ts]tr q]+. 4 H]¤¤ 74itty zlgtlt| -E,/RoJ zldol4.
    9l HI* zl+E E+ EJ6LH Eill u.!$
    iff(overall reaction order)E HJB Ell 7'l Ll=(14.6tr) H.lS 01fl ulE(reaction mechanism)¤ **
    grll E+. HI* 4a3 Hl.^l d,Ezl oe acqqot 6J4. +E
    +Aql^l .Jq+b 4 +41= *^116lr]1 7l+6J aol+. 44el +
    tr.+E ++l= dx] El+ 4+q q4 E+eE+. d4l HI8 il+7} roJ alE 'Jg Erll ElE(elementary reaction)olzp 4q, HI*ql +q
    HI+el A+ /ce.l +91= s-'o1tr, dill HI+
    ts-rol4. ^l+712oJ
    HI*el A+ d+ g^I+(EirlE(moleculariry)q qed+ g Celg +E Bzl
    /cE B+l=M g ,*=4. +g t4l El+ql^l 14, zz\l.37lle.l HI* Exlz} atol
    E"Jqe HI+ r+Cg ++61+ ql ^l-.e.9 + glb 7l¤ + 6|+0l 4: a+ 44 tlExl(unimolecular), olEr](bimolecular), frErl
    4. Beer Hzlql qeB, qtr EeE 5a +tlql^]g {z}zl -$.t} (termolecular) Hl+ol4r oJEl. AL+zI B'J +41 Hl+g ,1]+ E
    d g+: r EeE tEql El46J+. EtrI. .J+^1, ol$zf, ;$$zf E]++ 44 dill HI+ il+7| oJ^t,
    tsEet +E H4g HI+ 4AE qL ^ldq^l Hl* oli|, {rfal +E Hzlg tr}gE+.
    ^l?.(14.4tr)
    Er+ ^JCEq t.EE AA6F= ql ^l-s"g + flE+. gti] H.!8(first- Y*g Hl+ol F zll oltt9 +"J +zl Hl¤¤ eEl6l-= ++41 ql
    orderreaction)el +E:*49:-oEoll Blql+Et. + +5-: ftlA] 4q+ql elall "JqtEI. qe El.J \]41 EJ
    =zEtl(intermediate)E
    olE+. olel¤l a+ql +E tsaE 4E B4= t";a]'= -kr+h[e]o +ql^l ^Jcqa, ol+ql gq+E +.J +al E}*ql^l ql
    ^Eq7l
    olr|. oJzl.{ tAl,= LoE, kE +E Eql, dzll El+!q= +Elr+^l 9+=r+. "JE,ll4L-l6ol 94 zll
    ^lt ,q^l H}¤¤ A9 ^J+,
    I +g E4l Hl+g.Ed6In 9lsB, d4l +Ets Tltt !fl t'J
    [e]n= eel a7l +EolEf. "]+^l 'Jz] H]+q 4* m[e] 4 ^la
    -r?llsql^l 4d9 zl¤zlE -kolE}. +Zl Hl+e +E e¤ E ll(rate-determining step)9] 9oll ^ll6JgE+.
    olil H-]E(second-order reaction)* dill H]+ il+7] 2oJ +* +E ec +41 ol+ql gq+b miE +"J t4l Hi+g +E B4ql
    g "JoJtrt. Hl¤¤ol dILtoJ oli,I ++9 a+, +E Hzlg +E: g6}.9 +al ?+=trI. +E eC +4
    "ldql "Jq+E mfE +g +
    klAl,olq, lAl9 E+de 4+ BEI.el +E Hzl l/[A]t: 4l Hl+g trF +rJill$ -s6J6l+ ¤Bg ^Jd6Jtrt. Eil4q+ol +
    ^lrJ
    l/[A]0+k,ql E6l +q{+. ol a+, l/[A], ql ,rlzJ:4e] zld c.6}zl fl6ll^lE, 44q+ee+El ql+.J +E tszlol ¤E4ee
    g Ll4B+. Bil E}E(zero-order reaction)g dill Hl+ iI+7I 0"J Eg +E Bzlr+ HIE^I oJxlal]ot ++.
    HI+g "JeEI. ++ il.+7l. 6ol E .E +E H zlg +E = /c7f gtrI. z}4lg g+4e s+q+4 $ffi f;xl
    +rl|(14.7tr) *oll(catalyst)E
    Hl+E ,J#7l(half-life, r,rz)b HI¤¤9 z7l +E7l AHI9E a ?*eH^l EI+ +EE +71^l7lY Eeol4. +,llb BtrI *g gd
    46]+ ql a4E ^lrJoltrI. "J^l H]+ql^.1 Hl?zlE szl +E ^J pI glulzl$ ,*: +C HI+,il4q=g zll$'$eexl HI¤¤ +d
    +q E¤61-i1 a7l *'Es+= ++4q, \2:0.6%lkol4. olil EE *rtl(homogeneous catalyst)i Hi*E-=4 eg tlg
    ++ql^l *zJzlE +E d}+e+ A4 ztl +E s+ql E¤4q, ^lrJ4.
    z*E +rHol4. IEg goll(heterogeneous catalyst): HI*E==+
    1,,r: t/(k[A16)o14. r+E tLg z*E +ol]ol4. El^ll6J ++ "Jzl-=g +aqt} E= 7lxll
    +EOll EllE! EEel g:d(14.5$ eg(collision model)oE g {} +*ql^l ¤+g +4e y+ol ^Fsg+. HI+ Ezl-=g +EllE s
    =fi
    E7f +7l6Jql q4 +E tI+7I +7f61+ ol+= ¤Hel + 91tr1, Eql A6J4a+ ffi(adsorption)dJ4. Hl*Eol -s.H9 58 z}?'l
    654 j4B el+ EJB +E=

    ql ¤:46|H a"Jg ¤+g +o1614 4q g^JsI qqzlE *+4. ol "Jq+E


    ^IflE fr¤
    rBl(active site)4.I +4. Adel +"1i zl
    c^ll 4el +,11 +¤+ E^(enzyme)gl eldl gq++. Ei='ll+ ¤¤ ¤B6l+ rta^l-E^l eB(lock-and-key model)il 9alH, zl
    5A6J Hl¤¤ +{g + 9l= +Ea ts^lol4. E^ H}+ql^lel ¤ Ezls=¤ a^q gd xlqq * Eoldg r*-7 e6J6la, olq
    =
    HI¤¤ $2ffi zlfl(substrate)olap eI4. alq.<] zI+ +rl] ^l HI+ol 'Jqklq.
    =A

    6J# ¤al ot
    :d
    BE E+:d +ol qal+e q.=E + etotor Ejtrr
    .e+E HI+E +Eql ¤6Fg ++ "Jzl¤¤ cda..J+(14.r3). EE AA"J+(14.44). +H g+ +^\: 14.42-14.44
    +¤ s+ExI: r4.u, 14.18 . "JzI EI+gl +E {}+e} H}z}zl .,.1o1e] $ZlE
    "l*t}41r+.+4).
    .HI+EolL+ bE= ^lrJql 44 +A6Iq HI* +EE +¤ S+ E4f : 14.41, t4.42,t4.99,t4.roo
    ^J^JEe]
    eAq}+(r4.2¤). +A S+ +4: t4.te-14.22 .H]¤¤e] bE= EE ol+6}q ql+ iI+
    ^lrJE ++e +4u
    .+B EI+ Hl+^lql^l ^JCEE ^JC +Ee+ Hi¤¤E +E -e- a{q}r}(14.+¤). *H S+ E^ll: 14.47-t4.so
    g+^la+(A.24). +d ¤+ #4:14.23-14.26 ^r. .gd+ qlulzlz| qB4l +Eql g6}9 +=zl$ ¤E6Ir,
    =
    . Hi+ il+e+ +E t+= s6}6I= +E Ezlg Bqlp}9,lE ¤ Arrhenius 49 ol*6J f 914(ta.s¤).
    g ajQ(ta. : ¤). +E g+ +4 : 14.27, 14.28, t4.30, t4.32 +¤ S+ E4l: 14.s9, 14.6r,14.62,14.64
    . gBq deql^l qel bEel HI¤¤E +a+ +EE ol+4q .q;l 4E Eg tr4 HI*se +Cg r+*41 ql4q+ ++ql Etl
    HI+g +E Hzlli +E ^J+E AC6JE|(r+.r¤). '+
    +E Bzlg el+6JEl1ra.0¤). +H s+ +41: 14.71-14.74
    +B g+E4l: 14.33-14.36 .+"ll ++9 zlB g?]E ¤Eql4(r4.7¤).
    .4S B4E +E Ezlg 4+6Lq 54 +fl g+ +^ll: 14.7s-r4.77,14.7e
    ^lAq^lE Hl¤¤E b

    z o HFe-/\l
    Or-t- u o -
    r A[A] r a[B] 1 A[c] 1 AlDl
    --E- a Lt b Lt c Lt - d At Ir+.+l a A + bB + cC+ do tB r+q HI+4q CtsE-tr -s.¤6J
    uo .4.E
    BL-g- ol -a-lo-o'l
    -r-
    . +E:k[A].[B], Its.zl 'A + B + ^JCE HI*ql
    ql+ +E Bzlel .JElzl ¤EI
    . lnfAl, - lnlA]6 : -kf E= ,.||il : --, Ua.nl 'A
    ^JCE'+*ql
    ql+'JiI HI-& +E tszlel 4e BEI
    11
    -
    .-=kt*- Ir+. ra]
    .A
    HI¤:q 46t olil +¤. +E E4g 4E
    LAl, lA lo
    - ^JtE BElt

    . lAl, : -k+[e]o 'A + q+ git Hl+ +E tszlg zlE ¤EI


    Ira. roJ ^JCE HI-&ql
    ' \tz: 0.693
    o
    Ir+.rz) .Jil H}*ql^l rlzJzlq+E ++E +zl
    . k:Ae E.lRr
    Ir+.zrl +E ^J+q s_E g+dg ¤B6l-= Arrhenius 4
    F.-
    . lnk: -# + lnA Ir+.zzl Er d-+e u|48 Arrhenius
    ^l

    oJ+ +z1l
    EoE
    g-+L.llE Ll! 7llL.l

    t4.t Elg rBq^Je+ zJol xl-="ifel ¤-e 7o3215 El^il6J tl+


    849 zl¤flg ¤flq .JeE +E+4. 9+ fHql^Je+ ./
    TJol +oJ7l7l Ei{g a+, 95.5 rl ol$ ul*lla}zlu} fol
    6}zl ?*41 qq ilE C+ol zl6t¤4. oleloJ ++ 4¤¤ El
    q HI+ +EE!} qBril ¤+^lrJ ¤E6J + 9l=7I?
    [rr.rd]
    7
    EA E^l 655

    14.2 trf¤. r4s= s}'JE x9


    ^lrJql
    qE.r-oE Hq¤ LIE+rd (a) El¤* ,:o+E] t:tsB4*l oJAt +EE gq+=r|?
    aol+. of4 9l;|+ 4 4¤* ar.Jzf, 4,i."J71? lt+.241 (b) HI¤+ r: tsEgl *49itl?
    (a) xE HI+el
    ^JCEol+.
    (c) EI+ol 0.20 mo19 Ke+ 0.40 mol9 LE 7H^lqfl+n 7I
    (b) Hl+ +E: Hl¤. r.lzJol {$aNE +2 r** +^l+4. ,J6lzI. 308 +, HI+ gElEql 0.20 mol9 K= q 7FI*.
    (c) d 14 2 B# +E= ? 14: ^Iolel ¤+ +EB r|. r:loBrt r:6cE r4E7t qE E.&g +
    ^lolel ^Iolql^l
    q a+. El-g a"Jzl= ¤E.J ol4 4¤¤ +ql^l q- aol gHI
    (d)
    ^lAol
    +dg A+ oI4+ oJ.J(r+
    A"+Etq EI4 %r-6J) E LU+q,lrl?
    -e--E
    6J-.14 g a.l+. (il tLalS r:30$gl^.1 ,*= itol :rlltr $zl$ {olQ.
    (iil tMlg,:0+El f :1sE4zl9 tl&tls+ Ae <ieE
    t:ss*7tlzl +71++. +^l+¤ol 94.
    (ii0 tMlg di} A^6Iq r:+sEglrJ 0ol g aol+.
    t4.s oI4 rBg No(s)e} or(s) g6J+9 44U 1.1+. F El*
    X EE Hl¤+ +gr+,J+.
    2No(3) +oz(s)-+2Nozk)
    ¤e a4e+El ++ +E= Noql qlalq oli|, s,ql qla|
    q gz}tr ACqflq. ol de Arl¤ 7BJ6l*g Ell. otrll
    +ql^J qL aol TIaL nI= a7l Hl* +EE '*11=
    =ElE
    zl? lrs.t9)
    ^lz
    14.3 EI*+E S+= +16]]^l q]*Er+ ^JCEE *EE ^lrJe-l
    wgt ry dn
    B+e +A6Iq +g+ Ae de a4= EH+. [14.2¤]
    A qnry %-&
    @b
    @68 d& -sp b{
    \,
    E @@
    (1)
    S¤P%
    (2)
    s (3)
    @P

    14.6 qL ts+gol "Jzl HI+g += F gEql^l dE6lq q-g


    +rJ+ r-4E 37HE 99'1. 1t+.+¤1
    (a) ,JS s--Eql^l ¤B6J Ar+= +44= + r4== q-
    F l-4o7} i}ol= trol= olfi E +9."J7}? +
    (a) oI4E q- H]+ol 9l
    ^l2J
    ¤E ar+e+ olzla|.!z[!
    r4s=
    ^{tl? qE eql^l E"J6J aoJTI?
    e.-B (ii)B-A (ur) A+2 B (iv)B
    (il A (b) ,Jg a7l r-o Es1^l Ei= gEql^l dE+ ArlE g
    (b) + EAg -2
    4E +EE 6JeE FTlq HI* ^.jE
    ^JC +E+ qd F r4gi qL a.J7I? E +q^l e4 *3 9E
    +E4g qElLll^ls. q^J dE+ a+tr- Ee r4s= 9- 4q_1zl-?:Bzll
    14.4 K+L .+ M HI+g ^J4"I Bzt. dCg N{E 5s Hffi ++.J ol+E ¤B6llE^ls-.
    6J+tr =A+ ElolqE+E.l otqle+ rJg r4_EE E
    ^lrJg
    fl+. tr4.2¤l

    ,\lrJ
    051015202530
    f (E)
    656 143 af+ oJ8 +E=

    14.7 (a) ol4 :H3 r:0+4 r=3otsq]^Jel HI+ Ar+= trq 14.10 ol4 + 4dg
    ^lE
    trIE F HI*ql 4oJ tn t 4 t/r r1o1q
    iE fHoltrI. HI+ol "JiI HI+ol+E, ol HI+q El? E E^lt 4.o14. F 4dS r A$ztlzl el4}6}q ffl aol
    zl| pulolz|? 1+.q4) 4. ;ra.sd1
    (a)olL HI*ol gC+ qlLlzl(E,)7}4 Atl?
    {l o) qL q}+ol HIE oJzl-(A)7t Ll a7l?
    & 3f"'
    eqo
    6il
    {il sp
    o0o e 3.'q
    r:08 f:30E
    (b) gi} H}+ql^l +rJ7l7l LJI H HI+E +ql Bol 9lb Hl
    *Eq Ege g"I'Jzl?
    r4.8 'A * {dE',E}+ql q+ q}* il-fzf (a) g^}. (b) g^}.
    (c) olxlql Z*, oI4 4d rqg 6ql^'l qL 4.ol 4 HI+ 1,/T

    ^l+ql
    6l]r*61+zl? lla. a4) ra.rr oI4 rHg Ag gEql^J Eg{} H}+ql qE} F 7i^l r+=
    (i) (ii) Hl+ AtrE 4481"14. +gql t+¤ 4 4*ol *.Jzl,
    ZZltzl +E6I^le. [r+.od]
    (a) **+E=++4 A+HqDSrJ^l Atrql^.1 q BBle4.
    o) F aE EFq qldl^J, qHI+
    +E= aHI+ +E}-+
    LJtrI
    ^lz ^l7J (c) F aEoll.tlE qlq^l Ep+(AE)= +rJr+.
    (iii) (iv)

    trl
    EJ]

    otl
    L1
    ^lz ^l7J rl
    (v) (vi)

    ,JSE T]A

    r4.r2 olql rHg d4l t}*ol F +41tr'Jq+= ag L+48 a


    N7J
    ^la olE+. g+^q +g &4, ++^q +e e^, +4 +e ¤+s
    r4.e ot4 rHg HI+ trsE +ElU a"lq. rHE qlE.Jql 4 go1e. [ra.0¤1
    '*+,ll¤¤ al B " ^le. [te.s¤] (a) 4 t4l HI*ql .I+ sI+ Hlg" ,
    ^]g ^ls.
    (b) dall Hl*ql ql+ pl+ Hls. r,'.r.le.
    ^lg
    (c) HI* ql4q+ql^l +rJ^ll= qL atTl?
    (d) a H4l +alE HI+ +E7I -fl +E aC q}4l4l. zI
    trl
    a6}r, dr,ll HI*q ql.J +E H4g r
    eo ^le.
    EJ!

    r
    =
    otl
    L1
    a-il==l }{-e
    ^l
    {6
    (4) q
    p +@ -------->

    H190l xl6t{
    {
    657
    =* =rll
    14.13 ol4q HI+ aE= nEg q, A + c HISql^l r4.re zlt}el ++E Hl+ A(aq).+B(aq)Z ^J46l]H^I. ¤r+4
    ^JcEl
    +z4lel += q 4oJ7l? H z1l9 dol *4zI =.ql
    0.06s mol9 AE Ef,-+ ++o-qol too.o mL 914. H]
    =
    tl? t- Be| B -+ C + q! +Zl7I q ru[$z[r $$ e
    =zl]6l+
    *ql qlEL d¤ cJlolqi 494 eq.
    cql 4+ AE= .Jel tl, gE {t, 0 ?ql^l q! a"J 30 10 20 40
    -tl? ir,s.e9l ^lrJ(E) 0
    E+ 0.065 0.051 0.042 0.036
    Ae.l 0.031

    (a) Egl 9l= 4 Bel g+E 4l&6}^l-e-(,:0e


    ^laql^lE
    q^l B B^Ib glr., Ab frJillel
    ^Jc sol Be"J a+
    trl
    ¤rll z14aj4;.
    EJI B
    (b) roB zf,leE Ael B+ 4E +EE M/s tt+l-a 41416l
    4
    oil
    l.l o
    Ll
    rl (c) r: l0E4 r:30ts BE g+ 4eE lrls
    A ^Iolql^J ^8C
    Elfle (+qE +qE.Ja6IEln 7Ia++.)
    guloJzt?
    C 14.20 7l*9 Tlill^J HI* A(s) Bk)q lrl4 Eq
    - =+^3ql
    9lE o.roo molel az| HI+6Iq BE ^JC-JtrIjt ^J46Izl.
    uSel T.l3J Hl+ql ql+ dil r]olrlE trI.gr+ eq.
    14.14 +gql +E}U ol+zl HI+el 7l^b6J dol tr4E rr]^le 0 40 80 r20 160
    (++^q *3 da flzL tszJ4 +g tla gzlolr+). dol ^lrJ(=)
    e9 ==# 0.100 0.067 0.045 0.030 0.020

    ^Jqlq^l Bq4rlr+ Bcq= atle ddge +EI4^ls. (a) .goll 9E 4 ^lrJql^lE Bq E+E Zlt6l^le(A= 6
    Ir+.e¤]
    a4lE ^Jd Hol B-aEI a+g+r 7Ia++).
    {HD.g& -*e+gry{t 0) 40:a z]/etr_ AE ¤+ AE +EE mor/s E}9ltr 4l4I
    6I^19-.

    r4.rs ol4 .zB¤ F HI+,ll4q=g +4U


    zI^J4oJ +41 aol
    (c)
    ^lrJB tEE +flE +EE aL$61-71 fl6[^Jb ol4 .tl
    EI. EJ4 *g g4 a, 5r4 ro¤: Sc s, El*^q *g g^. ¤¤+q^l +lol gs6.J7l.?
    c= +4U+. bt.a9. ru.241
    (i) 4 7li] sq (ii) Hl¤. +q
    ^laql^JE =4^=E
    (iii) gE (iv) A9 EzI=*
    (a) $al Hls"^lg;r,rl9.
    (b) arJzllE qL a"J7I? [*1zts"Cql,<lzlill,lrgqlEroiolA+olep(methylisonitrile,
    (c) +El]= 9g a"JzI? CH3NC)ol ot^]lELlol E B(acetonitrile, CH3CN)-+ H+q

    go a
    rjr, o
    tP
    : olceE+ HI+q 4q-q q-q=4 ae dE
    lcHjNCl (M)
    rJlolEE 9fl4.

    O + , + ^t2J(E)

    -oE 3 02 qb -. 2000

    s000
    0 0.0165
    0.0110
    0.00591
    14.16 + +rJ^ll7l
    ^.itr
    += +Etr ^Jcg= gg ++q H]+ a 8000 0.003 14
    EE LtEql= r4sE ral^le. r?llsql HI¤¤, ^ddE, 12,000 0.00 I 37
    +7J^ll. dol tr4 "t SCEI ollulul= +E|4^le. I 5.000 0.00074
    l+.e?.. ru.z9l
    (a) 4 14 ^lA 'J4ql^Jq ¤+ Hi+ 4sE ruls t9lE
    u3 +E(14.18.14.2tr) 4l&6I^le.
    v.t7 (a) EI+ +s.el 9"lb F9.oJzI? (b) +o+ HI+ +Eql ¤.J o) f :oa+El t:t5.o00zrt7l dill ^lrJql^lE B# H]*
    g += 7I^l -e-oJg .A^le-. (c) Hl*E9 +EeI ^J +E= Alt6}^le.
    ^,ll ^E
    (c) r : 20004.P4 r : 12,}}}Zvlzlcl, r: 8000a+Ei
    CEg ^Jd +E= 6J* ,Je 4oJ7l?
    la.l8 (a) +"I*ql^l "Jq+= HI*q +E= s¤61-= rJl .tl-$6| t:tspoozvl^lE + ^lA H+l +ql^l ¤f 4s.zl rJ
    ++lY Ft'JzI? (b) gs.z} ?71-+ql ul4 HI+ +E= H+l= 9g L.JzI?
    = = r4sE r4r, r:5000ae]
    <,li;lb7l. +}l6lv-712 (c) EI*ol A68Eql 44 +a HI (d) [CH3NC] Ell
    ^lAE
    * +E= +7l6lb7L AA6l+71? f :8000aq1^lel +a4sEul' +91-e aa4^ls.
    658 143 ql-+ HJB +EE

    14.22 t+* ++q ql+ HCIE iE +EE +a6l.q ++4 'Jg E6l+7|?
    ¤E rJlol4E 9*4. (b) Ae+ Bql 4oJ HI¤.
    ^I+=
    gut.Jzt? A^I BJ¤' iI+=
    CH:OH(aq) + HCI(aq) CH3CI(aq) + HrO(l) 9uI"Jzl?
    - (c) 4E tI+E E9lE +E.J7l?
    luctl(,vl)
    ^tz(E) 14.28 A, B, c iI+7I Aq 46lq
    7}{r-E Hl+ql^l HI+ .J
    0.0 1.85 ^Iolel
    s4.0 1.58
    iL Bql qld-q gzl, cql 4dlq olife$r. {46}^t.
    (a) ol q]*ql qloJ +E H4g 4^le.
    107.0 t.36
    215.0 t.02
    (b) [A]7] + dllTt qil E]e H]¤¤-5el +'5.= rqlEoJ a
    +, +E SE}} $ulz[ qdET]?
    430.0 0.s80
    (c) [s]z] HllT] E]r q= H]¤¤=q .bE=:IqlEg A
    ^ll
    (a) 4 ?C ^l+ 'zJ4ql^'lE E+ Hl+ 4EE M/s tfle +, +E {a}i $u}z} 9dbzt?
    4l&El^le. (d) lclT}
    ^.ll
    HllT| qr qE HI¤¤Eq r-oE= r4-Eg
    a
    (b) ,:0.0+ql,{ r:+:0.0tsv14 .J,1ll
    ^lrJql^lE
    B+ +8 +, +E $eli $ult] !dbz}?
    +5.= 4l4ldl^ls. (e) .trE HI¤¤E +EE 44 HI.e 6J A+, HI* +Eb
    ^ll
    (c) / = s4.oEPE r : 21s.0+vl4q, r = r07.oEBE q El]ql+ Hq+zt?
    1=a3s.s!7/lxlel +
    ^la Hfl +ql^] gt +E7I q (0 EE H]¤¤E +EE 44 Hlstr ¤oJ+H, HI+ +Eb
    HgE q! 4"J71?
    =
    9 ullqlE H6l+zl?
    (d) [HCl] Eil
    ^lrJE
    r4sE:.4L, r:7s.084 r:2508 +4 qql^J Nzosg EdI HI+g 2N2os + 4 No2
    ql^Jel +a 4sE u/min, u/s tgE a46}^le_. ^1gsl-
    +ozol4. Nzosgl .ll+ ++ il++ oJztoln, 64.cql^lg
    14.23 oIflE 4 Tlill HI+ql 46Iq, Ei¤¤E +Eel
    -ra:e+E 4.82 x to-3
    s-tol4.
    ^JCg ^J++
    E CC +E rJg +Al= ¤B6I^le_.
    ^E (a) H}¤.oll ql6J +E Bzlg ra^le.
    (a) HzOz(g) HzG) + 0z6) (b) [NroJ :0.0240 M"J q. HJ* +E= g"]"Jz]?
    @) zNro(g) -.+ 2Nz(g) + oz(s) (c) N2O5$ +E7I F ull"J o.OaAO M"J 4+, H]-3: +E=
    (c) Nz(S) + 3H2(j:) + 2NH3(g)
    9olqlzl?
    (d) C2HsNH2(g) -+ CzHr(g) + NH3(g)
    (d) N2oselr-"E7I ¤HI"J 0.0120 Mg a+, HI*+EE g
    oiqlE 4 rlAl HI*ql ql6}q.
    14.24
    ^JCg9 ^JCr+ EI¤¤E rrIfl7I?
    Eg zl=oE +E49 +EI4^ls. ^
    (a) 2H2O(g)
    14.30 4+ HI¤¤ ^846il Bzl.
    2Hz@) + oz(C)
    zNo(g) +2H2@) +zHzo(g)
    (b) 2SO2(g) +- oz(s) 2So3(g)
    -Nz(8)
    (a) ol HI*el +E B4g Hzgl 4dl-g oJilol-r. Noql ql6t
    (c) 2No(g) + 2H2@)- * Nz(8) + 2H2o(g)
    (d) Nz(S) + 2H2@)
    q olitol+. +E B4g lr^le.
    NzHr(g)
    - 0) ++q 4E. trizi 1000 Kql^J 6.0xto4 M-2 s-tol4n
    14.25 (a) i49 Sa +s"49 +ozk) --.--- 2 H2o(g)ol
    zHz@)
    alB, [No] :0.03s laoll [H2J :0.015 M"J EIE E]*
    +. +AE 0.48 mol/s9 4=-e gl,t1z3 a+. ,l}Ael 4E
    4EE 9uloJzlr
    $re| ffizlel ^Jc +EE goloJzl? (b) 2 No(s) + c12k)
    -+ (c) 1000 Kql^lNoE r-"E7I0.10 Mtr +7l6la- Hz9 EoE
    2 H]¤¤ "Jqg +71 Lilq^l d6J^l7l-r. 9l+.
    NOCI(g)
    710.010 Mg EllE Hl+ +E= gEI"JTl?
    NoE +E Eqol s6 torr/min9 +Ee Ai6J4E. *zl
    (d) 1000 Kql^l [No]7] 0.010 M-E 7J44i1 [nJz] o.oao
    ,.ll d4 Sqq tspI+EE 9,1-tz}?
    Me- ="716J qsl Hl+ $E! $ulolzp
    14.26 (a) 9lE{19 ¤4 H}*4g czHrk) + 3 o2k) 2 co2@)
    -
    +2Hro(g)ol+. CzHe9 +E7I0.036Mls9 4E-E zJr6J
    14.31 trl-g Hl¤¤ ^J46ll tr^t.
    .+
    CH3Br(a4) + OH-(aq) CHaOH(aq) + Br-(aq)
    ?*. core| H2o9 bE H+ +Eb gol-oJz}? (b) "Jqlg ol Hi+el q6}q .JxL oH-ql ql6}
    HI* +zl qlq^J 'Jq+= NzHak) +Hzk) ----* 2 NH3(s)
    +E tszlg CH3Broll
    q "JiloltrI. [cHrsr]ol s.0 x l0-3 M,lott-lzl0.050 MoJ
    ++ql^J NzHa9 +E .Jq *4 +e7l 74 torrol4.
    ^17J* Ell, 2e8 Kql^l Hl* 4s= o.o+:z M/sol4.
    +zl 4ql^J NH,9 *E.Jq4 dill SqE Hsl+EE g (a) 4E tI+ {rg 9"}9lzl.?
    rrl"JTl?
    (b) +E ^J+E ++l= Fitzl?
    +E E4(14.3E) (c) oH-9 bE.z|,t11 ul]z} qH {s.5 gu1z1 9dbz}?
    14.27 A+ B + HI*ql ql+ +E H4+ +E: klnlro14.
    C (d) + Hi*Eq *E7l z1z1^ll tsll7} ¤4H, 4s,= gulzf
    (a) [A]z] + tsllz] qE +EE $u[r-f {;]fz}? 4s 1t4; qA=7P
    E6 E^l 659

    14.r.2330 Kel ql+g 4q^l H.tr.ITJ4 ollB(ethyl bromide, (d) IBFJ:0.100 yoljr. INHJ:0.500 M"J Ell, H]* +E
    czHsBr)4 +'tlcl olgE *¤¤ crn'sr(alc) + oH- (alc) E Bulqlzl?
    +sr-(atc)ola, ol Hl¤¤ He"JsI qlB+
    ------ czHsoH(t)
    14.36 2 NoG) +ozk) + 2 No2(8) HI+ql^J NOE ig +E.
    +&s+ olgql 46Iq 44 "J^Iol4. [crsrsr]ol 0.0477 M q qi6J olEl ElolqE Eil+.
    oljl [oH-]7] 0.100 MoJ ull, trEql+ qlBel 4E +EE
    ae [No](M) toJ (M) jETl+-E(M/s)
    r.7 xto-7 Mlsolq.
    I 0.0t26 0.0125 1.41 x l0 2

    (a) 4E d}+',tg grloJzl?


    2 0.02s2 0.0125 5.64X l0 2

    (b) +E ^J+9 ++lE +t.J7l?


    (c) *991 E"J6J +Elel qlEgg ?zlal¤ q44*g a
    J 0.0252 0.0250 1.13 x l0-t

    +, H-e.trJcl qlEE ig fs.E gulzl9dlz}? (a) ol HI*ql q+ +E Hzlg +{.J7}?


    (b) +E
    +oleHr] olg4 6lolsg4.& olg(g4, sEql^lE g^J ^}+E +91= +E.J7P
    (c) ?l ,rll 7l]9 qlolElE+El al&q= +E
    c+)q HI¤+ +g-4 e+. ^J+E E+Zt
    -rn3e ocl-+I +oI-+cl- * E"lqlz}?
    mleril oJq+= ol HI+ql 46Iq El-gE dil rllolelE ? (d) [No] :0.0750 laola [oJ :0.0100 M.J q, Noe] i
    flEI. E +EE guh'Jz1?

    (M) (e) Ezll (d)ql^l +q1l +E aaql^l orel 4g +EE


    locrl tr-l (M) A7l+E(M/s) g"foJzI?
    1.5x l0-3 I.5xl0' 1.36x 10 I
    3.0x l0 3
    r.5xlo 3
    2.72(rc 1 1r+tzl zzt "cq^l 4l+ eiel rj.-EnJel Tlill HlsS z No(8) +
    Br2@) 2 NoBr(g)olQ. +gg NoBr dc9l qlt a
    7l HI+-$:a rllolelol4.
    4
    1.5 x 10-3 3.0 x 10-3 2.72xtO
    (a) ol HI+qlql6J+E B4g
    ^^^ls. d-d [No] (u) [srz]0v) a7l+E(M/s)
    (b) +E tr-+= 4,*¤l ++lE +4ql^le.
    0. l0 0.20 24
    (c) [OCl-]:2.0 x 10 3Mola lI-l:s.ox to a uoJ
    1
    ull,
    2 0.25 0.20 150
    Hl+ +EE Al4l6l^ls.
    3 0. l0 0.50 60
    14.34 ZClOzk,q) + zOH- (aq) ClOt- @q) + ClO2- @q) + H2O(f)
    - 4 0.35 0. s0 735
    HI+ql qlflq q-gel dE EJlolEl¤ EHtl.
    (a) 4E Hzlg aA6l^le.
    ¤:d [clor](M) [ou-](iu) azlAE(M/s)
    0.060 0.030 0.0248
    (b) I Zlel EllolElE+E Nosr CCql ql+
    uJl +E ^J+
    1
    g E+{}g 4l4}6t^le.
    2 0.020 0.030 0.00276
    (c) Brz9 ig +Eel NoBr9 ^J^J +E'= qq+ g+c
    J 0.020 0.090 0.00828
    -t olL7L.)
    ^l aE/ ti
    (a) ol ++ql q6J +E H4g eA6l^le_. (d) [No]:0.075 Molr [Br2] :0.25 MoJ rll, srz9 4E
    (b) +E t}+s 46Jd +9e +EI4^le. +5-E +6i^le.
    (c) [cloJ:0.100 Moln [oH-]:0.050 M'J trll, H]* +
    ll4.38l r+1ls+.1+4} ol$(perorydisulfate ion, S2Os2 -)r+ olol g
    E-E 4lt}6t^ls. Hp+.1&(r-)9 ++"1 4ql^lE El¤*.^d46I Exl.
    sFr(r:) +NH3k) + F3BNH3(g) HI+ql q6}q qgE dEl S2Os2- (aq) + 3l- (aq) 2SO+2- (aq) + r{ (aq)
    EllolqE BS,+. -
    -re-:s q! Ea+ gEql^l SrOr,-9 .azl 4p +E= r-.Eql q
    d-d [BF]l (M) [Nu,] (,u) n7l+-E.(M/s) B}Elg-r+Aol Et+.
    I (iu)
    0.250 0.250 0.2130
    #A [s,o*2-] trl (M) i7l+E(M/s)
    2 0.2s0 0.t25 0.1065
    I 0.018 0.036 2.6xtO-6
    3 0.200 0.100 0.0682 6
    2 0.027 0.036 3.9x10
    4 0.350 0.100 0. I 193
    3 0.036 0.054 7.8 X 10-6
    5 0.t75 0,100 0.0s96 s
    4 0.050 0.072 1.4x 10
    (a) ol E}¤-oll 46J +E Ez13 Fl,.Jzt? (a) Hl*"ll 4+ +E H4g aa6lj1., +E t'-+el ++l=
    (b) d,ll HI+ g"l9lzf?
    ^I+E ia^ls.
    (c) 4E *+E zl"J"J +gtr +4r.ll^le-.
    660 143 trt-+ HJ8 +EE

    (b) +.1 Lll zle.l qlolqe+El 4tq= s,o,2-9 ql


    So2cl29l94(atm)
    6J+E t}+el B+<ig guI"JzI? ^Eq ^1il(:E)
    0 1.000
    (c) I-9 4E +Ee+ sros2-9 AE +E= qq'6J {+C
    2s00 0.947
    ol 9l=7I?
    5000 0.895
    (d) [Sros'?-]:0.025 Molr [-]:0.050 M"J trll. I-el 4 7500 0.848
    g +E= ErtoJzI?
    10,000 0.803
    tqE EEel EFI(14.4E)
    ^liloll (a)
    14.3e 9HI4.J "JiI Hl+ A .----- Boll^l ^l+el ++.tr' E^l6l 14.46 2ls'cql^J .JiI Hl+"J
    CH3NC Tlalel olda+ HISql

    9g a+ 4d +41= +4qlE'Jg +lql7l.? (b) (a)91 46Iq E+gE dE ql.lqE efl+. HI+E "JiI HI+ +
    ^l
    ril
    r4s-e+q gi} HI+ql q6J+E tr+E qBal E tl+e+ t}?zlE Zl&6}^le.
    +g + 9l=7I? ,l.IZ(i) cHjNCE S4 (torr)
    14.40 (a) 9HI4.J olil HI+ A ----- Boll^l E^l6I
    ^l+el ei+E 0 502
    flg a+ 4d +4lE +Elr-I: .J3 **.Jzl? 6) (a)91 2000 335

    ^l
    rfl 4d9 zl.gzlb Fi¤ 9"lal=7l? (c) olrl HI¤- 5000 180
    ol dBEqlq+qI+E tlzJzlE +7li;ly7l, zJraliz|,
    8000 95.5
    E6t4 ?J:-r. rqlEoJTI?
    12,000 41.7

    14.41 (a) SozClz TlalE E61l HI+!g so2c12k) ----- SozG) I 5,000 22.4
    +cl2k)olq, so2c12q q6}q "JzI ti*o14. 600 Kql^l
    .l r+Ce-l t}?zlE 2.3 x 10s=ol+. ol $soll.lel $s. 14.47 +41 14.leq ?qt rllolelE ^l-s6}q +g eEql B.6]-
    ,!-++ gEloJTl? (b) 320 "cql^JE +E
    ^J+: 2.2xto-s ^ls.
    s-'o14. ol gEql^l g tlzJzlE g"IoJzI?
    (a) 46Jt ]ElE¤¤ ol+6}q ++ol .Jit t}*.Jzl, ol
    zl HI+oJzlE ac6}^le_.
    14.42 62s Kql^J r2k') +zl-b r g^l-E'=e +dlq=4, ol HI+E
    (b) E]+el +E d'+= 9uloJzl?
    .JiI HI$ +E g.zzt s-' ol4.
    ^J+= (c) Hl*9 tlzJzlE $PloJzl?
    (a) ol ++E tlzJzlE gu}.Jzf?
    (b) ol gEql^l 0.050 M r2.e. HI+g rlzl6J4E, s.rz= 14.48 +41 14.20q1 +qd qlolqE Elg aEq B6L
    ^F&6lq
    +q tsoI9lE Irg o}g EuloJzl? I gzl+ 12 Bzl-E ^ls.
    xfla*6}^l ?*:Ela zl{qlQ. (a) HI*ol "J^I HI+.Jzl, oli| {$olzl$ aC6}^le.
    (b) +E 6i3 $ulolzlr
    14.43 +41 l4.4lql 7l¤* Hte| aol, sorcrre] E6ll HI¤+ "JiI (c) HIrJzlb gEloJTI?

    No, 7l4lE +611 HI+4g 2 No2k) .+ 2 No(s) + ozk)


    HI¤.1+. 660 Kql^l eql Elg"E +E d+E 4.5 x lo-z r-t
    ol+.
    rl.+s
    olQ. 383 "cq^l +g=4 +e dE ql.lqE Efl+.
    (a) So2Cl2 7lAlE 47l'$Eol aso torolB, 60i $ o1 sl-
    *Eq ++ 943 9otelzl? AlrJ(jE) lNoJ (M)

    (b) so2cl2 ,l4lE 5+ Eqol azl SqE 1/l0E a4'6l 0.0 0.100
    b Ell Aal= z.lzJS $ulolzfr 5.0 0.017

    t4.M NzOs9 +6ll HI+ 2 N2Osk) ------ 4 NO2(g) + O2k)ql^l oJ 10.0 0.0090
    iI HI* +E tI+: l0-3.-'olr|. 2.0 L
    70 "Cql^1 6.82 x 15.0 0.0062

    +71 'Hql^J 0.0250 mol$ N2osk)-+ HI¤¤ 20.0 0.0047


    ^lzi6JEln
    7l4i;l^1.
    (a) HI¤¤ NorE +Eql qlq-q "Jil el*.Jzl, olzl El+
    (a) s.o+ +ql tsot 9lE Nrors-] E+= gulqlTp oJTl?
    (b) N2os olol 0.010 mol-E zJcalfqlqlb H eol A4=
    (b) +e. tl+= gtrloJTl?
    7l?
    (c) Noz9
    =71
    +E7l o.2oo M,0.100 M, 0.0s0 Mg trll,
    (c) 70 "CollrJ Nzos9 HlATl= gotq_lz|?
    a7l Hl-e- +EE ql+6ll -H_^ls.
    r4.4s so2cl2k) chk) HI¤* sorctrq ql4q g
    .----- Sozk) +
    14.50 ¤Bq.E "Jq4 flE f,=.E^(sucrose, CrzHzzOrr)E *
    ilol+. trf8.el Hl+ +E EllolElE gz} EI-& + g 1I +"-4ql^l ts6l6}q lgn^(glucose)el rH-tr^
    ^l-s"614
    E ^J+e+ +9_lE AC6l^le. (fructose)E ¤dt+. + Edg +t+ "Je-E,\.i El+^lol
    E6 E^11 661

    -n+ c6Hr2o6ol+. 23'cel 0.s M HCI +"-lq^l fas^ 14.57 oI4 t+,* 4*ol *"Jzl,4a"JzlE ++6l-^le.
    E E6llHi*ql ql6}q qgE ¤E EllolqE ?8.+. (a) Hli6J +E .Jzl¤ r*E + HI*q^l rl 3 gcp].llH
    zl$ r*E Hl*E +E7t q u+s+.
    [cr2H22oil] (M)
    ^t,J(E) (b) +E tt+z}49 Hl+ol qlE "JzI rl"l 44.
    0 0.316
    (c) HI* gs.E +ztrlzlE HI.*E rJgl ^J+zl.J +E E
    39 0.274
    Sol?z|,t4.
    80 0.238
    14.58 oI4 t+6J r]l+ol +oJzl, za"J^lE s+6}^le.
    140 0.190
    (a) 4E ggql^] HI*9 +E ql
    2t0 0.146
    ^J+= +46IH, HISq
    oJ d^ll qlBul Hq¤ 4l4I6J + 9l+.

    (a) Hl¤¤ [cr2H22ou]q 46]q 'Ji] t]+oJz], olil- H]+ (b) gg ElTe +e Hl*E4 tsHls+.
    (c) El* gEE 2Ell +71^lvl4, g^JpI qqzlS HI9E
    "J7l?
    (b) +E tL+= gElqlTP ¤"J + 9t+.
    (c) f,eE^gl 171 +E7l0.316 Molr +=s^9 ts611 t4.se .I4 Hl*=q ql6}q, E= +E oJzlz} ?4r zlct4.
    +3e^q 44q gal Hl+ol4r 7lc.J ul,
    Hl+ol gd+ qlqzlel9lHzl HEI¤ rqq-flg q, +g 6 q
    zrots9lr]9 f,=+.^. +EE 4l&6I^19.
    3e, 80, 140,
    L HI+ol TI1L Hulsr., E q! *8ol zIrJ Lq4l=7|?
    +E tL+= o)ql^l +t aig ^F8-6J+. :
    (a) E": 45 kJ/mol, LE '25 kJ/mol
    8E.9} +E(14.5E) @) E, : 35 kJ/mol, AE : - kJ/mol
    10

    l4.sl (a) F tszI zJ9 +Eol +E+ Hlso e-E ddgzl, oiHzl= (c) Eo : 55 kJlmol, AE : 10 kJ/mol

    AC6F= oJz|b fflqlz}? (b) HI+ $s.z| fzl$ql 44 14.60 Ezll 14.seq +qd HI+ 6ql^l qHI¤. +E7I Tftt uulE
    HI*9 4E. ^J+= 'JHI4oE +716I=7l, rJ4i;lb7l? Hl¤* qe A"J7l? qHI+ +E7I TI^L Lfl HlSg qL
    (c) r1g- .Jzl-E 6ql^l gE Hpi"ll TI^L ElrJ'6J qlzi= +
    A"J7I?
    9..Jzl?
    r4.6t ole .Jil HI¤.ll ql*+E d+7I 20"Cql\ 2.zsxro 2
    +E q+, ullaj olzf, gCq- qlLlzl-E_4 qq^l= (a)

    ,*E Ezl-=g Bg = s-,o14. Eo:75.5 kllmoloJ d99l oo.Cql^lE +E ^J+


    ft= gElq_l7|? (b) E+E "Jil-HI¤.el +E tt+71u|frzlzl
    14.s2 NO+O .----NO2, H+Cl------HCIE F ++6ql^l
    (a)
    qL aol ullaj olxfz| B 6!s6l7]l 4+61-=7|? (b) E]I6J. E 20'Cql^l 2.7 5 x lo-'.-' ol 4. Eo : 125 kflmolol z|$,
    60 "cql^lel +E *+ rE gut.Jzl? (c) (a)4 o)el Bg
    .J^lb gEq el+61=71?
    41416}zl +14^l qts 7|Aol g-e-6Jzl?
    o;-eg rlxllq a+, 400 Kql^l 10.0 kl o]{lel oiluJzlE z*
    b olE=: gzlel +gg g"LoJzl 4l.t}6}^le-. 14.62 r+q^19 4IEi 41 4Fg 016116l+ 43 zlEzf 8l+lgl
    -1a53 Hi¤qE eg Eeg 4lqd+ Ell B+4o14. &El AA
    t4.s4 (a) ,llg ofoli+olEg9 olddpi HI*q ql6J gdsl ql ^l
    (No)zt N2el o2-E +Elq= HI+e olil E}+oln, +E t'-
    HzlE r0o kllmolol4(:B r+.0). s00 Kql^-l gC+ qq
    zl ol^Jel qlqzlE r*E rlB ololiLlolEB E^tel E.& += 737 "cql^l 0.0796 M I s r, 947'c9l^l 0.0s15 M-r s-r
    ol+. ol Hl*g gCsl ollulzl9 4l4}6}^le.
    g Ahl6}^le. (b) gEzl-s20 oL ol Egg 41416I^l
    KoJ
    e_. s20 Kql^le+ s00 Kql^lel Bgq Hl= gpl-oJz}? r4.63 +g *+q EI.J +EE qBl gE4^l +c6}q se+ ae
    ctlg; + HBr(s) ------ HCI(8) + BrG) 7lr,ll HI+el d4l qLl dE EjlolElE EBE+.

    -66 klol+. H}+E gdp} qlHxlb 7kIo14.


    + OH- (aq)
    xl {s}i CH3COOC2H5@Q
    -
    -r+ss (a) ol HI+ql 4;J glHzl Es.= rr-ln, E,e+ aEE s^l CH3COO - (a4) + CTH5OH(a4)

    6I^19. S!;fc) &(M-ts-r)


    O) qH]*ql 'l]el gtE+ qlq4= g,toJz}? l5 0.0521
    14.s6 +"J +41 43oJ Nrorg ----- Nozk) +Nor(g)9 gds| 25 0.101
    qlqzl(E )s+ d^I AEE 44 rcq kl/mol4 136 kllmolol 35 0.184
    4. 45 0332
    (a) ol EI+ql 4+ qlq4 E_s.g rqn, r,e} ArE srl
    43aj:eflE$ :aA E, Ag 4t6}^le_.
    6f^19-.

    o) qH}+ql q+ gdcl qlqzl= g"ttz}?


    662 148 trl+ "JB +EE

    14.64 q! EI+ql ql++E tli9 ¤s' q+Cg dEel44zI t4.jo oI4E qlqzl EEql q+E+qlE-al^ls_.
    'I+r+ 44.
    trl
    PE(K) fr(,v-t s-t) EJ]

    =
    600 0.028 0ll
    Ll
    650 0.22
    ^l
    700 1.3
    HJSSI T.I"J
    750 6.0
    800 23
    (a) HI8 "il4q+q H zl]9 +'J t4 PI*ol s+qq 9l
    Y7l?
    AE 4lt6}^ls.
    o) Hl+ql^l q 4E 6rJi]7I ^Jdq:7I?
    E,e+

    HJ8 EilflL1=(14.6tr) (c) oj! B4l7t +E 44 +Al"J7l?


    14.6s (a) t9 +41 HI*E 9"li f9,.JzI? O) .JezI +g + (d) d^ll Hl+ql 4'J AE= "JE &, ¤.e] <i. 0 +ql^l q!
    4l HI++ ol+z} t"J +41 Hi+el iloldg Fg..Jzl? (c) 7)oJ7l?

    HI* 44q#ol* +{.J7}? (d) +E A4 +41+ +t.J q*3 H2el rclE ,lal EI;-q 4alg xll.Jg ++ ql4q
    712 601+.
    14.66 (a)HI*,il4q+9 a H4 B4lq^l GqJ1)l7l Hl¤¤e^l
    -r+n Hz(s) + ICI(g) + HI(s) + HCI(8)
    LI4B + il;7l? 6) HI* qlLlT.l E*.ql^J 6aill= ++ HI(3) + ICI(s) I2(s) + HCI(8)

    +B "*+ Hl84g lr,<le.


    -
    44 Ealzl 6 +fiee E'¤qE7i? (c) clzq eg +al (a) dxll EI+g
    (b) BJ8
    7l +'J +Ai Hl*s-tr. E6llEElE, HI*q +zlE= gEloJ
    "l4q+q^l 6+Alb Fq"JzI?
    712 (c) d Hall +Zlb !3ln + H4l +417I nlE+H. d4l
    HI*ql ql6}q ql+9= +E Hzlg F9,tzt?
    14.67 +g +.J +21 HI+g E^fEb 421$tlo)zl? 4 HI+ql
    q++E H4g r 14.72 r++I+ +Ael E6ll EJ¤+ olole-B+ olg +,Hql gql "J
    (a) Cl2(s)
    ^19-.
    zcr(s) qtEI. +'I El¤+ +gnl aol + E4l ,ilaq+-qE .J
    -
    @) ocl-(aq) + H2o(l) + HoCt(aq) + oH-(aq) "l+El.
    (c) No(s) + Cl2(sr) NoClz(3) H2o2@q) +t-(aq) Hzo(/) + Io-(a4) (ug;
    - ro (aq) + H2o2@q) - Hzo(l) + oz@) + I (a4) (u{-e-)
    14.68 EI.g+.J I+4l HI*g gzlE= 44 gtrloJTl? 4 Hi*ql (a) d^,ll r+cq Eil.J-siq HI+4g ,^^le.
    ql6J+E H4g r
    ^ls. (b)
    "JE Hl+
    ql4q+ql +rJ4l7l-=4t+tr, +ailE
    (a) 2No(g) NzOz(r)
    CH,- +tql7P
    ,/\" (c) d tzll BalTl +E AA +44r zf{a}_r., dAl +C
    (b) HzC
    - CHzG) + CHz:CH-CH3(g) q 4e+E Bag ql+6t^le-.
    (c) so3k) So2(s) + o(s)
    - tr+.2, zNo(s) + clr(8) -+ 2Nocl(8) H]*ql 44q tclrlTt
    r4.6e (a) ol49Ht+ E-Eq 9afB, e + D H}*"llrl H zll .JA.J q+4 ag qlolq= Efltr}.
    I +rJ^ll7l ddqbzl? (b) H 7ll9 dol t4z} +^116l+ =a6}ql^l
    zI? (c) g- +4l7l7l* uu|gz|? (d) e .+ D Hl+ql EI
    6J AEb olE <t. gE Zt. 0 +ql^J qg 4tz}?
    c
    z
    ([Cl2]71oJ5:.J
    42oil^l)
    u1
    E]
    e )'l7J
    C
    oll
    L1 (a) o}4e.l ql4q=g ¤E EllolEle+ oJil6l+7l?
    D
    ^l A
    B i- NoCl2(g) (ml-.s-)
    No(g) + Cl2(s:)
    -+ 2Nocl(s) (LB)
    NoCl2(s) + No(s)
    (b) 9l 4d +41= d,ll+E Hzlol
    "l^l-oJg +41il* a
    "J7l?
    Ht-qOt rt6H
    3r1l 663
    =*
    14.74 q! ¤+gol r-l-s_r+ ag ozoll 9t usr9 zlxjlt 4}]Il NO(g) + Nzo(S) Nz(g) + No2(j:)

    EI+g de49+. 2No2(s) -


    aHBr(s) + 0z(6) + 2H2O(g) + 2Br2Q) d4l +oI HI*4g FSqlzI?
    (a) -2NO(8)+Ozk)
    F Hl+^letr+El qB
    ,ll dill clsl EI*4g +61-b^lE trol^le.
    dB er+e+El ol 4ls+ EI*ol He.ql ql6lq oJiL orql
    (b) ol H}+qld NoE +ElloJ7L, ++illqlrl?
    46Iq "JiI HI+.J$ +.J6lr, +gr+ rJg oll4!*¤ xll
    (c)Nzo E6ll HI+ dEql^l Norzf ;4 zl-='"$ {=-e. ft
    "J61fl+.
    HBr(g) + Oz(8) HooBt(g) zlq4 *:+H. ol gql^l xll.J¤,ilrlq+g
    - 2HOBr(8) tsllxllg + ?lE ol*z}
    ^ldg
    qb
    HOOBr(r) + HBr(g) 4.Jzl-?
    HOBr(g)+HBr(g) - ra.sr gg ++ +,11,
    -
    Hzo(8) +Br2(8)
    7++ +El]E oJ+El+(etroJ4 d
    (a) 4 B'J t4l Hl+g El6Iq dill HI*4g eg + 9l =61
    :lzl(sroJc+ eol E+l d*"J E.E4ol Ee9 sH +l
    ¤¤ q-oJ6l^le. ql E"+etr 41461+ a*zt *4. =
    (b) dB4str. AAg +E Hzlg i13l6l*g ql, qL + (a) ol4+ BHge +,Il Eeg
    ^F8-6h=
    aol eg Bql
    4lzl+E44 +41oJ7l? E ++ +ollE ^l_s"dlb aql Hlull g'g4.J olf+ +
    (c) ol oll4L.l6ql^J 6rJill= qL a.Jzl?
    t.Jzf?
    (d) dCEql^l uoBrolLi HooBrS aeg + StrtH, ol (b) sHzlg tI* +Eql olrl"J ¤"J9 ++71?
    E 4l"J¤ ,il4q;ol g*B a"Jg HI+61+ Alzl?
    14.82 (a) ¤eltsol zl-Fil-*+,ll H+tlil(+"ll%l^l *il)el E
    +01lrt8(14.7tr) g^Jg d+6h= uJ=qa g ql, u\tltl4.
    ^l^Hg ^l-Fil
    14.7s (a) 44* +E"J7P O) +"J +rHeI +Ellb +E 6ql flb qE Eeg 4^l6llotdETl? ^tFil-8- +Ell
    (b)
    ol EIE7L? (c) +ol]E dill +* qlgrl=i-a'J
    HcIe+ gdsl ql E+ *il= i1gg HI]7I7I^ EEol Eir+6I71 qlEq *.g
    qzl 44q, E= oJ+ s.+ql ¤6Jg ++71? gEql^l zlEqq"t"J 6J+. olBl6J dol qB Hql^l +4
    14.76 (a) ^}*pl¤ ql+Sel $fr'J +,ll= ul]$ ul.tlloJ'JzI B al4{Ez}? Eq} qts Eq^J B;]6}AY7I? (c) +ol] EQ}
    Ellg nill Eeol+. o]^lq a7l7l +s6J ol ft EEoJ t^lq^l ullzlzp. 6EE +E7I¤:se "l+E Y9.tzl?
    =
    7|? (b) $s"J +,ll H}*ql^] ++3 qq6J qgg 6l'=7I? 1a33 "14 gzf +rll9 DrE glBdl(crH4)rf Hl+^l7l
    =xl]6}qlqql.J(cH2D-cH2D)ol
    rqn te 14.2lql^l tr9l=ol, Br-(aq)Y +rie z++6}q H F zll9 ++4E. 7Id ^Jc¤
    Hzoz@dz Hzo(Del or(c)E E6llt+. !+tpl +4 ++ +(++i D= e*ol 2"J +^q F9l g4ol+). + 4el
    9.ll ol*9 KBr(s)E a7l6}*+i17Ic6I^l-. HI+ol ^lz} *i}.tl6I+E Biql a6J.J qlql?l(ql-e., cH3-cHD2)
    qq +a¤ qlztxl9 lBr-(aq)l Hsl¤ oJie. s..<l g 49 iJ^J9zl *=El. olBl.J ol+= Hl+ql s6J¤ "J
    ^lrJel
    6l^ls. {el+al H}+(rH M.n)&
    ^l-&6tq
    ¤86}q -E^ls.
    14.78+gql^l H*eI OH- ag ts+ql p+ol+E=g +EIe zi* 14.84 :fl eol, +^El +¤+ "Je7l= H"J +
    r+.zloll,rle+
    g + 9l+. 4I +,ll el*.] g"l4= +alql^]g [H*]E El]= olEq
    +,11 b.qg Hqzl4 6l=
    =,ll5'qlr=qq
    ag + 914r. d4alzf. HI¤¤]I ^JCE zlill= E+ = tI 9l+. +E *$ +.;;p ElilEol +EH+.J ?9zI "*4.
    Ei Szlz| olqqr ,IAt+. ,:oql^l t}*zl9l aJ * olEl+ +qlE¤ol +ull$etr 4s"61* ql4q+3
    ^il.J"fl
    gq 4Ig e7}6lfl+r.6J Ell, El+ ql+tr +C.fr -H-^19.
    ^lrJq
    lHnl bE HEI E-EE r.q -E +aI YiE| a.i(carbonic anhydrase)i cozG)+H2o(l)
    ^le.
    r+zg sorrf so3e &p+qs H!¤* Norql el6ll +11¤+. +* HCo:-(aq)+H+(aq) H}+ql^l +E]ls z++6J4. E
    rlag Els-+ A+.
    -lra"esl -9l a+.z} fl= a+, ol HI+E +E {'-+= 2s "cql^l
    Noz(s) + So2(8:) No(8) + So:(g) o.o:s s-'o14. Eil ay} ezl6J a+, Hl+ +E ^J+:
    -
    2No(s) +oz!) +2No2(g) +E oJzITi ti
    '-'o14. + A+ql^lel
    2s'Cql^J 1.0 x 100

    (a) F H}*alg 4qlq| al+e+ *4 q6LE, so,7f o,ql e-l .J6I+r zf{afn, 54,11 H}q"4 a.a 4u11 H}+ql 4+
    6ll so3E tls+q= dill tlsl H]*49 eg + 9l-sg ,*dp* .llul zl <lel itolE al4}6f^le.
    trol^19.
    u4.861 9i 7I+ e4 .s..^(urease)i .9-4(NH2CONHTTI E+
    Norg fullu| 5zJxlltr a+6J + g=7I?
    (b) ol H]¤-ql^l qI+6Iq ol4}p+ +^e| oJsqof=
    ^JC6l+ H]*ql^J +
    (c) NoE +,lL+ ++illtr E+B + llEz}? qlE zl+6J+. Eql -aa7} H= A+, ol +*E "JzI q]
    (d) ol H]¤+ +'J +Eil Hlg"4 H"J +"11 ++ + qL
    * +E tib too '6oll.11 4.15 x l0 s s 'olQ. $oll nt'
    19 9l.JzI? 7f A+. Hi+ +E tl++ 2l "Cql^l 3.4 x tOa s-r
    =^llg
    14.80 N2o E6ll HI+ql NoE a7|6lE ti*ol +t194, 7lg"t oltrt.
    H]+ ql4q+e +g-4 eq
    664 148 trt-+ BJ8 +EE

    (a) ol Et +B *+ EI*4g lA^le.


    +,ll El*q Eil+ ll4.s7l qL ++4 HI*el gCsI 9lHzlzf es kJ/molol+. +,l]
    (b) +E l00.Cql^]E +rll Hl* gdp+ qlulxlz| 55 kl/molE A4++. +
    ^_E7l2t.Cql^19 +E E ?zlal A+,
    e+ a+8, +oll +s"r+ ++,H HI+ ,J gCEl qlLlzl E oJzlT| H6I7.l ?j:.=+r. 7ra6J Ell, (a) 2s "C, O) l2s.C
    il-olE gEfT| 94=7P ql^-l +,Hql e.l6tl ++ +E= q ull +7}ati7i?
    (c) 2l 'cql^lE +,ll HI+ +5.e1Hlig trll, dz]le 100 "c
    U4.Bsl qL +s+ SEE|4 HI+ol +oH7I fi= a+ql {qqzJ
    ql^]E +,ll HI+ +E= golzt I ao e ql+q=7|? gEoJ tz.cql^l Ell+ Lzlrl "Jq*+r. 7Ia6IzI.
    (d) (b)e+ (c)9 ¤4s*q, +"ll *1e"a} $iull HI+el g olzlz| s{ofQa Tta¤- ql, H}+ 4s= r x lssull =¤
    f;z}
    ..JsI
    "llHzl
    ilolq +6Iq qq.J aEg Eg + 9l= gdl^l+ -tr47t HI+E gcE].ilHzlE 9"1-4 *
    ^l7l71
    7l?
    +qot 6l=7I?

    ?l.J+ +41
    14.89 A+B +
    C+D HI*ql Eilall d46ll trzl. El$ t+'* HgCr2e] cron'- bE= H+^l7lE^l ol HI¤:E a7l +ia
    4 4*ol &.Jzl, 41ql7,l=i ++6}^le. E +44q, czon2-9 a7l cE +Eql q+ ++4 Ae
    (a) EI* +E Bzlg 4E.:r[e][s]ol+. 41 401q5 nOO.
    (b) ol +*ol t.J +41 t}*ol4E, +E ts4g olilolE}. #:d tHcclrl (M) [croo'-] (u) +-E(M/s)
    (c) ol ll-$o1+g +4 tl*ol4E, EHI+q ql6'J +E B I 0.164 0. l5 3.2 x l0-s
    zlg "JiI.l+.
    2 0.164 0.4s 2.gxlo-4
    (d) qH}+ql 4"J gC+ qq4= aH}+q gda+ qlLlzl
    3 0.082 0.45 l.4x l0-4
    tr+ 40htl+.
    4 0.246 0. l5 4.8 x lo-s
    14.90 q-+ +A(H,S)E +* ql+ql e46I= t4 E4ol+.
    (a) ol u33-E +E Hzlg *{.Jz}?
    Hrs= xllaq-= el ztxl ,JBg E-3 94. ilel6l^= aoJ
    ql, H]*4e q-grl e+. +E tL+ <tg 4El6J ++ls+ E4l +6t^le-.
    (b)
    (c) Hgcbe+ czot2-9 z7l +E7l44 0.100 M, O.2s M
    H2S(aq) + Cl2@Q S(s) + zH+(aq) + ZCl- (aq)
    oll, F"J6JgEql^l Hl++EE g"loJzt?
    -
    ol Hl*el +E= 4 HI¤¤ql Eil6}q g,.f.lE}. H2sel 4g "J

    +E ^J+= 28.cql^J 3.5 x l0-2 M-ts-tol4. +qd ^l 14.94 '2x+z-^JCE'+*q q6Jazl +E=+C6Iq El
    aql^J HrSE t-oE7l2.0 x t0-4Moltr clz9 bs.z} o.ozs
    gE qlolElE EflEI.
    Mol{H, Cl-E ^JC +EE
    gEloJTp gE [x]o(l}r) lzh(rrt) +s,(M/s)
    14.9r 2No(s) + oz(g) +
    2No2(s) qlsog NOql ql6lq ol I 0.25 0. 25 4.0 x 10r

    iloln orql ql6}q .Jif.J t}*o14. [No] = o.oao uol]. 2 0. s0 0. 50 3.2xrc2


    [Or]:O.O:sM.J trll. NOE 4E z,-E719.3 x l0-sMlsE 3 0.50 0. 75 7.2x tO2

    ++qfl+. (a) olHl*9 +E H4e F9..Jzl?


    (a) oz9 4'E +EE gutoJz}? (b) +E
    ^}+ #g 4El+++l+fl41+6f^ls.
    (b) +E {l+{te E"itz}? (c) xel zl Zzl v"E-71 44 o.Zs M, r.25 Mo) tri, Hl+
    (c) 4E t+e.l t9lE *l'Jzf?
    +Eb gEloJTP
    (d) NoE tEE 1.8HH rtzl4zS a+, +E= 9ul4 HaI +
    14.95 2NO2 2NO+Oz El*91 q+ +E tfE t:O.or
    Y7l?
    M-t s-tol4.
    14.92 A + B+c ++ql ql"J "JEq dEeE+El +E Bzl (a) ft9 E+lE rBJ6IHg q, HI¤+ Norql 44q oJit
    ol sE:ft[A],gg g9ttr]. trl-$ 4 a+ql^JE x 1I9_ 4 oJTL oliloJTI?
    a6l^le. (b)NorE 371*,E710.100 Mol4E, soETI 0.02s Me.
    (a) [A]ozf 3tsll+7]B oI 4c Hs+r] Sfl+. +^6lE q q$4l AAoIfl5TP
    (b) [A]07] 3u]] +7]6J ull +E7] eull f;zp[flc]. ^3-qb ^lrJg
    (c) [A]oz] 2dll +7]g Ell +E7] 6u]l f;z[a[flQ.
    14.96 + HI¤¤ ^J46il tr^}. ** (r)* gat tlzJzlE r*E HI
    E, EI* (2)= HI+ol 4lBEql uI4 HlzJzlz} aqd+. ol
    14.93 gEI +e(II)r+ ${l ols-stl H}+43 .l-4e} a+. qt++ a4tr+q + H]*9 +E Bzlq 4oI9 qalaJ
    ZllgCr2@fl + czo?- (aq)
    aEg Eg + 9lE7p
    2Cl- (aq) + ZCO2G) + Hg2clz(s)
    -
    +7f E* Erll 665

    U4.971
    oJiI HI+ A .----- BE +E *i* t::.2 x l0-3 s-'o14. 608 nm0l,t19 #E
    Ael ]-.oE7l2.sxt0-2
    =zl M! Ell, ,:660aql^JE HI* ^tZ}(E)
    0 1.254
    +Eb gEloJTP 30 0.941
    r4.e8 (a) HzOz@d ------ HzO(l)*iOr@) Hl¤¤ "Jil Hl-"qoln 60 0.752
    ol gEql^lE
    300 Kql^J +E
    ^J+= 7.0 x to-t s-,o14. 90 0.672
    tlzJzlE +6}^le-. (b) ol Hl+ql ql+ g^JcI ollL)zl7l7s 120 0.545
    kllmolol:]s, H]+ +E7l + HllTI q= gE= 9rl-"Jz|?
    ol rllolQtr$el 'BE HI*el +E Bzlg a
    14.99 olullzlf,(americium)-24r3 $zl Szlzloll ^l-S¤El. ot - ^JcE
    A6lr. +5 tr-+E 4l,t}6t^le.
    4E+E %I^l+. +q 4aql ql'J gzt HI+ +E ^J+: 1 4. 1 s3 ¤l44ol Ql(csH)$ zlr11 HI*ql 9.ll triol
    -tr
    k:1.6 x l0-3yr-lolQ. rql HI6ll, AtlC 7li$
    s$l4qolql(croH,Jg 4C+4. 2c5H6+ croHrz =
    ^|ol== ^lol
    Ell opleE-l2s9 %I^l-b +q 4cql^lQl6I 4+
    H]
    = ^l-.&qb to1r1. *.1 +lBEll r|4 o.oaoo m csHo 8"19 ^lrJql q= b
    +E tl'+E k:0.011 day
    5. HE+= +A4q +S9 de qlolEl5 e*.4.
    (a) ol F E+l gaE *?zlE 4+ gEloJTl?
    O) qL 5?l flaz| trJ uBi= 4se B49bzI? lc,sJ 0vr)
    ^tz(a)
    (c) 4 F9l ga r.00 mgol :sl9 HIrJzl +ql Brll 0.0 0.0400
    ^l-t
    qE'Jg g"I'Jzt? 50.0 0.0300
    (d) 4 E+l g4 r.00 mg3 4.J +q gut4 Bof il 100.0 0.0240
    L 7Lr)
    ,l'*7::/
    ^le'
    I! 150.0 0.0200

    14.100 3-4(NH2CoNH,= Hq
    +Eqa q^f rlael 3l+ ^J 200 0 0.0174

    cEol+. 0.1M HCl +.-4ql^l _c^q EqlE q^g Hl+^l [csHJ 4,<lzJ, ln[csHJ Ell r/[csHJ 4 r
    il+= +E.Jzlt ^ltg
    q 96ll "Jqt+. ^lrJ,
    4 =
    :zl^le. ol Hl-sel 4s- *i
    NH2CONH2(a q) + H+ (aq) + 2 HzO (l)
    <l* e"I.JzI?
    2NHa+(aq) + HCO{ (aq)
    r4.r04 5C *zl ElaJE4 Ee.l EJ*q q+ .Jil HI* 4s tt+
    HIS$ s4ql 46Iq oJilolr
    - d,ll HI*s
    7I gEql 4+ q+4 Aol E6lfl+.
    "321o1u1.
    [NH2coNH2]:0.20014o1n 61.05 "cql^l H]+ +E7i
    6.56 x l0-s M/sol4. 8E(K) +tr 8+(s-')
    (a) 4E ^J+ k Ae 9"fq_lz|? 300 3.2xl0 "
    (b) -s_}.g z7l *E7l0.s00 MoJ rll, +.oo x ro3a +oll 320 1.0x10e
    g-dE r-oE= g"IoJzi?
    340 3.0 x 10-8
    (c) 61.0s'cql^J ol tI*9 el?zli goI.JzI? 355 2.4x70 7

    u4.lollqe .JiI EJ*e-l +E= 4L^q Hl¤:ge-l ¤:4-EE 520 nm ol qlolq_++q


    Bcal "ilulzlEkt/mol BglE zl.tl6}^ls.
    q^l ++61+ ¤J}+4 *Eee +c619+. HI89 r.oo
    l4.l0s 28 "Coll^l SSprzI gE6|= gloll a.or.lAol + aqzlEJ,
    ^lE *zl"ll,{ "Jq+q, H}+ql^] +'J+ +4 +q]
    cm
    5 "cE B+nql^.].= 48^l+ol
    HI*E* s20 nmql*i s.60 x r03 M-!cm-r9 g* A]i ^og+. ^J$P,zI tsaq
    r*=trt. HI+ql ql6J gdpl 9lr,lzl= tllmol *9e Zl.t}6r^le_.
    itg =
    (a) *8 =7lql ¤+E7l0.60so148, +^q HI¤¤E a U4.l06l+9.il¤e ¤Es^e++"Jg EtI rldq .ll6J lee8LJ 8
    zl bEi guloJzl? I te9z} New York Timesel 7l^f ql¤¤ oJ-a-oaJ aol+.
    e Aa4fitrl. +E "e-E.z| 77'Fql^l se.Fs r8E polxl{ ** 4-=.2} orl
    (b) 30.0+ 991 ¤%}ez} 0.2s0o tL
    +E s-r ++ls zlt}6t^ls. +d6Er., 77'Fql^J 4l'F.e 36E polzlfl HI¤- +E7f 40
    (c) HI*9 e}?zlE 4l&5}^le-.
    Ell+A,J+."
    (d) g!}E7l0.l00oe +4* tlvl7i aqE g (a) ?19 + e!+e+q Ed 4Aq ql6J g^Jcl glulxlE
    trIoJ7I?
    ^ ^l+g 44 *Ee gil6}=7l?
    4l.t}6}^1e..
    0) e6il r+col .JiI E}golr 2s "cql^JE t*7171 2.7
    U4.r02144 ¤.E. slElEol +6llqq +^q p}t++g ^JC6Jtri. g yrolefn z|{o}1,, Sszf :os. gqag q 4lt"J
    E+6JE!-608nm$ q9¤+6Iq. ol sltql^le.l ¤;* g^JEl qlq4E
    ^Fs6Iq -rs.cql^]E
    E4 +aql
    A\ii +.t x .--'o14. E*zl 49 I cm 791
    1sa 14-t
    4t tlzJzlE 4l4}6}^le_.
    ql^l HI¤¤ +q6}q +gr+ ee dEl qlolElE Efl+.
    666 143 atq BJ8 +EE

    14.107 Noe| HrzI Hl+6Iq N2oeI H2oE ^Jd6l-= E]+ql 1116} (b) 2xAl7l +E a4 +4aln ts a+, ql=q= +E H
    q +94 eg 44q+ol xll.J9fl4. zle +Etrl?
    No(s) +No(s) (c) (b)9 e4= trI-ggl q! ol+'IEql EqE er+atr
    Nzoz(g) + Hz(s) -Nzoz(c)
    Nzo(g) + H2o(g) {49 + 9li-zl?
    (a) xllQ}¤ ,|l4q69 +g- +41 HI¤$$ E+ trl6lq t (0 +
    ^JCEel tETf +E Hzlql 91tri.
    B "*+ HI*4g 444^ls. (ii)+E Haq +el HI+ il+7}9l+.
    (b) 4 Elg El4l EI*ql rll6J +E gils- x.tle. (iiil (il4 (iilE ol+ E+
    (c) 4l4ul=:"ll\ rt2f,;llzl +i.JxlE +ql6l^1s.. (iY) (ilr+ (ii)E qtr ol$r of!
    (d) dEl 44. +E E4e +E:ft[No]'z[H,]ol*[+.
    .Jg ql4q+ol *+8. a H4l Hlso+ + Hell El* ^]l [t4.tt2lts++^ +"qq^l + s]*E (CH:)rAuPHr= qlel"J
    (crltJ4 4E ++e-l + slqlE (Cur)eurur-e E6H¤+.
    el t}4zl +Eql+4q qqel aEg eg+ ?l=7t?
    (csr)raupu,9 +a1l HI*q q4q 4l?l¤ ,il4q6e +
    r4.r08 C+ qlrlflql +z116[= e=3 ot4E + +41 ,l4q+ql s-r+ a+.
    E"fl u}llg + 9l+. r$!l: (cH3)3AupH3 (CH3)3Au + pH3
    cl(g) + os(s) clo(s) + o2(8) # (rnlEE)

    +
    Clo(3) o(s) ------Cl(g) + o2(s) 2t4l: (CHs)sAu -ia- C2Hu + (CH3)Au (L.fl)
    ql+ dill Hi+4e +EoJzl?
    (a) ol 44"11 3EI4l: (CHr)Au + PH3 -1+ 1cH.;auPH3 (uul¤.)

    0) Hl*ql^J +Ell= +E"J7l? (a) d^] H]+4g +9,oJ7l-?


    (c) Hl*9lrJ +rJzll= +E 917I?
    0) 44q+q1^l +rJ,ll= +9.oJ7I?
    r4.r0e e-+sl Tlalt} +6ll HI¤+ ol49 + E4 ,114q=4 e.l
    (c) 4 E'J +Al HI*e.l ExfE= +{.J7P
    6I "Jq*+. (d) +E e4 talE qL aqlTl?
    tt4l: os(s) : oz(s,) + o(s) (!ul-s,)
    (e) oil4ul='oe+q qltlqb +E Bzlg Fl,.Jzt?
    2tr41: o(s) + os(g) .+
    2 oz(g) (lB) (0 (cHJ:eupH, *991 pH3E A7l6lE HI+ +Eql q
    (a) dil HI-&q q.J +B "*+ HI-&{g lr^ls. trl+ g6}0l ?ldEz}?
    (b) Hi*
    "il?lq+q "J^l6l+ +E B49 +E6l^le.(fl u4.n3lxl$ol -2 +r. "Jzl+ co= co2.e,4}cl6l-=
    nmoJ E4;i
    ^JcEol e!|r]olol
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    E^l?]g ,Jolzl
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    HI¤.q
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    (d)
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    g E4xllz}? r++8, +E Bzl¤. +t.Jrp (a/r)rr.'o14. I A: 1 x l0-r0
    ^lg. +9 tulE
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    It4l: 6}^le. +E sH4e +#ol4 E+ g^l 6l+9 'g
    crz(g)
    + 261(8) 1nul¤)
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    r 7fa6J+.
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    (c) (a)e+ O)elA4tr.+rl 2.0 nm E4+ +t. oJ^l -*.Eql
    (a) dzll HI+4g +E"J7p
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    (b) EI Z q=ql^l +rJ4l= f
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    =
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    q o}4el F ,il4q+ol 4*qfl+.
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    (a) r+417I +E AC +Zl4i16J a+, q+q= +E H olL +tfol E+, 7le, d++ql ql'JEl= s.¤oJ7l-?
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    667
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    xH .JiS4a 7IC6I^I.
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    99 roHE qlegq +q 2s0.0 -r 899 EI
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    ^19.
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    ol ++g HolHb a+ql ,l]+ eE+. rE+ clr(8)7}
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    14.120 NOT} rze| El*6t9 NoFe+ F= ^J^J6IE 7lillt HI* H}$ a: cH3(s) + ct2@) ------ cHrcl(8) + cl(g)
    E g.CEI qLJ^l= Eo:6.3 kJ/motoln, HIE qlzl= 9lE F +-&ql ql"J qlBul EE|e+ ¤-rdcl qLlxl} trl-$.
    668 143 Elqf EJ8 +EE

    Ee+ a+ ^l-s6J+).
    "tH ++E HI*¤ol "JiI
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    H19
    do Arr (kllmol) E"(kl/mol)
    (b)

    3 +4 t7 B4q +rJAE ''JC6J + 9l4lbzt?


    u4.t24) HllTITP-oJ NO,gl s# NO, Nozel ?¤ 44
    4 - 109 4 ^l+i}
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    ,lq +Et qq^l=,*= qe.l 414 +4+Eg N2-e E+61= 4ullz| $ealri.
    ++9 aa4^l (a) No, No2, N2el Lewis d +4e+ VSEPR +a= rr]
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    (b) s. 8.3 Eq ol+6lq ol +4-=q a6J qlLlzl
    ql"J a+4.J 4qzl EsE fE^le_. ^l,EE
    (c) dt} SiBq= ol+81q, q]*EoJ cHrk) +ct2@)71
    E 3^I6l^le. ol qqzlEe {z}zl :'EeHq q!
    B99l.tlB-olEzi?
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    7{a}.rle. ol pffi ^l-&6lq cH4k)+clzk) -+
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    =
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    ol-El RNHrE

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    g qlB{ql ulail 9o}4 z}o}2il paJa}{}z}!
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    (a) oJzI ot"Jql 9l= diql^lE ¤qlg trq izl 9* g
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    I6J ¤41 +41


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    Le Chatelier
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    ^Jtr ^Jqq EB
    +trI.
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    New orleanspa ffi.t)e+ Aol
    E^lq ggz| .Ig q ole+ +^I* {ro}ol g^J++. New orleanst
    d^l E"Jg -r.E 4E= E^lel ^l4qql^J= z[fl{ee. ul]+6J +
    fl+= 49 9"laJ4.

    < Eol
    ^l|=
    !l| +917[ g8:el +Coll ol-e= EE Ee 8Eilts ffilo e 961
    lll= Hl|oll,(l E¤ nlH-oeu 0E + 9ltl .:Sur/Shutterstock

    671
    E9 +d-6J
    E 9!Eg 4146[r, ++e+q Aazl9+ 4^]g H a6]71 +16ll ^l-s
    ^l^Hg
    gr1. zoosH -"lul4lg KatrinaT[ New orteans= r]49I9 41, q5o1 gol-E^J 4l%]
    ol ol olqaE+.
    ^l^H
    {ulla}z},BBol zl]zlH^l E^19 z]]o}eE
    g.9 q tlql^J= +71.J il 1.-5l..11, ssl +"_q ilr.2,J) "l uenry Hzl ., (13.3
    :l)g E6J6Iol Eeel E?-14 Es+e+ +Ag E4 ¤eel qel d6lt *+. r qle^J
    ^IqlE
    ?zl"JgllEJ"ll lrz}. gqlg Szl9lrl .-441 +lel 6zl.J9 EzIzI Eillq^l Tlillt}e-E EBI
    44zlE +Ee+ 7liil^Jel E^l7l "li{ql 96il Egqq .li{7} q= +Ee+ ae el E+=
    H++.
    +gr+ ¤+, E:: +6Ie+ aaslel u|$zlzlE, srlq+ EI¤+ crJ6J4 9*alo-e d4g
    + 9lrl. q++ol +E6l L4+H, rE.J *4zl dix'J HI¤¤ql^J "llsH azlH qHi
    +g +^lB + 914. rq+ a+ar} qEi+q +E= aelolloluj 6I= +s+ ql^l7t B:ol
    et+.
    itEtElB(chemicalequilibrium)3 4HI-&q d{g q g.'8*+.
    ge}*ol Ag +E.=.
    HI*ol ¤B t}Eilql flg tril, H}¤¤e+rl ,.JCEol BCq= +E: ^8Cge+El HI¤¤
    ol ¤^dq= +Ee+ E.J6l+. a 3aL EoEE E6Izl g:r. +*e geqzl dql B+ ail
    H -H-"J+.
    ol tI4 +* + tlql^l= slo+BBql ql61] zl.^Jl6l Aqg 4.o14. r + letr-ql^lb plql
    ¤Bg gqqll+ g+^l7l: ,JBg tsHg aolQ. {zlglrJ} qB ++9 B¤
    ^JEll=d+
    zJeE EE6l= ,JHg HH+r, BB s!+Eql^l HI+EI+ tEE aA6t
    ^JdEE ^J'll4
    .JzF=ql 46}ol ++.J Xol4.
    =
    >ral 15.1 New Orleans9l-tr
    E rlE ol,(l.{ltrl A 3^lel !.aJ
    ErJ^l "! +EJ^4 gq3 6Hg
    ^q,
    10u1= s;AroJ rIlrHolz, 4aJ
    6H+E!Jtl-.*q-.
    ^!g

    kd.lrd'itn
    t
    il J
    7
    d
    q

    F.
    .J
    E. I
    H

    672
    15.1 | E--Jel Tl]Lj 673

    1s.1 I BEsl 7H'J


    ¤¤ t4(.quilibrium state)9] qBr]l EB6l+xl olallalzl +16ll HI¤¤4-^JCEel LoETl
    q4 q ol$ {o}zl *E ,J++ e}q+ H}+e.l qlE Eq Ez}. +^4E N2o47} A4E
    ^lrJq
    No2-E +4q= r+ag ^J46l] jlx|. :aJ 1s.2E "J+g Ftr +ql gq il= N2O4 -r.ill
    ^l
    EE Bq aillE Nzo+E EygQr.z.c) ol^Jg gEs TIgqE +4E N2o4 Tlill
    ql^J a^4E=r+.
    No2 TlillE +6l]5lq dz}4-qe 4q1lq. 4+4es, + ?Iq N2o4 TlillTI
    Bol glH4s, ¤¤q Ep=o|flzl trilEql FB q+g 49.Jd ^u^J-ol,*e--e. aqTlzl ?+
    + ^ltol zlLtE zli]ls.l gEzt H6l^l ?*E Nrors+ Noz9 ¤¤ eilEGquilibrium
    =trI.
    mixture)g Eril g+. ++ol B.J 4q^l "J"t*zl qlEq Tlill= mt4Ll-+ + s.r, B¤
    eqlEe .,+zlg4.
    ¤B g6JEe q}¤:ol z|${(reversible)olzl EI+ql ^Jzli ar+ol+. N2o47} NozE ^8
    c'J gEI otq+, No27I NzoaE ^JdB + 9t+. 54 B¤e +ql EJ.&g zlqzlY * 41
    g Hl+ E+gse +*^lg al{ E¤6J4 ,,, (4.1¤).
    NzO+(S) .-- ZNoz(C) [1s.1]

    EI+ +EE4 zl^lg ols-oo|{ olq6J ¤Bg E46J + 9l+. Nzon9 +6ll= Ct}8o14

    61.=g0l + *tel^idE {4tsrlB e^qol q olF+]fi=zt E-fol-x=rlolt-lE 5"JE! -EEnt?


    ^lu

    Noz
    NzO+

    LJE|E N2O4 7tE6tE N2O4= 7l^ll7[ 8B0ll E'J6[E E+7t g=tr|.


    ^4
    z9 +^401trf. ^lE= Elr, +.!i!o+ e^!ql EuJBsl +E N2o4k) ---+ 2 No2@)
    NO2 Tlille E6flEJtrl. = 9,JBq +E 2 No2k) ---+ N2Oa@)

    AreJ 15.2 NO29[N2O49 g-d


    674 153 trlqt E:d

    r.6}r, Nzo+9 ^J^Jg qH}+ol4r alz|. ol a+, aHls.4 EHi¤+ s+ +"J +41 HI
    *(elementary reaction)ol+. xll14.6eql^J H]]S 4+ ?J"1, slq^lql^J +"J +41 HI3'9 +
    E B4g trl-gr+ ?Jol ¤ + 9+.
    {HI$'Nzor(s) + ), 4Er: krlN2o4l
    Noz(s) [1s.2]

    9Hl8' 2No2k) Nzo+(8) +E' : k,[Noz]2 [1s.3l


    -
    ¤Bql^J= 4H}+ql^ls.l Noz ^8C +Ee+ qHI*ql^lE Nzoa
    ^8C 4s-zl E"J6[rt.
    *H,,:-r : o,H:jt' r1s.4l
    odo -u6

    ol
    ^lg
    trl^l C;]5IH r|gE !g E=+.
    gq:!:*+ tls.sl
    [NzO+] ^r
    ls.ss+El F 7l]9 +E tr-+e-l zlizl E +e tr-+E= ag "J + 9i+. ol tI+= ¤
    ^l
    B tl++r*+. E6JB¤ tlqql^l EoE6J9 ul¤ol tfc+ +*+ "J+ 9l+. ¤e ^J
    iE Nzone. No2-tr E= ol Eel gaJEE zJ"ll oi*
    ^1416[=zl, ^lzt6]=^1, ^lz]6]Ezl
    fl zlolTi S+. +qA gEql^1g ¤¤ql^l= r ElTt $C.J <l"l 94. trI+^J ¤Bql^l
    NzO+eI NOz9 Blql= +s6J zll6.J saol 9lril g+.

    A(a)lrr, &+E(b) E+ e orL rror gE(N2o+(s) : 2 Noz(sr)),il E=-g ntl ,J?7r?


    EUBrlqHJS9 HJB +E (c) Nzoa. Noz9 5E
    |
    =aJ
    1s.3(a)oll^le+ eol, g+ ¤Bq EBqH Nzo+el Noz9 EoEE rl oltl- H6lzl ?+=
    4. :el4 ¤¤ e6JEE a^dol ^lAq q+ H6izl *E+= aol N2o4e| Noz9 Hl*ol
    H++: i!$ elulalzl= ?+:+. s6lq ¤Bg E4(dynamic)olol,<1 *zJ9 Nzo.E No,
    _e H++qJ., "*zJ9 NorY Nzo+E H¤+g+. r*l+ ¤Bql^J= :H rs.39l ++U a!+
    zJol, F 4Col ee +EE
    "Jq++.
    ol qls+q BBq +6.J p 7I4 +s6"J g+.
    ^I.Jg "Jrll
    . ¤¤ql^J= Hi¤_Er+ r-"E EEPI rJ olt srf.
    ^JcEel
    . ¤¤ol 99*zl +ldl^J= HI+Eol+ rJcEol H}+4le+q m[442]H .J ¤+.
    . ¤Bql^J +Eo;! +E 5d Hlgg t}+ol4.

    u30l TltsEoil qalEEJS 4s.21 uq^'= ol?ts +xE7t?

    Noz ,k7[NzO+l

    Nzo+ 4
    -E
    i 7'JEoll s'J-d -E gBollEg--J
    | / (E:-7t Y-txl k,[No2]2 'a- /4ErL
    \-!zto=d/
    Eol=l\

    / ?Ja)
    0 0
    /.l} + AlzJ+
    (a) (b)

    arH 15.3 NzO+G)----- 2 NOzk)HJ8oll,(l eltrl EBoll_E.JE 8U¤i ^-E7|.qHJ8 +Ee]'J= trfl E
    EolEtl..
    15.2 E-d a+ 675

    15.2 lBEt+
    zJ? H6l+ Hi¤+, : q}*ol
    *zl r.ilql^l HI¤¤ol {^dEE H6}r, ^gcEol *¤¤e
    9uI4 $1i{zloll S4l$.ol ralr CH}go4 qH}$E H}+ +EE4 4dql SZlHol x}¤
    ¤¤ql Eg6lTll g+. a^e+ +iE+El g:ELlol-s Eld6I= +g HI¤+ ^J4"}]
    ^Brll
    -u-zt.
    Nz(S) + 3 Hz(s);- zNHs(c) [1s.6]
    ol HI¤+ Haber E¤(Haberprocess)el zlz.zl qq
    ^Jtql 9f4ol4.
    trl+^J EIE
    ^ll4l
    4* ++q +.q6tEl. Haber *dqlrJi Nzel HzE r¤, :zoJql^l +Eli HI+^l
    =44q1
    4 .JEqoF= 6J^d.J+. r7l+ Ef, 4lql^l ol Hls"g Nzq Hz= Ed6l AEalzl *El+.
    s6lq c+ E+ gaJEql t'^lql qL **ol H+ az.lH H.J+.
    ^Jl =^H6IE^J, ^ldql
    ral Hr, N2, NH3E LoETI H6tb
    ^l+ql 44 A9 +EtU 4.o14. N2e+ H2-tr+
    15.4=
    El 6I+9 ¤¤ sBEol eqeql +el6l-
    ^l+61=zlql *4ls.ol,
    NH3trJs-tr
    ^l4l6t=zl,
    +. ¤B 249. o&+ qL qr.}e_e.prlE EgE+ + 9l+.

    oltr Eg HJSEeltsE= Et=--Je_e& EBoil E=il=xl, olu^l= trJEts + 91rl-.

    al rs.scl El*d ¤Bql^J9 Nr, Hr, NH:9 LoE=. a¤'J+. il+g6JEq^J9


    ^lol ^ll
    7l^l7)z)14 o&g ill4l4-9-g {a}.rlzlr.4 B¤ s.J+g 846}H ¤B br r1o1
    ^Jql4
    e-l +41= aats + 91trt.
    sl4zl-53 Haber9 ts+ old9 le^llTlql q= slEzl illalql^J ol+l+ ="F9 g+= +
    q6IHtrI. ts6+tJgl Cato Maximilian Guldberg(ts:e-uoz)$ Peter Waage(t8::-tsoo)E
    "lul+ *¤.olE ¤eq^l HI¤¤+ ^JcE +-e. /(.1o1E tI++41= E^l6l+ EB EfA H=t
    (lawof massaction)S 7[4dt9+. "J+4'J ¤e H]+^lg z[{o}l Bz}.

    aA + bB ;- dD + eE U5.71

    {zl,! ++q +q6}= E+q}+olr, q, b, d, eE *¤9 "*= E+q} Ei+^lel


    A, B, D, E=
    4lfolrl. a"d. zl+ H4q qEE, ¤¤ aag ++ ^l"e s^lg+.
    K,: " "; .- ddE
    lDldlEl"
    ' [A]',[B]' ;:-
    HJSE [1s.8]

    Hz9 aE +EE N2elAE +E.clPflol ?/E7l? ?]sf :rBtlE olgzl ElHElol o;*7n
    Hf.=L=.Efoe ++ gdEgtee
    ="J
    EiA EEI EEI
    !=

    E.
    H2
    E
    H2
    NHs NHa
    N2 N2"
    l7J + lz +
    afH 15.4 oJEE(Nre[ HdEJg-+ !E= 8d=(NHs)oJee Eg-d Eeq E'J-dtl'.
    ^l4t6l.= ^lAEl'=,
    676 158 6t-+ E-d

    .l +41^lg HI+91 gg 61ft1(equilibrium-constant expression) g.E S$ l(equilibrium


    expression)ol+r.Jq. EE tl*(equilibriumconstant, K.): drll ¤¤ E"EE ¤¤ tL+

    ^lql
    4.J6Iq 99 <iol4. ot4 ?z[ cE tf A]9 9zl slafl .<1-o:" o3 E.bEol+.
    ¤¤ {l.+^lel E4= ¤B H}+^lel scE +ql 9l= E= Eeq +E +olr, 4 bE
    +B slEi Hl+4q zl+"J+ 4E4l+4^J qlg+tr}. tsE= ¤B EI+^IE HI+E + E
    =
    Atr+q tsl+6t7ll 'llE++. tr|{^l Haber *C, Nz(c) + 3Hz(c) :2NH3(s)q ¤¤ t
    +4e +q-4 e+.
    v-
    INH"l2
    '
    A---
    [Nz][Hz]'
    [1s.e]

    BBql Egt qtr HI*ql q6[q #¤ *+ E]q] H]*^lg "JE, E]*,il4q+3 seq
    +E BB tl+^lg g + 914.
    ¤B t+^le Hl¤.el +Et*-eqluJ E=6lr HI¤. ql4q#rl+ ++6t+

    Haber *t
    Eq+ts oJ+E Eol= EJI gsoJ .Je ed l.C ¤zJ aoo9 r++EE olu.ulolzl 4*B Hub.. +C oE zlla
    ^l*el
    Eql 4+q= *tr4 gd $r{. ,.c,., (14.741, "ei g+. g-Eqot= EoJql Hts ++q7l+ oJE*.g_e*e H++
    ^lEq
    jlerl ili rd s.-l:"). trt4^] tBql= tI"JeJq oJsqot Eler gl4.
    ^14 ^l-sg +
    zlqle.l ulez| ¤ea}q. oJaol f=9 +4ql qq xllq6l= Habert a+9 drJg gB6l zlg* "l]+dol ,JoJ +g
    *tsg +.=_aJ ++ ++ +ql^], fte+ 4zl ?9 ?ae.4 "J"1fl4. ]= zllril
    ^llalqd E"J +.JE 44 d4
    .qu1^
    El oJEqoh= qlc6l+ dz zl* ;.soJ cI+ HI+ +el 6l (Chemical Warfare Service)9 zl$619-=. 96197, +7I^
    +oltrI. fzle! giE ^l-Sg rl]H.dlf,trl. A44-q.g, 1e18Hql f
    lgl2LJql 5.Jq ++zl Fritz Haber(1868-1934)= Haber I Lg p+qt} +tI AC3 t}"J.J b^J4 ul$$ izllz| sl
    *Ag ,1]B6I9trI(^l ts.6). r +Ag Haber-Bosch *d fl4. olol+l.l6t4lE f.E #4.Jol4E olg.+' re33LJgl 5
    (Haber-Bosch process)oleliE 6l-= aqE, ql+E .JEq .Jql^l +*qfl+.
    of Bt *CS zllg.J digz| Karr Bosch= zle.lzl f-lal {o1 +¤ ¤+ E4l: ls.rt4, ts.7s,ts;s
    trI(rH 15.5). Haber +Ag +16]l^l= tg gE(4
    ^lB617l
    4 soo "c)el k* $4(zoo-600 atm)S 99-e algr1, o13
    r "*^lq= Ezl "14.g =aolfl+.
    *CP s*4ol *49 S"tl "lzli +!+zl"J g.Jql
    Haber
    +6il q^|4 otr +trlEg 9lE -uq tet4LJ zlltzf
    =4.
    4dol ^lzlqflg Eil, +"Jg +qlg zil=ali ql gst e
    ^ll4l
    \
    l-l
    c$ +gtt3 +oJ+q aqlql 9= e+e qzl$q e]+6}fl
    +. d^Jg 6F= E.J, ts I4l4zI ¤-JJ qI49 "lltl +4le
    .J6ll ol ++ol xl.+qflq. rq+ ql7ltr+El 4a zlillE E
    )
    ^l-+"Jssa] +oJg +E ^J&
    !.46171 f.l6]l Haber HI¤¤ ',.id,,1
    e 4+B + 91fl+. dEzl-=g Haber S{ol $.fl48 ztlr
    tet8tr dql z*-q aol+r +CtJ+. ffi
    I
    zI \
    ^llzlqldg \
    olBrll +ril daql^l gs,* Ezl-= 49617l +l6.J %lBe n

    tr^J EqoIZl naber *Ag oE ed rAE fr


    ^lzl¤ ^ll!l4
    +s6J gaol qfl+. zlllil ^Jl4qldg zl4rl?.H Hauer rH 15.5 Haber 8801 TllgE Karlsruhe lnstitute of
    *Ae bzlg dl1=*g +71.^l7l+ ule 4laE 7l_b6}Zl 6I ="J9.1 ?g
    Technology0llE Harber A¤q htElgtrJ 3= HJ37l7t d
    S.eq, ol= Ele ^I*g
    TlotE+El fl*^la+. trl+ql^J: ?lq.
    ^lElq
    rs.z l"E-d A# 677

    olfl 4 "-e ¤¤ {l+!g +E Bzlr+ +s+.


    "JC+gEql^l BB tl+<tgHI¤¤4SCE$ izl r-oE"ql el+6}4 *=EI. E+HI
    ¤¤ol4 ^JtE4 Hlgo 6|zl ?+= .J, +E Eeol 9lq+E +Alfl+. K. {le 54 Hls. r+
    gEq"J el=++.

    4lrll ts.t
    ¤E t+4j j!7t
    q8 HJSel ga 944$ ll.rl9.
    6) 2qG) -- 302(sr)
    (b) 2 NO(g) + Ct2G) ;- 2 NOCr(g)
    (c) Ag+(aq) + 2 NH3(aq) i- As(NH3)f Gq)

    6ll'J > .H.6 qlr{|1


    Eq ,llE HI+4g +a, 44ql qlt BB ^J+^lg r+
    ^ll
    ll$ zsorls; + oz(s) : zso3k)ql ql4 qg + qL
    Ezllol4. 4ol a+d ¤¤ *f4.Jzl?
    4tq eeJ. 4I+ Ezlg ol+6rq ^JCE + gpg $=E E lso2l2[02] (.: 2[sor][or]
    zlql, Hl*E + EeE bE= El.ql ,i{^l 49 z}C++. 4
    ta) K-:
    ' [sor]'
    (b)
    2[SO3]

    lso,t2
    r-o E 6Jg
    +¤ EIE Hlg. 4l+el a3 4fE z*s.+ f,4. (c) K-: (d)
    2[SO3]
    K,: 2[sor][or]
    ^lE ' ."'
    Iso2]z[02]
    E0l
    lorl3 > E6 qlrll2
    : prf : fNocll2 (c)& : fAg(NH3)rjl
    q¤ qlaql
    (a)K. O)K.
    ffi iffi ql6J
    ¤B
    (a) Hz(S) + I2(g) :
    t44 r.g l^.r.le.
    zHI(g)
    @) Cdz+(aq) + 4Br-(aq) ;' CdBt4z-(aq)

    K" 4lthbPl
    +Elts qB4l erJ zl+E H4.l ?ElzlsE gAqfl=zl= ¤Hg + 9la, rt+Iq} old
    4e+ ol4}Ei 4iel +flg "Jdel dqlg s.rlaJeEr,{ ¤¤ triz} a7l +Ee+ ++6}+
    4g +EEl + el+.
    =
    Nzo+(g) ;- 2No2(s) K.: t1s.1ol
    +H
    += *Eq Eq fl= Eg
    H zH9 "JBg
    ^]E+g =Hl*r]. ¤¤ql
    Noze| N2onz[
    ^1tr
    E rllzlzl ^]e+g
    100'c-s #zlrlzJ4.
    ^lEl+
    .JE rqr
    g6JEg 846}J, E 1s.1ql
    ++u NozqNzon ¤B LoEE AA6J+.
    K,= 4l&61-71 +l6l.q ¤B *E= ¤¤ tl+^lql q.J+rL qE Eq ¤E 19
    ^+rJ"l
    ¤¤ tl+
    zl.E [Noz] :0.0r72M, [N2o4]:0.00140M9 otelle] ag ar]E gg + 9l+.
    ^l=&6]E
    I(.: lNO,12: lo.ot7212 : o'Ztt ffi-
    [N2o4]

    X. 15.1 100 tq^1 N2o4k)et Nor(g)e.l 4zl +g ol E"{B tE


    da a7l [Nrol] (M) :E7l [Nor](M) BB [NroJ (M) EJe [NoJ (M) Kc

    I 0.0 0.0200 0.00140 0.0t72 0.2t1


    2 0.0 0.0300 0.00280 0.0243 0.2t1
    0.0 0.0400 0.004s2 0.0310 0.213
    4 0.0200 0.0 0.00452 0.03 10 0.213
    678 158 at-+ EE

    eg *EeE tl46[q +E ^lEE &Ag 41+]++. E ls.lql^l K.9


    ¤-d 3 .E.ts !e 4ts Nzoa9 EET} EJBollEg Ae !+ bE+ a7l r-oE <lol B4zlrl{E(dfl sz} Hfl .Iql^.1=)
    6t7lztxl ,J461ts7p .JA6I+= dql ++6I+. E6J dE 4= NO27I olq4 NzOaE ,(l4rallE
    ¤Bql Eg*+= 49 eq #+. ¤Be qL +ql^lE d=g + 9t
    +. r=J 1s.69 aTlE Noz9 tE==+e4l ^l4}dlqelE, dE :4 49
    0.0400
    d-d 3 4q^l 5Ag B¤ etlEol ^daq= ag trq
    =+.
    s rs.rol+ dE r 4q1.<.1 4lt}¤ & <}ol tglzl
    t
    G
    0.0300
    g
    $.gql +91614. ol
    ¤9 ++ql^J Bl6lrll ol+ trIEql, B¤ tr-+= tglzl HE ilge ,^
    o aol "Jq]4014.
    z 0.0200 =

    A
    Ed4
    0.0100
    15.10011,\'l K"el,J? No2c[Nzo4el /.l4t EiEoll sl=dl=71?
    ^l

    0
    /.lz+ ?-aJsE_ L|EILJ B* tf, Kp

    arB 15.6 Noz9 j^zl tsEq 89fl01 ,Je E dcEol 7l^ll"J a+. sbE qld ++ glqg ^I
    Elql HI¤:E HI¤¤r+
    E SdEt[. Efloll E=-=f tqzl^l No2el
    =-Er'Eol +6}oj ¤¤ tr-+^lg +4'J + gltrl. ¤B t}+^lql^l ++ E.49 zl.J
    5E= 67[dl7]LlrJ^Zrr[.
    +9E + a+, ¤¤ ^J+= Ke-tr -*^l6J+(q7l^J oI4 dztp= "J49
    LI4,J+). rl rs.z9 "JHI BJ+ql 4aJ r, q*!+ a+
    ^le
    _ (Pp)(PE)'
    ^." (Pe)'(&)'
    [1s'11]

    pA= TloJe-_tr ++u A9 ++


    +l
    ^lql^l "Jqola, pB= TloJe_tr +4u B9 +E $H"l
    +. +"l4E uftlzlxlolQ. qlE Eq N2o4/No2 HI+g Kp= q-q=4 e+.

    ^r:H
    +qA HI+q^l "JHI4e=a K,E {}rl Keel {}g +e.+. l4 oe. ol4 dz| c E* pE
    ol+6[q ¤¤ t]+E +Qlll= ql +el6fi+ ++. 6]zl"J ol$ zlrllal * (ro.+¤)9 ol*
    6[9 Eo E4 .Jqg t]g H+]g + g+.

    PV:?RT, l4oe r:f,nr t1s.12l

    nlvi mol/ro1q, g*E Ma+ ,Jq. :14 oe. Ee Aql qldl^l= trIs-4 A+.

    ro: ffnr: [A]Rr t1s.13l

    r_l rs.r:9 ro(al rs.rr)q qE6lr HI+g 4E zl4l CEql ql6il^]E Ae %LHsE qE
    6lE, Kpel &
    ^l"lel +4q +* "JEI^lg Erll gtrt.

    .- (tDlRr),([E]Rr), / tottrt,\ (Rr)d*"


    +: (rAffir: t,-,,-7/ $n;.t r1s'141

    gE ?Iql fl= 6Jg Kp+ A+. q+^J 49 ++sle + fl+.


    f, : f,1nf;td+e)-(a+b) : (.(RT)A, [15.15]

    ol Elq Hl¤-^lqlrl9 zl4l g+E Hslol4. olAg ,lnl


    arg tB
    ^.lq^J ^JCEE 4l+
    B4^J 7liil H]¤¤E 4l+ Bg U ar+ A+.
    15.2 | nJE 8+ 679

    6n:(zlzll ^JCE9 5+) - (zl^ll HI¤¤el 5+) [1s.16]


    ql= Nzo+(s) : ^JCEzNoz(s) HlSql^J NozE z mololtr, HI+E NzoaE
    =q :a4oe. ol HI+ql^J L,n:2-1:1o1tr,
    r molol4. Kr:r,(Rr)ol+. +E 44ql^l Tlill
    9 $qe zloJ9.-E s^lqq, +Eb 4q'J g+tr s¤qss zlill ^J+e-l 4¤El ¤El=
    R : 0.08206 L-atm/mol-KolQ.

    A Kc--KpA HJ30l 7l5dJ7l-? r=qE 0lIJZE clE 4z6toll,\l 4EEl=71?

    qEl 15.2
    KPI
    ^tolel tt
    HaberES Nz(g) + 3Hz(g) ;- 2 NHs(g)
    0ll ttlotl300'C0ll,\l Kc=9.609 ttll, 0l8E0ll,\1 0l HJB9KpE Zlt}d|.119.

    6tlU Kp : K. (R?)Ar : (9.60)(0.09206 x src)-z


    E{ H}+ql 4t Cz} +qzlr Ke= +6J+ Ex]ol+. (9.60) _:4.34x10-3
    - (0.08206 x 573)z
    ls.lsel a+. ol
    +41=
    ^lg 4+6I
    4lEl Kp+ Ke
    ^plq ^l ulra}{ > .H.* qld
    ^JCEel 5+=
    7l +l4q HI¤¤g 5+e+ 1

    ls.16)9 +6llot'*+. ^r(4 El-g + 3oo Kql^j KplK, E\7171* HI+s-?


    (a) Nz(S) + oz(g) ;- 2No(g) =
    Eol 7l^ll ^JCE(2 NHrg 2 mololtr, 7li.ll Hl¤¤(l N2+3
    (b) CaCOg(s) ;- CaO(s) + CO2(8)
    HJ3 + molol4. l4re. Ln=2-4: -2o14(A q+++ "J (c) Ni(co)a(s) . - Ni(s) + 4co(8)
    tr-C^JEq^l HI¤+g BunE+ qq il¤¤ zl9al-4). 95. (d) C(s) + 2H2G) : CH4(g)

    i zzz+300:573 KolQ. ol^J Tlill ^J+ R ,*g 0.08206 > E6qF{2


    L-atm/mol-Kol4. &=e.609 qloJflq +4uHH +gr+ 1000 Kql^-l ¤¤ 2so3k) ;- 2so2(8) + o2@)4 KcTl
    44. 4.08 x 1o-3oJ Ell, KP iig 4l+6l.^19_.

    BE ^J+cl.J+l
    olulE qfl+e ¤¤ f|+9 ol*E }fr6ll6J 4o14. ¤¤ tI++ Hl¤- +EE
    tflzl S.E
    +"J otq+ gqq4E sdol ql+(rsr}qlrJ gqq4g +dcg .Jol-B 1ol4). gqo+
    4 +Aee+q Eqd BB tl++ +E+ ++ .Jqtr+= $sE(activity)e aelgrl.
    ol+4ql gqlE +E qtr g4E 9E"EE E.= bE 1 Mql ql.J bEE ulolzlrJ, EG
    "J4(r atm)ojl ql* "Jqq Hlol+. qlE 5q Be g6JE +q qB Eeq *E710.010 M
    olEE, r gEE= 0.010 M/l M:0.010o14. ol Elg ++l= 6}tl
    ^J4qEE 9E"E9
    +fl= HAI gq. 4olzl. SFEE Ag tEe+ a+. +++ rlzlle+ "-qillel A+ tr-oJe q
    q Z+6lld+. q+:.IB gEETi 1ol7l ullEol+(E^l B9lz| S.+).
    dxll 4l"llrJE ¤}EEE HlolEE +gl7l $.+. Hl+ 95sz} +ilzl_e_-+ aq6}rll tEe+
    zJzlE ?*zl"J, :. rlolz| 4+ }ot +^lB + 9l+r Tlcg 1o14. ol ,r.lf oll,rJ "JoI"l B
    ag gia"Eql t]glzl s+= 4,o14. olE+El Eqn gqolzi ¤B t+(thermodynamic
    ++l7I s.+. trI+^J .E.= ++E ¤¤ ^J+= EI+l S.ol 4= aol
    equilibrium constant)E
    +Bllolq, ol 4E ol-$ ffi 4o14. ¤ rl E3 +=9 alql r.4q1,(-l= +EeI gtE= +
    ts6}q
    ^FSg
    aol4.
    680 1s8 at-+ EE

    Ee Nzo+9 tsE7t o.oo14o Motat*, r gEiE= g't?!71? ('J, o,8 Eqlot


    A alr 7t.8-dtr1.)
    =-d=otl^1
    I

    1s.3 lBBt+el olGtlel 4t


    ¤¤ ^J+= ^l-s"t 4l4}g 6l-71 d, ¤¤ tI+E zzlzl ¤B g6JE +E HI
    K:1?.! HjSoll,(J: olafi raJol olgxl LtEtLI
    *84 dCEE ^J'll4 5r9l 'il6}q +Eg "J"I ibzl "JotE= a* +
    s6I+. E* qE ¤B ^J+e.l a7l7l s+o+ HI*^1"il qBrll e-l=6}=zl r
    ilE7l?
    El6l+ aE ++6}tr1.

    B¤ t#9:zl
    HTgE ."- gd=
    qtr HIAE B¤ t[+e] a7l+ ¤B sq+Eq atql q1g ie* AB=
    qE +6Jille} ¤+41 4aq zl;ll.J E^41
    ^il+EI+. =q ^F&q= EC
    (phosgene, Cocl2)g *Ezl 91il, "J4le+ tsl z1i1str ¤i zlillq r00 "c
    K>> 1, ECol 9-oll?lEt.' ql^lE EISq q+ ¤e zlEE r}4oil ezl.
    lcocl,l
    co(s) + cl2(s) ;- coCl2(s) &: f-ffcl, : 4.56 x 10v

    BB ^J+ <lol q* r7l +16ll^l= ¤¤ t}+^lel +471+t-H_+ qB+"I


    H}98
    :a4oe. Cocl2g BB ]sE= Co E= ClrE ¤¤
    lgeul ol1l z]ot aJ4.
    EoE_H_+ ,Bd 4ot 6lq, ol= dzllE ¤Ezl e +eqfl+. ol ¤¤3 g
    "
    K<< 1, EEol 'g+o1l ?lrt 914(^J^JE +ql)a "J6J+. uftzlzlE ,lt+ zle ¤¤ tI++ ¤¤
    =+"ll
    s*Eol q+e HI¤+g E¤-6Ir. 9l+g 9slaJ4. "lull ¤Bol g+q 9}
    Arts 15.7 gA At+ KA aTtg:l Ee
    5d =:cr'Eel Elr g.J+. "JH]4-g-tr
    ^f0le.lrJll
    K>> r(= K)olE: ¤Edol s=.+q 9leq, ^JdEol +^ll6IE|.
    K<<r(zlgK)olH: ¤¤"1 9491 gleq, q}¤¤ol +^Jl6|+.
    ole+Ag tlqlg rs 15.7q1 sE6Iq 44.}lflr}. ¤¤ql^l= C+9"4 qHI-8-E HI* +E
    4 ,Jt++ 4olzl, HI¤-84 ^8CEE Lo E7t Ar+= {ol o}uleft a"il +el6t4.

    qH 1s.3
    BB t+sl rTlql EHBJ 6il4

    sg4:aJp ,J? zz19 E7l0[ Eol ?l= EE.SEt|01l^1e.1 7l^l Zl=


    aol+. LfElL.! eo:e:e
    oa ooo
    oo o oo
    oJn, K"7l ^jl
    (a) Zl+lE 6lrl A +^ltllE LlE6f^19.
    (b)E7lel+r17|,1.0 L0la z{u-1o;+7|.0.10 motE rtl, 44el zl0ll rt|slq /("= +6|./.19.
    ooo OO o o o
    o
    oJo o (,
    e OO o e
    (i) (iil (iii)
    6il9
    5i4,rll Tlzl BB tl+E *ql4oJ r7l= Hlr6ta, 4lt}6t 4q
    ETllol+. (a) EB9I,<J
    ^JdE.el "Jol
    EJ*Ee.l
    "Jql El6l] q y*¤++,
    = q
    =
    ¤B tfE zltl4.
    (b) *B tr-+ alg al rs.a9l Eotl^J +g + 914.
    rs.s I E:d Af+ol ol6l]ef 6gl
    =g
    E0l os ol+11 :aE.l= a3 dS4olzl +6I+.
    (a) 4 tztq rozll! ]zl9l+. ^JcEg o}g (i) 6, (ii) I, > -H.6 qH 1

    (iii) aol4. r++^l ¤e ^J+ <lol 4Ig a(Hi¤¤ol 7I+ 2'Cql^19 Nzor(s) : 2No2(s) ++ql Eil'J ¤¤ tl-+
    "*e a)+q 3 4(^JCEol zlat r*3 4) #eg qgq- K,:2.0o14.4?+E L*4 +7I 1mol9 NzOaE 44
    E (0 < (i)'{ii1o14' =
    qtn 44E ,J4 +71I mot9 NozE 444= a+, +q-q
    O) (i)q^J= ^JCE o.oo mol/Lel **E o.+o motlLzl ( 1.0 L +71 + qL 4o1 z.c9l.rl ¤B g.J+g 444Ezt?
    xll;|E-tr K,:0,6010.+0:1.5(rJg ++E +E 4+
    2O
    E 4tszl"J qls. zJ3 ArlE E=4. + 644 +144
    I +: t.s). (iil"ll,tJL {CE o.to mol/Le} H}¤¤ o.so oo o o +o OO
    mollLzl K.: 0.10/0.e0 : 0.11(E= lZlE oo c o doo (D
    ooo
    99
    =4161-tr-+,
    als44 +:o.tt). (ifl9l,tli CCE o.so mol/Lel HI oo
    eO o .",i ; a ooog
    o
    ¤¤ o. zo mollLzl & : 0. 80/0. 20 : +. o (s.:
    =4l6tlr-s (a) (b) (c) (d)
    4tI 44= (a)9lrl9 t,!
    (e)
    sZlE + hznq O =a.o). ol
    el.JiltJtrl. > H.= qlr{ 2

    +g aol HI¤¤ rB Ell, &7I4+ trl]el zlg


    ?lql^le+
    Hz(g) + rz(s) : zHl(s) **9 4+ zes Koll,r-l rr:79a,
    = tsr}7t
    EIE tltr-Efl Bzt. qls^l K,tl rx ro-'oJ 4* Hi¤¤ 700Kql^l Kr:55o14. HITI trj t*ol ,tJzlE 8s=:=q
    gEoJTt, *3 Ss.oJzlz
    100,0002H IrJE 9.s-6}.r, SCE EzlE Ezl l7]]olq. r4

    El'J u8^lel '"bJ4 r


    N2o4/No2 ¤B+ r+q=4 ?ol 448 + 9l+.
    Nzo+(g) ;- 2No2(s) K.:
    iH
    :o.212 (100'Cql^l) |Is.r7l

    ol BBg EHla +Hql^J ae ElEetr ^J4g + 9l+.


    2No2(s:) : N2oa(g)

    ol a+ ¤¤^le 4g_r+ a+.


    -- : [Nzo+]
    : 4l2 (too "cq1r1;
    1

    frAi ,.r-:
    K. [ts.ts]

    rs.18g al ts.tz9 9iol4. *+ %Lqfee +4U HI*e-l S¤ t+^le q%I+gE +


    ^l
    4U HI+"il Eil+ 9o14. A44sE, 6J B-6Je_E Aqd H}gql ql.J BB ^J+E +
    ^lE
    il= qH}*ql ql.J ¤¤ ^o}+E 9fol4. + 4e E 4 *zl"J, ¤¤ ri¤-ol qBril 4q4
    flE4c} sszl- H^lqzl ?*eH Nozq N2o4 ^lol9 ¤E {ifzl 0.2t2 Ey 4.72EaEJ
    ol+ a+ 9"lzl $,+. EI+^l ¤¤ t1-+= ull: t{+ r ¤¤ ^J+e+ +fl$ +¤
    ^l^S6J
    "*+ s+o,I HI$^lg alol e4.

    400 Kotl^l pcr5(s) ;- pct3(s) + ct2(s)u='tl t,-d gE a+ Kc:1.1xto-20;cp.


    A400 KCIl^l pcrs(9) + cl2(s) ;- pcr5(s) HJ8oll ge g4; $Efofzl.?
    |
    I
    rH-d

    rJt^.lE oJ+-^l7l7l
    El¤,J "JE-zl BB ^J+E
    +q11 Hl+ql q6J +B +q HI*!g iri %IBe +oJ6}trl. q= zl rs.r9
    Nzo+(s) ;- ZNo2(s)ql 2= +6lE qgr+ A+.
    =E
    2N2Oak) ;- aNO2(g)
    682 153 trlol E:d

    ol p+ur Ei+4E +¤ol "*+q4 9leq, qE 4ql^l: +le-l EI*4g +rt. tr14^J ol HI
    *^lql qt.J BB r H trf.sr+ e+.
    ^J+^lg
    [Nozla
    -'(-
    ^. [Nzoo]2
    ol +¤.4 ls.lql ¤B ^J+^l(rl rs.ro) [Nor2/[N2oJS z]l+e] 4o14. ^l]tr.e
    ql6J
    ^lg
    ¤¤ t+^le g4 ¤¤ tr-+^lg zllgolps, ^l]E+ ¤B ^J+ K.: g4 B¤ tfg zll
    *ol,.tr., 0.2t22:0.044e(t00.cql^J)ol+. +^l EJ6I]^I ,+49 EC* +B s++ Hl+^lr}
    BB tl+= g+^l4o} Er¤ zlgulloi ++. ¤B EeE so EE ++ Ht
    =B¤ql =46I=
    +^le qB4 444tsxl"ll +4l$ol +AzlEJ, 4l4I"J K. zte HI+g qB4 4=4q trl
    4 B+A+.

    HJB2Hr(g) : Hz(s) +tz(s)E6Ht(s/) ;- 3Hz(g) +3tz(sE/"\EEEI


    A + Kee.l olEZl E6l'fl=7t?
    i ='7l=

    BB ^J+¤ 'Jr 9l= += HI¤# rlall,tJ flolf Hi¤¤ eg + 9l+8, r HI*ql ql


    .J ¤B tr-+E 4l4}g + 9l+.
    "lag Hess Hzlg ol+6lq Elzlel HI¤: flgEl= ol"l S
    r 9l= Hl-S qlgirlE+El +q+ +Cr} +^}6}+ * 1s.0¤). qltr q.g + H}*ql^l ¤¤
    tI+!$ 100'cq^lE BB tI+E ^J46fl Lz}.
    t:?IjB;?r :0.014
    1. 2NoBr(s) . - 2No(s) + Brzk) &': INOBr]z

    2. Br2@) + ct2@): zBrct(s ) K,z: =!u'S\)1 - : ,.,


    tsrrltClrl
    + Hls"^]g Qfl "JaI HI+^lg
    3. zNoBr(g) + cl2(g) ;- 2No(g) + zBrcl(g)
    Hi* 3q q'J ¤B tr-+^le qI* 14 2el B¤ {}+4g ="6.J aq aq.
    - _- [No]z[Brct]z _ [No]z[Br2] .. [Brcl]z
    ^'s pp6,grfpcrrl - ^rNoBrf [B.r[cl,
    trI+^J
    K.s : (&r)(Kcz) : (0.014) (7.2) : 0.1001+.

    -e-e+-o}H,

    r. qHI*E SB t+= dHI* ¤B ^J+q q(E= 9f)o14.


    A+B i- C+D K1
    c+D: A+B K:llKr
    2. oJ Hls"^lql qH +E t+ a+E ¤B tr'+= fl4E B¤ dI+E r +ql qlB6l+
    ++ 4E4*+ iol4.
    A+B :C+D (1
    nA+nB i-,4C+nD K:Ki
    3. F 7ll ol+el +4le ol+q4l HI+g ¤¤ tr-+= 4 *4lE ¤B tl+= BoJ 4"14.
    A+Bi-C+D Kl
    C+F: G+A K2
    B +F ;- D+ G 1(3 : (1(1)(I(2)
    15.4 lEEg EE 683

    qH 1s.4
    BE t+41¤trslil

    u84e qe-aleq.
    HF(aq) .- H+(as) + F-(aq)K":6.8 x 10-4
    H2C2Oa@q) 2H*(aq) + C2O42-(aq) K,:3.8 x 10-6
    -
    tl-B US9 K",JE +6f^19.
    2HF(aq) + CzO42- (aq) : 2F-(aq) + H2C2O4@q)

    rllS
    E{ + BB H}+44 r B¤ t}+ rtg +a, ole+ ¤+g fitet ++61zlg + HI+4g EJdl^l= Brll HI+4g e
    Hzll ++e.l BB tr-+E fali $ullolc|. g + Htrl. +6}azl6l+ EI+^lg e7l^jl96I^l= olE H]*
    ^,ll
    49 4ed 4$aHo16q-.

    #ot a Hxll HIgq 2= t


    6[n, 6l]E]q= Hal¤ ¤¤
    t+ql 4+6]]11 7ll+6t$
    +gr} e+. zHF(aq) ;- ZH+(aq) + 2F (aq) (c : (6.8 x 10-a)2 : 4.6 x LO-7

    + H4 HI¤¤ fldn, 6l]B


    9= H+= ¤¤ rr-+ql 4
    ++q E+= ?6[E ++
    J+ 2H+(aq) + CzO42- (aq) : H2C2Oa@q) K.:
    - --f-:2.6
    3.8 x 10-o
    x"to5
    'J+.
    olzll + Hl+g q6IE dxll
    q}+g eal qr, 4 ¤B ;-
    2HF(aq) 2H+(aq) + 2F-(aq) K,: 4.6 x 7o-7
    ZH+(aq) + CzO42- (aq) : K.:2.5x10s
    ^J+ &E +-4q +4r1zl H2C2Oa@q)

    6l+ ¤¤ ^J+= e=q. z[F(aq) + CzO42- (aq) : 2R- (aq) + H2C2Oa@q) K,: (4.6 x rc'7)Q.6 x 10s) : 9.12

    > Id.6 filrti1 (a) 4.9 x 10 13 (b) 4.1 x 1os (c) 8.2 x 10s
    x 102 (e) 5.4 x 10-3
    2s.c9 +¤-o+ql^'l trl-g + Hl*ql ql+ ¤B t}+z} 4* (d) 1.8

    r+ a+. > Hs fitrll2


    HNO2(a4) :- (a4) K" : 4.5 x 10-4
    H+(a4) + NO2 700 Kq^l HzG) + Iz(s) : zHt(g) **9 Kp:s4.ool
    H2So3(a4) 2H+(aq) + Sot(aq) (. : 1.1 x t0-e
    ;- a, Nz(S) + 3H2(g) ;- 2NH3(g)9 Kp=1.04x10-4oJ A
    trts HI*q q6J K" <13 goI.JzI? *, zoo Kql^l 2NH3(s) + 3r2(s) ;-
    6Hr(s) + Nzk) HI
    2IJNO2@fl + SO3z-(aq) ;- H2SO3(aq) + 2NO2-@q) +E KpE +61^1e..

    15.4 lffioJ ¤YJ


    *¤. ¤eg 5_= Eeol ,J3 t(phuse)o1q-. olq6J *¤g tE BE!(homoseneous
    equilibrium)ol4z eI4. :B 1s.2ql *= N2o4k)s+ NozG) rq* ql +
    ^Iol9 ¤¤g
    at4ol4. 6lzlq1 qtr A+ql= ¤¤ tI{E Eeol rt$ ^J-qE #cr sE
    ^Je =416[q
    (heterogeneous equilibrium)g ol$+. .I.zll gtrl B(rDol Eql +oI se+ +'-qg
    "JE= a
    *zl -t 9ol4.
    PbCl2(s) p62+1aq) + zcl-(aq) t1s.19l
    -
    684 1s3 Et-+ E-d

    ol al= ¤Bq^J + 7l^1++._4 qlqla" 4 6J Tlzl rillE E6.L6J+. Elg ol 44q qi+ ¤
    ¤ ^J+^lg ++8, oldql d6tl trzl *+ Extlql +Rzlrtl g+. ritl Eeq bE= qB
    ,tl LI4'J 4"J71? +o&"J'J9 Hl+84 olE, HISzl rs.rs
    ^JCSe+E] ^lzlEl= ¤E]g
    e-l ¤B ^J+4e 4gq A+= ag ga6l4 g+.
    r.: pru2*1;ct-12 t15.2ol
    r4oe. BB tr-+^lql^l +El+zl szl rllEgl, rillel +EE *¤oli %r-Hql
    pbclz(s)zl
    4aJ ExJIE E* $flol S+. .E+g ¤B"il +++ n4l+ 44lz} EElg 4E :z HI*E
    S¤ r}+!q= olEE BE4 6+^& sQlq4 9+=+.
    +-?qI rxll+ "-q4rt ¤B ^J+^lql EElq4 ?*=trI=
    ^Ide + 7Vl EJHse ¤Eg
    + 9lr}. a trail, ++6J aill+ o_4illE r-"E= .J4.J <i9 zt{4. itrllE Ar*ol F Eil_+
    +7I6tE, +ylE + ts]]7} g+. trl+^J +qq 4aJ aeJul4 +¤g Eo EE trdtzl ?+=+.
    ¤e tr-+^le srlq} +¤- 4aql^J LoETt E6I= Hl¤¤r+ ^JcEq ql.J.J="Jg s+6[
    EE, 344 rill+ ._qillg t.E= rulzlzl g+.
    ¤B ^J+^lql^l ++6J ral+ .lill7| mlzl= ae + H4l ,JBse ¤Hg f ?14. xll
    rs.z¤9llJ gEqI4 B¤ tl+^lql 59zlE Ae 4 E¤E grEoEolr., oli zl#ai9l 4
    fl *EE Elg.J 49,.Jzlat4. ++6J 849 4A, zft<I? ++6J Ee zlajlE +Eol
    ,l qlgql +++ l1^ll+ sq^lle_l gEo E= a36 1ol gQ.

    A +-E gajg EtEoil^l Esl


    =9, =
    H2o(/) .- H2o(s)oil rH-d EE g+ .1= 4^ls.

    H"J ¤¤E +E q= +& e+9 tsollol4.


    CaCO3(s) i- CaO(s) + CO2k)

    ¤¤ ^J+^lql,r1 L4l9 roEE mnH

    cozk)"1 gF-71,81+el T.!8 E7l0ll^l uHlxlLlE rl3, 0l E717ltrJEs]r zlTtE:d ,sEfle g


    01.,J + ?]xl 5lE cacos(s)ol gf8 olLlE ,JAalzlLl Egdlzl +^lElbTl?
    =7l6fh7l,
    CaCOr(s) .--.- CaO(s) + CO2k)

    c
    4rs o
    cor(s)
    o cor(s)t
    4t* bcl
    (D4

    L-.{ 4;
    CaCO, CaO CaCO, CaO

    claJ9 CaCOs.4aJ9 CaO, zlr'il AaJ9 CaCOe, c[aJ9 CaO. zlr]l


    otal o
    "Jal3 qd6l P

    arg 15.8 +olt!8Eql^1871 Ee.lco2 Tlillel gE gale 4rillelgztgzls.ol e+.


    rs.+ IEE"J E-d 685

    K. : [Co2] r4I Kp: Pco,

    ol +qA gEql^l CaCor, Cao H Co, ,tlo1e1 ¤¤ql^l ^ll 7I^l CEol E+
    ^lg
    6l+ +, Coz9 F E .J{ol .JtI E"J6t4ts ag .Jel ={
    r=J ls.Boll^J -H.ol ul-e| po1,
    =+.
    caoe* caco:9 tlql4 .Jrl= rud}al coz9 .Jqg ga6[q.

    qHl 1s.5
    ffi.J BBqlEfiaJ BB tt+4j &?l
    q¤ 4 HJag EE 8+4 4 le.
    (a) CO2(g) '("=
    + Hz(g) ;- CO(EI) + H2o(/)
    (b) SnO2(s) + zCO(g) ;- Sn(s) + 2CO2G)

    EtIH SnOzei SngEF ++6J -Lxllolue, r=9 +E= ¤


    34 E 4 H'J ¤¤'J + EIE Hl+4g +r, 6ll*6l= ¤ B {r+^tq 444x1 s=+.
    ¤ tl+4g r^= E4lol4. > -H.5 qlfil1
    4e ¤¤ *+^lq^l ++* rill, .l4l= zilq++= Ag golgE sEI+ojq^'le-l ¤¤ As*@q) + c1-(a4) ;-'
    Hd6la, e"* z++ Bzlg ol+++. Agct(s)$ r.q6}^19. ol +.lql J.ill AgClol TtollrlB +

    E0l "_qq^-19 eg+e| cl- olgE tE= "igzll 94EzI?


    r++r+ (a) [Ag+]r] [cr-]E+ +71I+ 1o14.
    (a) {lE ^J+43 a+.
    0) leg*l4lcl-l E+ A^ts 4o14.
    r(":
    -gl.
    lco2lIH2]
    (c) [Ag+]E G'Tlttla-, tcrl= ar6J aolE].
    (d) [Ag*]E A46tn, tcrP 7zl6J 4o14.
    H}+ql^] H2o= ++6J 94lolo +, I Lo EE E¤ {}+
    (e) [Ag*]4 [ct-] e.F H6tzl Sg 4o14.
    4"ll 4444 ?+=4.
    (b) ¤¤ t+^le r+gq A+. > EA dlx.il 2
    tr|.$ H}SE ¤¤ t+^lg r,tle.
    _ _lcod2
    ^" - 16cf
    (a) Cr(s) + 3Ag+(aq) :- Cr3+(a4) + 3Ag(s)91 Kc
    (b) 3Fe(s) + 4H2O(9 : Fe3Oa(s) + aH2Q)! K,

    \t qFl 'ts.6
    DI ffi.J BB9] E4 I
    tl¤ 4 E-cIEol 44 "Jtr{l E7l0ll trJZ 9ltt.
    (a)CaCOg(s) (b) Kp 'zJ-H.trl trl E "Jalq CO2k)etCaO(s)
    (c)Kp '2JEtl t] g+E CO2(J,)elCaCOs(s) (d) CaCog(s)el CaO(s)
    =
    0l EEIE 6 o|l.- a0l oleflel BBoll Eg-g + 9,tts7t?
    CaCO3(s) -- CaO(s) + CO2(g)

    6fi8 + gs+ Eli++=ol aTlql +E CEEE HI+


    =!]614+
    E{ +& a+4 r E6ll 4}E"J {}E+ a+, olt}E} +4E s q Ed {C9"lot t4.
    .J=E q 7Vl 4rJ + qL C*zI ¤Bql EB6J i liEzl Eol ?E* aalEol 6J, (c) 4*5 E
    ".Eg ^lle.l,*
    EE +xllol+. a+q ¤Bq Eg6J+ =xll6l+
    9itrl-.
    =
    (a) coz9 S¤ "Jqql r$p {lz}zl caco3(s)z} EBHqq
    filEl ¤Bol ol-folzlzl ?16l]^l= Aqlg"4 qH}+ol E+ oJ
    qg + gl"lot,*4. 4HI*ol 9"l4zl +16}]^l= E&,J+ Cao(s)q Cozk)E ^J^d+4. :el4 coz9 $4ol ¤¤
    ol qL c= 3z11o1o; oJ+. qH}+ol "J"l4zl +l6ll^J= ql Egg + 9lg ¤tre +++ oJ9 cacorzl
    =4l6ilot
    E+ *+4 ol4!E| Saz[ qL aE oJtr]. + A+ ^}
    E 6J+.
    =zl]6ilo]
    686 153 Etqr E:d

    (b) co,: co,9 *E.Jqol ¤¤ "Jqql EB6J ++ + HEI + Eg+ 41e.3 ¤Bgl^]. tsg
    =qsq
    Qzlzl Caoot +=61 aql4{ cacor= d^.rq}q.
    =xll*+.
    NHaHS(s)9 olol zJca|fll q= H+= qL a"J7I?
    (c) caozl s,o o-e ¤Eq EBB + s4. coz9 *E oJ4 (a) +TlqlNH:(8) trl471
    ol B¤ llvl4 aq= f s4(co,z} HI+4q aqitr + (b) +7lq H2s(s') trl a7I
    llE caozl g,c6l+). (c) +TlqlNH+HS(s) trl e7I
    (d) ol a+ tElol (a)el:L-i{-q_tr ,J4. cacorS gqol (d) +7lE *q ?zI
    ol+qa ql4zl +6119 d,ol4. azl cao9 q++ (e) *7lE +r4 'zJi
    rzlt+ol fl+. =4
    >r=qld2
    > .H.= qFll .J.il Eqfl= Feror(s)91 H2k), Hro(s), ozk)
    1
    "Jqlg +71
    200"cE zt¤¤ r.o LE "JEl $zloll a.o gel NunHsls; Ea + qL ag dzliRg rll, r re(s)+a H2o(g) r-
    7I Eq 9le$, NHaHS(s) : NH3k)+H2S(s) HI*ol Fe3oa(s)+ aHz@) HI+"l EBq E$olfzi?

    "Jq+q. 4lz| ¤¤"ll olEE .J+ NH4HS(S)71 qd6l

    +,1lz[ ¤¤ql^]E H]¤¤ol+ ^JCE.J A+, +¤¤r+ ^JCEE Eo E7t *eE +ql= A
    I ++6J tlql.e rJ+qq +4q toEE ¤¤ tl+^lql^J zlle-lg+. olEl+ tl4g Eol +
    o]]E +q6|f HI*ql 4+6rE
    H2o(/) + Co3z-(aq) ;- oH-(a4) + HCo3 (a4) t1s.21l

    lH2olTI xllelg ¤B tl+^lg Erll g+.


    r(.:-toH-lIHCot] rrs'221
    tcb3r-l=
    rl.3 HJSoil rH-dEE g+ lEt

    R NH3(aq)
    ^le.
    + H2O(/) 3 11po+(69) + OH-(aq)

    15.s lBBt+sl 4lt


    s rs.rq^J *H a4 ?ol, sloi HI+ql^J E= HI+EI+ SCEE ¤¤ E"EE +4.J+
    E, g¤ tr-+ Ag 4l&61+ 49 "lBxl 9*+. E= B¤ +EE HI+E ¤B tl+llql ,J+
    6l EllE6IE gt}.
    qHl 1s.7
    lrE BE bEE ga flg q Ksl4lt
    UB E7l oJel+Ael.tr 7li1lE-cr'Eol 472"C011^1EEE 0lEtl. EE 7li1l=-ctEe 7.38 atmol H2,2.46 atm9 Nz, 0.166 atm
    el NHgE E:Br'6tr flq. 0l xlae+q +B HJSel ge A+ Kp= Zl{t6t^19.
    Nz($+3Hz(e) 2NHs(g)
    -
    rflff Eol
    E4 +B "*+ HI*4r+ B¤ ++ Sqg +r, *e tI+= Kp
    (&H,)2 Q.r6q2 :2.79 x lO-s
    al4}6l-= ETllol+. P*,(Pn,)3 (2.46)(7 3q3
    ata tB *= q}¤.^lg
    ^l-s6}q *¤ tl+4g ++. r4 > .sE qlH
    r ¤¤ tr-+^lql *B ++ .Jqg 'dq Ke= +*trL
    1

    Tlill ol^lEl. ¤r4 &+9 g*+g eI* 8zl9l Br. 1000 K


    -e 7}g6}fltrlLl so,gz1 ^Jdq94. 4l7t B¤q Egfl
    15.5 E:d a+el zl.!| 687

    g EI* gzloll 0.66e atm9 Sozk), 0.3es atmg o2k),


    ufl, _9-
    E
    ol-o]-rl
    =,
    ,|^'-l .
    0.08s1 atmg so3k)r} 9l+8, l)$ 2sor(s) + oz(c) fcH3cooHl: 1.65 x 10-2 M, [H*] :5.44xt0-4 M,
    ;- ¤¤ tl+ rots 9uloJzi?
    2So3(s)ql 46J [CH3COo-]:5.44x10-4 M
    (a) 0.0a10 (b) 0.322 (d za.a (d) 3.36 (e) 3.ll 2s.cql^lE oi.gle.t9 olgg+HI¤.q rI"J¤B tL#rc=
    > H6 qFJl2 +6}^le. HI¤+ q-g=r+ ,J4.
    CH3COOH(a4) ;- H+(aq) + CH3COO-(a4)
    2s.Cql^J o|,r.lltrt} iSqol trtg-r+ Ag ¤B r-o E= 7Id

    ¤¤ s6JEql^l slql+g Be *.ETl EF "Jel4 9lzl ?+g a+E # 9l+. r3l+


    a7l +Ee+ 4qE * elE+E ¤¤ +E= "J+8, HI+e.l slErJEg ol+6t"1 4E +E
    +9 ¤B bE= Al&g + 9lt}. olrll ffi r+Ag 4s"6J4.

    BE EEI=oll^l gqxlrlgJeflEtEelE-EE tr861= EI


    r. B¤ tl+^lql flE s= qlq+g g4r1 a7l +EeI ¤B tE= E-r trJEr|.
    2. zzl ]FEel B¤ bE= E+ oJrl 9l= Elq+e-l 4+. A17l BBql EBg *I .Jq+

    =
    tE
    H+= zl&++.
    3. HI89 pI+"*Eg ElqI Hl+^lel 4l+E ¤¤ tl+^lql fl= +"1
    ^l-&6lq(+¤ ^l-s")
    zl s-E e+o++E bE Hel¤ al4I.JtL
    4. 1+4lel a7l +Ee+ 3+419 bE HE+E+EI rB4l9 sql^J tslt4 9l= ¤B bE=
    4lrI*+
    s. ¤¤ {}+ {tg ++tr}.
    ol 4dg olaflap 7l* au$ rJBe qlxll ls.8r+ Ag qlzll= gq H= aol+
    qEl 15.8
    i7l g BB -FE.-E_+EI r(4ltr'BPl
    1.000 x 1o-3 At H2TlAlel2.000 x 1o-3 M b 7lr1l7l 91= HJ8 ET|E 448"ce 7tE6u qE gE HJSol gol'Jrt.
    =ol
    HzG) + lz(e) .- 2Ht(g)
    448"Coll^el EEoll,\1 Hlel tsE7l 1.87 x1o-3 M"J n|l, EE At+ K"E Zltto=1./.19.

    6fiff
    E{ H2s+ tzq r-oE, HIel ¤¤ t.E= }a-. H2(s) + 4lq E= +++9 ¤¤ soEE +6i71 +l6}q E¤: z+C6Ir.
    =tl
    Iz(c) : za\il! ¤B tL+E+61+Edlol+. BB bEE+q ¤¤ tl+= 4t1++.

    E0l Hz/6)+tz@)-zHr(g)
    (r) EE E+4+E a7l ts-el *¤ *E= sE z+CtJ+. E a7l bE"(r4 1.000 x 1O-3 2.000 x 10-3 0

    q tE
    HEIE zloJ$ *zJS "tHrJ+. 4C.J ++ EJ bs Hgltlrr
    +lql EIE HI+4g 4E aol tsrlo}trI. ¤B tE (i\r) 1.87 x 10 3

    (2) z7l *.Ee+ ¤¤ *'Eel ztolE+rl Hrs.l r-oE HEI¤ zl


    4It+. tHllg HsI : 1.87 x 10-3M -0: 1.87 x 10-3M

    (3) [HI]E Hi+= [Hr] "t tlrlE Hp]e]+ts^l7l7l +16]q t (t.tr r rt'T*X 2mol 1 mol H2 - mol H,
    :0.935 X l0-r:
    e s++ H}¤-^le-l 4l+E ol+"J+. HI )
    (r.tr r rt.T*X 2mol
    l mol 12
    :0.935x10'- mol I"
    HI ) r.j
    688 1s3 at+ E:d

    (4) z7l LoE 4 r-"E Hq¤ ol+6}q HzqIz9 B¤ bE


    E Ahi6J+. ¤B EoEE a7l .r-oEql^l aE_g +E= [H2]: (1.000 x 10-3M) - (0.935 x tO-3U1 :0.065 x r.O-3M
    u <iol+. u2l : (2.000 x 10-3M) - (0.93s x ro-3u; : 1.065 x 10-3M

    (s) $cg si rl-s--q- a+(¤¤ t.E= r].+^q-qE +41il Hzk)+Izk):zHr(s)


    q zJ-aa[flcD. 471Y'E(M 1.ooo x L0-3 2.ooo x 1o-3 0

    TE EC}(M -0.935 x 10-3 -0.935 x 10-3 +1.87 x 10 3


    gq $e tu) 0.065 x 10-3 1.065 x 10"3 1.87 x 10-3
    tE q}¤¤ol +trq*.9 *I= (-)+E. dC
    Hc+ql^l
    Eol ^JAg HIE (+)BsE TIAql +96t4.

    ufzlu-|e-tr ¤¤ tr-+!g q|¤ t]f= 414]6J tHIl2


    . r
    (1.87
    . x 10-3)2
    , (1
    ^l-S6[q v _
    "'- [Hr][rr]
    _ _

    4. (0.065 x to-3;1t.oos x t0-3) '

    +st E.J'J *Hg zlzll ¤¤ Ex]ql 4+6lq


    Kp= 4l.tl6J 400Kql^l HI*Nron(g) 3 21r1er1sPl& Ae 9utqlzl?
    + fl=ql. a+ ¤.bE 441 ? E *4ol s;J*e__e. zl9
    ol (a) 0.23 (b) 0.36 (c) 0.13 (d) l.a (e) 2.s
    84. ol4i} aoFg EE rcE zlE+r. 6J + ?l+. rcE= a > H.* qlrll2
    zl (/nitial)-HE}(ehange)-¤B (Equilibrium)g +4U+. 7l4l e+qlE.J BrclS Eql¤ *zl"ll^l agq^l E6Ig+.
    > .H.= qlrll r 2BrCl(g) .- Br2(g) + Cl2(8)
    xqlrs.r¤ql.rli N2o4k)e+ Nor(g)9 ¤¤g be]iRq. r a7lq, s00 KE *zlE 5¤ oJqol 0.s00 atmt nrcl(g)
    4gs A*4"J q]E Eol Ezi. BE"¤ N2oa e.2 gS o.so r e +d6}fl+. ¤Bq^-i Brct(g)9 Y E .Jqol 0.040 atm
    eI* *21"il z|-op.400 Ktr 7lg6l.q B¤ql Eg9Rg ql, olr{. soo roll;.-l Kr9 l}g ah}6}^le_.
    N2o4k)el +E7I o.os7 Me- +4qfl4. ol zlee$rl,

    1s.6 lBEt+el tE
    B¤ tl+ K! zzlzl E]-&E 114 cE= 9"laJ4E a¤- glt+.
    . rz| oll* zE, ¤B gq+Ee H}+^lql^l +E EAg ?tr eg,oj4.
    ^8CE
    . rz| r-H_4 gd zlg-H, ¤q s.JE.g HI*^lql^l +¤¤ +E Eeg ?e ea;q1q-.

    ¤B {l+: (t) ti* s,*Eol ¤Bql Eg6I7l +l.J 414 ,J6&g q+61r, (2) HI*84 C
    glrll f,El.
    ^dEE ¤B +EE Al4}dJ +
    ilt "J"Jel
    qE
    SE472"cql^J NzqHrEPEi NH3zl ^J^Jq= Hi*(^l 1s.6)9 &:0.10so1tr|. 472'cql
    1.00 r *zl9l }{22.00 mol, N2 1.00 mol, NH3 2.00 molel g.o;gol fl4r 7l4i;l
    xI. ¤Bql sBolzl +l6lq g6JEg q¤ H]¤¤ E 4"JzI? N2e| urz|=q
    ^-l
    Hls"6tq q *g
    NH3E tlE a"Jzt? olr-lB NHrz[ Nze+ H2-E +6IE 4"J71?
    ol eEql B:6tzl 9.l6loi Nz, Hz, NH:9 a7l +E= BB t}+^lql qoJ6t F, olE ¤B

    ^J+ {t4 ull.t4.


    [NH3]2 (z.Oqz
    :0.s00 &:0.105 [1s.23]
    lNzl[Hz]' (1.00)(2.00)3

    ¤Bql E$:olzl 916]]^l= [NuJ'?/[NJ[uJ'Ttol Z?)roX 0.s00ql^] ¤B ^J+ & o.tose r;


    iaflop 6Jrt. gql 4lollre, ol EilE:9zl NH3E EoETI A^6I-r., Nzq Hz9 *rzl *
    z|gee;{ z]+:B 4,o14. tr}4^J NH3E+E] Nr4 HzE Sd6}E^l ¤¤s.E TI46l.q, ol
    rs.o I E-d Af+sl 3E 689

    1s.6el HI¤-ol sE-+ql^l g+-q-E Aqq+g 9ol't}4.


    ^l
    = ole+ ae. d=Hg gg zlf(reaction quotient)4r 6l-=.Jg dg+etr/{] +4E}B +
    el+.
    Ht¤- 44q^l q¤ ^ldofl^lE HI¤¤r+ /8dEe_l +.E+ ++ "Jqg ¤B ,t+^l.il EIE
    6Iq Eqd +E H.!E 4+(Q)4r ++.
    l4o-tr .JHI4"J HI$ ae + bB ;- dD + eeoll Qloll
    tI* zlfE +bEE'tEt.llE trIs-4 eq.
    a,: !'l-t'l:
    IA]',IB]'
    ,,s.z*t

    zl^ll= sEL6l= H}*ql^l: L"E 4d ++ oJqs-q &l^l Qe-tr ++U HI$ xlag E
    a Q<K
    =EI.
    HI* zlag 4l&6171 fl6}q ¤B tl+^lr+ El+d oltrll K gHJ30t t]-dslGl
    ^lg ^Fa-o6IzlEI. ^l-+6t 8dE3
    E EoEi S¤ +E"J +E glzl"J, olB +E fl+. qE Eq flql^J a7l bEE
    tri 8d-dtrt
    ^l
    rs.zz4 ¤¤ tl+^lq qlE6I9g ql gg iI¤ e.:o.sooolflxl"J, &:0.losolEl.
    ¤¤ t}+= 4 g-Eql^l 6I+E AElg z*xlq}, q]* zlfE t}Sol {qBq q+ q o Q:K
    4 zlzl9 lkg r*+L+. K E{61

    r++H Q9 eoEE *9..JzI? Qe tr + 9l= de4.J a + 6I+E HI*ol d4l


    E B¤ql flEzl, otHzlE g + flEql, HI+ol ,]]+ Lg ql E6l f+61+. HI+ol Q >I(
    Tlq¤ q HI* sq+EE ^lE= +16ll d+# tselo}r, 4 cBe-l +E= +4'J+.
    r4a +^l EI*ql ql.J HI* zl+/{ ts.24ql +E atg 4E'Jrl. H}gol B¤ql Eg qu8ot
    BJ8-
    TlBElol

    fltsxl, E= ¤Bql s,*alzl +l6}q q! B-6Je__+ dqd+xl= .Jo}qzl gl6}q Q.


    trl SdErrt

    ilr+ K. {t, E= ep <I4 x, zt+= ulL*4. r,ll z}zl Tlsot A+(rg 1s.9)= E}gr+ a rB 15.9 +Gl8 8Eoll^l Oe[ K=
    H l_il.6lq uSg HJE} ql+61"7
    ?ol se+6J + 9l+.
    I

    G fl8 8*lE Eq6lE SE


    3.!A
    ^tE6tQ
    . Q<K: dcEq LoETI rl]+ 4j1 EI¤¤E tE= rll* =4. tr|4^l .'JCEol rl "*ol
    ^Jdg"lot ¤¤q qEs, HI¤+
    EB6l-7ll sE6_ g+ql^J
    114*trI. e_E
    .e:K: 4lzt ¤B9l Egg}g qlql+ ql* xlfzl B¤ ^J+e+ +rll gEl.
    ull.f rr. HI¤¤q t,E7I,l]+ zl+. HI¤¤ol cl r*ol
    ^JCEE bszl
    . Q>K:
    ^dcEl
    "lot ¤B{l Eg6lEE, HI¤+ e_-q^l g+e.e tl4'*+.
    qHl 15.e
    BEseel t+'J"J ql+cPl
    rl'3 HJSel EE A+ KcE 448"C0111150.501t1.
    Hz(e) +lz(g) zHt(g)
    2.00 L ETl0ll,\l Hl 2.0x 10-2 mol, H2 1.0x 1O-2 mol, 12
    - mol.tr HJ- ,\l4lalE, HJ- olE UE9E ilEdlq
    3.0x 10-2 EBoll
    E'J61.=71?

    6llU
    E4 H}¤-ql^l +q+E azl Eic+ *Elzt +qflg q {|¤ Tjle HI+ s.JE +E 4 Eag a7l +EE +B + ilEL
    q EE.6I7] +lal{ **ol qL BF6.}_e_-tr dqg a.Jzl ++ a7l .r-oE= ¤B t'-+^lql qlEa}q HI+ {+ Q.E al&tr
    Exllol4. + 914. +qd S¤ tr.+e+ eI8 zlf9 =.71= EILEIe__tr
    .r{l EJ89 tlB %1-.}3.J + 9l+.
    690 153 trltrt "J:d

    Eol Zzl to 13 q-e-. q- 2q'. +{148, El-g + Hi+g %}"} HE+ql q4 c+61 ¤B+
    :
    [HI] 2.0 x lO-2moll2.00L = 1.0 x lO-2M ag q! 4"J71?
    [H2] : 1.0 x Lo-2moll2.00L: 5.0 x 10-3M (a) +7lE Pulz} 6Eq Hlql Bl6}(e_=+ql^l
    [I2] : 3.0 x lO-2moll2.00l: 1.5 x to-zM =qEtr
    g+)e-a rI*.1 {B¤4.
    eI* 4+= +s-4 a+. (b) +719 Pulz} +Ed S+qE HI¤+ Hlql B-6Je.e

    ^ [HI]2 (1.0 x 10-2)2 d"8¤trt.


    <c
    n _
    tHzl[tz] (s.0 x 10-3)(1.5 x 10-2)
    -14
    (c) ol **9 *r}e*zl9 +qql 9=6}zl *=+.
    Q,<K.OIE+, ¤Bq Eg6TEE HIE ]-OE=
    Z,I6LL, H2 > E*qlfl2
    el rr9 r-"E= ai4ot,*+. El4^l BBq s.$alzl floll 1000 Kql^l ql$ zsor18; i- 2so2k) + oz(s)9 Kp <ig
    HI¤+ g+ql^l sE4oE dq6J+. 0.33So1trI. a7l H E oJ{ol Pso,:0.16 atm, P5s,:0.41
    > .H.= qld 1 atm, Pe,:2.5 atmol ull$ Qp ilg 4l,l}6ta, BB.g ol+
    919 ql4lql^l H}+ql^l +719 a71712.oo Le+ B 7l +16ll e}*ol {{9= %16}9 ql+6f^le-.
    --l.J
    ^l¤¤

    BE tsE-glZII
    sl+zl-E=g ++ g¤ tr-+E .Ja 9l= H}.8-ql^l ¤B tlE.ilql^lE HI¤¤+ ^JdEE .&g
    4l&g 9ez1 ?14. ol4 ae BEIE Ezll= += %r-Be ¤B d-+= al4l6J trll ^FsqL a
    r+ Eli6t+. + Z7l E EE ++ "Jq, olE E" Eel .JqE HEl, 4l+ BB L" E E= +
    Eo

    +.Jqg *.E. zlc6J+. "JHI4-s-s trlzlEql ¤B t}+4g ol+6[q 9lx]l rs.loql troJ
    {zlfl ulzlel oJ-$ 4l+}6tzl 96]] +q+ g !g +E6J+.
    qH 1s.10
    BE 85-sl4lt

    8-E s00.c0ll^l Haber 38 Nz(g)+ 3 H2(g) : 2 NHg(g)9 Kp--1.45x 10-5olrt. soo"Coll,'.l All 7f^l 7li1l9 gB E-dE0ll
    ,\l Hz9 +E "Jalg 0.928 atm, Nz9 ?E geJP 0.432 atmolt[. 0l EB e-cr'Eoll,(] NHg9 +E gale g0P]7[?

    6ll'J
    E^1 B¤ ti Kpe|, EJ+^IE ,r.ll zlzl Ea + + 714 ge atr ol aq¤.^l-8-6lq ¤B t[+ *g q^l zl4]6]q +.J
    (Nrs+ H)9 ¤¤ ++ "Jqol ?"ldeq, Hall Ed NH, g+ el4.
    ^Jl
    e.l ¤¤ ++ "Jqg fali Sxllolr|. (2.24 x t1-3\z
    K^:' '::1.45X10-s
    Ilq Kp= BB tl+4r+ A+a +r, 9zl.ll ?qd ++ -J ' (0.432)(0.928)3

    q=¤ r.il"J+4. : c1-g-q1 +"JtI ulzlfoll rlla[{ > !r= qlr.il


    ^lql^l 1

    ++. g-E s00 Kql^l HI+ zNo(s) + cr2(s) ;- 2Nocl(s)el


    ¤B "Jq- El-gr+ rJol Es+,*+. Kp:51014. s00 Kq^lE ¤¤ g'J¤ql.,r] No9 ++ "J
    =01
    Nz(g)+ 3Hz(S) ;- 2NH3(j:) 49 o.rzs atmola, ct2= 0.16s atmol4. B¤ gd¤ql
    $S oJ{(atm) 0.432 x 0.928 ,tJNocl9 +e "Jqg g"toJzt?
    (a) 0.13 atm (b) 0.36 atm (c) 1.0 atm
    NH:9 ¤B .J49 94 *6tE-=, ol= H+ xe 44t4.
    (d) S.t X 10-s atm (e) 0.125 atm
    ¤Bq^l "Jqe ¤B t}+4g "J+BIot ++.
    (rlun,) 2 > !d.E qtfl2
    Kp
    x2
    : 1.45 x 10-s
    98 500 Koll,r-l pc15(s) : pcl3(s) + clz(s)
    Hl*9 Kp:
    P*,(&,)' (0.432)(0.928)3
    o.4e7olq. s00 Kel ¤¤ gql-gql.r.j pcrs9 5 E "Jqol
    4¤ xgl ql6rq a el6}r. rE *6J4. 0.860 atmola, PCl39 5¤ "J4ol 0.350 atmo]4. ¤B
    x2: (t.4s x 10-s)(0.432)(0.928)3:5.01 x 10-6
    g{}gq^l chE +ts'J43 9ut'Jz}?
    ,: r,6-Of x fO* : 2.24 x 10 3atm : Il.rn,
    15.6 I EB A+el3E 691

    g+a+q glq, ¤B ^J+{tr+E=e+q}+q z7l*E7l "JEl4 ?Itrt. rq.gql ¤E


    +E= +6l]0} 6Jq. qlijls olfl Ez]E += A+q]= r-o.E Eq¤ 6l+9 H+E +l+.J
    +. ql4l rs.rrgl tr.J ailH, HI*E +ql=+# E= Hl¤¤!+ sdEel He+=J ^lolel +
    4lE.JEJ 4lte ++ ol qzilq^le+ z;-o1 olz[${^]9 +4g
    =E|. =E ^l-soq}4.

    \!
    //
    qHl
    a7l
    1s.l1
    *'_E -a"+El BB bE ahl-6Pl

    ?E448 'Collll 1.000 15a1.reoll H2G) 1.000 molrf l2Q)2.000 mol= it|fltl. u3 HzG) + lz(g) : 2 Hl(g)el EE A+
    K"= 448'C0ll,(l50.s01+. alEIEJ H2, 12. Hle.l EE tsE= gEloJTl?
    =+e
    Nl.lU IIA ol 4* "lrlt Be *E_E +qzlzl gBI+. Iri4^l a
    E^1 +7lE +rle+ ¤¤ {l+ "t HI¤¤E a7l r-oEE +L, 7l EoEel ¤E roE +41= gotLllot 434. azl :-oE
    ^tole.l
    E-= +ol+E ¤¤ r-"EE falf $ullolr|. e+q Be r-"E= 4l&oJ ql^ll rs.8r+ Bg Eql^J Hl+6t+.
    E0l
    (r) Hzel rzq z7l
    bE= 4=+. fH2l - 1.000M. [rz] :2.oooM

    (2) ?71+EE TloJ+ sE +C*+. Hzk) + tz@) i- zHt(g)


    Z7l:-'E-(LO 1.000 2.OOO 0

    bE EsI(,u)
    gq $rrM
    (3) HI+E slql=+Eg ol+6lq HI+ol ¤¤oE d H2G) + t2@) i- zHt(g)
    q6J ull "Jq+: +E E3rl¤ eA6Jq. SBe A7l EE (M) 1.000 2.OOO 0
    E" E
    e tl.8+ql 44 Hze| rz LoEE zJ^B 4oll, Hs](M -x -x +2x
    ¤B r_"E(M)
    Hr bE= f;zloJ {olr}. Hz9 EoE H+= H+
    xtr +4LH Hzf. +¤ Et4 Hl+^l-9--E*rl Hz x
    molol *g"E 4l Iz x mol$ 4.ulaljt-, HtTl2x
    mol ddB4.
    (4) plqt%IEq ul4 azl bEe+ bE HE+= HzG) + tz@) i- zHI(g)
    q BB r-oEE s^l++. olzll E=,Jg ^l-8-6t
    i}]+tr z7l *E-(M) 1.000 2.OOO 0

    494 e3 s= E:+. +E HEI(M) -x -x +2x


    ¤B bE 0l4) 1.000 -r 2.OOO * x 2x

    (s) ¤¤ ^J+^lql ¤B +E= ql"J6l-l., ulzlf rgl : lHIl2 : (2x\2


    :
    I(' so's
    4+q ++. tHrtrri (r.ooo - x)(2ooo - x)

    4l4l7lE zld xE +.J + 914. :B4


    ^l-8-6IE 4xz = 50.5(x2 - 3.000r + 2.000)
    *+E 49 dr}]6}q olil %la4g e=+. 46.5x2 - 151.5x + 101.0 : 0

    olzl %14!g gH(++ A.3), + zll9 r tl9 I x: -(-1s1.s) t ( 1s1.s) 4(46.s)( 101.0)
    : 2.323. 0.935
    2(46.s)
    =+.
    ol +a x:23232 {l¤ bE^lql 4E
    H4l 6ll
    5lE Hre+ r2el :.ETt ++ol+. ¤+oJ bE= lH2l :1.000-x:0.o65M
    p]*4 oe. $ulz| glo I]E ol Bg tsifl+. +E lrd:2.OOO-x:1.065M
    o}| x:0.e35E ¤¤ r-"E= ++tr}. lHt): 2x : r.87 M
    ^l-so6t¤
    692 153 at-+ gE

    Atr ol ilg ¤B ^J+^lql Bq B¤ tr4E Aq6IZl 4l& ttttl2 ( t.Bl\z


    *izl +qldl^l 9lel B¤ A&.J + 9l+. ^' - [Hr][rr] (o.o6s;1r35,q - "'

    +e-t olzl rtr-c^lg ¤e +Zil= gzl qtr, F zl]9


    ^l-&6.}q
    (a) 0.57 atm (b) 0.22 atm (c) 0.45 atm
    6|] + 6I+= gel <ig zld4. +9 {le slqzl o + elElTI (d) 0.15 atm (e) 0.31 atm
    So t:-s
    ^F&o}zl
    *:4. > .H.= qlr1l2
    > EE qlr1ll gE s00 Kq^J S¤ ql$ rct.lsy . - pcl3(g) + clzG)el
    BB rrz(s)+ clz(s) ;- 2Brcl(s)il q4^1, B¤ Cf rr= ¤¤ tl+ Kp= 0.4e7ol+. s00 Kql^J zl;.ll -$zlzl z7l "J
    400 Kq^l 7.0014. *zlzl a7l .Jq 1.00atm9 BrCl(g) qol r.66 atmt pclsk).tr. ill+14 9l+. ol gEql^l pcls,
    E +dqa 4lzl ¤Eq EB"6IE+ + a+, Brcr9 46 PCl3, CI29 S¤ 'Jqg gotoJz}?
    (¤B) 'Jqg g"tqlz}?

    t s.7 | Le Chitelier flal


    "J^J^Jgq^l ^l-.&6I= +*g EaEg irlql &gq^J gqA+.
    plolzlq 44="oFl-E=g
    TIil 9= ^JCEE +i$$ 4qle+^l7l_r, g,s HE Edg al4e+fl+ ql ",*e t
    ^l}rl
    {-$ zl$oll 9l+. qlE Ei Haberz} Nr$ HzEPEI SEqol-= ^J&6}= +Ag ,HgrI
    g oL r= +#g
    *ol7l +1611 HI¤- adg qB4 Hslrl4o} 6|=4 a^tiu.+. qel e
    Eql^lE ¤B ^J+ {tg +o}e} aa4ql^l ^Jdg NH:9 ¤¤ql^lE .J9 al&
    ^l-s.6}q
    6}fltrI. rq dE Aal +.JPzt rH 1s.10q ,lEtLI 9lr}.
    ¤B t}=llql NHe9 EESS 3= 6zp1 44 Ai6l-r,, S4 6zt9l ul4 6zl
    =46I=
    ++= aql +96|4.
    ole+ eg A4L eEJ4E +E3rlQz} Henri-Louis Le Chttelier*(r8so-rq:o)ql el6fl 7-l
    +sE r+q-r} ae ?l4ql 9al¤ olollg + 9l+.
    ^ll"Jg
    s¤ql g= qH 4lz}8E., .Jq E= qL cBel k"s gr1q1 goll rtgReH, r
    {= r :l+ s.q¤ 4a6l^= Br6J-s--E ¤B.el +lilg olf,,tlzlu|.
    NH3 +-¤ Pi6ll olE "JHli 8s.g r-BrE 6lE7i?
    =rHtrl6i7l ^teo5flot
    8dE NH3u4E3
    NHa9'4EEP NH39 u4EEe
    gelol 67l--J0fl 8E7t
    qaf o'oz
    4af rJ^-drl.
    =7t--Joll
    =7lEttrf.
    'qsz

    '%*
    550
    6eoy
    500
    200

    450 ,f^o
    qj
    400
    500

    ArB 15.10 Haber 480ll,\l NHs +EEoll olil= 8E9i gejel gE 4 E:-J-=S H2el N2el
    3:1oJ E--JEeFEI Eolfitl. =Hl7[
    ^l4o0
    *
    le- SHOT- lee-ayrttr Sg6J+
    15.7 I Le ChAtelier flal 693

    te ChAtelier fl4
    EBq flE A\zl Es. gq, tEq HEl.ll E6il r+qH,
    f -u* -a4E ^Jdl6lE+ qlB 9lzl= olF^144.
    4l=

    EE: q139. E= dcEg e7I E= 7{4


    ¤B dl4E Alq qq+5eol 46xzlE,4l=rEaE oJ+=4-51615.+Hlg"++. Eeol 4lq^l ^llzqH
    4lE : Eeg q g:o1 .$,!ais.$ Hls" *4.
    xfl ul61 716llT] EE Ei6t;tE
    _t
    tt
    L_____

    [-l+f .- | rffiri r-+f;- |


    -[-_.l
    I |

    g^lnl Ht_q5t
    !oo
    =avl

    "J4: 9u15 HsI^14 g-a Ee+^l7l7l o lal


    94 ,l4l t49 ¤¤
    9=,q1,t1 +q= +nl 45 u liil9 E+7t A46[=
    =ilEE olF++.=oltr
    ZIE zl4l9 E+E A4^lzl! $rtj-e-E ^71t" Hl6loa nlE=trl
    J aa' ",
    "'"
    -Jl-'

    -9.E'
    ¤¤4tE gE= tolH 4lE HI¤+g +g HI+ql 46144 ^8cEg gg HI¤_q
    'l+ aaH HI+*+.
    SEg 'r+=*9 ^lE'. + 99 +-r-o1g B;6Je-E olE"*4.

    ,qi+
    fE HFCq TLI{
    E=
    =G 5d 90
    ==

    (rffi
    ule.nl oE5.oe olE6t

    Hl.e.nl 9l5Eoe nlE6t


    t:m*
    {ry Hl-g.n1

    u30l 9=+o+
    9.1&oa nlE6l

    015-Bf

    ol eql^J= ¤¤ ^JEIg 4lz}9F Zaq +oJ* Hs+ql qBril qt86}=zlg {,rJ!eE


    ql+6tzl fla|{ Le chdtelier gE= ol+o.Jtr}. s}4 ¤¤ol j/*B + 9l=,tll z}zl %r-Bg
    ^JC+$ Tl6l4q
    (r) HI¤¤ol'+ rllZEJ oll, (z) +E Hq¤ F6ll Sqg Hcl
    ^J44] Bzl..
    ull, (:)¤s= E3r+^la "ilo14.
    ^lA
    Hl-.4
    Lo
    rr! ,(H,\lgol
    +L o ot-l -E-tr Hi6l-
    04 L-l
    =
    +4 ¤Bql 9l= 4l= t¤ tr-4q 9lr+. H]+q^l *
    Eaq EoETI Hsl6IE, B¤e ^1]e
    + +B ullzlzl olf,a|rll ¤+. ol-g(shift)9 9rlE Ft.Jzl? olag
    ^Jqql EE6J
    ^J+ql "*E+ EIf,.E$
    ^JCEfl
    EoETl q4 Epl6I= 49 9"laJ4. ol$ol^fl-+.e
    S¤
    ^l+ql
    {l.f z}8l9 Hq+¤ eluloizl ?*=trt. ¤¤ ^J+= gA6}rjl #2194. te chdtelier fl4
    ql q.eH, ¤¤9 ol* =
    HE+E Er+= a]igl6t4+ EJ6Jes
    "Jq+q.
    =ol=
    ¤¤q 9l= 4l.ll^.1 qtr Ee(HI*EolE ,lgcEol=)el *E7t +46t8, r 4lE f E
    eel "J+= aqats.* Hl-&*+. 9 o.s q! Eeel *ETI,J46}tr, 41ts
    = Eag
    q
    E+"1 "JEE+ Hla+4.
    t}*Eol+ ^JCEg *E7l Hg q ¤B tI+= Hl+lzl ?*=trI. qlE 5E N2, H2, NH3
    g ¤B sqi+g trzl.
    ^J46l]
    Nz(g) + 3Hz(s) ;- 2NH3(5)

    Hz9 tsa= +i^l7l= *%toe. o15af,r|(=H 1s.11). olelaj g


    'll= ?rtg
    HrE-7I6|E
    slE sr= AE-61n, *:^lql N2= +tr61q rJ "*g NHTE.B'B6;cea] 7l-ts6[+. BB s--
    q+Eq N2E-trJolE q^l NH3E trl B:ol "JE: uJ.J9E Z]TI oliEo*+. NH:E 4lZ6l-E
    NHaE trj ^JC^l7lel- grtje-tr q!$ol olf,af,+. ¤¤Alql NH.E 46ttr *zlT] NH: B
    694 158 6t+ E-d

    e|l +4-= Ttet+0ll tra tsE:t#45[=7|.?


    Nzk)+3Hz(g) i- 2NH3(g)

    i7l EiSl i{rt 816{ El-q

    Jo-) c o -J_
    E\) o"*'3
    J (/a H?
    L
    -y .\-)
    9
    E
    of
    rqr15 ' a ?-r

    el

    Oa
    o
    /.l2J +
    a:19 15.11 Nz, Hz, NHs9 gE EEtEoll HzE zlilE trllg g-d H2= 7l6lE +qd uJ- gEE- HzE rl 4E6|.r NH3= tl UE=
    +-e-+ olE-zltf. =

    _E_=i+4^l7lL B.6Jetr q}*ol "15L'*4. zlall+l oJEqoIg "J+= N2el H2-+_ E6lt¤r}.
    olqoJ'ol$'e H]* rl+(Oel ¤¤ HlrE ra"6J ql+r+ Sd{ gil,{}E}.
    ^J+(K)q
    rhber E]*91^lE Nz, H2, NH3el BB sqlge+H NueE zll46lE, NHrE rJ "J=
    7l +l6}q ++ol e-E+oE olF6J+. yI"J
    ^JCg NH:E 4l+6ll^l
    ,llag+ gl+8, +
    a4
    +7]-¤-. + ?l+. +E4eE "JEqol-s ^Jt}6J qlql= NH:E cq4qs sqp+
    -e
    ,tl4 NH3E ,ll+4-9.E zllzlf,r|(:EJ 1s.12)(NH39 #:.d(-33"c)9 Nz(-1e6"C)el H2
    (-zst'C)tr+ +ld +tI). "441 Nur= xllzlop Nr4 HzE xllrfaoa|{ trJ Bg NHrE "J
    214 xilzlal ar+, HI¤+ ar+49-E $ag+.
    =El. ^Jd+g
    2 NO(s) + Oz(g) ;- 2 No2(9)oll,r.l EE8 rl,= EEl.oil el6fl 9-(,9¤E0l t1 trJ

    3)eE olEaE7[,olqE gqHJ3Eo| q ".j=)ee 0|56lts7l?


    (a) z{loll Ozdtl
    (b) No ril4

    oJaJ
    +tr| "j EEfsl Eal
    "J"J 4l oltlE TlxllE Ee.6J qtr 47I ¤¤ql glr, r *ylz} aA6Iq dill .JHol ?
    oJ
    7I6IE, Le Chaterier gelql uI4: 4l= g].qg rJa^l7lEllr. ¤BE gil= ol+^la aol
    +. 4l: zl;ll $zlel dill +E *^^l4.Jqg + ?14(zl^ll Exl+7I 4g++ .Jq
    3 rl *z]l +4*+). trI4^l gA+ gEql^l Z4=.J¤¤ EBEE +ElE z}^^148, 4l=
    zl4lE Expg AA^l7l= *.Jss olE"*4. Pq 6zlE q "*g Tlill +zl¤ trJE= HJ
    oJ e -ts ol5,r.l zle(=al 15.13).

    A zlel +tr17t
    =71.61'8,
    2 so2(s) + oz(g) i- 2 soe(s)"J83 clgzl g=71?
    tS.z I Le ChAtelier Eal 695

    t71? )1111

    ¤ ito
    a &
    &$E.8o
    (l
    o p
    *r,
    t s
    s-1$ *, I
    Hz't
    "t
    I ol
    +--.1
    SBEIE Nz "J $
    H2)l^11 ri s
    I I
    o
    c
    EIEJTl
    zail7l
    ab-
    .*& o
    o o
    HJBatxl ?JP Nzel
    q-)
    & (b
    H27l rH.gEE
    o o c Tlga)61171+o|| 9l=
    I a
    o 0 ^lLf7tq
    NH37l8dE
    t rQ
    Tlille:diEol o N2 "J H2 7lill= @
    'J4ElE^1
    o r,\)
    E 5oo "ctr 7fg-st \\
    NH3(EI)7t o4ElE
    \
    G

    p¤ \\
    s $
    (:f)

    I
    I
    EillNH?el
    =-r
    arH 15.12 Se.qolq Ag4 StielE^.I-E +oJ-zf Nzb)elHz(s) 7l^ll= E 500"ce 7lg6ln +0H ?l=
    Er|./tlzrf. Ell-d Nz, Hz, NHg NH3ts aqtrfqq E--JEOll,\] EJ33 NIH.E
    rl EJE= +-oE 0lE-dtl-. =-st-'J4/.l7lE, ^ll7lqrr+,

    OzA(s) ;- On(s)
    oo e

    o o o
    o OO
    o o oo
    oo o Enl )l)- olai
    =7t
    oo o o
    Hf,l -571 olai 7t.\ o
    o oo
    T*t o!. H- o.l

    ooo oo o
    oo o o o o aO o
    oo o
    ^fltr8
    =+=
    8ts3 Tlillel=
    Eol trl=0171
    96t| 8d
    871_E= --Jtrt.
    o
    E7l +El
    o o oo
    oo o
    geg 7ti]|et=
    ^|lE8
    5i5 lolzl 9l6tl EJB
    ArH 15.13 "JaJz[ t-e Chdtelier flal Eol q ,g7E= -dtrt.

    HI* r.cz(c) + 3H2(5) :- tl+Eol 4.E5;lq 2EzI9 ^J^dE


    2NH3f)ql^l= 4+zl9
    ol
    ^JCg+. A44ss %'!q +7(+rl
    ,Jiql E.J)= zlill gzfg g EIE= ,J6Je
    tr ¤Eg olf,.r.lzlJ.. ol=:aH ls.toql +Eld a^le q "*9 NHrzi ^JC!E+ ++.
    Hz(g) + rz(c) : zHt(s) H}+ql^-l= 7l^ll
    ^JdEel Bzl+ zY zl4l HI+EE Ezl+e} e
    +. relEE Sq H+= ¤¤9 +lilql g5}.g +zl 9+=+.
    696 1s5| at-+ EE

    gE= "JA6|al *zlal^b 'J "Jq-+ul HElz| r <I9 EE+^l7lzl= 9+=+= ag H


    d6t+. s6l4 olrl6-J H+= Tlill EeE +E Sqg Hsl^la+. qlzll rs.zollrl 472"c
    ql^l 7.38 atm H2, 2.46 atm Nz, 0.166 atm NH,E .s.E16l^= ¤¤ gBEE uaber HI*
    Nz(g) + 3Hz(s) :- 2NH3(s)9 Kp:2.7sx lo-solE|. zlzlzl 4lel +q= H]98
    =olE
    {tr .Jol "Jq+=zl ^J46ll Hzl. ¤B ol$ol $,+8, ol +i{ E:fl+ EE Eeq ++ .J
    qg F u1]e- ElEol Ps,:14.76 atm, Py,:4.92 atm, P11s,:0.332 atmol ¤4. eI* zlf
    : trJ olt} B¤ tr-+e+ zJzl ?*z1l 94.
    (rluH,)2 (o.$42
    : 6.97 x 10-6 + Kp
    QP
    rt,(&,)3 e.92)(14.7q3

    Qp < KpolE-E, al= H oltr ¤¤ol olQ4. Qp:Kp:2.7ex10-5ol g qlztzl pNH.E ?


    tltpla- pN,el pH,E ,J4^14 trl^l ¤Bg ol= aolq. l4 oe. ¤¤g Le chxtelier fl4
    ql^l q+.J 4.g H]*9 sE4eE olt'*tl-.
    4lq +ul= Ho}^l7l7l ?+r ++ q}+.l .J"l4b alel .Jqg EqI^l? + gl+. ql=
    Eq +* dE + qE aol4E 4lq 7I6|E 'J{ol +rI*+. **Eol4 dCEq +E
    H+= qBril q+qot 6l+7I= olul $ul_H_!14. :q+ eI* gzl 4E d4l .Jqe ¤B
    ql +q6rzl ?** zlal= Tl-t.lq +71^la + 9lEl. ql= Eq ol-e+g
    "JEqoI ¤Bql 7i
    g + 9lrl. olq+e HI+6l.= c+Eg ++ sqg EI+zl ?*og-=. EBe olf,alzl $
    =+.
    s-E HJEfel Erl
    bE+ ++ "Jqel Eq+ ¤¤ t[+ <Ig Hs[^l7lxl g+efl^l ¤¤g olf^lrJ+. H]Eql
    4el E= BB t|+= gE Hs+ql rI4 atol H.J+. qlE gsl 39tr(rD(cocrr)E
    E&(scl(aq))91 5ol= ¤-g +*E ¤¤g rJ4oll trzl. =q
    Co(H2O)62+(aq) + Cl-(aq);- CoCla2-(aq) + 6H2O(/) AF/ > 0 [1s.2s]
    oq6t E!.E.^ll rlEl EIEAH

    co(Hzo)02*L ts+$olrl, cocln2-E *E.r{oloe ¤¤ glil= +"-49 498 drll


    'J i:14(=aJ 1s.14). +"-qg 7fg6IH +ElqoE H6l-bql, olE cocl+2-7| q B:ol ^J
    CqE+ ¤Bol ol++ 19 9"1'J4. +.lg ts46IH ¤+^q +"leE H6l=ql, ol=
    Co(Hro)uz+z} rl "*ol ols";J ag +4U+. += gEql^l g.g.+4 %I
    ^JCqE+ $Sol
    HsE E= +tr}+E +EE *CEls-eaJ ol EI¤¤ +Ag + 9l+ *= (t+.2¤). r-BlE
    7+7+4 gEq^J ¤B {}+E 4l+Ig + 9l+. ¤B tI+, + ¤Be_l 9lil7l gE-gl 9=6]-=
    ol+E qB4 ¤BdJ i "Ae=tl?
    Le chitelier gr-ls+El Kel gEel +4lql 4+ +49 +Eg + 9+.
    "lE +l+ ,J+.J
    EJBg gg Elql BEf) EI+ql^J= gg HI
    ^lE!H f+61-= lol4. *E(endothermic,
    *E-s, B9(exothermic, ¤%}¤ H}*ql^l= ¤9 rdCEe ^J4'J+.
    +9 *8: HI*E + g ;- ^J^JE
    Hld l}lll E
    Z.
    HL_q_. HLo-_E
    = r-:O. L-lO 6 Oa aI d=.
    -
    SBq g= 4l.el gEE Gzl^lvlq, 4l= +g HI_&.fl^] HI¤+g EJ+ a E= tsg HI
    _sql^l
    ^JcEg
    q* aq ?ol el**4. ¤Be +=JE HI¤¤(E= ^}cE), + gg
    E6l+ BFE*e-E olE"*4. ^
    15.7 I Le ChAtelier 3al 697

    ^H>0ggHI+
    $ + Co(H2O)r'*(aq) + 4Cl-(aq) : CoCln2-(aq) + 6ItO(l)
    +=^l

    CoCla2-

    li
    I
    I

    5-)
    :
    LE7 I

    gE='f+E Co(H2O)52* "JC Sel Eat Co(H2o)52*el 3E= +=^!el Coclo2-


    =B^I9
    SdElE= 8B0l 0lEi6l7l *ErI CoClr2-zt s+ =olE
    01301 01301 EdEIE+ EEol 015617l
    trlEoll Es40l :i=^Iee E?]tr[. gE.t.
    ttllEoll Ee4ol Eal^loe=rll6t7l rflEoll Eolol +=^4oP .H.?1tr1.

    arH 15.14 SEgt r-e Ch6telier flal E^l ++sl gEoll^l, Eqd|-7] 96H cocra2 I co(H2o)62+ 0l8oJ
    LlEfll]flrt.
    =

    Zl¤oJ7l, rl¤?l7l? Le chatetier Eelo1l=716|.q, 8E= EolE Tlillol


    =g
    #4--J^l ql=61.^le.

    rl rs.zss+ ae g:g HI+ql^JE El¤¤ol ^g^dEE Hsltsq uI4 Eol g+g+. 44^J
    gE= +olE ,.JcEol 4 B:ol ^Jcq= %}le s=+e_s gqol olf,ap. Kzl szl$
    +. gg H}+ql^l= HI4zI gtrI. HI*Eol ^J¤EE H+ uI Eol ^Jd¤4. tri4^J ol a+
    gE= +olE q gg **Eol ^JCq= g+sE B¤ol oltr6tq K7l A4*+.
    E¤ tI*: gE= tolE K Aol +7IoJ+
    SE *¤-: gE= +olB K tlol 4ril4
    HI¤¤ ts46IH Elql Erl-= +Elu+. gEE *+8, ¤¤e gg ^Jc6l+ 4ee o15
    ++. EI+^J ¤;g +¤¤ ts46}8 :zH rs. r4ql^Je+ ?ol BB3 g+sE olt6}q Kzl z;
    46}i1, gg HI+g ts46r8 B¤g s='a- e-E olt6lq Kzl f,zlxf,r4.
    698 153 Et-+'J:d

    qFll 1s.12
    Le Chatetier eJalE. ol¤-¤lo{BB olt qEaPl
    rt8 EE3 8?+tl HxL
    NzO+(g) ;- 2 NOz(g) LH':58.0kJ
    t[8el 4 EAE iiJEE qr- HJ-df-e.-+ olE^l7lilE7l?
    (a) NzOaE 7l-"trl. o) No2= (c) Nzk)E 7f6tq Eill galE (d) +tr|= aiTi^lzrl. (e) EEE '*Erl.
    ^1l71elrl.. =7|.^lzrl-.
    ntl*
    E^l ¤Bq fl= 4ql gdq H+= +a, 44E Hplzl ¤ I,JE= g+se olE"g aol+. ol ulzlu| HE"J B¤
    = KE
    BE +lilql qtr g"}-g "la a.Jzl= ql+61-= Exllol4. ^J+ <iql ¤6"L9 aql +E-6I+.
    =4=
    AIA 7J HE+E E4¤ g"tlll= rll Le Chitelier fl4E ol8 >!r=qH1
    6J + 914. trl^SE HEI + qL 4ol HI89 ¤Bg 9${9E ol-E:^l

    E0l
    ,l q F*e ^JCEol ^JC9E+ aldEz}?
    4 NH3(j:) + s o2(8:) :- a NO(g) + 6 H2o(s) AII': -904 kJ
    (a) 4lE zI4A N2o4E LoETt zJi9E* aag aol4. Irl
    4^l dcEg B-6JoJ sEsr_q.E olEo6J4. (a) H "*3 i!z)¤ EzltJ4.
    (b) zl= q *e NozE sc^14 xll4¤ Nozzl-B6qE+ (b) gE= toJ4.

    aag aol+. EI4^l ¤Bg 9¤"5- e_s olE" 6JtrI. (c) ** *zl9 PulE +71^l4r+.
    (c) NzE 7l-6lH 4le-l drll "Jqol +7t6tzlEJ, Nzts **ql
    (d) or(s)= xll4*El.
    (e) HI* *zl9l t atmq Ne(s)= dzl*4.
    +q6}zl *=r+. q+^l No2elNzor9 +e.Jqg H6I
    zl ?*:4. IItil+^l B¤9 gil ol¤¤ $.+. > H6qllll2
    (d) +!l7I +7IqH, 4l= El +rl(q "*e Tlill EZDE xt ++ Hl+ql^l
    =
    716l+ %I6}s-tr olEoe. 4,o14. trl+^J ¤Bg 9E4o PCls(S) ;- PCl3(g) + C12(S) AI{': 87.9kJ

    E ol56J 4.o14. (a)clzk)E xllzl6J ql, o) s-EE *= trl], (c) HI*49 P


    (e) HISol E-¤ HISolo + gg clol EI*4E HI¤¤ + ^l El= +7|^la ql, (d) PCI3G)= 7tB Ell, B¤ol 4r+ qv
    E-e--e ^J46IE gEI. gE= rll4E *lBg gg ^J^"r6I Br6Js.e, olt614=7I?

    = g}6J:9-e. ol:aoo'j {ola, Ir}4^l ¤eg q y*3 Nro,

    {.E EJElcl Le Ch6telier flal


    gg F+qI,tloJ9-tr g{= 0l+6} 4 olt¤ rtsld+ ae +q
    ^J4$gsal Le Ch1telier
    q HI¤¤r+ ^8^JEel ¤B sqlEol gE Es+ql qB4l HI+
    rs.zz9
    ^ldg E6l] ¤89
    6[+. 6l]'] e]$ol S¤ t]*olfl, &szl44z[E K7l +L
    6t=zlE ql+g + 9l+. sg q}+el A+, B¤ {i+ K= g a[4 B¤ol g+es ol5-oJ4. 4 ts.27e+q K7l *46l
    E7I l}odJql q-E gETI *ole++ ad6l.q, 7l fl6ll^'l= AHI+E +E ^J+ kizl 9EI89 +E tL+ k,-H-
    gg HI¤+ Hlql %I6Jes 71E"6J4. ol atlql q6J
    =!7t6}ir.,
    4 rJ t*ol ,J^6llo} tlq= ag.J + 9l+.
    oJ ol.?b ¤¤ d-+. cHls"r+ qHI+g ++ +E =94 kfTl k-,5.q q gr] Ad6l-= ol+= oldl6t4H ** 4s
    "i g^dpi
    qlq4 .16llg + 914. e+ gccl qlLl^l la1o11ot sI+. ql^l= +16l]
    ^plE +41= E"J6l AulBge.t{ ^IolE s4lE
    +e4ql +4lE dE6[7] +]6|] A: Bel +oJ +al H]8 Tr :400 Kgl^l Tz : 300 K.E gE= *+= g.r+E j1Ei6|zl.
    g ¤qtrzl. B¤ql^J aHlso r+ qHIgE HI* +E= E.J6I+. .4 r+.zz&
    ^f+6lq cHI+ +E tr.+g HslE 4ltlB +
    : krlBl
    kdAl lrs.26) el+.

    BE ^J+ I(: tBl/tAl= rl rs.zog c46tE EI* +Ee


    kf, E"(AHlso) 1 1\
    In I
    [1s.28]
    kf, R h Tr)
    EBB + 9t4.
    kf,
    g:: ln
    k,"
    E,(CHlso ) I
    300 K 400
    : ,roo4!p r,r rrt
    ts.z7l
    ^: tAl
    R
    k,
    ts.z I Le ChAtelier flal 699

    +gEl d=Hg qHI* +E tr-+E H+= +4lll e, 4qI+ +E tf+(^l ts.zg)4 ea= EHI+ +E t}+(^l
    ^l-so6lq
    49 +dg + 9l+. ts.ao)9 Aitr+ aolq. 19 dill4?l ltg z,$q1o}o34.
    =
    rf$a1; - #):,,00s.(e;ts") r,s 3ol
    gg HI*E c* = > E (tHls")olq, rH ls.ls
    a(gqlg.)
    ^t;,,): el -s-ql +4u ar+ aol tlHlqts *zlz| 4*¤4. &
    ol rs.rs9 g+q +Elu 44 zJol, aHI+ "t =z| {o14q1
    u}+ EH}A 4s tt+z} CH}* +E t}+B+
    qHI+E^l=e:=J
    gdc| qlujzlz| +s+= A elql= a+. Eg + q E4 AA6Ii *lE tr-+ K7l +7l6Jr+ + ¤Bol eE4
    +ql^l= 4HlAq +d+ qlqzlTf 6.|l* qHiSE gdgl ql og ol-Eo6J+.
    Llzltr+ aq. E,(A++) > E,(qHI$)ol+. ar|49. *¤ {l4l : 1s.69, ts.7o, 1s.94, 15.99
    =
    gE HJ8 ,JE HJA

    Eu(dHJ3 > Ea(qHJ8) Ea(EU8)> Ea(8HJ3

    E /GHr-q\
    !a\-!O/ F /x{Hlg\
    !a\ouo/
    E,(8'JB) Eu(qHJ8)

    B A
    -;;.;l
    AE>0
    *
    A B

    a.fg 15.15 Ejag+)"1gg uae-_)0il^je.loilL1xl 7]|E


    =g

    +EHe.l rrf
    ¤B ^JEIql gl= qtr slElrllql +4E 7t6tB qBzl gvl? a?J 1s.16ql +EI'd az.lH, +
    ,ll= HI¤¤4 gCs+ tlEg *++. AHls"r+ qH}+e.l gcs+ qlLlzlTi L
    ^J^JE ^tolE
    + *olTlr1. trI+^l +,H: AEI$+ EEI*el +E= EF ?7l^laq. K= H}+ql^l dEI
    s. r+ qHI* +E d-+E ul$oles, +,llE +471 HI¤- +EE EE+^lTlqEE K
    ltql=
    g6&,9 +zl ?*=+(:1e 1s.16). r arl +rx= sB"il Eg.6l+ +Eb +7t^l7lxlEJ, s
    B e'*EE aCg E+^l7lzl *++.

    trt8 6 olE gol u3 +EE ,eE6E7l?


    (a) A7l.8Etlelflol SEll o{lHxl xtol IEts (b) A7l SEtlef El6 8Et| ,Je.l ollLlxl ilol
    ^lole.l
    +o[| HJ30l trl u[fall
    COI ATEll xlSHElrL

    lBI"q

    1
    uJ33 trl
    oll +0l1 '*P
    Ll ErdEf 0llLl^l=,+=tt to F HJ- SgEl E:d E-crE
    ^l 0llE=6f^l$, +Ell HJ-
    EE0ll tr] EalE.J-.Jtr|.
    A

    B
    u3 ze +
    ^l7J
    arg 15.16 +ot|el ff?0ll ttt= HJB A i- B0ll tH:d qlqrl 7t|E(gsjrl^lrJ0ll ttt= Bel tsE EEl(g
    +C= +rH7l?ts HJ- LfElLJtl. ZP^l +d3 +DH7lg.= U3¤ LfE[LJrl.
    =+). =^4
    700 153 at-+ EB

    x. 15.2 Nz*3 Hz;-2 NHr


    q}¤-ol ¤¤ql d=6I= +Ets +s6}q ¤e4etr r4g s-^ol+. qlE Eq Nzq Hz
    Ytgq gEqlqF I("ol HlEl e+Elel "JEqoI 6JCg 4^l C46l] -H.4. oJEqot.JC r+Ag ¤4lg ull HaberE 9s.
    EEfc) KP
    tl+q q= ¤¤ ^J+9 +4+ ,Ji= +B"Iot 6tg+(E 15.2). rrJ+r-fl ++ +EE E
    sq,L gEE +E6l +olH ^Jcsl= oJsqolE *ol ui+ 4fl+. ole+ ag tzll9 ail¤
    300 4.34xrc-3
    4
    g +E6l *g gEql^lE ¤eql 4B6l uul-q7]l d=6IE+ ¤¤ *itl4B6l A
    400 1.64x 10 "H^J =
    g ,*E+ 6]-= +EH= 2lg6l+ dol94. 4r+^J 4¤.J +'l]E 49"1.= 4ol Haberzl 4
    450 4.51 x 10-5
    500 1.45 x 10
    s + E+ t.qel adolg.+.
    qtr aol zltt s440Jzl= g7l 9l6lq qel Ed# ¤4, carl soschE ?4
    550 5.38 x 10-6 ^let
    600 2.25 x 70-6 {lffiol g,*g eg dq6}*j1, ol +ql adg HB* aol otzlE ^l=sqr ilE}. .;r.
    (rs.2¤. 'Harber *d'). ol +"HE 400-s00"CE gEs+ 200-600 atm$ zl;11 .Jqql^l ¤
    Bq 4Bdl uu|tr211 d=g + glE+ .J+. ¤¤q^J "J+^qg 4Eg NH:g olg Es
    4H +g gqol $ealr|. 400"c8+ *g gEq^l +E6l uufezl H]*61+ rl-es 4q]
    ga.J+E, 200-600 atm-H_r| gd *e *qql^lE +ee cEq ¤B H+tol 7l^bg
    =
    4o14. ol= oJEqol Bcql rL.J tr-zlE Hl+4 qlqzl
    ^l^&q= =zll {zJo1l 7E
    ^HlE ql+
    s4zl. flg 4o14. Harber +Ag riltr d qlLJzlE 1%".= aHl6t
    ^ll4lq^l ^J4IqE
    aetr ,++¤+. Elelz}e} sl+++4¤ol Harber +cql^lE 6}tr-g +4E *zl gla}l
    =
    gg6lrll Lq6|_7 914. ol eo}el Hleql gll-r-lotsl =o#=*9 rtzl\zJ
    ^J4= ^F&q=
    + otq+ d ^ilalzlt sI4 ¤eE iEl=^J'J6l +4^lvJ 4o14.

    +0t|7|'?,1= 8Efloll^l o- 4ga|E. EE0ll=rH6l.= SdEel g0l 57161ts71., ,J*aE


    7f 0lLlE E"J6l.Zl +xlEl=7I?

    EEI.qBI
    .:I.Al 7UL{
    o u -llE

    8E 800"C .gEoil^l EEZE ?=^(4EJ0lll1 Eqd EJA9I gE)oll Erl,\lz coel H2= gd^lztrl.
    =ilsl =71=
    c(s) + Hzo(g) ;- co(g) + HzG)
    u30il^1 Eolrlts 7lill EBEe f,f 7[+(water sas)aE 6lE 6e-d ggt E-eolrl..
    (a) 800'Coll^l 0l UaE EE 8+ Kp:14.101t[. 1.00 L E7loll^l rijl EJAet 0.100 mol9 H2O= U8^lZ ttll, 0l
    -eEoll^l EE
    6 H2O, CO, Hz9 EE +.El "JalA go[oJ7t?
    =dE
    (b) 0 | 6Aql E E 0ll EE6'l'7 I +l 6|.q =J9-d EJA9 ahaJe g 0 I'oJ7 |.?
    ^1
    (c)EEoll,qq E7l Ltl Eillgr+e g0P.!71?
    (d) 2s"Coll,\i ol HJSel Kp= 1.7 x 10-2101+. ol HJ- gE HJ3?.!71., Eg UBETI?
    (e) EB0lrj coel H2= Elqe] trJol
    8tJot7l +l6||^its Zle.l g+E 6l=7L e^^l4otdlE7l?
    =7t^lZof
    8ll'J
    (a) SB ++'Jqg +6171 +lo|q oldr zlxll
    ,JA!g Bxl +¤r7le.l a7l + nn,oRT (0.100 mol)(0.08206 L-atm/mol-K)(1073 K)
    ^|+6J+. ^
    Pu,o: : :E.6iatm
    E Sqg +6J+. V 1.00L
    a7l ?E sqr+ BBql Eg4qg ulg C(s) + H2o(s) ;- Co(s) + Hz(g)

    Hs+FJql qloJ E= Al^dE}trt. a7l H E sq(atm) 8.81 0 0


    ++.Jqel Hpl(atm) -x +x +x
    ¤¤ ++ oJ4(atm) 8.81 - x x x
    15.7 Le ChAte er flal 70'l

    r^ll HI¤¤g ¤¤ tl+^lql Ealr.lzl Sie--E-+, sE


    c(s) o14q1' zlg TloJo}zl *=4. qB ^J+^lql^l PcoPu, (x)(x) :
    += EeEg ¤¤ ++ "Jqg ql"J6lB ^p- &,o - (Bs1 _-) l4.l
    oJHqIEEE g6lq 4461tr x9l 4{} olTt *4^lg x2: (14.1)(8.81-x)
    o-l u rL xz + l4.lx- 124.22:o
    c="1 .

    +4g ^l-.*6lq xgl 4at¤ EE. x:6.14 atm


    =9
    olr[. rflE-E ¤B +E oJ49 p.o = x:6.14 atm,
    Pu,: x:6.14 atm, Pu,o: (S.At -x) :2.67 atmol4.
    (b) (a)91,<J 4l7I ¤Bg ol$zl flall.<lE r:6.14 atm9
    H2o7l e}*ollo} 6J+= ag g + 914. ol ?E 'Jqg
    g+-e +ru61-71 +16ll^'1 ol{ zlrll %r-4^lg + + 91tr}. PV
    n:-
    RT
    IIl4^l ¤¤ql E$:olzl 96l]^-l= 0.06e7 mol9 Hzoe}
    (6.14 atm)( l .00 L)
    eg .JE cz| tfe"ollo|.J+. ari4e-s Hl¤: iTlql _ : 0'0697 mol
    (0.08206 t-ut^1 *ot-xl1totz x1
    4qE 0.06e7 mol9 c(0.836 g9 c)z[ +¤¤ +q
    xl]6]]o} dtrf.
    =
    (c) ¤Bll^l 8zl 49 d4l 'Jqe ++61 EB +E Sq PA4 : Pu,o+Pco + &,
    g e.+ qoJ aol4. : :
    2.67 atm + 6.14atm + 6.14atm 14.95 atm

    (d) Le chntelier fl48 ¤B.J +g Hi+ql^Jts 91 6


    trll,
    7Iq r++ Ke <lol +7161+ ag "J9t+. HI+g BB
    tizl sszl6zl.J9l tr++ 4zlE-e, ol HI¤+ E:g
    H}+gql EBfitrl. ++ cql +qd ^JC qlgqe+q
    HI+g qlBEl H4¤ Zl4l6tq +r,19 ql+g +B"J +
    gl4. la. zlol oJg +E"J ae elgol gg 44o14 : + - aai(c(s, 4S))
    ^H' ^HiQo(s))
    ag +4r+. - AHr'(Hzo(J:)) :
    ^Hi@z@))
    +131.3kJ
    =
    (e) Le ChAtelierfleloll trIsE, 'JqE Ad= H}*^lql^l
    7l8lE E+71 +eE Tlalg ¤Bol olSr6IE+,*
    =
    4. ol 4* ^J^dE +ql:2 mol9 zlxllzl 9lr-, uJ¤¤
    +ql= *zl I molol 9l+. trl+^] Coel HrE +#
    4 qlp+6].71 fl "l]^]= .Jq g Ai^l 4 of 6JEI.

    oJ,llrt Ea Hll+E a{ I
    Nre|o2E+qE No ^JC HI¤e ¤¤ t}+e+ tI* 4gzt rB sgE gql"Jxl= trq
    rs.17g eI NoTl-¤la
    =q.
    eEql 4+ H*4. ¤Eliel roJ+ iI* t4l9 dilqql^l ¤e.z} ¤^9= ++
    ,r Loz@).- No(g) Ar{" : eo.akJ [15.3U
    Nr(s) + It49 9s= 4* z+oo 11olc|. EaJ dflqql= 4+ r+%l
    ol gg HI*91 re Chatelier g4E 4+6Ia 99 el+Ee 4 *zlzl ql4. ol4il 3dg NoTl 4 "*ol ^JdqE+ t
    E+. rq+ ¤A + zl4l= g4 B4g+. 3=z| polxlB a]
    gEq +7I= NoTt q .tlzl| {lr-e. B¤ol olE
    ^J46fE, rs.269 ¤¤g g+eE olEt}trl(H}¤iEe.l gol
    6lr]l +4. 300 Kql^l ¤legq No I mol9
    ^8¤61+
    EJ* ^{zqr
    glzl ql+ol4). 6I7l"J *g gE= HI+ +E9 zJrE 9ul
    I qB tf KpE I x l0 'sol+(fg 1s.17). rEl+ 2400 K 6}.EE, 2400 Kql^l ^Jd¤ No= 7\4r7l'8+48^l r ¤Ell
    ql^l ¤¤ tiE o.ose., 300 KoJ tr]ltrq +eJ tot3tsH+
    =
    il tr'E+4
    ol+. llE',^}4014.
    702 15a,f +-+ Etr

    ¤flcle*q r]e.= ullzlzla= rzoo K cEs, q Htl7l7[4ol8Eg! 1200 K0ll,\j Kpel 'Jg +86t,\19.
    d6l ,ll+ Eaq. r.H rs.tzollr.l^lH, ol gEql^l No
    ^g¤ Hlael ¤¤ ++= "j sx 10-aos, zaoo rollrlg l*rtsl + trorb);- No(g)
    ,*B+ *tt zI4. NozI N2el o2-tr H+Iq= +E= q 1.

    + Lq^J. zli!\tfy) B49zl 4t4zl}. NoE q$6il7}


    "*ol "J94zl *=+. 1x10 s

    zlr+.2¤9lrl Egg H|el pol, zffii[ +,]] H*]zl EA E ¤AJtrJ 3E


    Kp
    el q4 +E 6[+= uflz]z]^el gEql^l No= n+ezl Bll7l7l4 PE
    1 x 10-10
    N2e+ o2-e, E+^l7l= X.ol4. ol HI¤¤ 9loll zHts¤ "J
    + +Ell= zl+r} H]]TI ^l^HE g4fl aa6}ql^l tl$
    d n44ol+. rHqlE H6tn 4'fzlc+ +q^LE=g 1 x 10-15

    zl$!.g.-e. &pl a^9 +61lql El Er+4?l .ql_ee 4rl]


    Eeg +i1 914.
    0 1000 2000
    EEK)
    afts Benle-E gg HJ8ol7ltrllEoll8E7la7ldtE.Je d|+
    15.17
    7[e7EEl. KplII gPlolle^l H6lE-q Kp=e)-gge +ElLtlfltl

    s'J'J 6e Eq
    AHI+4 qE}+ol +eg +E
    EJEg] 7flLJ(15.1tr) plo+ Hls"g gB AI+ atol z++= ae ¤B saJEol
    =+. ^JdEtr+ Ei¤¤
    e gol4= ^JEHq
    Eg'J + gt+. ol
    ^JqlE fl.t Etd(chemical
    g q *ol goJ6|-L ileq, BBol HI+E +q 9l+= ag F.J
    equilibrium)ol?+n 6l.q, t 44 EI+E+ 4iq fl= ¤ q. qHl+g ¤B t+^l+ BB ^J+: AHI+qI^JE q+"1+. HI
    ^JCEol
    ¤ g.JEol
    "JEq{4. ¤B gq}Eq ardS gs.z]. oJA6}E ¤-ol F +41 ola'-E HI+g !t.l+E, :- BB iL+= rllrlle.l Hl+
    ^l
    +qlqq E6lzl *bEl. el E¤ {-+9 +"1 ¤E}.

    Be 8+(15.2tr) ol +ql^.] # 4HH BB3 N,(g) + 3 H2k) H"J + 7Vl +Betr +eB + 9lE|. sE
    EJtr(ls4tr) qlBe
    :2 NH3k)olE+. ol Ei*3 "JEqoI ^dt}.g gloJ Haber 8C Hl¤¤r+ ^JcEol ag ^J"J ,l|9 EBg EB B¤(homoseneous
    (Haberprocess)$ 7lg Hl+ol+. BEql flts 4lE *+E+ ^JC equilibria)ol fi. fl+. EEg 2lg(heterogeneous equilibria)ilE
    EE b-E ^|ol9 +rll= tl$ Ett E{(law of mass action) o e f + 7l^l oltr-g ^Jol 446.j ullo) aqiilE gt,E= aq
    =4I6JEI.
    9d4. a A+bB;- dD + eEE +q^l= ¤B H]+!q ql+ 6l lolEtr, +i#.J ¤BE ¤¤ ^J+^lql^J +++ jla]e+ o-qillg
    5g gi+f(equilibrium-constant expression)* 4s-4 7J9q, K, bEE xllelg+.
    +g7l s.= BE Sol+. EJE g+sl llt(15.5tr) B¤ql^J -EE +4+E E"E7I g3l4 9l
    =
    tDtd[Et,
    K': "E *lB ^J+49 ^l*6}q BB d+ Zig ZI4I"J + 9t+. BB
    GitBi .ll Eg:.lE 48ql^lE El*E+ ddEq +E EE|= ++9 p+
    oJq o
    zlillE +CE BB4lql^JE HI¤¤r+
    ^J{EE bEE 7li{ +*Eq 4++gE+.
    e q4ur+.
    H!+ 6 q!
    Eg 8+et ^ldql^Jg HI¤¤4 ^JdE
    (.'' _ (Pp)(&)' =E(15.6E)
    e-l ++ $qol+ +E= ¤B
    ^J+!q qloJ6Iq
    u.!3 4#(reaction
    (ro)'(&)'
    quotient, O)= +6J+. \lit ¤Bq fleE a:I(ol+. :1qLI
    K.e+ KpE Ke:K.(RT)A'g *ZlE zltl4. ol H+ql^J R:0.08206 e+ro1g, Al= B¤4 9l^l ?*r+. e<KoJ EI=, HI¤+ rl "*g
    L-atm/mol-KE gE= eq gEol+. 6}6ll olE6.J 4.olEl(olql qlq"* g+
    ^l-&61-1r., ^J^J¤-3 "JEes&l ¤Bg
    EJE 8+9 0l6l|et 48(1s.3tr) ¤B ^J+ {}e eEql q+ HqI ql^l sE4eE tl4+trl.). Q>K"J trll:, Hl¤+ eE+q^l g+
    o g {aja}{ q
    trI. K. *ol rE+= ag ¤B gql-Eol Hl¤¤Bq
    ^J^JES
    trl E* Bg H}¤+g ^J^"i"JE+. r( <tg "JE H}¤¤r+ ^J
    ol e$alr. 9leq, BBol HI*49 ^JCE +ql 9l+b ag "J6il dEet BB +E= 4t+6J + flbqt, ++ bE+ +E *q9 H
    EA E^ll 703

    ffi ulz,lftr 49Eq al&.J+E 9lLI


    ^fso6J =
    EB soE= B4^l7,ll 6IzlEI BB ^J+ K Zlg Ep+^l7lzl *+
    tr}.
    Le ChAtelier flal(15.7E) Le Chitelier gq= BB4lrt i+g ts
    gEel Hq+ BB tEe+ BB E+ql ¤.Fg +4. Hl+E
    sH. j/+9 g6&3 4dp+g + 9lE+ B¤ol ol56J+E aol+. ^J+
    flgq E+= ol+4q gE_ +7171¤¤{ qB4l ¤6}9 ++^l
    tr+z|^J B¤q 9lb 4lql HI*E E= ^J^JEol ,L.lle A+, ¤Bg
    7l-6ll{ Eeg 4!-6}: B'6}e-_E ol5g aolq-. +¤¤ E= c^J AA,J + 9+. +g HI*q^l= &E-+7171¤Bg eE3- e-E
    =
    olE^laq. gg ++ql^l= +E +7171B¤g g+s_a olF^l
    E9 xll4a}44, .Jq EE +qE H+^la oll9 -trrlE Hl+6fZl ,J4. +,ll= BBql EBd+ +Eql g6J.9 +zl"J, Kg rTlql=
    +E-e + 9l+. el= Eq Hl+41E Pulz} zJaHE zlall EzIg
    ¤6Jg +al *6JE|.
    +71ei6l+ uloj9E $Sol ol="ar aol+ E"Eel.JqE Epl

    E.J+ ¤al ot tE E+El +01 qaige trF=¤ s + etctot'Eltrt

    .al4 ¤¤"1 el"l6l-= 4+ _a*"l qB4 El+ +Ee+ +Eq= +H S+ +-41: 1s.7, ts.2e,ts.3o
    ol6ll6J+(ls.1e). +H ¤+ +4: ls.t, ls.l3, ls.14 .LoEE +C6lq ¤B
    ^l ^J+= 4141a3rf(rs.s¤).
    . qq6J Hl+q ql+ B¤ ,.J+^lg ++(rs.2¤).
    +H ¤+E4: ls.3l-1s.34
    +¤ g++.41: ls.ls,ls.l6
    ^J+eI +¤¤ "t ^JCEE bEE+q EI*E 114 %r-6Jg
    . ¤B
    . KPI Kp tql ggajQ(rs.z3). q1;'a3r|(rs.0¤). +fl ¤+ E4l : rs.4l-rs.,t4
    ^l.+
    +H ¤++.41: rs.2l,ls.22 . BB 6J zl-^l geE ¤B r-"E7i +q? ql BB r-"EE
    ^J+e+
    .¤B g6JEql +46l= Hl¤¤nl ^JCEel tlql4.J .Jg BB Tarf(rs.o¤). +H g+ +4l : rs.47-1s.s0
    ti9 =_zl
    9+ +¤11=4(rs. 33). . ¤B t}+e+ 471Z,E7l +qe q BB r-"E= TArf(rs.6¤).
    +A g+E4l: rs.r7-rs.re +¤ g+ +-41: ls.st, ts.s2,ts.s7,ts.s9
    . +q ++^lE Hslq q+ ¤¤ tL+E Hq¤ +++(rs.3¤). ¤45 ol*al-q ¤¤ ^J4ql 9l= 419 bE, +irl,
    . Le chatelier
    +fl g+ E4l: rs.23, ts.2s,ts.z7,ts.zg E= gE= ts+^la ,ll ¤¤ 97lrl qBrll Eg^lE ql=BJtrI
    .E+.J HI+ql q6J B¤ tr-+^lg*4(rs.a¤). (ts.z¤). +H g+ +-41: rs.6r, 1s.62, ls.6s, ls.6g

    :a O HFP_^|
    OJr L O -
    tDldlEl"
    .K-:'
    ' "', [rs.s] a A i bB i- dD * e EE +q^l= gHI4?l HI+q 4-J BB ^J
    IAl'[Bl' i^1, L"Eis4 B¤ *EEJ^l-&
    -- (Pr)d(P.)'
    .^.:_-
    , -- (Pi,(Pil'
    [rs. r r] B¤ ++ SqsE +Elu ¤e tL+^l
    , Kp: K,(RT)^" [rs. rs] "JqeE +E[{ ¤¤ ^}+e+bEe +E}u ¤¤ tL+ rJE +zl^]
    .C)-:' tDldlF.l"
    " ', lls.zql qI+ zlf. L"E= Hl+ol 1IBq= +.J qL r-"E *,
    lAl'IB]' E7t IIB E4 ?4H Q. &
    L" : ^ldE ^l^*.

    oJ+ +41
    tsse -H.= 71lE
    ls.r (a) q-*9 qlq^l E-trql k7> k,o)tl, olllE fti<
    =7l6lq iil
    /qoJzl= ql=61^19-. EJ!
    HJ3E

    ^l-+6lq +c9 B¤ tfzl fxl,


    (b)^l rs.s= ol r-H-r| a
    0ll
    olqE +gzl ql+6}^ls. [rs.rd] L1

    ^l AH Ig

    Hlq ilx.l
    704 1s3 Et+ EE

    ts.2 El-¤- rgg ,ltr.E HI+ A BE +Elt aol+. EJ^q f : 10,1 20A 30a 40=. 50a
    nog A ezl sl+4 3"9 -
    B +^lol4, ,rlzJol zl*ql 4+ eo o- oo oa_ oo o
    HI+e g+q^l 9.E+oE 4l.I.J+. 4E EBql Eg6I "r
    .L: O+? ot ao
    E7l? r+48 qB rBol EB tL4E 4lE 444EzI?
    Irs.rd, ts.z¤l
    12345
    :.-:
    o,+o aoo oe
    A(s) +
    .j:
    B(s).- AB(8)
    o
    D o

    OO oo oo oo
    ::l .T
    f: 20E 30A
    oo OO o o .o.
    i'.: t;
    10n 40^ 50a

    oo o oo ;o
    oo OO
    tOO
    ooo oo oo
    Oe
    o o :.i
    ooo o
    ao
    c
    o
    CT
    o
    o
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    o it.a
    O1
    a o oo ao
    aa

    ls.3 rl¤.:Hg El* A+ x;-axgl gB gElE¤ Ll4


    q6J
    x(g) + Y(8) r- xY(8)
    U aol+. *qzt r rolr. 449 i)^ll+^l7l I molg 44
    U+n 6IE, K= ltr+ [rs.zd] ls.6 9lHl(czsJg gedl(xrq rl-e-$ zJol qlso++.

    o._ot
    =71,4+71? czHs@)+xz@): c2HaX2@)
    q*. rBg Ag gEql^] xz7l44 clz(54), Brr(zJ4),

    r.!|. rz(-H.44).J trilg ¤B tE= +ElU 4o14. ¤B *fzl


    +716I= +-e_-e Llg6l^ls_. [rs.:¤]

    olo d
    ID
    ?
    ei, o
    $ c d
    I * o
    qD

    ls.4 rI¤-:.H¤ $eqq


    ql^l
    zti
    eI¤¤ LI4U aolq. "l :-B
    44q Ezl-b o.r motoltr, ^Jzl9 Pq* r.o rol4. oi) $ oo #qD
    (a) Ab EJ^q +, s=
    *+
    rltA
    HI¤-^lg r.<.rle.
    Eo e-e.
    Its.z4)
    +i, ol HI*E +¤ t $
    (a)
    O qri 9C
    (b)
    (b) HI*E E¤ {r-+^lg 'T ,rle.
    (c) & 7i9 Al&6}^ls.
    (d) E= lzlzl tltll t}4+r 7l-C6tn, H}*ql ftI9E
    4l Exlf9 Epl aa$ Zl&6}^le_.
    zl
    t
    o qb
    oo
    @

    # f fi
    (e) Kptlg 4l&6}^le-. C,

    I to
    oa O
    o i '\ @ o
    o
    I to
    ,+ OG + 0
    o' Oo (c)

    rs.z 4Ig+ B(rv)g goo "c oltle-e. 7l-g6iB HI* ruorlsy 3


    ls.s t|g rflg zf^J9 F U* ekl + B(s) i-AB(s)e+ x(s)
    Pbo(s) + ozk)91 trI4 E6ilg+. ++ rBilH "J+¤
    + Y(s)r-xv(g)9] 46ll z}4l l.J
    ^le 4E ^lrJql +C F zll9 8zl9l 5q llE ruo,g {4oll sz}. F *zlE
    ^ITlg
    4fl¤. Ellg E+o14. qL HI+ol rl * EB ^6}iS 400'cE zI¤oI4 g6q sB.a}4l 6IH+8, otrl ¤H +
    7lz.];yzp [rs.r¤, rs.z¤]
    *g ag qe a'J7l? [ts.+¤]
    (a) A 82191 tsoI 9i= Pbo2E
    "Jol q +g 4o14.
    (b) B +7lql Bof 9l= pbo29 "Jol EJ zlg aolEl.
    (c) 4 *zl"I tsol gl= Pbo,g .Jg a+.
    E+ E^it 705

    e
    5.0 g Pbo2(g) -'-M:,*:#
    ls.n EI.gfHg aoo Kel s00 Kql^l EI+ 42 + B .- A + AB
    ql 46J B¤ s.J+g 448 1.14. A gzl+ BzJ4olr
    A E7I B oeTl
    V: 50 mL V: 100 mL B gzl+ rl+^loltrl. ol HI¤+ ¤¤ tl*"JzL Bg HI+e

    82:2
    .rc
    15.8 HI+ Au + K.b l.soltrI. trl-g rBg Ar(g
    ABel zl2lrs.z?_)

    $
    ,J4). s,(4*4). AB e^Iel dJ* g6J5g +4U aol+.
    [rs.s¤, ls.6¤]
    (a) 9s HI+ s{}Eol EB t4ql F9 9lbzl?
    (b) ¤¤ llzl *e gil"Ee ¤¤91 s.Ealzl +lql q
    ^J491
    o O
    oo o
    oo .O
    BZIHI*ol deqaErp
    oct a a aco
    o
    C
    oo
    tol C.
    $ 300 K K

    ,t, .O
    500

    O o rs.rz rl-* r4s= El* e9 + B(g)


    -d3(c)E
    gBq^JE El
    tlE asgl +5*9 ^]e. q-q + Eq x, y414 gE9 EL+
    (i) (ii) (iiO
    E +4U 1o1r|. [rs.z¤)

    ls.e EI*Azk) + B(s) i-A(s) + ABk)ql 4t rr:zo1rl. 11


    * rHg e flzt(92J4), e, ExL AB 'rzXgt4+++
    P:Y
    $el g{}Eg +E}U4. BB s'J+g 44421 9lull^l: q

    i:;
    s flzlE gu}4 rl 7|6llot 6f=7I? [rs.6¤] P:x

    E.E

    (a) ol HI+e g¤ HI*.J7I-, ts¤ tI*"JzI?


    (b) P:xE P:yoJ 4le4 Zzt, 4*zl?

    O E 'JE, BE 8+(1s.1 E-15.4tr)


    ls.r3 7l4ld-el HI* e ----- B4 B ----- A9 +E ++b 44
    rs.ro ul-g fHg 2B@);-2 esk)9 EB *ql=
    HI+ A,k) + 4.7x10-3 s-', s.8xto-r s-rol-tr, EF B.J Bal 4C"l+
    44t i"14. [rs.s¤, rs.z9] r 7fa'J+.
    (a) tsulzl 2 Lqa. zl$tlt-, HI+g ¤B .-B(s)ql qlt ¤B tL+: gul-.Jz}?
    ^J+ &E al4}6l (a) HI+ A(8)

    ^ls. O) ¤Bq^l Ael ++ "Jqal Bq +E $q + q! aol


    (b) ¤B g,*Eq Fulzt ¤ol=E en EzI9 += +7t61+ rl aflizll
    71, +}2;]'|.7l?
    706 153 6l-qf E:d

    rs.r4 gE 800 Kq^J olole_H ezlE 6]l?-l HI* rzk) :2 r(s) 1s.23 gE 1000 Kql^J +$ zNo(g) + Brzk) ;- 2NoBr(s)el
    q 4EJ ¤B ^J+= &:3.1x lo-sol+. ¤B ++=&=1.3xlo-2ol+.
    gEql^.i E¤3 Noe+ Brroll zl$zl.izl, NoBrql il
    (a) ¤Boll^l rz4l
    =!
    "lr 4ol q y*ol =4ldlE7}? (a) ol
    (b) cHlg"r+ qt}*ol sF +"J +alr+aol+n TIag ql, *rlEzI?
    4Hlg"4 qHI*+ qe ael+E^J+71q adi-Tl? (b) 2 NoBr@)i-2 No(s) + Br2@) El+q &= 4l4l6l^le.
    rl¤- U*e-l K.^ls (c) NoBr(g)i-NoG) +|Yr2@) HI+g iC= 4l^I6}^le.
    ^,rl-s. 4 tl*ol #"J HI*.Jzl, 5.7
    .J Hl+oJzl r 1s.24 gE 700"cql^l trl-g BB HI*E EB d+=K.:1.08x107
    -lsrs(a) 3NO(g) i-^lg.NzoG:) + Noz(s) ol+.
    o) cHr(s) + 2H2S(g) : CS2(8) + qHz@) 2Hz@) + Sz(s) .- 2 H2S(g)
    (c) Ni(Co)a(s) ;- Ni(s) + 4co(s) (a) KpE 41416l-^19.
    (d) HF(aa) ;- H+(aq) + R-(aq)
    (b) ¤B g*EE ql+++ HzeI sz?lzL ol'lH HzsoJzf?
    (e) 2Ag(s) + Znz+(aq) zAg+@q) + Zn(s)
    (c) EI*4g Hr(s) ++srk)r-H2s(d-+.4^l 3 EL K. {t
    (O H2o(l) ;- H+(aq)- + OH-(aq)
    g Al^l6i^le.
    (g) 2H2o(l) ;- 2H+(aq) + ZoH-(aq)
    g.= 1000 Kql^J +g Hl*el Ke:l.8sol+.
    ls.r6 q+ HI+el &alg r^,tls-. 4 U+ol +9 H}8q14, B+
    .J Hl*.J^l ^A^lg.
    so2(s) + |or1s; .- sorlg;
    -rs:s(a) HI* so3k) i- rrt gutoJzl?
    (a) zqg): 3oz(j.) so r@) + i or(s)9
    (b) Ti(s) + 2Cl2@) ;- TiCl4(/) (b) HI8 2 so2k) + ozk) r-2 So3k)ei rr= gultzl?
    (c) 2C2Ha@) + 2H2O(g) : 2C2H6(g) + oz(s) (c) (b)91,t.19 HI+ql ql6J rr* $uloJzlr
    (O C(s) + 2Hz@) : CHa(s) 15.26 gE "Cq^l q* B¤E Kr:a.AtJ2olQ.
    480
    @) aHCI@q) +oz(g) i- 2H2o(l) +2C12$) 2Cr2@) + 2Hzo(9 ;- aHCl(3) + oz(g)
    (O 2C8H18(/) i- 16CO2@) + 18H2O(j:)
    +2502@) :
    (a) Hl* aHcl(s) + oz(s) 2Ct2G) + zH2o(s)E Kp
    ;- 16CO2(g) + 18H2O(f)
    (g) 2C6H1s(/) + 25Oz@)
    gtrloJz}?
    q-e. Hl+ol B¤ql sB:"f$.¤ tri B¤ eql$el q+E+ = ;-
    (b) HI+ Cl2(s) + Hzo(s) zHCl(s) + +or(s)q Kpb
    HI¤¤.J7L olq H ^JtE.J7I? g"l"JzI?
    -rsr7(a) Nz(s) + oz(s) ;- 2No(s) &: l.s x 10-10 ql+ci gEfoJzl?
    (c) (b)oll,rl9 HI+q
    O) 2so2(g) + oz(tr) .- 2So3(s) Kp: 2.5 x rog
    t*zt s--s823 Kql^l trl-s ¤Bql Eg6I9trI.
    ls.l8 E|-g EI+ + qL aol eE=-e_e il+4^l ^JcEg B^J i-
    CoO(s) + Hz(g) Co(s) + H2o(g) Kc: 67
    ol +^.I+ Hl+olq, qe aol g+qe il+a^l HI¤¤g
    CoO(s) + CO(g) i- Co(s) + CO2(S) K,: 49O
    BCol +^ll,* tlg"Jzl?
    (a) 2NO(g) + oz(s,) : 2No2(s) Kp: s.O x 1012 9lE ¤Bql *Z6Iq, Kq^l Hz(g) + cor(s) :
    s23
    (b) 2HBr(g) : Hz(s) + Br2(s) &: 5.8 x 10-18 co(s) + Hzo(r) HI+el BB d'+¤ +6}^le-.
    rs.28 gE 2e8 Kql^l EB ++^14 ¤B {tfz} q+r} eE}.
    4*¤E + qL aol*r, q- 1"1 g.xl ?*9zl?
    (a) EB {'-+= +E <}ol B + S'}. 2 NO(g) + Br2(8r) ;- 2 NOBr(g) X, : 2.0
    -rrrr(b) + %F"Jel ElgstrEJ s^lE q}¤.ql 4+ EB tiE o 2No(g) : Nz(s)+ Oz(g) K,:2.rx1,030
    qTWc+. I z.te-+Pel, +.s Hl¤.g gB ar.+ KpE 4l&61^le.
    sB {}+ atol
    (c) EBql Egaf= +Eb E44lEl. Nz(g) + Oz(S) + Br2(g) ;- zNOBr(g)
    =++
    1s.20 q+ ¤B + qL Aol*r, qL 4ol *zl ?*9zl? t}E++g(r)ol f*4ta-e e6IqE HI¤+ +q-l} AEl.
    (a) HI+ 2 A@) + B(s) i-A2B(8)ql qlql^l x& Kp *ol 5 2 HgzO(s);-a Hg(/) + Ozk)
    .J6l-+. -rs:s
    (a) ol HI+q E¤ t}+^lg +B $qql ql6l^J ^A^ls.
    (b) ¤B ^J+= ++B q ^F&qb ++lE HIi6IE KA Kp
    (b) ol ll.f;-ol +g g^e+ t}} g^E +ol= +Elql^l llB
    itg+Eg+ 9lrl. ¤ q, +q]+g *48 Gotv)s s^l6}-15.r-"Eql ql6ll
    (c) (")9 BB Hl+ql^l oJqol +7I6lH K. Aol +7I+trI. xr.ls-.
    ^J
    BB ^J+^19
    ge s00 Kql^l pcl3k)+ cr2k). =pclsk)9 &:o.oa2ol 1s.30 ¤B HI*Nazo(s) + So2k);-Na2So3(s)ql ql6}q,
    E, ol gEql^l ol HI+E rrE tsutoJz}? ol HI¤-9 EB tL+^lg ++.Jqql 4ull,rl ,.r.]_e-.
    -rs:r
    1s.22 e-E 303 Kq^l SO2k) + Cl2k) i- Sorclr(g)e.l Kp:34.5
    (a)
    (b) HISel EE il6J¤-a- Eq +=+.
    "l
    EJ+ql^l ++.lt
    olH, ol gEql^]g &= +6}^le_. el BB tt+^lgE.r-"Eql q6ll^l .r
    ^19-.
    tr+ 707
    =^ll
    BB A+q th!(15.5tr) o) BBql^J ps,6:3.51 atmol4. co2, H2, coE BB +
    ls.3l ql+g(cH3oH)g ^JB4str .J&cl tsde+ +4q +,}] HI +.Jqg Al&6}^le_.
    *sE ^J4I¤+' (c) HI8.il ql+KeE 4lt}6}^le.
    s00 Kq^l 2.oo L Tzl9l Eq 9lE BB e+E +q= (d) HI+q 4.J K.E 4l4}6}^le_.
    CH3OH 0.0406 mol, CO 0.170 mol, H2 0.302 molol 94. 15.38 +E 2s "Cql^l 1.s00 atmel N2oa@)el 1.00 atmE No2k)
    o1$Egl,{ /c= 4l&6}^ls. E ill9l4l E4:=.ql,tl Elgri Ae B¤ol ol+qd4.
    rs.32 olols{s} +}(HD 7lAlE 42s"c4 "Jgl¤ *zlgl '3fi.r1 NzOa(g) .- 2No2(g)
    ! r gPzl-+4e| ololsB oE B6llElS.+. BBql oleB Noz9 *ts oJ43 o.srz atmol4.
    zHr(O;- H2k) + I2k)
    (a) Nzor9 ¤¤ +e oJ{* $ot'Jzt?
    ¤Bql^l [ur]:s.sax l0 3 M, lur):+.zsx r0-4M, [I2] 4t r, alg zl&6}^ls.
    o) Hl8ql
    : 4.7 e x r o-, uol 4. ol gEql e.l K.= al4}6l,^l _a-.
    ^l (c) HI*91 4ELr.5 4lt}6}^le.
    gg s00 Kql^l cl-* ¤B"l ol+qa+. gE 37'c ++.-qq
    15.39
    ^lE +E
    tu4d x. y7l +6Hqq 9iE+.
    Cl2k);- zNoCI(g)
    2 NO(g) +
    ^Jd+4. 4 +Eeg a
    ol +Eeg r:le aE6lq xyE
    -rs-rrB¤ silEql^l 7l8lel ++'Jqg No 0.0es atm, cl2
    ^ll 7l +E7l1.00 mMoJ +a4.1 BBql EB6l-fl+. B¤ql^l
    0. 171 atm, NOCI 0.28 atmol4.
    xe+ y7l- 44 o.zo mu4 H?14. 01 HI+el 16,$ faf,<le.
    (a) s00.0 Kql^J ol HI*9 KpE 4l4}6l^le.
    15.40 ,llE EI^IE s+q}^ls=g oJ^-ilEq s.Jg tEgr+ 41E +
    G) ql¤- *zl9 pqzl s.00 L+r 6p, ol gEql^JE &=
    B B^I,tlols-l ql$oll,t.le.l BB *+= +4"J4. AlE e^l
    +af^le.
    eg+
    : qlEer+ r:r-e. Hlgo 6Iq CE-+EA +"J4lE Bd"J+.
    15.34 tgsl t(pcr3) zl4lE g+(clr) Tlilje} HI+4q "J 2s"c f Sqql^l +Eeg +EE l.sox10-6Mol4. A d
    (Pct,) zlAlzI g+.
    s}g azl *.E 2.00x10 6M-+ BEe +"-4ql ¤:6ll^17111,
    PCl3k) + Cl2k') i- Pclsk)
    B 4lEE 471 EE- 2.00x 10-6 M-e EEg ::."J6J +E4e
    7.sL 7l4l +7lq gqlEol Eq flq.
    Pcl3k)e+ clr(c)el
    +Eql +fl4. ¤Bq^l A AlE-+Ee +o-qol 1.00x 10-6
    4s0 Kql^J ¤¤9 olF99 trL 7l4lE *E "J49 Pocr,
    ^l Me-l A-tEA +6JillE BC6Ii, B +.-qql^lE r.40x 10-6
    :0.124 atm, P61,:0. 157 atm, Pp61,:1.30 atmol4.
    ,rz9 s-BEqd +qlzll= ¤,.d61fl+. A-+Ee+ B-+Eqe
    (a)olgEoll,rl KeAIZ 9ul.Jzl?
    e-l a6J EI.*E &E 44 Zl4I6I^le. q ,J6l.Zl e*6l+ t
    o) B¤ql^l= HI¤¤4 ^JCE + qL aol cl oulol f{la} E.J++ r.l a44ol4H, E++ +A S+= fl6l qH {E
    Y7l? g dqq+ 4"]r¤Ai-zl?
    (c) aso K9lrl ol HI+q qal &E 4l4l6l^le.
    rs:s gs K, 1.0 L +7lql No 0.10 mol, H2 0.050 mol,
    300 'Je a+q 3E(1s.6E)
    l5.al (a) Q. < K.4H, ¤Bql Eg6l7l +16ll qu ulale--e. HI*
    H2o o.lo molg Hg, q*r+ Ag BBql Eg6I9+.
    2NO(g) +2H2@): Nz(s) +ZHrO(g)
    ol a4qb7l? (b) Q.: K,7l E)719lull
    "J+qqol6l+ a
    d3 **,.Jzt?
    B¤ql^l [No] :o.ooz Mol+. $.a2 @) Q, > &+E ¤¤91 s.B:.]-zl 916ll H]¤e qL. HJ6J-qE
    (a) H2, N2, Huo9 BB +E=44 4ltl6l^19.
    deqqof 6l+71? O) qtr HI*9 =zl9l E]¤+"J ¤z16}
    (b) iCE 4l't}6}^le.
    a ^JCEol $g EL e.E Ag ¤"foJzl?
    1s.36 2.000 L9 +71 +ql^l 700 KE Ttgg H2 t.374 g4 Brz gs 100'cql^l HI* coctrg .- co(8') + clr(g)E BB
    70.31 gel g*gol cl-*4'Jol Hlso +tf. :
    dI+ & 2.te "cql^l trl+.q coct2, co,
    xlo-tool+. 100
    Hz(g) + BrzG) .- 2HBr(s) -rra:cl, s!+Ee ¤¤ tl{ql flizt? E¤ol olt-.I48, EBol ol
    EB tlEllg *zl 49lE H2 0.s66 sol 919,tr|. +qzl7l +l6}q ql+ol d4r.lqot 6I= HJ6J3 ql+6f^le-.
    (a) H2, Br2, HBr9 B¤ r-oEE al4l6f^lg. (a) [COCI2] :2.O0 x tO 3 M, [CO] : 3.3 x rO 6 M,
    (b) &E 4l&6t^le. [clz] : 6'62 x 1'0-6 M
    O) [COCI2] :4.50 x I1-2M,[CO] : 1.1 x 10-7M,
    rl'tz z.oo LE +7lql Eq 9l:
    co2 0.2000 mol, Hz 0.1000 [clz] :2'25x1o-6M
    mol. HzO 0.1600 mol9 g6JEol s00 Kq^l +¤.4 Aol (c) [CoClz] :0.0100M,[Co] = [Clr] : 1.48 x 10-6M
    ¤Bq Eg6I9+. rs.,l4 _tr ls.2ql +ElS Efel Aol, 4s0"cql^.1 El-g U*9 ¤¤ fL
    Co2(j:) +Hz(g) : Co(g) +Hzo(S) f KpE 4.sl x lo-5ol+.
    (a) Coz, H2, H2oE a7l Y E g-qg Zlti6h^19-. NzG) + 3Hzk) :- 2NH3(g)
    708 153 at-+ EE

    +4ql gz]g sqlgol aso"coilr.l ¤B tl4q1 ilEzl, ol No(s)el NoBr(g)9 "Jqol eqg, Brzk)9 ¤¤ 'Jqg g
    HzlE +EI4^ls. BB ^J4zI ot,-]4H, g+Eol B¤g rrlqlTl?
    ol+71 +16I olE"ollot 6l^b %16&g(^JCE +e.tr. EE HI+ 15.54 gE 218'Cql^1, NHaSH(s) : NH3(s:) + HrS(g) BBql
    E +e.tr.) s.^l6}^l9.. 46}| &:2.4 x lO-solEI.
    (a) NHr 98 atm, N2 45 atm, H2 55 atm gE 218'cql^J rill NH4SH "Jql *zl9l Bl ¤¤
    ^lEE
    (b)NH3 57 atm, N2 143 atm, Hz S.9 ql EEB ql4zl E61l6}flg ull, Nu:e+ Hrsg BE r-oE¤
    (c) NHs 13 atm, N2 27 atm, H2 82 atm 41416l^le.
    ge 100.cql^l trl-S HI*q rC=0.078o14. rs.ss gE 2s'cql^l trl-g H]+el BB {}+ K,:2.4x lo-solr+.
    SO2CI2(g) : SO2(jr) + Cl2G:) CaSoa(s) .' Caz*(aq) + 5}42-(aq)
    -rras
    Tlalq ¤¤ e6JEql^l so2c12, sore.l EEE 44 o.ros (a) 9s 2s'cql^l 4-e*9 cason(rE
    Eql H"l caso, e.r1
    M, o.os2 Mol4. BB gil-Eql^l clrE +8.J43 g"it
    ^ll
    +alg "JE+E cur*el Son2-9 BB +E= 9oloJz}?
    7l? (b) 1.4 LE scl+.lg "J=+E BBoll sgolzl 9lqi ge
    rs.46 +E e00 Kql^l q* +*el Kp=0.34so1+. aJ caSor(s)9 44 e=Jg ¤uI'JzI?

    2So2@) + Oz(S) ;- 2So3(g) rs.s6 gE80'cql^J q+++9 BB K,:r.87x10-3ol+.


    ^J+
    BB gtl^Eq^l so2e+ o2E +E Sqg 44 0.135 atm, PH3BCl3(s) ;- PH3(g) + BCI3(S)

    0.455 atmol4. g6JE +ql^l So39 ¤B ++ $4.g 9"I (a) SE s0'Cql^l rill ^l.a PH3BCI3= "J4l *zl +q B
    "J7l? a, ol .r.lEz| E6flqq BBql EB6IE+ El+. olql
    Ts.qz+vl28s"cql^lEl-sEI+E¤BtI+&:1.0+xlo-3olE}. PH3e+BCl3qBB r-"EE zl4}6}^ls.
    Br2k) :2 Br(g) (b) +7l9l B4zl-o.zso L "J Ell, ¤Bql Eg6l7l 9i6il
    =4
    +rl"l 5q 9lE BB .g.JEq Br2Q) 0.245 gol
    0.200 Le.l 4r +q '+qot 6I= pHrBCb(s)9 44 a*g 9uPJzl?
    914. *zl +q B.(s)el g"*g gEloJTP +s lso "cql^l I2@) + Br2Q) ;- 2 IBr(g) HI¤-g Kc:280
    rs.48 gE 700 Kql^J Hzk) + rrG) : 2 }]t({') qI89 iE:ss.: olr|. lso '6oll,tl 2.00 Lg +zlql IBr 0.500 mol9 Bol E
    oltrL
    -rsszBqlEg6I9trIE rBr, rr, Br2el BB *EE gutoJzP
    7l4lel EB sql¤ol Eq flE 2.00 L9 ¤4^rql H, rs.s8 gE2s'cql^l trIgHI*g ¤B tI+ K,:7.rxl0-4ol+.
    ^ll
    o.ose94 \ 4.36 sol91trl-. E?+^r +q *= Hr e*g CaCrOa(s) -- C**(aq) + CrOnz-(aq)
    9"Iqlzl? e" E=.
    cacrorg .s'cl +.lql^l cu'*el cron2-9 BB 9tr1
    ge 800 Kql^J rr(8) :2 r(s) Hl+el BB tI+ &:3.1x
    "J7l?
    10-sol+. 10.0 L+7lq fl= E¤ -g6Jg +q 2.67xrc-2 rssr
    -rr+s r(c)7}9ltrlB, s'JE 691 rzb P f-H 9IAE7I? ,1q1.3(CHJ+ o1o1s-H(rz)g trlg-r+ eol Hl-qo SL+.
    cel
    CH4k) + Irk) CH3I(g) + HI(g)
    rs.so gE 700 Kql^i 2 so2k) + ozk) i- 2 so3k) HI*E ¤B gE Kql^l ol - Kp}. 2.26x16-aolr|. 630 K
    630 Hl*q Eli.J
    ^Ji Kp:3.0 x l04ol+. ql^l ,lElq-]E :a7l ?E "JHol tos.t torr, Izt:7.e6torrt
    2.00 L +71+E BB g*gq so3 1.17 94 oz o.ros gol
    HI+.l ¤Aqflq. BBq^lE EE qI*84 ^JCEs-l 'Jq
    Eq fl+. ol *zl 491 sozE H e Eg 9lEzt? (torr)9 41416I^le.
    rssr g-g 2ooo.cql^] El-g Hl+E sB ^J.+ &:2.4x103o1EI. 1s.60 4lE t$ql^l ql^qel Eg ^J{6IE Ell, +71 +,]] +ql^'l
    2No(s):Nz(s) +oz(g) .J?94 *zl,tl9 tl*ol "*ol ol+qr q+. ol HI¤+ +
    Nog a7l +E7l0.t7s MolE, No, N2, or9 SB bE.Y EllE rJtl(+E H2So4)g ol+oJtrf. :a + qlTl qB "J?9

    9ui"JzI? 4 o1^llE&ol Hlso6Iq o$llE4} qBr+ Eg ^JC6l.= HI+


    ol+.
    15.52 gE 400 Kql^] El-g HI*E ¤B t}+ &:7.0014.
    Br2(g) + CI2(g) : 2BrCl(g)
    CH3COOH(solv) + CH3CH2OH(solv) :
    CH3COOCH2CH3(so/v) + H2O(solv)
    gE Kql^l 3.0 L +71 +ql Br2 0.25 molr* Clz 0.s5
    400
    ^JCgol t I "-qol +u +eq tl-Ell.J
    'Go/v)',= .E-E Hl¤¤n+
    molol Eol 9148, nr2, cb, Brcl9 BB +EE 44 9"1
    qlTt?
    ¤ 9"laJ4. ss"cql^l ol +*E BB ^ol.+= 6.680lr+. a
    7l LoE7l o.z7s Mc,J o|,{le&4 3.8s Mt 91ts¤¤ rs.o r
    rss: g-g 373 Kql^1, 2NOBr(8:) ;- 2No(s) + srr(s) EBql
    +"+ +ql^l Hl*^laq. *Bql^l H 99 o[,\]le& qBol
    4ofl rr:0.a16o14. {c9 aqlzp
    +7f E6 709
    =^ll
    Le ChAtelier fla(15.7E) rs.6s EI.SE a4 tq¤ ^Iolq ¤Bg -r.EJ6ll !_zL
    rs.6r q-gE AH < OoJBB +¤¤ -r.Elql !_zI. 3No(s) : No2(g) +N2o(s)
    2SO2@)+0z(6):2So3(8) (a) sE c9 rllolEE ^l-so6I{ H}*9 mrs 4l^}6}^le.
    trl^gg 4 HEIrI 7lillg EB s'ts¤q qBTil ¤6}.9 El (b) gEE +olE HISel BB t[++ +7l6l4(E7L +i6l
    ^ll
    zl*Yzl? ?l u zlr)
    )JIC'I !
    (a) or(g)E g'JEq 7l'J+. (c) "JC gEql^l *zl9 Pq Bq+ BB g.J¤ql^l
    ^J^J
    (b) HI+ gir+3 rlg+r+. Eel +gq g6}9 Elilfl=7|?
    (c) HI*+719 +qEF dI]E,JE4. 1s.66 qleg(cH3oH)g 94IE] *r(co)e| f+(nz)9 HI¤¤ F
    (d) +,llEg'JEql 7I.J+. 6I
    "JEqdEI.
    (e) Elg^J zlzll$ flzlr|{ 4le.l dilj "J49 ?z}rlzJ4. Co(s) + 2Hz@) :- CH3oH(8r)
    (0 so:(g)E 4lql^l zll46J+.
    (a) 5¤ cE gEo+ EllolEl= ol+6}q ol HI3.E AI1E Zl
    rs.62 +g tI¤¤ rJ4oll sz}. 416}^le.
    aNHrk) + so2(8) i- gB +Eg
    NO(g) + 6 H2o(g), AfI : O) qltsgE =lqlE EIETI fl"U^j= Hl+ e
    a -904.4 kJ
    E= grjot aliz|, Lllalo| 6l+71?
    EHe BBq^l NoE +=¤g +71, *^, olul{ :Ql-E (c),ilts99 ¤B ++Eg 3lqlE r*=71 +16il "Jqg gq
    +^l6l+zl? of olfz|, 4qop a1-32|!
    (a) [ttuJE +7t^l?Jr+.
    s-=(or)¤ c+flgl,rl HI* 2 ork) 3 ozk)oll
    "+4 4l
    (b) [Hro]E rtzl\21r4.
    E^lE Esll¤+. *44 Gzltl -
    s+olL}4I^E Sdql
    (c) toJE +i^l7Jr+. -rs.oz^
    +il.J7l?
    (d) ql*ol g"l+= +rlg +irlE a"J+.
    rs.68 HI+ co(s) + Hzo(s) ;- cofls) +Hz(s)E tlEzigE
    (e) *,ll$ 7l+EI.
    (0 gEE+'JtrI. +4E "JE= ql
    ^FSg+. flgq= HI-8- Arr: -41 klol+.
    (a) fa9 BB ++Eg +ol7l f-l6il^l: rg+ ^lg 6
    q
    rlallt tsg HlAql^lel gB t+ 7}q ol
    '1-grl 4 E+b
    rs"63
    L ag
    BZI g"&g ul;liz[f (b) ol EI+E
    ^Fs-o6t4bzl-?
    .Jqg a¤6}q +^9 ¤¤ f E E 3 ?zlrl
    (a) Hl*89 4lrlt-JtrL z) i ilYzl? r++H-4.J!+ ^lS + qL 4ol Hzk)
    (b) xllrt++.
    ^JC+g ^Jdql+q6J7f?
    (c) *qE a^^laE|.
    rs.6e (a) g+sfl ts^I7I g^l-EFeilo E Ediq= H}8 r,k)
    (d) s-EE *+trt.
    (e) $ull$ zlof,Q.
    r- 2 F(s)= SE HIStzL ¤:g HI*ql7P
    (b) EJE gETt 100 K tr-4"6t8, ol HI+gl EB tiE ?zt
    1s.64 qH ,l4ld-HI+q^1, BB sElE 6.^JCEe-l Egol gE 6l+z} aiq+7|?
    E +ola+ H}+ +rlel +q= 67|^lrJ o-eal f;zlaf,4. (c) gEzI r00 K tI+6.I8 C** 4s *i kll qHIg +
    (a) HI¤¤ tsg 4aqlzt, s¤ n+C"Jzp
    E *+ k,B+ q YJ:ol +716[b7], E +7]61+7]?
    (b) +B c++ HI*4e HI¤¤ +4 8dE + + qL +ql
    El Elg Ezf= 7|zlr. o^)*71?
    ts.7o + Eb a^: gg ++E gEE tolE AHI+el +E ^J+
    7t+461q BB t+ KcTl+46Jr+.

    ?f oJ+ +41
    ts.7l trl-s ¤B HI+E 4Hlso4 qHl¤+ EF +"J +al Hlsos 1s.72 2 A(c) i- B(c) B¤q^l ¤¤ tl+ &:lolB, BB t4
    e qzllEl. ql^.] tAle+ trl= "]rl"J +rllql il=rp
    Co(s)+Cl2(s) : Cocl(s) +Cl(s) rs.73 gE 1000 Kql^l Ni +El6lql cH4el H2oE g*+3 HI+
    2s'cql^1, aHls"rl qHI+E +E ^J++ 44 t.qxrc-2& ^laEl. BrJ¤ zl;llE s.00 L ¤E+^rq Ed6}9I,
    olEI
    ol TlllE co 8.62 g, H2 2.60 8, cHa 43.0 g. H2o 48.4 g
    rzfr s-I, 9.3 x loro irl-t s-lo14.
    (a) 2s'cql^l BB t[+e.] (13 gotoJz]? es +{qq 9l+. ¤¤ql EB6}frqi1 7}a6ij1, 4¤- EJ
    (b) ++E!+
    ^JCE 6
    q! aol EB tLqlql^l trl E*ol e +q gB tL+&e+ Kp¤44 Al&6}^le.
    416l+7I? CH4k) + HzO(g) ;- CO(g) + 3 H2k)
    710 1s8 +-+ Ee

    1s.74 &E 303 Kql^-l 2.00 L9 5+4r +ql 2.00 molg SO2CI2 ts.zs e-5- lsg .Cql^l ¤¤ HI+ ZtBr(g) : Iz(g) + Br2(8:)g

    E '+flg trll, s6%el so2cl27} trl-g EISql 9all sorel ct, Ko:8.5x10-3014. IBr 0.025 atmol 2.0 L +7lql 9l
    B¤q
    =q
    + sE Eeg ++ sqe g"Itz}?
    s E6lqfl4. E+tr. Eg6J
    So2Cl2(g) : so2(g) + Clz@) rs.80 gE 60'cql^J 4g Hl+g Kp:0.0s2o1+.
    141
    ol $s.olld
    EI*E ¤e ^J+ &E al&6f^le. PH3BCl3(s) : PH3(8) + BCl3k)

    (b) ol gEql^l Hl*g BB *i KpE Zl&6}^le. &E 4l4l6}^ls-.


    (a)
    (c) 303 Koll! g6.J+g 1s.00 L *zl9l *zJ4H, +6lq= (b) gE 60'c, r.s00 Lel gql $zloll :.00 g9 pH:scl3 I
    So2Cl2E EEgg Le ChAtelier g?-lql q+ ?zlal4.E 0.0s00 99 ncl:(g)E iHfl+. PH39l BE
    ^llE Bg +
    zI. zJdaldETI? olqE 5"J6I7il +aqA=7|? $Ei $ufolzp
    (d) 303 Kql^l so2cl2 2.00 molg 1s.00 L *zl9l 'J99 rll,
    lrs.sllgE 24"Cql^l aill NH4SH= a"J Bflg EL
    glql^l zl&+ gB tI+E S6ilqb so2cl29 Eis-r} ag HI+.I gq*4. =4^rql
    ^l^*6}q,
    EqESg A{6}^le-.
    NHaSH(s) : NH3(s) + HzS(g)
    ls.7s HI* Nzk) + I Hzk) "- 2 NH3k)9 E¤ ^J+ K.9 ilg ¤¤ tlEilq^J dill "JHNH:4 urs)B 6.614 axlolr|. 24'C
    gEg ++e^l rls_r} Ag %L^lc-e HqlEl. ql^J ol g"l"Jz|?
    B¤ql 4oJ KPE
    8E(c) K.
    lrs.82l r.00 r *zl 491 sor 0.83l gg Bn, ll00 Kvl^l7l
    ^lE
    300 9.6 g6}flEl. sori rl--e.q. 7JolSoz4ortr. ts6llq9+.
    400 0.50
    2so3k) ;- 2So2(g) + oz?)
    0.058
    B¤ql^J ol *zl *9 d4 .Jqg 1.300 atmolrl. ll00 K
    500

    (a)r.9 H+ql=rt4q e
    B ql, ol Hl¤+ gg q]+.Jzt, ql^l ol Hl*gl BB tl+ Kpe+K.E al4}6}^le.
    B t}*.Jzl? 1s.83 g4 7l4lel El-e--rt eol
    aA(NO)= HlqooJ4.
    (b) ++ cql +qA e= qlgEl= ol+6}q, s.+ 4
    ^JC ^lE+ 2No(g) + Cl2(s) ;- 2NoCl(3:)
    aql^l Hl+g aH= +61^le. ol ilol (a)otl^-l9 9l
    ol
    gE Kql^l ol HISel ¤B *+ Kp:0.26o1r|. ol $E
    +r+ gil6l+7t? 700

    (c) Tlal NH3 0.02s molg 1.00 r *zl9l Br s00'cE- zl ql^-l El-g-gqlEi=E a5¤ ql+6}n, s6JEol ¤B{zl.
    g6lq ¤¤q EB6IH, NH39 +-E= gu}"Jzl? otHzl si^lal^le. ¤Bol olq+8, g'*E"l ¤¤qlEB
    6t7l +16ll
    ^JCE4 Hl¤¤ 6
    qL ag q "JEqot 6l+
    rs.zo u eEls} +olE+¤(Nor.)* 4* Hl+^lq q4 e4¤E+.
    zl zlf;|.<le.
    zNoBr(s) .- 2No(s) + BrzG)
    (a) &o : :
    0.15 atm,Pcr, 0.31 atm,Ilssl : 0.11 atm
    100'cql^] s.00 L +7lql 5q fl= BB 5-*Eol NoBr @) PNo -- O.l}atm,Psr, : 0.10atm, Ilo661 : 0.050atm
    3.22 g, NO 3.08 g, Br2 4.19 go e +{qq 9l+. (c) &o : 0.15atm,Pcr. : 0.20atm,
    (a) K.E 4l4}6f^le-. PNocr:5'10x10-3atm
    (b) g6J 7l4ql 9+ dnl "Jqg g"IoJzf? 1s.84 gE e00'cql^] El^g HI+E &:0.0108014.
    (c) NOBr9 Z7l 4"*e- 9oloJz}? CaCO3(s) .- CaO(s) + CO2(S:)
    ts'77 7wE HI* e9 r- 2 g+^=.q 0.7s
    B(s)= Lqoll ts-z}. eE 900 "C, 10.0 L +71 +q caco:. cao, co27l E
    atm9 fft zl4l AE 4l+ + 0"cql^l EBql Eg6IE+ q 9lq. ++4 ae EqlEq^l ¤Bql 5g6IHg EL
    orf,trI. ¤eql^l AE ++ oSqol 0.36 atmol$.4. CaCo:9 olol olqtr +46t4+ He+7I S
    (a) B¤9lrl 54^r +E d4l "J43 9"I"Jzt? ='7t6}Ats7l?
    AYzI?
    0) Kp Alg 9"loJz}? (a) CaCO3 15.0 g, CaO 15.0 g. CO2 4.2s g
    ?¤¤ol 44zlq+Ytl?
    (c) 9Bz,ll 6IE BE (b) CaCOa 2.50 g, CaO 25.0 g, CO2s.66 g

    rs.78 E ls.2ql qqu 4+ rJo\,300.Cql^J Nrk) + 3 H2(g) : (c) CaCO: 30.5 g, CaO 25.5 g, CO2 6.48 g

    2 NH3k) HI*E ¤B tfE rr:a.r4x l6-3olEl. ol gE rs.8s gE- 39s "6oll,11 3.00 L +71 +ql CO2 l.s0 molrl Hz t.s0
    ql^l 1.00 L +ql ++* NH3E L+r. E¤ql Eg molg -J94L] tr}.* HI*ri aol BBql EB6l94.
    =4^=.
    6l-E+ 6l*+. ¤B g*E 4ql= Nurzl t.os g Eoi il4. Co2k) + Hr(g) + Hro(8)
    (a) EB g6JE +9 Nzel Hz9 e"d.g gEfoJTp -Co(g)
    ¤B ^J+ &:o.8o2olB, ¤¤ E*E +ql 5q fl= 4
    o) +7lq Bg.JEqotg 4714"*-e- guloJzl? guI.JzI?
    (c) *zl +E d4l "J43 ts"t"Jz}?
    Eeg +E=
    +71E+ E^ll 711

    15.86 cG) + corG) ;- 2 coG)ql q+ *B ^J+ K.E 1000 K (b) 4 B¤ ++ g-qg 4&61^ls.
    7l,lle-l
    ql^l l.eol-a, Kql^l o.l33o}+.
    2e8 (c) 419 ?-4 6zlzl ¤B s6JEq^l clrel gBgql qB
    (a) Sg Kql^l
    1000 3.00 L 8zl .J9l 9lE 4eJ9 cz| g6J¤ nlaAEzI?
    zs.o 99 oltlsl +^eI Hls"oJ+E. H r+9 cozl- ^J (d) ol HI¤+ Bg EI*.1+. alE gE= +olH EB e6J
    dslEzf? Eql^J clel E$gql qq6J g6&3 ulzlfl|zf!
    0) q rBel c7l +qE)+71? u5.9llgE 458'Cql^l H2 0.t12 mol, 12 0.112 mol, Hl0.775
    (c) E 43 *zlz| tI*91 cogl +=¤3 tl mol$ eaJalg. H2, 12, Hrq BB g6JEol s.00 Lg +71
    ^i-&g+H,
    aAY7l. trl +d=7I? q Eq 9lq. 0.200 mol9 HI5 q 7I6J + BBol +^l ol
    (o EI+e gg.J7l, BE.JzI? +qAg ql, 4 EAE SB ++ oJqg +61^le.
    15.87 4lg +aql^l Niog 4¤-4 ae HI¤¤ ^l-s6l.ol q4 + lr5.e2l qH SEql^J ,I^Jq Hl+ + 2 B(c) i- 2 C(s)E B
    +se +Igg4. ^@)
    B tI+= &=0.2so14. 1.00 L HI+ +71 +q 1.00 mol
    NiO(s) + Co(s) : Ni(s) + COz(S) E +'JE cE'+fltr1q gqq| =BatqEI. ¤¤q^l s+6J
    1600 Kql^1. ol HI+E ¤B {}+ Kr:6.0x10201+. EI+ EA9 L"E(mol/L)E Ef xE *^l+trI.
    (a) EI6JE Be+ Cel ¤B .r-"EE xoll *6J ll.^19.
    -E(furnace) Lilql^] COq Eqol 1s0 torroltr, dril 'Jqol ^los
    760torr ol6lolE, +lgol .Jq+A=71? (b) E= EeE +E7l "Jel Alol 9zl 9loll Bs* x9 xll

    Elq *Bql 4t olollzl r'J^lE *g & E 3ag +E"J7p


    15.88 Le Chaterer=
    E +Ag ,ld'J + 9l+= ag 'J*+. qlE Eq ++ a
    (c) rol qlaj
    ^loE
    +4{ ¤B t:EE BB ^}+^lql qlE
    a|{ xil 4,il %}A^lg +E6l^le.
    4 cozE qlETl +lul^J, 4Is+ d0r)(rezoi)4 9,tlo} tr^ (d) (c)9 %LA^19 d.il Ba4ol4bx3 + bi + cx + d =
    (colq E3o1 olSES.Erll, Hl+43 Elg-r+ rJ+.
    0 BEll). .JHlzleE ;$i} ,JA^lg go1 frrll(closed
    Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(8) .- 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(8)
    form)9 6ll= +g + fl+. -r*l+ G)ql^l B^lflH Hl
    .JE COTI. Hlgo-e. 99 r4
    eI rJol, 19 -d*E H+l Lilq4= nlil BIA4E
    ^lqlql^14^f "*g
    Le ChAtelierg
    E+g F61l E+4+7|H^l 'JHlEla glElb ag "Jgl4. r_e sE ol+6lq
    "il= +ag + 9l+. alil %La4E
    r4
    Chatelier} trl=e-- r+'zJol 4 fl 4. ntl x44 r,J+= Aol %LA^le.l ollolrl.
    "ESd+ Hl¤+ gtlsl +^eI e {ffi .t}o1E ;gq1 (e) (d)9 rElEtr+E] A, B, cE ¤B .r-"E= +C6l-^le-
    d+ol ol+q^lxl ?*zl qlEql ae.e "J^lF]q, H}+trel (ds: 73{} ¤B r-"E= EB {t+^lql 11196ll^1, r
    aTlz +7!^latrI. g+ql^]= 30 m bol9 EI+EE "JE zlol cq.Jxl atg + 9lEI).
    H4. :1;l+ ml.4+zlE "J4Ie+ +^9 Egg rJ46l-^l g ls.e3 HllTlzf^(rH ls.ls +a)E qlqxoJ gEoJ 1200
    *eq, +d"J EB-E El+ol 4sg ¤eg F6ll, "J4Ipl ^l-F^t
    Kql^J qI+ zco2@) .- 2co(s) + oz(s)9 I(p= "+
    +4ql E6J rlsl e9 $9ol d4l HI+ql aol E+qfl I x 10-t3ol4. ullzlzf^(f, "JH r atm)zl- fululE 0.2yo
    trt p++ ¤B H4ql qel zl^lol 9*.'14H, rJ $e.l rzl-r.
    CO. t2o/o CO}3o/o OrE 6J+6ln 9l4l- ztAalE, COr9
    9d 4 ?zll4 0 e ?3 eEql EBts + glflg aol+." Hl+ql ql6il 4lE BB t4q1 :lbz}? AEql g
    9E "Jslqj^l ol HI+el ¤B t+ql qlsll olotTl6}I9l= =rl6}q
    41, coz El+ +E= +oli +EIql E61l HllTlTI^ +q co
    49 F9..Jzl-?
    +5.= aa6l+71, +7l6]P-7p s44 gsz} .Ja'J 41,
    us.8elgE 700 Kql^.1 r}-g HI+q ¤B ^J+ Kp:0.76o1r+. Pul oz" = mol %99 $zlaf.rl9.
    CCla@) ;- C(s) + zclz@) rs.e4 gE 700 Kql^1, HI* 2 Hr(s) 3 Hzk) + rr(dE cHI+
    gE 700 Kql^.1 +q 2.00 atm9 ts4 r+ EHls"gl +E d+= k/: l.8xl0-3 1l,fr s r, k,:0.063
    =4^u
    (ccl4)E Bil, ¤¤ql EB6I9+.
    ^Igs+
    rrr, s-1olcL
    c4
    (a) H+g ccLE egg gEloJTl?
    clr-e (a) 9:.700 Kql^l B¤ t+ K,q (tg goloJzl?

    o) Be tlqlql^l ccl4e+ chE 5+ "J43 gEI'JzI? (b) gE 800 Kql4 Ae HI+ql ql"ll +E tizl

    us.eolg-E 300 "cql^l Hl+ pcl3k) + c12k) i- pclsk)g ¤ kf:o.og7 M-r s-r, k,:2.6 M-rs '9 Ztg,*=+8,
    B tL+E Kp:0.0870o1E+. ol grollr.l Eq^= +q pcl3 aHI+g +gq_l7L B¤.Jzl?
    0.50 atm, Cl2 0.s0 atm, PCI5 0.20 atm9 44 iHfltrI.
    (a) Hl+ zlffi;.f$afq EBql E96t7l 916l^l dqqq
    oF t'J HI+E HJ.6J¤ AC4^le.
    712 153 trt+ Etr

    EEF "J+ E4I


    ls.es rl-g HI+ql ql+ ¤B *f r.::.sx ro-,o14. ls.ee gE 800 Kq^1. HI+Ark) qlt BB tL+
    lO q- (aq) + 2 H2O(l) ;- H4IO6-(a4) K:3.r x lo-4ol+. -2Ak)ql
    0.90s M Naloa 89 25.0 mLE 500.0 mL9 Etr #it+ (a) c**r-f 9t}*ol EF E.J +Zl HI+ol4E, 4e tr
    E, BBq^l H4ro6-el EEg +6}^le. + kfe+ k, + qL aol El ! o e. {dtolfz}?
    =
    ls.e6 EI-* EB 823 Kq^l +4¤ aol+. (b) kJ:0.27 s-'oJ ?*, 800 Kql^J ft,e.] {tg goloJzl?
    ^t-E=
    CoO(s) + Hz(g) i- K,: 67
    Co(s) + Hzo(8:) (c) El89 5Cg EqlE, CH]+ol +g HI*r+ ge HI*
    Hz(s) + Co2(s) ;- co(s) + Hzo(s) &:0.1+ 6 qe aoE qlt}q=7|?
    (a) ol B¤ Kq^lE HI* CoOlg) + (d) gE= 1000 K.E +.lH qHI* +E ft/ol +7|6f
    ^tE= ^l-&8}q 823 ^J+
    Co(g) ;- Co(s) + Cork)ql ql+ ¤B ^J+ &E 4& A=7i, A^+AYzl? k,E EEI+ k/9 Hsftr+ trl r
    6I^19_. AYzL4dbtl?
    (b) (a)Ql,qs.l Bg Eqi.ts, .J4I+ +47I r= 823 Kgl^l ls.l00 4lll.seql^l ¤B +E "Jqg ael6l-
    "lille.l
    HzE4 q 'J6I4+ sF6J +flr]l4il "J"J + ql=zl? flE+.
    =Eql^J
    (c) 2e8 Kq^l 1.00 atm9 CO(s)71Eq ilE 250 mL P (a) "lgl Hzot] iTtl Hro ^l-ole.l
    ¤Bg +4.IE
    qE gql¤ ^lr+
    ^lE+q s.00 gg coo(s)E BE4E, co Ke 4¤. r^^19.
    TlxllE +E= gultzl? o| $=oll,tl! Hl+ol S.n, ++ zI-E= olo-"a|{ 30.cq^l ol H}*q qt
    (b) Be.l {l
    coTI old zlills 4FqlE+n 7lC6JE|(r.illel +ul= B t'-+KeE {}g+6|^le_.
    +^lg + 9l+). (c) Ct} #baql^J 9¤ .l;.llz} +7le+ BB t49 41, Kp
    (d) (c)9 tl* *zl3 823 KE 7}96iq EBq olatr+ E +6f^le.
    ql+E, $ulel coo(s)7} tsof 9la=zf?
    ls.t0t qlTl +ql^l E Ezl-= +i eqlq E6J olaJ;ll (Hro)z5
    lls.eTlAHlso4 EHI*ol +'J +4 HISql e ;- B $Sol I BCg + 914. ol olql^Ie] +4lE 471 +ql^l gg a
    q. rH ls.lsql +Elf HIe| eol, +"ll: H}¤.ql^lgl d CS "Jg: qol+ &dBlg Bdql^J +s6J aoe ^84
    HI+q qtl*g gdsl qlq^l= *+E qg"J ++. EEt.
    Arrhenius ol+6}q +rl] Hlg.r+ ul+oli HI+ (a) vSEPRolEg ol+6fq g olBille.l +4= rZlq, ts
    ^l(14.sa)g
    9 BB ^JfzI A¤¤ ?E6I^le_. rlE zI¤¤ dd"e s^l6l-^19.
    z| zJ

    Us.eslSorq tlEE= +¤-rgr+ AEl.


    Ell6J (b) E9 olElal ¤cq^J= qE ¤+E +zIrJ tlol *¤
    (a) tlE-Etr+rl sor14 .- soz(g) HI+E qlgq HElql 6l-=zI?

    "J i flEz}? rI+ ¤


    qlql +Eg (c) 300 Ke* 3s0 Ke.l Tlrltlql^J E ol6J4l ¤Cq
    (b) 100.cel0.cql^.] ol Hl+E g¤ r'-+E 4l4}6}^le-. ¤ ^J+ Kpy 7+4 0.0s0, 0.020014. E .lllgl Bdg
    (c) :a941 gqql^l ,l4lt}4
    "q8ltr-^l.lE ¤B tI+ 4lt} B9 +*elzt, Bg HIS.JrP
    3 9l tszlL.*zf? ls.l02 dlE=sHl(Hb)g E+E B.-q +ql^] or= eHI6JEI. 4
    (d) so,(8)= rHq s^lg,r'il zll9 *g^q d 6 qe dql Hb* azf e.l oz tszte} A6J6J+. oz ddJ EI+E EB ^J+
    ol* 7l4ql TltL 7lvlsAF-gG 6l+7f? E C.J qE.3eHlql^lE4 EIoiE 6IE=EHlql^J q r
    ^J
    (e) sozk)E,t'ii zll9 Se4 e + qL dql^l oltrdql^.]
    +. -dlE=EBJ9 &a-49 ++g E96l+ ql flq, ^JEt
    ,ItI H.q+4 AE6}ETI? q4-=g 6IIE=EHIE so%z| {as ss}g ullE t}^E
    *94 gq +E $qg g"lalE pso ^l+E ^l-s+trI. qlo| ollEl-+
    102
    gxtE HIE Pso 1e torroltr. C.J 6llE=sHl3 26.8 torr
    o4i{l
    ol+. ol
    ^l+= ol+6l.q, qloHl^lE ++._q ++ aoz@)
    a ^IEE
    10
    + Hb(aq);- [Hu(oJr(aq)]91 4,tL K.7] ^J "Jql^]9 <]4
    E ulna|{ 9ot4 ri +C6}^le_.
    =^l
    ilr
    6n
    7li{l

    10- 1 a

    0 100 200 300


    EEfC)
    A-d dzlErll 713

    T6J ¤4I +4I


    ololeEs+ +iE ^JCdlTl +l+ +^e+
    ololeB9 HI$3 taZt (b) Beer Bzl(^l r4.s)g 6I'J g4ql rle ¤+ 4l+
    ^l-&+qH
    9 Beer B4g ¤B6171 9El
    ^l-*qflq(rB
    l4.s). I2E -H-+
    4oln, urq urE f4oloe, 7l^l%1.d ts++g ^l+6}q HI (c) 600 Kql^l ¤B ^J+= aAolzl 9l+ dHg 7l+6}^ls.
    ¤¤ E.qq6J + 9lE+. 300 Kql^J, Hz(s) + rz(g) : zHr(g) (d) E 8.4e1 a!} qlgul$ ^l-Sqq. ol HI*el HI+ qlBi{g
    HI+E ¤¤ *+E K, :7e40]|q.49 Ezll9l B-6171 96]1, + o-e +6I^19-.
    =^lzl
    4, ololeB, olole-Esi +A, FE tI* *zl, ,I^l+d e"JAl (e) (d)91,<Jq Bql E 41, ooo Kql^Jq K,zl300 Kql^J

    "l8E H+++g ol+g+ 914-r. zlCafx}. B+= 4e-e, =Z6lq


    o;qg zI9 4o-e {t9*zt?
    (a)E*41tr
    "lB zl4l9 5E= drll E.qq6J+ ?t=71?
    I
    I

    I
    /
    t
    I\
    ifi
    V,.F b..
    L-
    '$
    .-t
    L
    L.
    -1
    n
    7 \q

    ;q
    I
    7
    JI
    lt r!
    \
    \

    I
    {
    !
    I )

    I
    af
    IT
    b-
    b- \ h"

    \
    E
    I ) I
    I
    T
    16.1 Arrhenius +lrl g7l oldq tsl¤.
    Arrhenius &-Bzl 4elql Ell.ll trlg
    q E^l.. te Eql^J +^ olg +EE
    +71^l7lb s]*Eoll, EzlE Eoll,tJ
    f&s] olg *EE +71^lzl: E+6JE
    ol+.

    16.2 Bronsted-Lowry ttll E7l Bronsted-

    A[_Ol'rl
    l..j
    E{5{
    I OO
    Lowry 4I3 olCz| izlloll,
    JlEr q+"J += + p+or+g 4^I-4
    Bronsted-
    towry ¤zlE o}{x| $zllolr1. oldzl

    =t. $zl ej(conjugate acid-base pair)ol4


    ll6}tL

    16.3 Eel xlill olEEl. Eg xlxll ol$$tr


    tlrl g7l= t-dd01=6r ?t= Etrorr1. ?-E+or a-d
    ielE H3o+e+ oH- olgg ^Jc+
    ^1got.-i
    (fg ^r",tg +. Eel ^fal olgclql qie BB dL
    L|]= EEo I H lE +Etlal 0 l^=-H..ll(H f 0 I El-,J c) 0 I rl. 16.1 ).
    + K*: [H3O+][OH-]oln, ol +
    ^lg
    +.4q1^J HrO*eI oH-E *.Eql 4.J
    t}++alE ael6J+.
    .tI4 Hzli slEql^J oli fe¤I Eeolr g4 zlzl ,JH9E +4
    16.4 pH il pH ite ++"-lel &e4 gzl
    el .Jt^Jgql ¤o}.3 tlr+ ¤zlb *42[ E= .]q E= +4U+. +d +"-qE pHb 7. &
    =+.
    + +EAg 6Jd6i= ql ^l-sq= olulrL&. +d dEE zla6r=
    ^].Ei+q]
    d +E9 pHE 7tr4 zli1, gTlC +
    g4IrI ?ol CEZl"ll^J ol+ 6s6J .qiE r..Jrt. e4}r.l- EJ& 99 puE 7l.+ ar+.
    ^lE ,g*al ?JE7l &4 ¤zlE rldsl]erl
    I az14 $zlxJloll,tl 9lulzlE gE rll ^l-S6l+ Krebs ole(rlee 16.5
    Ed6lde +E6J + 9l+. 'Jtlq rJ.
    tI Eltr+rE +s_)q +q6J+. E.6J t}-g7l qi+e &g +C, el g7l= rld6il4oltrl. trI4^l ++"-4ql
    ql+ zl]ts, +Ar+ +flg {el z}zl tso}el qlrJ +E gE¤ E6J6l] E+ olg9+6lz+ iilEg'|. E4FI
    ^l
    qgg 6ll sr+. elgz)b Ed6Heol+. trI+^l ++"-q
    ^l c4 ^tq= ¤c6l+ f,q-¤I
    ril
    ql^l "J+e"J olg+g+.
    &4- ¤zl9 g6}9 -r. a"6g1uj otq"+ oJql zl+¤+. E+ql r
    EI= ++ +^= q Aq= rlzJ, $Lzle) 4EE ^JBg + 16.6 Et Eq^J E&el 6il?_l= sB ^J+
    ^7+ol
    E9 +4, El q+q 44 +e= E &e -E¤q= B¤ 4dolj1, &e+
    716171 9l6J +71 +ql^] +6l] El E4I *99 puE 4l4I"J + ?l+.
    e, +?.19 ^JBg +z16r= HI$ 4s$s E+ +.-4E &sut gzl 16.7 EgTl Eql^l elgzl9 6114= EB tl
    Eql 14 4i+g+. ol tlql^J &cg qBal +c6l+zle+ &r+ g + &.a.E¤q= ¤B r+Coln, Ke-a
    719 HI+ol 5s.ql qBrll 9+61+zlE z[,(la] ¤9ee1l a3q. Bel e+9zl 899 puE 4l4I"J + 9l
    olpl z.s¤91^J tlE EEHI+ a.:dglrl HH zJtd &-Ezl eI* 4.
    I a4o19r1. ol Alql^l= 4l4 ¤zlE +E6l+ %|84 r +Ag 16.8 I(,91 I(r9.1 !/l X, x fr: I("J t**
    4le+El ,J+4ioJ+E, r 4gzlE E
    +B6I: EJBq El]4q z}^116l ¤tl-H-Eln +4. +ae+ aq+ 6IE+:.agg+91tr1.
    "l ++ ¤¤ +dql^J +Fl Ezl9 qcg =61
    ulE6[e]jr.6J+.
    16.9 E E'-{elt-E7ldE 7l^*C "lg A
    B slqlEel o|$$ Bronsted-Lowry
    golufflzlz[¤+91+.
    16.10 ll-g7l 715r]-iftrl +E slEi +4eI
    t}-¤zl A+ ^IolE t++Al= gq
    84.
    16.11 Lewis ?j4 E7l 7l*"JHlzl.J 4I-g
    ,lE 49'J Lewis,ll-$zl AqE g
    EEtrI. Lewis &3 dzPlr E1lolr,
    < ,.ElB eaJl^|. ellE EE al"J0il= 4ts qaj Tlxl Eol ?l Lewis flzli {xffi izllolQ.
    tL, q.,sarsmis/Shulterstock =E-d'"t= ^lol

    715
    >rB 16.1 + 7l^l +7lt!:
    euf(c6H8o7)l[ 01,17u5 ^lE
    (CeHeOe)

    tr
    HO
    til
    H-C-C-OH
    lo
    lil
    HO_C-C-OH
    H

    lo
    I

    lil
    H-C_C-OH toH
    HO
    I

    H
    /.lEa{i 0f4-7_rrtl

    16.1 | Arrhenius llzf "J7l


    dE s++9 azl 4eLxl¤*,tI4 ¤zlE -r. +E-6J 5{ql II}1}^J +86}9+. {}
    .t1q19q
    e t",tg zlzlt_, qtr gEE 49 Esl^l7lzls. ¤14. HlBql Ezli +*4 "1174+ c
    d9 zlrl4(Hl+7} =69 qlol+). base4E +q='=q44+'+= 9"19 aql gqE+El
    ]?4a}94(olzlE debase= qE 7l^18 gqrl4+4= g"lE .rl-e"op. 114). EzlE 4I
    9l zlatB, &9 "Jg'+i'^l7J + 91trI. ¤ziltr-tI4 ¤zl=q¤ HlgE 4leE, tI4 ¤zl
    9 Cdol l.f
    rlelzlzll 94,:
    (+ :¤).
    ls3eulzfzl|'s= 4}ol +iE.trE|6IzlEJ, +48 EEI6I+ EE Eeol t}g olLl4.'4
    aol e gel4 919+. tssoH4oil slqrzl Svante Arrhenius(t8sg-rszz)Y *
    =
    g ++Eql^J u* ol99 ^JC6l+ Eetr, ¤zlE ++Eql^l oH- olgg
    ^9llHIE
    ^Jc6I= Ee
    .E CE6rgEl. +H q Arrheniusel .tI-Hzl 7fl'ig trIs-l} ?ol d46J + 9l+.
    .4}(acid)e Eql +or^l n* olg9 +E= +71^lvl+ Eeolq.
    . Hzl$ase)i Eql +oI^J oH- ol.-sl LoEE +71^171= Edol+.

    Eql ql+ g +6ilq= gEI +i Tlill= Arrhenius,tlel + {lol4. olag Eql +ot^J r}
    ¤.4 zJol H*4 cl olgg BC6I7I trllEol+.
    HCI(g) !8' u*(aq) + cl-(aq) t16.11

    HCI ++Eg H&(hydrochloric acid)o.tr. gzl4 9l+. 11+ g.tlel t:E= Ar+ss E
    37o/oola D Mo)r+.
    +&el Arrhenius Hzlol4. NaoHt olg aql El.6JEolTl qlEq Eq +oI^J
    ^Eg
    Na*$ 611- ol$9E 6flalql1, oH- olgE *E= +71^lvJr+.

    A Arrhenius tlrl-g7l= Esldl.ts tll 6g-.J F 0lEP +1?]7t?

    1 6.2 | Bronsted-Lowry t3l "J7 I

    Arrhenius &-g7l Tl]Hg +++ HlEql .J4l= 7l1jLl.:. a[{z} ++.]ql"J 4+9tr}E
    7',|.6
    16.2 I Br@nsted-Lowry &zl g7l 717

    1o14. tsz:uJgl 'JI"Iz pI4zI.J |ohannes Bronsted(187g-tstz)* ¤49 slelzt.J


    Thomas Lowry(r8t4-rs:0)b ?+4 q "JEl4.J Ezl CelE ,ll^16}*.+. lEg
    ,I.Ee &-g7l H}+ql^j= n* ol&ol + Eeq^l ^}4+= Ees olE++= ol rgoll^.1 Edo+ E-dE Ert
    ^l¤ql = 2J EA +E?l7l?
    ,l++. ol AqE EEI g oloflalzl +l"]]^l= Eql^J s* ol$9 !f,$ grlg Es_21-

    9ltrl-.

    E +E H* ol8
    HCle Eql^J olg46rq H*el cl-= ¤C6J+r gE ^J4g + 9l+. +r olge
    } -*tn.
    +zl oJd6l-= 7l^)Y zle gzr, + fl7171dzl¤ z*zl ?*E oj{z}apuj B + H+.
    u* ol93 E +zI9 &A ?lzlql gl= Ela,* dz].,d.zlH +g dzl. "JE= ,*y 43 ["-:' '-:-1.
    LHH
    r+ rJ6I4 tl]r 4¤¤ g + gl+. qE oJCzt= E E Ie+ tllt z}+6lq alot=e Hsoz*
    =q
    E olt(hydronium ion, s:O*(aq))9 ¤CqI4.
    +
    H++i o -H -------)
    I

    H
    [,,-i-] J. .{,
    +
    I +
    +
    [16.21
    Y. +
    Q'
    --------)
    L,,
    '. , a
    a

    ololcgE. olgg +A aq}


    ull$ql E+ql^-l
    ¤cg E6H E tsztq +714"8 tla 4eoa3 i g)zl
    H* olg9 4$$ +*6I+ * (rr.2¤). qE Eq H:o+ ol{}g :
    #*
    zle ¤4 E +z}e+ aEl6}q Hsoz*4 Hron*e| ?* ol¤.9 eC++(ral 16.2).
    p}44-53 & +Eg 5ag +4.11= +slg "Jdzl-E s¤6i71 gl"ll u*(rq)e+ HH.
    nro*(aq)4E .ETlBg -E+
    ^l¤:6Jtri.
    +4u a4 rJol, zJ$ap
    xll4t}4 a1 ro.roll Y
    ¤El6[7] q]Eq n*bq)4t rJ zli E7]6]zlE], H:O*(aq)4-L s.7l6l+. {ol cl {zll I

    tr
    4121144.
    H
    o#Jal tg "Jt H
    Eq uctg +dl^l7l= H}+ql^l Hct EzlE u* olg(oJdzD¤ E EzlE dB++. H O+*
    IrI4^l ol Els"g +¤-4 aol HCt EzIq E sz} gqq^l 6|olcg5
    ^Iolq El*ol arH 16.2 +slE 610lEets ol
    olg4 ¤sl olg_g ¤c6l= aes +4'3 + 9l'I. 8E -EErl Lewis 74
    =-EtH
    HCI(g) + H2O(/) -------> Cl-(aq) + HrO+(aq) U6.31

    :ci-u + 'o-H -------J ai +


    -o- Hl.
    I

    t"
    I

    H H

    c+ a, o c E7t
    --) +

    ^t
    al t0.:9 HI+ql= olCx} f{(proton donor)9] HCl4 "}Czt $z}(proton acceptor)
    9l urozt +q++. "JCzl izll"tlrl "JCzl Ezl].E "JCzlzI dBgtrl= {ol Bronsted-
    Lowry &-¤zl zll'd9 4dol4.
    718 168 U ETt E-d

    . Bronsted-Lowry tf &(acid)9 += EAql oolCzl-= += Ed(Ez[4 ol8)o14.


    . Bronsted-Lowry Ezl Bzl6ase)i oJ,!21-5- E= EAolr+.
    l4oe. Eql HClg +6ll^17lE(^l 16.3), HClg Bronsted-Lowry &(Eoll oldzl-3 i4)
    oll, H2oE Bronsted-Lowry Ez1(HclE+El gtczl-= B=trt)ol+. olrfl H2o tszt.:: o
    flzl9 F HIAE] dzlld. + 6[+ql oJdzl-E'4a3.\]zlE', oJdz] ErliE q6Jg ++.
    z}aa}E ag
    Bronsted-Lowry zlluJoll,{ "JCz} dBolzl qlEql, ++e4ol otu H}*ql
    s ol zH.d¤ 4+g + gl+. qlE TliI tlql"J HClr+ NH,9 HI*q^l "Jdzt= &
    HCltr+El g7l NH3-+. olEq}+.
    =q

    :CI-H
    H
    + :N-H _) I

    Cl: +
    trl
    "-T-"
    |
    +

    [16.4]

    LH-]
    I I

    e lt!
    +H,
    G?l
    d, I
    -------)
    o +
    l{.
    "JHIel4 dedE +E +Er+ #4 zl7 EEql Eq.6J E(r=J 16.3)¤: +
    , ^8zlE
    Hclrl NHr9 zl;ll H}8_qtr ¤cg
    _tr -aill NH4Clol+.
    olzll Arrhenius
    &-¤71 AEel Bronsted-Lowry &-Ezl C9 ^IolE +alE
    ullalf +-q ql-q-e-Er+ ae ¤¤¤. r*= "JEqo[ ++E-= ¤.qEz].
    NH3(a4) + H2O(/) -- NHn*(aq) + OH-(aq) t16.sl
    drl
    d, I I
    l

    I
    oJr-qo1=- H2o-e,+El
    "Jtzl¤ Ezl rllE9l Bronsted-Lowry ¤zlol-2, E* E
    q1;.'1 oH-(a4) t.EE Z'71^)vl7\ ullEoll Arrhenius SzlolQ.

    &(?z[)4 Bz](Rzfl)ts +t] +41 z]+6]q *Cz[E ol5^lA+.


    7F*'\
    - gel g-.[8, o.J Eeo] EzlE z++{E tr]= Eeg &ss z]+6J+. Bronsted-
    I
    Lowry tol 94E Ezl4 olgg u" olgg ql* + 9l= +4 gzl-= EELoll
    .r.B t6.B H6t(s)rt NHs(c)9 EJBetr E¤ of oJ+. Bronsted-Lowry Ezlzl ElqE EzI4 olgg u* olg4 e*g + 9l
    E NH4cl(s)eiE+ ulAB dznlg zlzlt_ golot.J4.
    =
    qtr Ee3 .J HISql^J t9 qgg 6}r, s += HI*ql^J: g7l9 Egg ++. ql
    E 5q H2o= HClr+ H]+(^l 16.3)6J qlql= Bronsted-Lowry Ezloll, NHrq HIA(^I
    t0.s)B qlqlE Bronsted-Lowry {}ol4. &ol4 Ezle 4+g + il= EAg gi++l gidri
    C(amphiprotic) Edol4l .J+. "J+C *CzlC Eeg zldtr+ ,Jd &4 El;-g qlql
    gTls zl3.o6}I, 7.I4lBr+ zJ'* Ezle+ Hlsoal qql= &9E zleoql+.
    =
    g7l=

    P
    trtB EE9 8U30ll,\l Bronsted-Lowry o1t- ToJ)l?

    H2S(aq) + CH.NH2(ag) : HS (aq) + CH.NH3+(aq)

    ,El^l-,Blo{71
    -ru -rE-lo ^^l
    E= &-g7l ¤¤ql^l= c++(9.EE_ e_tr)r+ q+-&(g+9-tr)ql E+ olczl dgol *
    q.J4. qlE Eq HA-tr. E^l6J 4Ir+ Eq HI¤¤ ¤qE^I.
    16.2 Bronsted-Lowry ||rl E7l 719

    HA(aq) + HzO(/) ;- A-(aq) + H3O+(aq) [16.6]

    AHI*ql^l Hr{= H2oql *Czl¤ r4EE HA= Bronsted-Lowry &o17, H2o=


    Bronsted-Lowry Ez1ol4.
    =+.
    qHI+ql^J H3o+ o1¤+ o
    olgql oJ^JzI= +E-tr., H3o*=
    4loln A gzlol4. 4I Hezl "JCzl-= +E HA= A- olgol qjr gTlE 4s-o6J+. trl
    =
    $zl\e-H2o7l ¤zlE ++6tE H2o= H3o+z| q-n &e--tr, 4+Eltrl.
    HAe+ A
    ^]H
    r
    tzl oJCxl9 fi Tyiol tr|= r]], &r+ ¤zlE Eu-ffi71$(conjugate
    acid-basepair)olep++.- E= &g "JCzl-= S3 stEzl(conjugatebase)E 7l1l+. ql
    Eq oH-= Hzo9 4}g7lolr, A-= HAg qrgzlol4. ul$tlzltr-, E= g7l= E7l
    = Eftt(conjugate acid)S 7l4Ll. rel]^J H:o*E Hzo9 4&
    "ll "Jdzl¤ ?zlaH 9"lzl=
    oll, HAi e-9 el^iol4.
    -E= &-g7l('JCxI dB) HI*q^l F zl]9 4$-4Bzl %lg *g + 914. q= 5q
    o|{-i!(HNor4 Eg H}¤¤ ¤Eltrz}.
    H+ xllzl

    HNO2(aq) + H2O(l) i- NOt(aq) + HsO+(nq) 116.7)


    tj cJltl fllcq r I fiI/\l

    H+ E7I

    uffizlzlE, NH:el Hzo9 HI*(^l 16.s)E rls- r+ e+.


    H+ tszl

    NH3(aq) + H2O(l)-- NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq) t16.81


    Gll t [[/\t urcq7l

    tt+ rllzl

    qH 16.1
    E$Il. EcJilE qt"J
    (a)HCIO+, HzS, PH++. HCO.-o;stgTl= +qoJ7l?
    (b)CN-, So+2-. H2o, HCo3-el Att!8 +qoJ7l.?

    +r
    EC
    "{l tc > H6qF{1
    sq +qrl 4 AIE 4821, zl Ezlq 4}4ig += E8lol4. rtg ¤¤ Hi¤¤ gEjE L
    4tg 4 E¤9 qrgzl= +zl r E4ql^] "JCzl + Zl= mnE
    ;- Sonz-1aq) + H2O(l)
    HSO| (a4) + OH-(aq)

    qa, 4 EaE 4L4Ig r Eeql "JCzt + rH= q4H ¤+. ol H}*ql^l t}etr. zI¤-61+ ag?

    .ffisi
    (a) HSO4-e+ OH- (b) HSO4 I UrO

    (a) HClOrollr..l o.tdzt aJ


    ,]]= EnnH ClOn-zl ¤4. 4"lxl +r
    (c) oH eI son' sol (d) el Hzo
    (e) ol Hl+ql^] &ee 4ga1E ae fl+.
    ¤zlE Hs-, PH3, CO32 0l+.
    (b) cN ql 'Jdzt sl z}]E Elal-E HcNol ¤4. *"lzl 4+} > H* qlxll2
    I usou-, Hro+, H2coroltl. {zl9l^l ts&+i olg trl-g 4 EAel 4+E pls+lg rlle.
    (Hcor-)S "J+C olCzl4olq^1, 41o1t-] Szl-e 4g. HSO3-, F-, PO43-, CO

    e+ el+.
    *conjugate +q= "t}ge EL4 +q qr}."+= 9"lol4.
    720 16Lf g7t E-d
    ^t
    tt9 q'J6lrll !S,
    "J+ 4lt-4lHzl Bronsted-Lowry &4 Ezl91 4* Hl+^l("JCzI
    dB Hls")g Sa6I= 43 "lHzl 9*4.
    qBl 16.2
    "J^Jxl tg Eg4 rrl
    0 l-EJ^}+^ 0 l8(HSo3 -)e g+d gid^|.do lrl..
    (a) HSos-elEq UA4= & le. olttl| 0l 013¤ toltl.
    (b) HSO3-el=el U3^1= l 0ltttl 0l 0lEe g7l0ltl. 0l + HJ30ll^1 qtt-4tg7l 8= EJoJ6l.^19.
    ^19.

    rllS 4 Hrsor1449o14.
    E9 F HI+49 90}4ts 4,o14. L
    E+1 *J fltel Hso3-el > .Ee.= slfil1
    Hrll Hl+q^l HSO3-= Eql "Jczl= +!.E, Bronsted- oJ+ol+d ol$(H2Poa-)g oJ,."rztdol4. rl+ Hl
    "J+^d
    Lowry 4}ola, F Hrll H}+ql^] HSo3-= Eql^l 'Jdzl-= + + ol olgol gzltr +e"6r= a3?
    Ee-I,E Brsnsted-Lowry 9zlg ++*tri. 4 H}+qld 4 (i) u3O+(aq) + H}PO4 @il : H3POa(aq) + H2O(I)

    4I-49 7l rlg q"J6l+ x"l 4. (ii) H3O+(a4) + arOfi-(aq) : H2PO4 (aq) + HzO(l)

    g0l (iii) H3POa(a4) + HPO42-(ad : 2H2POa @q)


    (a) itrJ 0) ir+ ii (c) ir+ iii (d) iie+ iii (e) i, ii, iii E+
    (a) HSO3-(a4) + H2O(l) -- SO.z-1aq) + H3O+(aq)
    ol H}gql^.1 4%Lg usor-(4})sl sor2-121¤zl), Hro(Hzl) > s* qlril2
    el nro*12149o14. 4l+ rlE(Li,o)ol Eql +dlqtr, o'?-e+ EE HlsoeE +
    (b) HSo3 (a4) + H2o(/) : H2So3(aq) + oH-(aq)
    aqg gTlCol g+. ol HI*^lg r^, z}4l-4¤zl ttg 4
    ol +gql^J a}}dlg Hro(4})q ou-121-97l), HSo3-(g7l) oJ6l^19.

    tr.f oJ7
    |sl .rJcfl
    {ol rllz I

    qE te += &Etrl "JCzl-E q HzlE += grltr+ "Jd{-= q + *


    * +iL,9H
    "JC4-E 4l+6I=:-qql q4 &g +g6IE, oJ EAol
    ol-=oJ+. .JC4-E dZl rll+9+
    +, :aEE7l= "JCzl-= 4 ¤ Bol¤olzl **+= a9.J + 9lr}. olel Hl*6}7ll + g
    zlz| oJ{2ffi-dzll Bol¤.J++, r 4&g "}czl-E rJ + LI+zl *6J+. +^l "J6}8, 4}
    ol ,J6J+E, :r 4¤zlE E6izlr, Ezlzl rlg++ r 44Is EaI{+. tr}4^J + t}9 .J
    dz} xll* t.qg .JE, : +I9 e}¤zl.l 4el "JCzl-= tsol-=olE :'qg "J + 9l+.
    4IE ^ll7le+: qrgzlg ^ll7l ^IolE q+41=:aJ 16.4oil +EI4*+. Eql^JE 45ql
    trl+ 4I4 ¤zlE rrll +Fs +h*+.
    ^,ll
    1. z].l|(strong acid)g,t19 "JCzl¤ Sa6IAI EE dB6liz, +"-qql= 9+g E
    "l]?-lEl7l
    zlzl r'tA *=4 ,. - (4.3¤). ,J4Ie] 4¤zlE ++".lql^l +^lg {EE "J
    =4161-zl
    czl_= *ol¤ol= a6}ol gl+(r}4le_l 4BzlE +^lE 4Eel ¤zls= 7ld+).
    2. *4i(weak acid)9 'J++"J Eql^J 6]]4El:z, ++Eql^J 4l Ez|e+ *o199 E6JEE
    E4IE 4EzlE EE+q ttdzl-= udllgt= :.qg Szf, zl,.l:L 9i+(E^Iel
    =zH.J+.
    49zli *Hzlol4).
    3.+^lEl4E9 {}E(negligible acidity)= 7l7lY EeE +AE r*j1 9le+, Eql^-l 4}
    9 ECg ++qlzl= *6JE|. rzl+ t $EzlY rJgTlE^J, E4 $d6l El+6lol
    oH- olgg Bc6J+(+^1tr 4E9 4IE= 4xl= Eee_l 4gzl:. zj$zlolc|).
    u,o*(aq)q oH-(aq) oleg 44 ++"-4ql^l ¤e ^Jqle + gl= 7l* ?t* *
    =7}]g
    4 zl* zlxj fizlzl ¤ + 9l+. q ,JqI &e E!} EI¤.6Iq H3o*(aq) olgg $c6}J, q
    16.2 | Bronsted-Lowry t|rlETl 721

    Eql02- o|8E E7l6l'8, olE USol "eo1-JtiY?


    tt E7l
    HCI cl cl-
    ) l^l H2S04 7l HSO4- El l5l IJEOI oqllE
    ol
    HNO3 Nos-
    H3O+(aq) 7l
    ^ll Hzo
    HSO4- 4 So+2-
    7l H2PO4-
    H3PO4
    HF F-
    cH3cooH cH3coo-
    olll H2C03 HCO3- L orezt
    --..1 | -o'l
    -!
    HzS HS-
    H2PO4- HPO42-
    NH+* NH3
    HC03- tol Cog2-
    HPq2_ Por3-
    Hzo 7l
    ^11
    oH-
    oH- 6', G_
    +^l-* EEg ttE H2 7l H_ 7l@a I

    CH+ CHa-

    ArH 16.4 EE Etl-Eg7l 89 8tt|4 4 8e] + e^=P F B0ll bJqE LlEo|.fitl


    ^1171 ^1e

    ,J6J g7l= Er+ EI¤-6iq oH-(aq) olgg ^JCEI+. olag S=+ En-|(leveling effect)4
    r ++.

    A HCtOaTtatolE. CtOa-9 E)lE= ?Xo+ E+61.=7[?

    oordztdB Ei¤+ + q7l7l oJdzl-= ^lE *ol¤ol: t}q4 *qsE al+¤+r ^84
    g + 91tri. qE 5q & uezl Eql +6ll¤ oll "Jcztz} dBq= r+ag gEltr4.
    HA(aq) + H2o(l) ;- H3o+(aq) + A-(aq) [16.9]
    zJ¤zl4B, H20= HA-E+q oJ
    "JE AHI+qlrl ¤zl.J lts.2c71HAel 4g71tl e-ur1
    czFE lDll"lot Hso*q A-E ¤cg 4,o14. a aal ¤¤g sEE- e-E olEg 1o14. ol
    4Ag Eql^J ,J&q ECS +qU+. elE Eq HClg Eql +6H6IE, +"le 49 EF
    H3O*e+ 61- ol$eE +cElll, +^lB aEE HCt EZI"J B=+.
    HCI(5) + H2o(l) ----- HsO+(aq) + Cl-(aq) [16.10]

    H2O= Cl--E-tr} +t;J ETlo)7] 'llEql(:zB 16.4), H2O= "JczlE fl6l.q 6lolEEb ol
    Sol ¤4. ol HI¤-g Sd6l _qg+es d$gzl trIEql, 4 ro.rooll,rl BBg 444i ol
    sl¤sz} olq4 e_E+ %r-lE srJs-e E^I6IS.+.
    =!
    A-71H2O-H-E}
    'JoJ ¤zl"J 'il, B¤e.
    g+ss olE.J+. olfl ^JEle. uez| oJ41g 611

    gqtq. q= 5q o[,r]lE& ++"lg +E cH3cooH tsz]E +dqr, $xl $ql{qe


    4e: oJg H3o*e+ cH3coo olgol fzllof,Q.
    CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) ;- H3O+(aq) + CH3COO-(aq) [16.11]

    CH3Coo-= H2o-tr+ zl+ SzlolsE.(rH 16.4), dHlgo-H-4 9e}*ol +;-l6t+.


    ol;loJ 9lEegq, +4= trIgl} zJol EE$ zlg + 9l+. .urE +l-9zl H}-&q^1ts .J
    4zlzl zj4!ofl,r] *q7lL dgqq E4l+ e+gzlE ¤c6l+ %l-Jee s¤ol 4fl94.
    722 163 "J:-J
    ^t-g7l
    qF{ 16.3
    oJtxl tg BEgl *rJ qE
    ttBel gdxl E'J HJ30ll 1 ral 16.4= 0l86[q Eeol g+(l(" < 1)o+ d-"JEl=^|, gE.f(/(" > 1)o+ C:dE]=^l= q|*6|-119.
    HSOa-(aq) + CQZ-(aq) i- SO42-(aq) + HCO3 (aq)

    6113

    E^1^JC+g Cad+ e_E3-_q-q ¤¤ol tl49=4, E= +q qI*4E 4I uson-cl Hco, *gl,<l rl zJt tlGsoa-)
    Hl¤¤g daa13 g+e-s ¤E'l +149=xl= ql+61= ol "JCzl-= rll+i1, q "+aJ 4}(Hco.-;o1 olCzl¤ :r.ql_E
    Exlloltrt. zlzla !lr|. q-+^l "JczITI r}&q^l Bq4^l zlgzl9l d
    olEod4.
    Itq ol HI¤ie "JczI dg H}+olr, + g7l +ql^J q ,J6J "Jq= %r-.Jes ¤¤ol
    SeE oj{z}7t Agq= gqE gra}s_e dBE 4o14. ol > .5d6 qlril
    1

    H13^lql^l F ¤zlE 4H1*ql^l co:,-$ Hso4-el {szl rH 16.48 ol+6}q ++ HI¤¤ & Aol ,l* 42 4+
    t son2-o14. qL aol EJ ad gzl.JzlE zH ro.+9l,rl 4 zl* +^lqlE +gBJ Ag?
    =
    ol + gzlej tql4 +lzltr q.Jg+ 91u}. (i) CH3CooH(aq)+HS-(aq) : CH3Coo (aq)+r{rS@q)
    (ii) F-(aq) + NHa+(aq) ;- HF(a4) + NH3(a4)
    E0l (iii)H2CQ@q) + Cl- (aq) ;- HCof (aq) + Hcr(aq)
    :r.H 16.4E eE+ qq ol4oll col- o]8ol flxlofE-tr, (a)i < ii < iii (b)ii < i < iii (c)iii < i < ii
    (d)ii < iii < i (e)iii < ii < i
    So42--H-4 Co3z-zl q ,J'* 9zlol4. ].ell! cor2-= olC
    zlE gq^l HCO3-71 qr., HItrq Son2-E q19g:.QlE > E= qlrll2
    trl-g 4 HI+ql 46Iq rg 16.48 ole"6|{ B¤ol g+e
    B=4. a 4+, ¤Ee. ^Jd+g CE6l+ s=5- eE d68
    +tr}(+ K" > l). -E, olqE s=.4_ e_E tlqqtszlE ql=6}^ls.
    (a)HPO4z-(aq) + H2O(l) i- H2POa(aq) + oH-(aq)
    HSOa-(a4) + COr2-(aq) Sgrz-1,,q) + HCO3 (a4) I(. >
    @)NHa+(a4) + OH-(aq) ;-
    1
    ElgTl NH3(a4) + H2O(/)
    tt E)l - 4tt

    16.3 | EE afdl o!$El


    E9 zlat +,c'* s+o}4 dA +9 6I+8, a+q q+^J Bronsted-Lo*ry 4}ol4
    EzlE z}+eq= 4.o14. &ol ?l= a+ql Eg oJ^"iz| tszl] 9Bg at
    Bronsted-Lowry
    a-, E7)719= a+q Eg oJczl izH 989 oJrf.
    ^[d, E E4+ += E Ez]ql
    oJ oJ

    dxl¤ + 9lr}.
    =
    H2O(l) + HzO(/) ;- OH-(a4) + H3O+(aq) tr6.r2)

    :o-H + :6-H i- :o:-


    tt +
    H
    I

    HH r-i-l.

    ol r+Cg
    *
    '=*j
    llt
    +
    0-a
    G?l
    6, I
    +
    G
    EE r]ill 0lpil(autoionization)z[l aJr[.
    zl r0. rz9 aHl*r} EHI*e o19 uule.z] tl6JqE.E, qq* E ezlE e*E.J olgal
    tlqE g+=trL dgql^l qE a+qlE loezll $z| +E E + ,l]q tszi"J olgpl
    =^1]6rz1
    g+. EI4^.1 +++ Eg 49 l-+ H2o gzlEtrJ ol+qa.r., oI+ E+6J {zl {rx1o1
    16.3 ol8el 723
    =g ^f^11

    4. rHqlE E+6Ir. +gql^.1 "J i 9lFol E9 zizll olSElL olf iealQ

    Eq ol+E
    Eg zlill olgp+E ¤¤ t[+^]e +s-4 ?+.
    &: [H3O+][OH-] [16.13]

    ++6J n^lle+ .-qallel +E= .JC6I7] ql+ql ,,," (15.43_), [uro] 6]g ¤B t]+^lql^l ,ll
    e.l^la+. ol ¤¤ ^J+^.le Eel z|41 olgslql lol=e, ¤B tI+= &tr E 4t
    =E6l
    ,'.la|-r. 3E olEEi g*(ion-product constan0+r 6Jr+. 25"Cql^J K,= 1.0 x 10-t4ol4.
    tr}4^J
    K,: x 10-14 (25'Cq^)
    [H3O+][OH-] :
    [16.14] 1.0

    ++g oJczl¤ H*(oq)*H3o+(aq)tr't44zl qlEql E9 zlill olgg+ HlSe +s-4


    zJol ¤ + 9l+.

    Hzo(l) ;- H+(aq) + oH-(aq) [16.1s]


    uftzl-zl-+, K,= H3O*+ H*e .S¤e-+ 9r, qL a+ql+ Kr= ag alg zlt}4.
    K*: [H3O+][OH-] : [H+][OH-] : 1.0 x r0-t+ (25'Cql^]) [16.16]

    ol¤B t}+^lr}2s"cql^Jel K*1Iz +4 +9-6171 trIEql zl$o11o1pr1.


    [u*]: [ou-1.1 +Eg 6C(neutral)ol4r e+. 4++9 +Eql^]E H"e] oH-E +
    E= gzl g*4. ol E +9 6J olg9 Lo E7l *zlaJi* 4E Eo EE zJ^ap, o1g
    "ls9
    +9 &g x 10-1471gr+(:l=J 16.5). [H+] > [oH-19 +eqg &C(acidic)ol+a 6}J,
    1.0

    [oH-]> [s"]oJ +"-qg Szl{(basic)"1+n oJ+.

    :laol 6ilul.eE4e.l
    o|.all +trlB cd6[q ga EEa tdoJ7l., ed?]7|., E
    )ldil7l? ^lEg,J8

    try q,/\t +tl+


    HCI(aq)
    NaOH(a4)

    t't^{.slol
    uo 6- oo o- E'tolA{ -Clofl
    04 7
    o-
    =lsloll
    lH+l> [oH-l [H+]: [oH-] lH+l< [on-]
    lH*lloH I : 1.0 x 10-14 1u+11oH I : 1.0 x 10-14 tH*ltoH-l :1.ox1o-14
    rB 16.5 25'C +to-4011,t1 U*91OH-e-l 8tfl4oJ -!'E

    qH
    F
    16.4
    ++rr gel [H.] Alt
    .Coil^l + -
    25 6:d +E.-4 el [H ]e[ [O H ]el'JE Zllb l-^ le.

    Ttlff
    E4 2s'Cql^] +C +EE H*ei oH- olgel :-"E$ !l$ 4lEl
    ^l
    ro.ro4 Agq 96rq, +^d +.4q1^J [H+]= [on ]
    6h= E4lol+. ql ag ol+oJ4.
    724 168 EE
    ^J-g7t

    Eot +C +.+ql^l [H*]s+ toH-1E ** x4t- a[x[. :+] rt. ol *99 [oH-]{}"-r
    Ee (a) 1.0 x 1O-8M (b) 1.0 x 10-7M (c) 1.0 x 1O-6M

    : 1a; r.o x to-2u (e) 1.0 x 1o-eM


    [H+][oH-] (x)(x) = 1.0 x 10-14
    x2: !.0 x 10-14 > .H.* qril2
    x: 1.0 x tO-7M: [H+] : [OH-] zs.coll,rl q-gE 4 olg E"E5 7I4= +olol 6c.Jzl,
    &C +Eq^] [H*]= 1.0 x t0-7 MHq =-r, gTlC +'-4ql +IC .Jxl, g 7l c "Jal E "J:.t^l s.
    t.o x 1o-7MB+ +4. (a)[H*] :4xLo-eM O)[oH-] :txto-7M
    ^l [H*]= (c)[OH-] :1x 1O-13M
    > E= qlr{I1
    2s.cql^-l q¤ tlC *99 [H*]zt toH-1tr4 looull l

    zl iool
    ro.
    ="1
    f-e. qi ol+= +++ Er+ EE ++"-qq EF 4so oJ 9lzl ullEol4. f
    ul-$ u*(a4)4 ou-(aq)9 ¤Bol +'l Lll 4E ol959l 96Iq g'&g tszl"J, E +r
    Efl ol+ Aq+ Ar+= 3-+6}zl ?+= El, olel+ olg E4= +^l6J+ 9l+. ul+^l ^l
    16.169 -E= Bg ++Eql El.'"+dlq, [oH-]E "J a+q [H*]= 4l&6]4+, [u*]= .J
    a+ql ton-15 4l&6|= qlq g + 9+.
    ^pe"

    qHl 16.s
    loH-l-e.+El [H*l4lt
    trt8oll^l H*(aq)9 zl^l6l.^le. (4[oH-]71-o.o1o MoJ E.-4, (b)[oH-]71-1.8 x 10-e M?.!EE
    =E=
    rtgel E= E^1lql,\l Etre flEol fleE, 8Ets 25'c0lrl.
    dz: o; E^llef

    TtlH
    E4 +&EI ol99 EE g A+ql +"lql^l [H*]= zl4] xlq Eq olgr+ql ql6J BB 0l+61
    ^J+^lr+ K, Ag
    Eo
    ^I8l
    6l+ E4lol+. q 4 4'J bEE Ahl6J+.

    E0l
    (a) rl ro.r09 ol+6}q +$g e=+ [H+][oH-] :1.0x10-14
    r,,*r
    1,, r
    _ (1.0 x 10-14)
    _ r.%i8-,- : 1.0 x to_tzM
    [OH_]

    [oH-] > [H+]ol7l trllEql ol ¤:93 9zlcol4.

    (1.0 x 1o-r4) _ t.ox to-'_4 :


    G) ol a+ql rrri-_
    tH*t
    tOH-] 1.gx10-e
    5.6 x lo_6M

    [H+] > [oH-]olzl ullE9l ol +"-q3 t]dol4.

    > s* qFll1 > !d.= qH 2


    qtr +.-qq^] [oH-]:4.0 x ro-8lrol4. ol +.-49 [H*] q-gql^l oH-(aq)9 r-oE= 4l4}6l^le.
    TLOo
    lAET (a) [H*] :2 x tO-6 M (b) [H*] : [OH-]
    (a)2.Sxl0-8M (b)+.oxl0-8M (c)2.sx to-7 M (c) [H*]: zoo x [OH-]
    (d)z.s x Lo-6 M (e)4.0 x Lo-6 M
    16.4 pH
    '/J 725

    ro.4 I pH ZI
    ++e4ql^l H* (oq)A sbE= trE o[+ +trt. ¤Et] [s*]E _H_f, pH-e. Ee6]q
    ^h&6]
    olag [u*]9 E; rooJ e:<lgl ¤.+= +lt 1o14..
    =Ell,
    pH : -log[H+] U6.t7)
    rEI+E
    ^l-8+ 5+
    + A= +adt4.
    q1z1f re.aollrl EB.Fol, 2s"cql^J +c ++"-qel [u*]:1.0 x 10-7 uol4. al ro.rz9

    2s"cql^J +C ++"-4el pHE 4l&aH trxl.


    ^l-S6Iq
    pH : -log(1.0 x rO-7; : -(-7.00) :7.oo
    -H-F pHE 4+ Eall zlt)lfzl s^leq. olag .Erllg +61+ ql so E9
    +E +
    ^FS*
    zltl * xle]olzJ q$ol+. fl4 LoE 1.0 x 10-7 Mel +E *zlzl f x[;]olu +, pH 7}g
    4+ + xI4(z.oo)olr}.
    &col zj$ffi, =-lH")7l67tg++ +Ee-l pn= olB4l E6l+7t? 4 rc.v
    +.-qel
    ql^l *E +EE zlzlutr, [H*]z] ?ztg++ puts,Jat4. q= Eq 6+dl &g trJ
    zi4q "JE [H*]:1.0 x ro-3lr?l +"-qel pHi. r|q=4 rJ4.
    pH : -log(1.0 x 10-3) : -(-3.00) : 3.00
    2s.Coll^l &C +qel pH= 7.0084 44.

    .J +"lql Ell6l.q al re.rog


    ^]-s6l.q [H*]E 44]g f qll, ^.1 16.179,(1-ga[{ pHE
    al&B + et+.
    K* 1..0 x 10-14 :
    x
    IH*] 5.0 7O-12M
    [oH-] 2.0 x 10-3
    pH : -log(5.0 x 10-12; : 11.30

    2s"cql^l Bzlc *99 pHE 7.00-E_4


    =4. [H+] , [oH ]4 ps9 +4lE E 16.1q1 -gE
    5Ifl+.

    A Eo-*or Ber pH ilE 7rtr + o,J,,fttrJq'r 7*6trt*, ogg"1e1 pH= ETrdE Lr.EILrl

    LtEfLH=71-?
    | =rL ^ldE

    zt+ 9l= a+olzlEl, [u*]z] o]+ 4]e a+= rr] +s6]zl *+j1 7J+6J f ll4. :
    44 ol4,ol *g ae olq+. "*g p+E 4col E"E EqI9 ulgl el=6l-71 ullEol4. qlE E
    q +E Bzl"l [H*]gl Ell4q "Jz]q]*"18, Ezl H* EoETI 1x10 7 tvt4l/.]zxto-'M
    E + Hll H6llE HI+ +E= + H]]E ugeJ{lr} ,,:, (14.3¤). 4lql^l *g ++ol "J ^j$o+
    dx} dBg E¤'6Ij1 gl]1, r HI+ +E* [H*]91 E=++. ol H]+ +E: o[f fea[z]

    x.16.1 2s'Cq^1t,^J,6^d,971,8 soEe.l


    [H*], [OH-], pH {!41
    ,\t,\l
    uo oo Gll/\{
    o, to
    =.,\l

    pH < 7.00 7.00 > 7.00

    [u*](u) > 1.ox lo 7


    1.ox ro 7
    < r.ox ro 7

    toH-11v) < r.ox lo 7


    l.ox 10 7
    > l.ox lo 7

    *H*(aq)4 H3o*(4q)= eg aolos, pHE -log[H3o*]E sTlg + ?l+.


    726 168 t g7t 8-d

    ullEql ol+ +e Hgql^l r?zl9"lot ql+. qE^l qlrJgl e.-49 4


    ^JEE +illE pH=
    t pHzl 7.3sql^l 7.4solq. e"-4E pHz| o1 4e H+lE {q+E S4+ +3 +E 9lt}.
    ql4l 16.6
    lH+la+e.l pH 4lt
    qlxJl 16.5011^l dB-d F Eqql EH6tq pH il= zltr'61^le.

    6il9 #E pHE 4l4}ql +ql, ol {tg z"lgql qltl6J fia} ul:zo3


    s+1 olEl aru5J [H*]ql qi6]q ++EE pH= al4]61+ E + 9l+. ol a+q pH:6r+ s ^lolql 9l+. 4l4I¤ pHe+ ql
    .r]e 4=8, al^Ig +^l 614+ qlt'-g 4^l 617l
    ^JoJ Ztol
    xlloltrI.

    flFl 16:79= pHE 4l4I6J+. +, olqE ol f zlzl$ s+ +^l zl&olloF tJ4.


    ^l ^l-S6Iq
    ¤01 > !d+ qlrll1
    (a) I qq^l [H*]= 1.0 x r0-"Mol+. tr]+^'l
    Hxll zs'cgl,H q¤ +EE [oH-]:6.7xto-3ltol4. ol +E
    pH : -log(1.0 x 10-12) : -(-12.00) : tZ.oo 9 pHE gl,toJzl?
    1.0 x 10-129 +g. +zI= + 44ol7l qEql, -r. pHE (a) 0.83 (b)2.2 (c)2.t7 (d) 11.83 (e) 12

    F zI4oJ tz.oool4. > .H5 qlr1l2


    ^+
    (b) + drll +"-qql^l [H*] =s.6 x 10-6 Mol+. 414]9 6[71 (a) ellEi^ ,tlsE [H*]:3.8 x to-n rtaol4. pHE 9u]
    d9l, pHE +Ad BzI. ol a+q [H*]= I x 10-6+ oJTl?
    I x lo-s
    ^Iolql
    glEl. u14,q pHz| 6.0+ s.0
    ^lolql
    gl (b) trE +El+ ai +"-qel [oH-]:
    ^l-8:61-=
    l.e x 10-6
    g aeg q^Jg+. rl ro.rz9 pHE 4ltlt4. Moltrt. 2s"Cq^l pH: gEltTI?
    ^FS6lq
    pH : -lo9(5.6 x rO-6; : 5.25

    pOHel cLE'p' ilE


    -logE trlE 3+g oJ9 zzlE s'¤61* EJI f+6|+. olE oJ(quantiry)el -logE'p'E E
    d6|zlE 6|zl. nt{^J oH- +Eql qlql o&g poHE s.B6J + 9ltl.
    poH : -log[oH-] [16.18]
    uftlzlzlE, P/GE -log rc*e] z;cy.
    EE ¤¤ t}+4e r,: [H+][oH-]E "JEql -logE +16]H,

    -log[H+]+ (-log[OH-]) : -logK* [16.19]

    EEI q-q-r+ ae +++ +4lE eg + 9l+.


    (2s'Cql^J)
    pH + poH : 14.00
    116.20l

    ¤q zizl +.-qq pHq poH9 {}9 =a 16.6"t1 +4qfl4. [H.]E l6ull Se].tlzlH, pu
    ttrJ+ H+tr}. q4^l pnz| soJ +.lE H* toEE pHzl-6?J A"-qq H+ r-oE!-+ t0Ell
    =
    d6r+.

    A Eq49 poHzl 3.000lalE, 0lE-{sl pHE EoloJzl? 0l E"-43 td?]71', ezltroJ7l?

    qHl 16.7
    poH3".*EJ [H+] aru

    +ld6tzl trJ= poHE 0.240 lr[.


    *]= alttdt tlg.
    1 [u
    ^fnl+Ae]
    16.4 pH Zi 727

    EtlT +E +zlE + alelqot *+.


    E4 poHtr$fl [H*]= 4l&61+ ETllol+. #tr pHz[ 3.0r+ 4.0 ,<[olo]zl ull+q [H*]= I .0x l0-3 M
    Alq
    ^l
    rc.204 pH+poH:1a.009
    ^l=&6}q
    poH-E$rl 4 r.ox r0-4 M ^Flql flg 4o14. zh}¤ {}e ol qtlg
    pHE zl&*E|. rqa +^] 16.t7= ^l-s6rq H+E r-oE H+l .Jql 914.
    ^l
    AhIotH ¤4. > !il6 qH 1
    = q¤ +.-qg pou:
    Eol (a)^l 16.20o-tr+q 2s"cql^.] 10.s3ol+. El-g + ag?
    ^I^J.J
    pH : 14.00 -pOH 0 ol *93 &Col+.
    pH : 14.00 -tO.24 : 3.76 (iil ol *q49 pH: t4.oo - to.s3ol+.
    16,179 (iii; o1 3*, [oH-] : lo-r0.53 Mol+.
    ^l ^l-&6IH
    : -log[H*]:
    PH 3.zo (a) Ezl ai4"Jol
    ^l-.gol4.
    4 (b) (ilr+ (ii)z|,t14o1q.
    log[H+] : -3'76 (c) (il4 (iii)o1 .'.14o111.

    [H*]E 4l.t]6]71 9.16l]^l -3.76e1 antilogE Zl+]oll"t E]4. (d) (iile+ (iii)o1 ,<igo14.
    r+q¤4}+ 4ltzlE antilog 7lb(ullulle 10'E= INV log (e) E.E {ol ,t}:jolQ.
    -e s.7lqq flgJg zlzl:z !lr|. > HEqW2
    [H+] : antilog (-3.76): 10-376 : 1.7 x LO-4M zll&zll el gg +6l]^la +E9 poH= 4.8201+. olull
    fet pH9 i+d ol6t *^l7l + x[{fo]zl 4lE9l ts*19 [H*]E ah]6]^1e..

    .t//
    Ea47]trlef allE4a 6ql^J {}¤01 q Asi Ae?
    lH+l (M) pH POH IOH-I (M)
    1 (1x100)

    ?ttf 1 x 10-1

    EilE+4

    #
    )l ',:::
    Eat,
    4T
    EolE
    ^ln

    E4lEl--_ 5.0 9.0 1 x 10-e


    Hl

    atael-- 1x1o-6 6.0 8.0 1 x 10-8


    oo_
    m lxlo 7
    7.0 7.0 1.x1.0-7 /\td
    =-

    1 x 10*8 8.0 6.0 1 x 10-6 --HtaE


    6/\l
    1,, e

    461+

    TlEB gfsLlol
    zfLA].Q
    too EHHT]I
    s-"!l

    + ff
    pH*pOH=14

    tH+ltoH-l = 1x10-14
    arB 16.6 25"Cql^l H 7l^l gHJ4oJ Etrg H*q OH-elEiE "l pHe[ pOH'J
    728 166f t gTlE:d

    E
    pH +¤
    'f
    +"19 pHb pH ulH(pH meter)-E +d.'J f
    94(=e 16.7). ol zlzl4 4E fl4E ol
    L]-= d7l ElqlE zl^lol ge6}+. 7J+61 g6IE, pH Elq=
    611617l fldH^l= 20+q^l

    L..- I 1 "J4gE 4Eq zle d.Jg +ac + 9l= ++q ¤ag 6J t}g d+eE +c9q
    9lq. a+g +Eq B:E pH91 44 H6l+ d.Jol ts{aJq. ol d"Je pu Egle +t
    ArH 16.7 r.l^lEJ pH 0lE1 E=¤ &qq elg + el+.
    ^]-Sg+. t-g
    Esqoil =JrE pHoil qal q-E tr"J
    ul* a=,=$ 4+6}zl ?+otE, pHE ¤da|b Ell t-gzl xl^lEol
    0lg8-srtl'. 7l zl^lEg 4I e4+ ¤zl B4.llrl EE_qI 49 zlzlE Eeol+. r4^l zl^lEg *
    gdumhyu/Shutterstock
    @ Rattiya
    3 pHe| *9 pH9l,<l ^itr += 49 ztt14. zl^lEol 9H pHollrl 4ol H6l+zl= .JH,
    Th0n

    .sqol ol atr+ t3 s= ** pHE zlzlizlf,i a4g + 91trt. ql= Eq 4=o].ts pH


    7 r4ol H,*4. rq+ 49 Hslr} rel H+6lzl= g+. Sg4 4EtrllE pH
    =^lql^l
    7l qlq s ol6l"J ag e-ltrl6}r., +¤4 4trI}14= pHTI ql+ 8 ol^JoJ 49 9olaJ4.
    q¤ 50il^1 E-ei &d?l 4.zlzl "JHI4q_t zl^lEg:ls 16.8q +41Ifl+. qlE Eq EllE qlE= pH 4.5-6.0
    ^t^lE
    Eo-qrl E-sr ETld?!Es4= +E H+lql^l a4ol BaJ4. pH 4.5 olafoll,rl| 4I ¤qlolr Bg4ol+. 4.s-6.0
    ^Plql^l=
    6lE tll 7fB Elgel rtS?
    dzt4 "E L+At Ezl B4-e Ht+. puzl e ol^J slH HgPI SAqr, +"-qg r.
    *4ol ¤4. 4g /ilE, Heltqg B+, qltssg4"J zl^lEg 4 Hsl¤ fal 16.eql

    't0
    o +4,llS+. 44 zizl zl.tlo|.$ flel tol Elolozt ql+4.J pu il$ A46|= q g4
    ^l=&g+.

    e
    pH=
    Eiltss=JziloJE ts7t6|q + 4el EEol EE_401 ElflrtE, 0l Es{g pHql cHatq olE
    7JA-q rHl= ,A Ol-qnt/)
    Ue-l -r
    AP//Il
    =eE

    4 Hitoll r4E pH E9
    ql=J ellE
    02 468 10 72 t4
    Dll=J ut0lg11
    (methyl violet) 'u !{+
    U.f '=, ,il
    C?,O
    LI=
    =T taJ trl=J
    (thymol blue)

    {m
    pH=
    0ll= edlrl
    (methyl orange)
    I Hnt)l
    =o
    Lal

    7
    s4
    J 0il= 4lE
    (methyl red)
    u++elE EF
    aBl)
    eo
    I
    -
    Lal

    LZI E+EJ
    (bromthymol blue)
    t:eqelE EF
    I
    t
    trll=s=JeilE -9,(Hl
    l
    (phenolphthalein)

    "Jal^El gtr?
    (alizarin yellow R)
    R Lat
    ilEa
    I 10
    2'
    pH= are 16.8 g,J4?l t-g7l xl^lEE pH HPI tll+.=9
    ^l^lEe
    rl]* 2 pH 'J?lsl Egl= Tl.Tltl
    7 4
    5
    I
    16.s | ,Jtal ,J9lzl
    Ell=E=JEiloJ

    afH 16.9 rlS:d pH ,Joll,tl^il ++.-4E slqle +.-49 pH91


    =zll 9=6J+.
    tr|+^J +.19 pHzI 4Ft ¤zl9 *se+
    71.^l gEJ4?.! tl-E7l q$rll ¤+!q irls+6}= 4e ol+ +s6I+. 7it[ ,J++ 41zl
    flEzl= **4 rt
    gSEs{= ^l^lqt=
    ¤zlE _*.6}6t= *._4o14. ,J^F+ zlgzlE +aqql^l 44 E+71ol$ee. ,J
    =46l+
    16.5 I a||4 3e7l 729

    dafl{(strong electrollte)ol+. Hll.4 izl 4? "JHi4e ,J4I4 zJEzlE e a.zoll 4s1


    91trI.

    Tl^,l
    Ol-
    ,It['JH]zl.J Tzlzl zt42 67izl
    "JoJCx].1!(HCl, HBr, HI, HNo3, HClo3, Hclo4)r] 6]
    4g oloJcxtl}(H,sor)o14. e&(HNo3)g "J.Jcztt}g 'llE4.J tlol4. EE d+4oJ
    +4q^J HNor9 ++Eg $d6l H:O*el- NO3- ols-se +cg+.
    Not(4q) ($d olg3tD
    HNo3(aq)+Hzo(/) .----- Hso*(aq) + 176.2t)
    ol tsJ¤+ $d6l e_E4eEtrJ dq47l qlEql, ol
    ^lq^l= ¤Bg Lt4.ll= ElgsE ^I
    *
    +6tzl SgttrI,a..' (4. I ¤). zJl 16. 3 Aql ^l fl+6t$;o1, u3o ( aq)4 u* (aq)= ^l-&6}q E
    q^l +slg "JtxlE +4.J + ?lrf. trI4^l tel olgg+ HI¤¤ rJ+6I41 trlgr+ aol s
    BEItrl.
    HNO3(a4) H*(aq) + NO3 (aq)
    ,J&E ++._qql^J=, 4lol BF ?g -u* olgE 4lsozlol+.. I d4 [u*]E 4]g a
    7l bEcl zJzl ullE9l ,J6J oJoJCzI+I9 pHE ule 4ltlB + 9l+. el= Eq 0.20 M
    uNo:(aq) +..4q1^l [u*]: [No:-] :0.20 Mol+. 4ll6.6eql^J ¤Ha]9*ol, ol*Cz]t]
    QJ ursoro3 A++ t*ol rl ffialQ.

    ql4l 16.8
    ,Jt to{E pH alt!
    o.o40 M HCIO4 Eo-qol pHE EnloJzl?

    6ll'J > .u.5 qF{ 1

    Eq "J llq HClo4=z}4lolE?, Sd6l olg+qq q-e. d TIzl +"jg pH tlol zle a+q 4E +^ls
    +96}^ls.
    =
    [H*] = [CtOr-1=0.040 Mo]q.
    (il o.zoM HClo3 (iil o.oo:oM HNo3 (i0 r.so M HCI
    E0l
    (a)i < ii <iii O)ii < i < iii (c)iii < i < ii
    pH:-log(0.040):1.40 (d)ii < iii < i (e)iii < ii < i
    aE [H*]b I x 10-2 Mr] t x r}-t M,tl-ololl llzl Ql$oll > H= qlr{ 2
    pHE 2.041.0 fl+. 4l&g pH ilg ol qtl¤ H+l
    .Jq flq. H+ol^Flq
    t"E9 +iL*471i zlelolue, pHE HNo3 ++ol9 pHE 234o1q. ol &el bs.E gut?lztz
    ++e oletrl + ^Izlol+.

    'fJ7l
    ,ItI gHl4.J 7l-SC 'tE7lY NaoH, KoHe+ ?e .JA4 #+4, sr(ou)rq +g + trJ
    +ze gar-l E++el olgd +4IE+E"]+. ol 3ul6J+==g ++.lqd sa6l +6lqq
    olgol grt. r4^J 0.30 Mg NaoHE EEI6I+ +"-qg 0.30 Mq Na*(a4)e| 0.30 ME
    oH (aq)$ s.6Jd+. aH4qzl 9*3Naou==^l]6}zl ?+=+.

    A 0.001 M NaoH Eo4lf 0.001 M Ba(oH)z

    *o1E :-oE7I 10-6M 016}0lB, H2oql^l


    8.4 60ll,11 pHTf tri

    .lgElqq s7l= H* ol¤¤ J.q6llol 6JE+.


    tsg ,ig?

    tr=; Hroq^J ol3+Elq rJTl= H*


    olgE r-" E: +^l* + ?lr+.
    730 163 t-g7l ge

    qH 16.e
    r ?#?14 pH 4lt
    (a)0.028 rVI NaOH E"4, (b)0.0011 M Ca(OH)z E-49 pHE gDl?l7l?

    stlS tr14^l +qE oH (aq) soEE 2x(O.OOrr,U):


    ^JC-J+.
    Eq + zlfizl *99 puE 4l&alE Ezllol+. 0.w22 Mo\q.

    4E! 4E" * + 7l^1 ,.LH9.E. pHE 4l&ts + 9l+. A4l, *B t:


    ^l
    16.169
    ^l-s4q [H*]E 414i6]r., ^i
    16.179 rfe"o[{ pH
    1H.1 : !9 tJ4 : 4.55 x to-12 M
    4l.tl6J+. q-g gSe.eE toH-lE poHE Zl : :
    = ^l-*4q pH -1og(4.55 x 10-12) 11.34
    4I6Ia, al r0.zo9 pHE Zl,t}*4.
    ^l-4"6I{ Blril r.
    d ll ..
    E0l
    pOH : -log(O.oo22) : 2.66
    (a) NaoHE Eq +ol^l Elq4* t zl]9 oH- olgg ^JC pH : 14.00 - pOH : 11.34
    ++. trI4^.1 *gg oH- EoEE ^l* NaOHg bE"J
    0.028 Mol4. > .H.5 qF{ 1

    *E t: q-g- TIzl +"_qg pH ilol 4e a+q a9 +^ls


    ^ll
    +96l^le_.
    =
    tr.t : 1'%#a: 3.57 x 1o-13M
    (il o.o:o sa(oH), (iil o.o+o M KoH (iii) 34t3 =
    : : ^l
    (a)i<ii<iii O)ii<i<iii (c)iii<i<ii
    pH -log(3.57 x 10-13; 12.45
    (d)ii < iii < i (e)iii < ii < i
    olB z:
    > s= qlrll2
    poH:-log(0.028):r.55 (a) pHzl rr.89oJ KoH +o-qq LoEel, (b) pHzI ll.6soJ
    pH: 14.00 -pOH: L2.45
    ca(oH)z +"-qel r-"E= g"l"Jzl?
    (b) ca(ou)zE Eql +I^l EIE+^I'* F z]]9 oH- ol¤+

    El+ "JrJel ++e_l g5 f4lffiol ,JdEleolzlE ai+, LioH, RboH, csoHE dE


    dq^J zl+ ?+=r+. q +4+ .J+?.1 E++E +4lq¤.J ca(oH)2, sr(ou)r,
    ^l-8-6|zl=
    sa(oFr)r.E rJd6HAol+. rq+ ol f.lfi|$E=e +6lE7I 4l6Jqq 9lq^J, +6llE7I r
    zl $olE q= A+q
    ^Fe"*+.
    zlgzlY E* ErI E}86ll^l oH-(aq)E ^JC6l+ Ede-7q gg +E 9,14. "1fl 3*
    9 4Y E"l 4lffiol4. 561 Nazoe| caoel zJ* ol3d ++ 4I+Eg zt$zltl gs'*
    +tlql^l 4+ ^]-S*+. 02 E E4 HI*6Iq gg6lq oH-= ^Jd6Ia, +Eql= oz-71
    6I+E Bzl g*ts4.
    o'-(aq) + H2o(/) toH-(aq) 176.221
    - L9 +.-49
    tr|+^J 0.010 mol$ Nazo(s)E ++q} Eql +q 1.0 :0.020 M
    "JEE [oH-]
    ol Elr pHE rz.:ool g+.

    A cH3- or3g cH4or ElgTrorn, cH4E Eoir^j .ttoret= 6z7r.gtEr-. cH3-e[Esr u8oil
    | ** EE EJBI= r ^te.

    16.6 | o-Ft
    ,fl+Eq tlc Eeg E4}olr, {zl $5-gu3 ++.lq^l olg3r}¤E}(fal rc.10). olgat
    Hi¤_q ql+ ¤B d-+4g ol+6}q e+4}ol ol$s+q= AEE s.BB + 9l+. "Jtg rm
    16.6 qFd 731.

    A_ HA < rH 16.t0 etlrl e+ttgl 4"4


    A_ olt=xtl6t= E|-E=E

    F
    c o co
    e o
    B
    t o
    qt
    B, t
    HA(aq) + H2O(l) -----> HA(aq) + H2O(/)
    =
    A-(aq) + HrO+(a4)
    A-(aq) + HsO+(aq)

    2 tlt Et!
    HA E^I7I HA E^t7t
    $E6l6llalE+ +E4op 6flalEq,

    s g,r.lop., +3rlg oJ^.lzl¤ H:o+(aq)q H"(aq)tr_ E^l6tE, q+4 eol oJ4 %L6Jql E}l

    t "l$El Hi-&{g + + 9l+.


    HA(aq) + H2o(r) 3 gr9+(4q) + A- (aq) 1t6.23)
    EL

    ;- H+(aq) + A-(aq)
    HA(aq) 116.24l
    ol *lBg ++Eql^l "Jq+Es, ]-oE_E s,¤g ¤B tl-+^l¤l + gltrt. E9 Srl]ol
    ^l-&6J
    zl qEql ¤B tl+^lq],rl z{el,rlzl + 9l+. "", (rs.4¤). rlqol otell 4^l a= &
    ^l-+6}q
    (acid)9 olgElq q{} B¤ t}+E +E}U+. tr}e}^l BB t}+^lg tr|q=+ ?Jo1# + 9+.

    . :_ [Hgo*][A-]E= /(, : rH+ltA-l


    x, -1nfi -IHA--- lt6.2sl

    &= t! AH tFi(acid dissociation constant)4l t4.


    E 16.2q q4 E&E +a4, q Be ++9 E4Ig ++
    at¤zle+ K,lh+= +¤6ls.r,
    Dql +E6I9trI. *e ="F9 E4Ig +4, +^, ta-+. +Cg #zl slEl-Eol4. ol sltJ
    5=ql= E5 +4 flxlu| gzt.ll aBg +4 flzt7} ?14. Ba flzl9l aql¤ +^
    SzlE Eql^l zl9 .l$p}!zl
    ^Ia ?*e-q, {l^ g^Iql aEI¤ +^ g4ql 96li t}C CAg
    tstr|
    Ka+ a7l= gq^l +Iol olga}q= a6&g 9"laJ4. + K,akol 4}el +
    =++ ^ll7l7|
    4++. q= -E 16.2q1 +g+ 4I +q^l olga4}(Hclor)ol 7tt ,J6J &olr, qlE
    (uocuuu;o1 =q
    zI* sF* tol4. EtlE K,*e qlzll to-2-t0-10olt|

    Ltg-d ri- 7,Ed,* E q, E&il^i tdoJ +47t zElEror fl= aE4e fl


    A o1t-E 16.20il
    ?i!)t?
    I o=
    pHE+E1 K,4lt
    EtlE & ,JolLl-puE 4l4}ai7l +16l]^l ls.saql^l ¤B+ {4 ztzl EBql +t E4E
    ++ %[HE¤ o]+g aolE]. 'fl++g E&e & &ol z]zl ull+9l, E4= tfa]4 Ezl
    732 161| C gTtE:d

    x. '16.2 2s c -E-ql4el ol Tlrl oJt


    II}GrI
    +I =x,(l* -o, I K.,

    otga&(Hclo2) H-O-Cl-O clo2- 1.0 x l0-2


    H-F F 6.8x10'
    =+sfls++i,tI(HF)
    o[!.ll(HNoJ H-O-N:O Noz- 4.5 x t0-4

    da&(cuHrcooH) H_o_ c6Hscoo 6.3 x lo-s

    o H
    il
    o|,qle,t}(CH3CooH) H-o-C -C-H I
    CHJCOO 1.8 x 10-5
    I
    H
    610lsgi4I(Hoct) H-O-Cl ocl 3.0x10 "

    ^IoloJF++i,iI(HCN)
    H-C-N CN_ 4.9 x 10-10

    qlE.(HOC6Hs) H-O c6Hso- 1.3 x l0-r0

    .olgF+q= oJC^l= -Sg^q o e s^l6l9Et.

    fl6l.q olfl 4l4lg 6l+ E"Jql "JdzI dB t}Sol .JHI4ee ,I]+ EBis
    =^l-= ^FS*LI. r A4 E4IE A+, +4+ pH E= 4ltJ pHE 6Jt ¤¤ tlql
    += ag 9olo} oJ+.
    E ++dtrf.

    trr qH 16.10
    // a.atal pHESEi K,4lt
    El +801 tsE7[ 0.10 MoJ Et(HcooHE 25"C0ll^l pHE *8al. t]Ll, r. il01 2.3801flt[. 0l eEql^l K,=
    zl{16l-^le.
    =Hl6ln =t9

    r}l*
    .=4 E+ +*.qE 5]-o Ee+ pHE g.z, ol 4}el & <Ig 4l E tsltq1.t] ¤go.J Be E^lle} olf $.t.].olc|. 9l4l ts.s.il
    .t}6k Exllol4. d4l,* a H4l %LHg EI+ HI+g +a6rjr.
    ^l_8:6}q, = =
    7l tEe+ ¤¤ +E= +e trJ=q, ol EzllE 84.
    IH E+q olgelq qtJ ag T= aolTl= 6tLl, ol Erql

    EUI
    E.= ¤B Exil= + qq= +d B¤ EI+E HI+4g
    zfC+Ei. s^Lq olgE+= rl-o_$ zjol + + 9l+. HCOOH(a4) ;- H+(aq) + HCOO-(aq)

    l-H+ll'HCOO-l
    oltrll ¤B ^J+^lg trls=4 e+ ^'- [HCooH]

    *4* pH-e.PEl q¤.rl rJol [u*]E al&g + 91tr] pH:-log[H*] :2.38


    log[H+] : -2.38
    [H+] : 10-238 : 4.2 x lO-3M
    16.6 qF|t 733

    ¤Bql^l 4 Ede-l *.EE +6l] ts-zl aTlql HCooH HCOOH(aq) ;^ H+(aq) + HCOO (44)

    +"_4el bETI0.10Molr, HCooH= ol$ala|{ H+ 871EiE(M) 0.10 0 0


    e+ HCoo 7i g+. +"-qql^l 449 HCooH EzI=
    5E E+(n4 -4.2 x 1.0-3 +4.2 x lO-3 +4.2 x lO-3
    olge+6iq H* olg qI zl]e+ HCoo- olg 6J r}]=
    ^JC EE 5E(M) (o.io- +.zxto-31 4.2x7o-3 I +.zxto-3
    oJ4. pH +4AeE+El ¤¤ql^l [H*]:+.2 x 10 3 M
    olzl ullE9l, ++4 ee s= "JE + 9i.+.

    q7l,lH2o7l olg+qq gqzl= H*(oq)4 toEE5-


    E+ HCoOHZI olg+q= olg a7l -r-oEql
    ^l6}q+.
    Hl6Iq ot+ zitrl. +a f{$ laJa}q uunE, I Lo EE
    0.10 Moltrl. (0.10 - 4.2 x to s;u : o.rou

    ol4l ¤¤ +E= & ^lq rllE6IE, x t}-3'l(4.2 x 10


    (4.2 3)
    K,:'-----0il:1.8x10-{
    ,JE E+q qt+ K" <iol trE l0-2r,+ 1s-to rlololzl qEql > E= ql;ll2
    44I+ Ar+= 4%16I+. Htol4"J BE 6I+.J *olot4l o
    > lrE qF{ 1
    (niacin)9 +zI +a= s=+
    qE + HA 0.s0 M +'-qE pH= 2.24o1tr1. ol 4IE &= rB4a+. o.o2oM4olotd -o-H
    9"I"JzI? 9 PHE 3.26o1q. ol {olo}41
    (a) r.7 x 10-12 (b) 3.3 x 10-s (c) 6.6 x 10-5 el&= g"Itz}?
    (d) 5.8 x 1o-3 (e) 1.2 x 1o-2

    ol*El r4+E
    K^! zzlzl Etg rllzlE +Elql= 4s .J*r+. &9 +c6I= E El= ag oF-rt
    ^ll7l=
    t-{ffi(percent ionization)"1r, 4E= q-q-r+ A+.
    olgc;,++e:ffiffiffiX10070 Ue.zel
    olgcr EE¤g 4Tlrt.
    ,J6J 4IoJ+=.

    EE zlal ol$ffi +^l6IH, olgp+q= 4I9 r-"E= tq^l ccq= H*(oq)9 LoEel
    Aq. q+^l & rn9 olgir+ EIEge q-s-rl e+.
    olgpl EB¤:#}x roozo Ue .zz)

    qlE Eq 0.03s M HNo2 +"-qg 3.7 x to-3 ruA s* Gq)E- st}6lE-E olge+ EE¤.g +
    gr+ a+.
    olg+ HIeg: [H*]se t :
    [uNoz]a,t
    X roo%o: '#+';' x looo/o 'tto/o

    N qFJl 16.11
    lf ol*Iltr q4'St 4ltJ

    qEl 16.10011^1 4llbl.H=ol, o.1o M EdHCooH)E"-q8 4.2 x 10-3M9 H*(aq)E r.-d-dtL 0lttll 0l8El'H-{EB= 4ld6l'^19"
    ^l9
    Ntl'J
    E4 E4}+*"-lelE.]-oEe+ H*(aq)g ¤B EoEE oJr., ol tl9 "lgp] EEgg 4l+6f= Ezllol+.
    734 168 tJ g7t E:d

    4EJ t6.27q14 olee+ EBSS ael6}fl4. > E= qlrlll


    ^l qtr + HA 0.077 M +qq pH= 2.16014. ol &E olg
    *01
    + EEge 9"HlzI?
    olgplE+¤: r, ['*]nn, x rooqo (a) 0.0907o (b) 0.69%o (c) 0.9070 (d) 3.60/o (e) 9.0%o
    IHCOOH]+,r

    : nr{rlt*, x 1oo% : 4.2%


    > s= qlrtl 2
    0.020 M 4olo}tl *99 pHE 3.26olu+. ol tJolo|4lel
    olgs+ EEgg 4lt}6t^le.

    K,E olt6J pH 4lt


    E&q & <Ia] zz1 Eo EE "JE, E& +.-4el H* (oq)9 Eo EE 4l&6J + gl+,

    K,E ol8¤! pH r{ht SH


    r. olgp+ ¤¤!ge+.
    2. ¤B tI+44 ¤¤ tI+ &g ++.
    3. ¤¤ql +qd+ s+o,I+el +E= +r+.
    4. ¤¤ +.EE ¤B ql"J6}.a, xgl 4aI{ 84.
    ^J+^1"il
    of z,ll zs'cglrl o.3o M o|,$le&(cH3cooH) +s4E psE 4ltloll EzI.

    1. ol.,tllE4}9 ole_s+ BB^le ++r+ A+.


    CH3COOH(afl : H*(aq) + CH3COO-(a4) $6.281
    q7l^l olgE+61= +i= &i g4q a*g a.Jg +rL_6IeI.
    2. ¤¤ 1l+44E 16.29 ¤B rJ+ &K,:1.8x10-sg++.
    r'-a- [H*][CH3COO-] : 1'8 x lo-s 116'291
    [cH3cooH]
    3. rl-e-eE, ¤B HI+q] +q+ EoEE 4=+. 4lzll t0.10q ¤H6lfl=ol, ol 4zd$:
    4 qBrl S+. tH.lql q+ BB ilg +6llo} 6lsE, olag xep a121. olgcldr
    7l { o},rllEt9 EoE:. 0.30 Mol+. p}q} H}¤:^loE+El 7+7+4 CH3COOH +zl+
    tt*(aq) + zHs+ CH3Coo (aq).t rl]= ^JCiltrl. ar+4s.tr. ¤Bql^l 4qB x mol
    4 H+(aq)zl ¤CqH, 4El'J x mol9 CHrCoo-(a4)zI ¤Cq:Z, ?-lEl'J r mol9
    CH3COOHTI ol 9sl9 I oh .JtrI.
    CH3COOH(aq) : H*(aq) +CH3COO-(a4)
    Z7\ +l_(M) 0.30 0 0 I
    I
    I

    Eo E
    EPI(10 -x l+x +x
    ¤¤ bE(M) (0.30 - x) x x

    a. nlxlu-|e-tr, tEE ¤B tl+^lql ql"J6tr, x{ 4a}{ 84.


    ¤B
    tHtll-CH,COO-l (x)(x)
    K,:'-;cffi: g3s_r--l--:l---: 1.8
    x 1o s [16.301

    ol ,rq ql6.J olzl*a4g gr, ,J4^l Eol 4ltlzl4 olTI%Ia^l +4g


    ^los+El
    ol+6|q E + gltrI. E* K,7l qlEql o E E4E ,Jai'l4l se6J=E
    "la *zl =^I4
    + gl
    +. r ar+ ¤Bol rlBd g+ql +qzlr, xz| o|,r11e414 =z\ EoEoll EIBH 4+ 4& A
    ol+E ag qltE* + glrt. trI4^] xzt o.:0gl Bl6ll oI+ 4+r 7Ic6lH, 0.30-.r= 0.30
    16.6 lEc 735

    + e+. ol E4l= q + +ql, ol z[{o] E}'}6J71¤ q"JE} + 9l't. ol z}dgl E6]] ^l


    r0.:og 4+r+ ?ol 84.
    *' :
    K-:- o.3o x
    "o - 1.8 10-s

    x9l 4al4 ¤8,


    x,: (0.30)(1.8 x 10-s) : 5.4 x 10-6
    *:r,6.+xtO*:2.3xL0-3
    [H*] : x:2.3 x tO-3M
    pH : -log(2.3 x 10-3) :2.64
    olxll r[,r.] 5ot7t^1, 0.30-x-0.30o14E z[dol 4B'*z]E +.J611 Bz]. +A *z]91
    q6tq x9 {13 o}+ +r, 714+ qdq 4'}6}+. tr}4^J 7l4ol E}B.J aql ++
    ^l-.&oJ
    B + 9l+. .rb olgs+6]+ o|,tllE4I9 mol/L oJolu-s, ol 5df, a+q 1o7, uluJsl o|,(l
    E&trJ olgs+61= Ag "J + 9l+.
    cH3cooHE olgEl Eq+g: W x 10070 : o.77vo

    gHl4.J +zl e, rel "Jol


    o eI sz" o1,X,.olE, Eil4lq
    "lit%l44g ++ a
    ol q 4B6I+. E4lE rI + +ql=
    =a*E =^r
    7l4g 6J^J-gfoJ6Hot EItrI.
    ^l-&oJ
    +E= E +e 7l4g 6[Zl q=ql, E]E +"-q +q H*7[ t+ cH3cooHE 6l]4q]^l g
    ao14= zlaolEl. rB+E Hzo9 zl4l olgE+= +^lEl f il=zl? r q]B.g'r++'ol
    q. Eql^J 6l;-lg H+= r-oEzl ro-7 M 4EolEE, ol a+ &ql^J to 3 M CEql
    "l]r-lg
    ts16|E +^lg + 9l+. 4+ aiEI al&ol4 &9 L" E7I
    'il+ Be a+q= $el zli11
    o1

    gs+E l.qg Bszl ?14.

    p 1.0x10-8/1/ HCI EqP pH<7, pH:7, pH>7 ¤i olEg pH 'JE *=71?

    ulxl[re-tr_, ol E&9 pH ,*¤ F"J6J tEg ,J4] +EE pH HIJ]L6J + ?l+.

    0.30 M or^llE&el pH= 2.64014. .144 ulla[{ 0.30 ME HClr} z;g


    "ln] 234!s] pHE
    -tog(0.:o):0.52014. ql^"l6ls.Fol, E& +._49l pHi F.J¤I bEg ,J419 pHtr+ q
    z4(pH Zlol +"-4E &Ce E6H11+= 49 zl9a}4).
    =++
    ql4l 16.12
    ,7 K5g o;gt3 pH 4lt
    0.20 A/t HCN $o-{o; pH= Zltt6l,\l9:(K,2J? 8 16.2L[++ D= da.apg.

    6[lff
    .84 +qd EL"EE ol+6}q pHE 4l,ilal-b E^llolEl. *. filei +l ts+"ll^"i ¤H6tfl=ol, plq Hi+^lg an H*el B
    l6.2ql^l HCNE KaY 4.s x lo-loolq. ¤ ]FETI "lzl+oJ, Z7l ") gq 5=.91 ql+ s= 4LC6J+.
    EUI
    H+(aq)zl olg+ HI+g +El HI+4g HCN(aq) ;- H+(a4) + CN-(a4)
    ^JCqts ^Aa,
    B¤ tr.+ &ql Eil+ 49 ++. &: IH+IICN 1
    :4'e x ro-ro
    1rilNt
    736 16A| E--J
    ^J-E7t

    +¤-etr, B¤ql^J ,c:[H*].tr +r, ¤¤ H]*q +q HCN(a4) ;- H*(oq) + CN-(a4)


    6J E= Eag t.E=.*s zlC6J+. i7lEiE(M) 0.20 0 I
    0
    I

    5E EE|(M -x +x +x
    Ee 5E(M) (0.20 - x) x x

    sg ¤¤ bE= ¤¤ ^J+^lql 4.J6JE+. *,-- x


    #:4.e 10-10

    rJ-e-- e-8, 6ll?-lq: &E oJ xzl SA a7l +.Eql Hlslq


    oli z|9=._e, a+ --^IEg 6t{ o.2o - x - o.2o
    ol4l zl4t4. ^l-so
    *:4.e x r.o-10

    olzllx9l q6l-q ++ x2 = x 10-10) : 0.98 x 10-10


    (O.2O)(4.9
    , : r,/0.s8 x 10-' : 9.9 x 10-6M : [H+]

    4l4}g bE e.9 x 10-6 MZ v7l HCNE LoEoJ o.zo9


    57o-E-4 g{ z++. qe}^'l ,J+ EtB'6}+. olzll
    =^}Hg PH : -log[H*] : -log(9.9 x 10-6) : 5.00
    8q49 pHE 4ltI.J+.
    > .H.*qlrlll > E5 qlril2
    0.40 M t!=&(c6H5cooH)E pHE guloJTI?(&= E 4olot+19 &E r.s x l0-sol+(q4l ro.t09 E+ qxl 2).
    16.28 ol+6i+.) 0.010 M L+olo}ll 899 pHE ¤uloJz}?
    (a) 2.30 (b) 2.10 (c) 1.e0 (d) 4.20 (e) a.60

    {zl {++ "t gd ++4E H}3 +Ee+ z;ol, H+(aq)$ bEql zld S¤ol 9l= &
    +"-4E dde E"J+ tEE ,J4IB+ EtIg +'-qe A+ql 'J +8617]1 44ti4. .14
    6J ilol=- !-ol= I M CH3COOH9I I M Hclql ql+ dEg f.g 16.11q1 44*4. r rz
    cH3cooH= 0.004M9 u*(aq)E golalzluJ, 1M HClg r M!H+(a4)= E6Jqlr+. r
    ar+, ++49 HI* +E= HCt +oIoJ A+ql +a mls+.
    ql^J6J 4e, E&e.l +E7l f;z|$ffi H*(oq)4 ¤e +5.= +7l.'*rt. rezlEJ rg

    ,Jtfoil^1= uSol ofl?


    uulell TlilE]q, H27lE ,Jtofl^j= eJtoll^]E H: zls
    7t oJol
    Edqn u30t g= Ed 8J301 ql6l + t0il^1 HJ-
    E4 flclCrl =+01 1l6HEl9 uaH 4rl z+ s=Elfltrt.
    Elfltrt.

    rEi::i&
    =-:=
    H
    t*/
    1. MHCl(aq) l MCH3COOH(a4)
    lH-l = 1M [H'] :0.004M
    ArH 16.11 ee HtSolrloJ qt+loll^l= 3A}g trfle+= trl= t-tS +E=.HoJtrl". TIEE_Hz 7l^,11tr^1, {10il sl6|1 {t6tE nfl golgrl.sr
    4l SdEtl-r::=: (44E| =+01 =+
    16.6 "Jt 737

    0 l f zt| rl 0ll^l *I+EJ 3dA Le Chdtelier fl al e|. g^ l6lts7 l? d 86l.^19.

    6.0

    5.0
    ol
    E
    ET
    +.0
    EiE7[ e7t.J+e cH3cooH
    E E4E3P tr143
    E 3.0
    E^tE 6Hal

    2.0

    1.0

    0 0.05 0.10 0.15


    .t}eltsE(M)

    afB 16.12 ol^JlE&te4E ol8elEEE0il Dlxlts-EEE."t

    16.12q1 q+U 44 EzI 6zlg++ olg+ EEge AA*+. ut+^J H* (rq)4


    ,J"1, Lo

    bE= Et}E r-.Eq z.ld Elqlo}rl= ?*=r+. q= E&E +EE F El]E EEJE H*
    (oq)9 *sb + tsll7i 9zl t*E4. =q
    qBl 16.13
    olil%r'{4.|t ole"$ pHef ol*.sl r4#.& 4ltl

    0j0 M HF Esqe.l pHelHF E^le] 0lSslH-4E!EE Zl^tdl^le.

    nflB 4t-El *q ¤¤ Erllel u|{z}zlE ol E4lql d=,c.


    + il4.
    E4 Hp +aqq ql6J olggl- E¤+g Zl&61+ E^ilol+. + +c BBq ql6J
    EoI EI+4g ^Ar, E= Eag ol= bE
    + Dql^] &E o.s x to-aol4. e+ ss= tEql ql6J s= zid.J+. r4r ¤¤ bE= *

    ¤ t}+^lql 4'J6[q E-E= H+9 bEql 46Lq +4.

    =01 HF(aq) i- H'(aq) + F-(aq)


    ¤B Hlg.r+ ¤¤4 +E= trl+4 A+
    n7l8E(M 0.10 0 0

    tE HEI(A.f) +x +x

    8E tsE(M (0.10 - r) x x

    ¤¤ t}+4e q-94 eq l-H+ll-F-l (x)(x)


    r\4 - tHFl 0.10 - x
    0.10 _x - 0.lOol4E 6l]il_lq=
    =^IBg ^l-+6IH(=
    4I9 bE= +^16|$, +gr+ Ag &g e=q. x -- 8.2 x 10-3M

    ol {tg ME 570-H-4 3s-tr, -r,^l-Bg


    0.10 g:
    ^F8-6}zl
    n, ,J4^l gol 4l4l7l+ olzlrJa^l +4g ^Fs x2 : (0.10 - x)(6.S x 10-4)
    =E7lg :
    4q ¤.qo} "J+. Bla4g cB6In, olxlEJ-4^l x rO-s - 1o.A x 10-4).1
    6.8
    E Bqle .E¤6IE xz + (6.8 x 10 4).x - 6.8 x 10-s : 0
    738 168 +J g7t "J-d

    ol oJC^lg olit lC^l +el +!g ^l-S6Iq gE. 1-


    -6.8x19-a1@
    2

    -6.8x10-4+1.6x10-2
    2

    + ,HE 6]] +q!x7I oJ+oJ A+"Jg Cq6l-: Aol


    r: : :
    slql4eE qlq4ol+. ol Aq^l [n*]c]puE Td4. [H*] [F-] 7.e x rO-3M, 44,rJ pH: -log[H+] :2.16

    ol ar+E+El, olg+q= Ezt9 UIE¤¤ al^Ig + olgcl¤ tE


    HFg olgq- EBg : E"E X 100o/o
    ?14. fl49
    7.9 x tO-3 M X 100o/o : 7.9o/o
    0.10M

    > H= qlril 1 > _H.= qlrll2


    0.010 M HF +.+9 pHE gutoJzl? qlxll 16.llel -H_+ qlxl 2ql^-l 0.020M 4ololt +"-q(&:
    (a) 1.s8 (b)2.10 (c)2.30 (d)2.s8 (e)2.6a r.s x 10-5)9 olgp+ EBgol2.7o/ooJ ag "Jgt+. (a) 0.010
    M, (b) 1.0 x l0-3 M$ Qolo|41 *'u9 olgpl EEgg Al
    416I^ls.

    trloJ^Jzlt
    Be te olg3llg + gl= H gzl-= F zl] ollJ. zlzl:r_ gl4. .l4,t} 4Ig Elg!8IH!
    (polyprotic acid)olep +4. el= Eq .I+&(H2so3)g +*r+ zJol 844str olgEl*
    +.
    H2SO3@Q ;- H+(aq) + HSOt(aq) Ko1:1.7 x 10-2 t16.3U

    HSO' (a4) ;- SOI-(aq)


    H+(aq) + Kaz:6.4 x 10-8 lL6.3Zj
    ol ¤¤E .iI 6l]el tr-+= &,4 &,o14. oI4 Ex[9 *ztb olgE]q= 5C oJCzl-= s

    ^l++.
    r4 o.tr &zE 6J^J- 4"JCzlt9 + Hrll "Jtxlzl dl?]q= ¤Bql 4* aol+.
    o}+tql^l K,2Y K.i,Hq 4+ ++. 4dzl ts 4L+ qlEq gddl¤ E Hso, H+ +
    C9 urso, EzleP4 "Jdzlzl ¤{ rl flrll ailr-lg asE q^JB + 9l+. olag gH}
    4.J Cdol4. 4 4'&Czlt}.ll^l a H4 oldxlE qqq= aol + H4 .JCzl¤ qq.X
    aEQ 6Jd[ d4. u]]z[zlE, olgE+6J + 9l= oJCzl-$ ,ql z]l zfzlL 9l= 4]ql^l +
    =
    Ezll "JCzI¤ qlq{= aol dxll oJ¤z|E qlqLfl= aH+ dtrI. tr|+^.| "Jtzl-$ fl4
    ^ll
    6ll^l qlqLllE , r K.AIE g+zJes 4}ol4l+.
    /.lea6 E^k 0lttrlg +
    ?,lb g¤^l"E H 7|{ Tlxlr.
    ?lb7l?
    HO
    A H3POaolK,eE oltr EE= LtEtLll=7p

    til 4. zlzl 'JHI4'J 4"Jdzlt}9 t 6llel $+E E 16.3q1 +g6I*.rI. ++ Dql rl *3 zl


    H
    -C_C-OH EE +g6l*,r+.
    ^l=s4}q ol5+3ts oleg+g + gl= +^# !_q 16.13).
    s 16.3q1^l I f flFol, ootCzl-= qlqp=+(ral
    ql$
    &ql^J ¤+zlsE K, {}31_g 4
    HO
    qs ro3u119 +tlg &r <}3 +zl '=.+r E^Iqfi.+. +4le a H4l oJczi
    H
    t? OH
    ^lol7l9l+.
    5 rll"lB qlql ,J&olr+. Irlzl^J a H4l olge+ EI+e $d6lzl e-E.4_e-.E dq.J+.
    -C_C-
    I

    H H2soa@fi H*(aq) + Hsot(aq) (Sddl olggl)


    AIEEAI
    -
    HlEql HSO4-E K62:r.2 x rO-2t "J&o14.
    a:1816.13 ,l.lEEtlel+4 q++9 4.JCzI&9 &r9 EIE ¤¤ ^J+5H+ oI+ rE-?, +Eql 9l= .ll++9
    16.6 qtd 739

    n 16.3 El Ttxl oJHJ4oJ trIoJigrttet t 6|lat t+


    0lE Et6t t Kol Koz Kot

    oll-:a rJ L H2C6H6O6 8.0 x 10-s 1.6 x l0-12

    *11 H2CO3 4.3xrc 7


    5.6x I0 "
    ll E e,,-} H3C6H5O7 7.4x t0 ' l.7xl0' 4.0x10'
    9-&^I HOOC_COOH 5.9x10 2
    6.4x 10 ',
    .J+ H3PO4 7.5x10 3
    6.2x l0 8
    4.2xLO-t3
    otE;i41 H2SO3 7.7 x lO-2 6.4x 10 8

    EL/\L
    ou HzSOa =trL l.2x to-2
    ElEle^} c2H202(cooH)2 l.0xt0 3
    4.6 x 10-s

    H"(oq)y a E4l olgqlql^J Eqd+. ¤+49-e K, aol 10-3EH old-_e--E +otzlTl Ul]E
    91, olzl .JoJ^dzI+I9 A+ilH 4oJCz[& +"]E pH= +zl &, " +*El 414]6J + 9l+.

    qFjl 16.14
    trl"Jtzl,l,lel pH 4PlI

    25'C. 0.1 atme.l ++-d Eollrl COz9 E6|1E= 0.0037 M0ltl. tr= EallEJ COzts EJt!(H2CO3)ol EEHe 7l'¤51'8, 0l
    HJ- q-q_r]
    =4-dtl-z
    eol T]gErh.
    CO2@q) + H20(/) : H2C03(aq)

    0.0037 M HzCOe Eo-49 pHE EE|ETl?

    6tlB fi14 HzCO:E olo}^Jzfi!9-tr^'], 7]ol7] 163ufl ol{t-ol f zll

    E{ 0.0037M +o}Cz}4}*99 puE 2l&61-= Erilol+ E ^J+&rr+ K,rZzl44(s. 16.3). ArI4otr..J


    &6H?.1
    glCzltF+ aol A+6].:u, pH: &,espEl eg + 91tr1.

    H2CO3@q) ;- H+(aq) + HCq @q)


    =01
    qxll 16.l2e+ 16.13q1^]9 n+c4 pol, {e=$ eg B aTlEiE(M) 0.0037 0 0
    ¤ HI+44 ¤B E= ++. r-"
    Eit(lf) -x +x +x
    =E
    EE tsr1u1 (0.0037 - r) x x

    ¤B tL+4e Kat : [H+][HCot] (r)(r)


    : 4-3 x 1O-7
    [H2CO3] 0.0037 -.x
    olz[r]C^]g +6|8, x : 4.O x 10-sM
    =g
    EE &rol zlzl qlEgl rcTI1r+= +^l-=.^f¤-6l.tr, 0.0037-r=0.0037

    tri4^l (x)(r)
    0.0037

    ,Jql ql6}q EE, x2: lo.ooaz;(4.3 x 1o-7) : 1.6 x 1o e


    r : [H*] : tHcotl : \hs x Lo-t: 4.0 x 10-sM
    x7l7J! 6[$ z[xls-tr *^] 4r}6[+
    ^l-S+ =^[Bol : -log[H*] : :
    qa}^l pH= 4*r+ 44. pH -log(4.0 x 10-s) 4.46
    740 165| d-E7t8E

    +el [co32-]= 4l&6]z1 &zE ol3il 9161^l= Hco{(aq) :- H*(aq) + COf (aq)
    4. *q^l Ee [HCo3-]4 [u.]9 #9 ol*a] iTlBE(I4) 4.0 x lo-s 4.0 x 10-s 0
    r, tcof-lE y4r "tH, +94 ae azl $E 5E Hit(r[) -v +y +y
    e| B¤ *E= eg + 9i+.
    E-.J EE(t\4 (4.0x10-s-)r) 1+.oxro-s+y1 v

    y7l4.0 x lo-sB+ zlr+a 6IH,

    4lAlE r <iol 4.0xro-sB4 ¤d 4"oe rt*t} zlc >H=qFtl1


    ol +'J.* ag "J + gltrL EqI H*9 t}, HCo: ot.A.?rr4}(Elol4"J c) 0.2s M +"-4E pH= guloJ
    ^Jcql +6J
    -E o1g0|E srcor9 olgelql Hl6Iq +^lg c=e op 7l?K^r4 &zE s. 16.3 +a)
    + +tr| rel+ +Eq^i Lo =.21 o6 43 cor2-
    HCo3-= b)2.0a b)2.32 (c)2.82 (d)4.6s (e)6.17
    Illa}^l ol o1u1g gql,! coz
    ^JC6|= +g6J s.iol+. > !r= qlr{|2
    =
    i corrl H2co3E BqlE :i relol olgs+61-
    =7]]6Ir.,
    (a) 0.020 u ¤-rJ&(Hrczo) *99 pHE z{l,t}a}rls(&,
    ¤ n*4 HCO3-E BC6I4, rB+ ,gt zlg ? Eol olg 4 &rts -E 16.3 Aa).
    F+EIq co32-=
    ^JC6J+.
    s6.J [coa2-l= K,r*rJ4. (b) ol +.lql,rl g{{! olgE :'E(tcronr-l)E 4l^}6}

    ^ls.

    trloJ*Jxtt

    4.J^dz[+]* pH9l 44 += olgp+ ^]EIE ,*=+. fH


    16.14: pu"ll 44 ql&ol t44ss qE BB4 B¤ bE
    E r*=zl= !-q
    :B t0.14-e+q=+.qel zlzlE g i *ErJl, 1.00%

    pHTt 4!-tr1 a+ql= *qql U,pOnzI .d-


    =
    zl *=+. pH > taoJ ull, +d+g oJ& ol

    I
    75% J.
    .g(lor3-1o1u1. pHe+
    "JA ¤Bq pK,zl * Po+
    e ag 7te Ell r B¤q 6l]r}61-= 4^l-4 I
    Ell

    szl *9 *ezl zJ*9 g + 91E}. ql= EE 50"/"


    pH : 7.2lollr.J= [HPO42-] : =
    {l
    [HrPO4-]ol+. Hl

    ol pHoll.r.l B¤g trE PKas = 1

    H2POa-@q) + H2O(/) 3 11p9rz-1 aq) + HsO+ (aq) 25%


    I

    oi BB9I^J &zE
    QK*= 212 Kaz= 7 '21
    Ka2 : IHPO!1[H3O]
    +
    /[H2PO4-]
    o3={oll
    -logE +16lB tr}¤+ gg + 9l+. 0%
    p.K"2: log([H2PO41llHPO24-]) + pH 24681012 14

    lzlxl pK,2el pHTI A+tr, [H2po4-]e+ pH


    tHPol-]g ul5 lololof flc(los tol 0olE +). A:1H 16.14 E5f-e{ollrl pHoll nlE oJtt olEEslSttl4oJ E-EUl

    16.7 | T"Jz I

    B3 EdEol E+ql^J sF* g7l-+ zl+.J+. "JEzlE E4 Hls.6[q Eq]^l i4 ol$9


    qqqq Ezlg qr+I¤ "J=a. oH- olgg ^Jc.J+.
    r0.z I s+Ezl 74',1

    -- HB+(aq) + oH-(aq)
    B(aq) + H2o(/) [16.33]
    ol ql¤.g ¤B z3ol Ed6J+ gl+.
    ^J+^le +g_r+ 610lEE¤0LE!01 gTle 4f
    /(, : --
    tBH+lloH-l
    [16.34]
    E-g n|l olE flrr7t sd^|"=
    tBj- Eol¤olE7l-?
    Eg +E1]olEE ol eaJlzl ?*=+. .JE] "JEJTI ql$zle* oJEL.lo[(ammonia)z[
    ^lql
    ei4.

    NH3(a4) + H2o(/) .- NHai(a q) + oH-(aq) Ku: IIIffi! [16.3s] gtPLlof

    K,, Kae E^ltI'J az-lH, Ka9 bE ol ¤B *izl qE +¤E HI+ql 4EL le]zlE I (ammonia, NH3)

    q +q, ol A+q= Eql^J "JEzl9 olgal= ++U.+. g7! 6flq ga(base dissociation
    constant, I(r= fl{+ Hzlzl Hzoe| HI*Elq ol Ezl9 4&+ oH- olgg BCEI+ *
    -&ql rll* 4.o14.
    Er6.4q "JHzl9 Lewis *4, 44I, ++e49 ra fiol +el flsq, ++ Dql q
    *zlzl
    Be ctrE ++6Iq+. ol ¤zlEg n* ol94 e6JB + gl= tsljzo # dzl6}9 el zll olt}
    zlzla_ 9lr}. s r0.a9 6C Bzl¤¤ -HH, El++ dzl-,'^Jol ¤4 flzlql fl+g "J + 9l
    0llE0t'J
    (methylamine, CHjNH2)

    +. += 9zls=3 Etql^l "JEqTI *o190]4.

    '+Jilsl +¤
    e}Ezli + ++E'|ts + 9l+. d|+= 6C ts^Is^l *dzl¤ Eol-59 + 9l= HIAE}
    dznlg z*E d*.14. ol +e9 Eil+++ s 16.4q1 94+ 6c E4¤zJol {4 flz}
    E EE+6J+. oJEqoLe EgloJ ol elElE=g oFJ(amine)ql +++(f=J 16.15). trzl o1u3

    6l"0lE=Aoltl
    S.,l6.4 2s c Eq^l ol Tt^lo+oJ7l (hydrorylamine, NH2OH)

    E7l .f.x l* II],,t\I K6 a:lH 16.15 Se.qo1s1 5


    Tt|el lE-.J ol'U
    oJEqot H-N-H
    NHn* 1.8 x 10-s
    (ammonia, NH3) I

    f]EH
    (pyridine, CsHsN)
    csHsNH+ 1.7 x 10-e

    6}0lE+{o}EJ H-N -OH


    (hydrorylamine, HONHJ
    t" I
    HONH3+ 1.1X10 8

    H-N-CH3
    "llBoIrJ CH3NH3+ 4.4x 1o-4
    (methylamine, CH3NH2)
    H
    FJcl+i ole-
    H- S: HzS 1.8 x 10-7
    (hydrosulfide ion, HS )

    z-
    E& ol9 HCO3 1.8X10 4
    (carbonate ion, CO:2-)
    >p
    bfolsgi4I olg 3.3x10',
    (hypochlorite ion, CIO )
    :Cl-O HClO

    - oJCzl= tsol-5ol= ?14! +¤4 o tr +4H+


    742 163 $-E7l-Etr

    qHl 16.1s
    tr (bE ol¤.6J OH- 4lt
    0.15 A/t NH3 Eo-q0llll OH-g tsE= ?6l^19.

    6tl3
    E4 Eg7l9 bETr +q4 9lsq, oH- olgE EoEE 7 4lel E^Iel olgp+ Exll= Eflg uile+ ee %r-Hg
    ^l-S*
    ali $z-llolQ. trt. slo+^lg )^a-. v7l t.Ee+ ¤B tEE s=
    "J=+.
    EUI
    olgpl HI¤¤ olql dl'.I6I= ¤B tl+4g + NH3(a4) + H2O(l) ;- NHa+(aq) + OH (aq)
    ^rn.
    +. Kr:--tNH,+lloH-l :1.8x10-s

    *B E"EE .trtr
    "J=+(q7l^l Eg ¤¤ ^J+^lql NH3(a4) + Hzo(t) ;- NHa+(a4) + oH-
    E.+Elzl ?+9.1re, E9 L"EE +^l6J+). a7tEiE(M 0.15 0 0

    5E E+(M) -.x +x +x

    EE 5E(M) (0.1s - x) x x

    ol ,JE¤. *¤ tr-+^lql 4"J6IE ++g e=+ lNH"*lIOH-l (x)(x)


    " LNHrI 0.15 - x

    Krllol +s Es Er+ qI*61+ NHr9 0J xE dll -.2

    NH3E r-oE 0.1s Mr| ulaa|fl +^l6J + 9l+. trl "*:1.8x10-s


    a2 : (0.1s)(1.8 x 1O-s) - 2.7 x 10-6
    +^] qgr+ ae ^lg e=4.
    x : [NHa+] : toH-l : \/rirlF: 1.6 x 1o-3M

    ils ?9 xE NH3 t-E(o.ls M)9 1o7o {EolE-tr,


    {zl,<1 > qH 1
    .H.8
    dill NH3el r-oEql ql4q r= +^l+ ae 48614. o.6s M vl4B(crurN)9 pHE gEloJTt?(Kr= *. 16.4 +4)
    (a) a.a8 O) 8.e6 (c\e.s2 (d)e.62 (e)e.7r
    +sl EgTl *99 psE EqE +E ?lt}. olull| [oH J

    E "Ja 9le-!-tr. qxll r6.ellrl zlgzl9 pu=*d aal?Je > lr= qlrll2
    *Beg ++4. o| {xlloll.r]i o.rs M NH3 +Eq^l [oH-] rl^9 ElElge 0.0s M +"-qg "JEflg oll zI* $$ pHE 4
    :1.6x l0-3 Mol rrE, pOH: -log(t.O x l0-3):2.80o1I 4q= a3?
    pH :14.00-2.80:11.20o14. ¤zl +eloloE, 899 pn El;lE. ,llgol"J. ote^I
    7-tr+ r+.
    =

    E9 Nu, Szlglrl N-H A*ol N-c A,*e.a tsI+lq gl+. or"Jql +61+
    6J 7l] ol^J-el
    plElEEg NH:el u[{z}zle, Eql^] oJC^l-= Boi^l N-H a6Jg't} zl] r,l
    "J=Al
    g+.
    EgTls^l ollgol"Jel EI¤+ +¤.r+ e+.

    H-N- CH3@fi + HzO(l) --


    It
    l"-T-
    .{
    +

    (aq) + oH-(aq) U6.361

    IH
    I

    "JEzlg + H4 ++= E^Ig ¤.olg5ol4. elE EE ++._4 t}'|lg 6[o]Eg^4] a


    E(sodium hypochlorite, Naclo)g 6l]46Iq Na*e| Clo- olgg 4--E4. Na* ol¤-g
    &-g7l E}.f;.ql^] 6J^J +a# olgol+ ,,. (4.3¤). _244 cto olg+ EtI.J 6}olEg
    16.8 Kael Kbel lAl 743

    A+Iel er-Ezlol4. trlq^J cro- olgS +8qql^] qt¤zle eE++.


    CIO-(aq) + H2o(/) . -- HCIO(aq) + OH-(aq) Ko: 3.3 x 10-7 t16.371

    rH 16.6q^J sE}rllE zlt Ezl{fl$ !.?I4(pH Ttol t2-1:| 'I+Ee-l g^ sE4l


    s% Naclo *e4.14.
    =
    qH 16.16
    pHE ol¤.Blol olslSE iJ{EFl

    r.xil NaCIOE gel Eoll +?l + 2.00 Le 514-d Eo4ol pHzl 10.50013t|.. 16.37011 +qTl 8-E'E 0lE6|'q 0l E-4 +0ll
    =E-.J ^l
    EolZ NaCloel E+= +di^19.

    6t{ql
    rtg

    E{ NaCIOE Na*e} 619- ol$9E ol+qd olg a6J e} E 94zl +ltNaclo9 E+¤ 4l+61++zllolE+.
    to.sozlxl
    ql5ol+. ad6ll{olE.e E+q^l +d 6llE+q +aE ol oH-E ¤¤ t.E= +'Jtr|. Cto I z7l +
    rilel pH-trPel
    goJ Na*e1, Ka:3.3 x rO-7oJ EgTl CIO- ol$-9g 6114 EE-trlzl+e +olE il]. 4 El++E a7l t.E_e+ *B !"E
    ++(^l 1637).2.00 L Nacro 899 pHzl-fq4 ill, pH sE "JE+. Ka 49 ol+6lq [cro I E +6J+.
    =
    =vl
    16.16 E= 16.209 ol+6[q tOu-6 7a poH : 14.00 - pH : 14.00 - 10.50 : 3.50
    ^l
    4. ¤zl,rl= al r0.zog ol+,*4. toH-l : 16-3.s0 : 3.2 \ to-4 M

    ol bE= oH- olgol 4 rc3z HI+ql^l"J Clo-(aq) + H2o(/) ;- HCto(aq) + oH-(aq)


    ^J
    zJ4r. zlAal]E f$olse, Hzo9 ztill olg+
    E7l5E(M x 0 0
    q 96J oH- ol¤+ +^l6J + 91tri. clo-E a
    rJHsE *l E6[(11) x 'l.O 4
    -3.2 +3.2 x 70-4 +3.2 x lo 4
    7l bE= x-E Fr.. qldql =;-E
    ^F++ 8E (x-3.2x 10 4) 3.2 x 7o-4 3.2 x 1o-4
    ¤ Ezll= +4. =-r6r;
    ¤zl "ll4 ^J+^1"tr+El xE 7il4 Ka: lHClOlIOH )
    (3.2x 10-4)2
    :3.3x107
    [ClO-] x-3.2xrOa
    3.2 x 70-4\2
    -, j +(3.2x10-a):9.31
    ,:'__ x3.3 10-/
    Y

    .JP9 cro- olgol Er+ Hls"d+a 6l]E, *a49 Naclo b 4. pHzi e.04t Nac6Hscoo +o+ 0.s0 Lql= HIa4l d
    EE O.Sr Mol g+. r-o E= 0.31 Molr, s"l9 PulE Z.OO r Eol H mol Sq 9lizl?
    ol= +, Eq EqrJ gE "Jg 0.62 mol Naclool4. (a) 0.38 (b) 0.66 (c) 0.76 (d) 1.s (e) 2.e

    F .s.5 qFil 1 > .H.E qlr1l2


    Hla^I olg(c6Hscoo-)g Ku:r.6 x 10-r0Ql elgzlol pH: ll.l7oJ NH: i&o-H9 E]-"EE HutoJz|?

    16.8 | K,el KoeluJ4l


    49zl4 4I9 '*HsE ag AC4.J glt+. olql ql,* d
    ^ll7l7l "+g++ ^llzlT| ^Jl+=
    .J.4 +41= oJTl glsll^J 4t}-4¤zl dr-+4lql fl= Nnn*etr NH:= gqtrzl. ol F Elq
    +g Er+ Hls" 6.J+. &ee.<J NHn*9 HI¤+ 'l-94 'J+.
    NH1(aa) + H2o(/) : NHs(a{) + H3o+(a4)
    Ei ol4-o- a+6}rll r^H
    NHa+(a4) NH3(a4) + H+(aq) [16.38]
    -
    744 163 t-E7tEtr

    Ezl Nur9 ?*
    NH3(a4) + Hzo(/)
    -.. NHn+(aq) + OH-(aq) [16.3e]

    44E ¤B 614 tl+!e q-q-r}A+.


    _- [NH3][H*] rr:
    r(,: -[Nff ,. fNH4*l[OH-l
    --
    al ro.:e!+ 16.3e= q6lH NHr*q NH37l i4qr, EE z}4l olgq+ HI+"J k+ril g+.
    : NH3(a4) + H+(aq)
    NHa+(a4)
    : NH4+(4q) + OH-(44)
    NH3(4q) + H2O(/)
    H2O(/) ;- H+(aq) + OH-(aq)
    olul goll.{ "Jo}g*ol, + q6}q ¤B4ol 'fsg r11 ,ri]-es ¤B^lel ¤B
    ^lg ^l]-Ee
    tl+= tlo.J + ^lE ¤¤ tL+E +o.J aol ¤4 <re (rs.:¤).
    +lE HI*ql ql6}q ol 'JBg 4+6lE K,4 KuE +6|q qg4 Ae A+= e=E+.

    K^ x K,: flxllllrrl\/INlldltoH-l\
    \ tNHa-l /\ tMI,f /
    : [H+][OH-] : r(,
    rrl4^.1 K^4 xa= +6lq gg #g EE olg+ tl+(Iq)e+ "Jililrl-(^l 16.16). + 16.3s
    ^l
    r+ 16.3e= q6}fi.g zlal olgs+ *B4ol Eqzl!-tr B¤
    "il Ee-] ^J+= K*7lT]Ll.
    ol +41= +dg 7l4ol B +s+ 9"lE ,*=+. qtr &E & afl4 l}fc+ ol
    =g6l
    .tI9 4-Bzl.ll 4oJ 9zl 4q t+¤ ++ 7}e Ee] olg+ -}+e+ = A+.
    Kax Kb: r(, (zl$-{Hz|$ql q4q) [16.40]
    qtr &9 q+(= K,<I) a q}gzl9 ,rllzlb qfolxlq(zle & a), + {t
    g *6J *.^ll7l7l6zlEr9l
    K,, KaE zs"C9l.r.l r.o x ro-'nol4. E 16.5e1 {tE.e. ol +41= Bq ol

    +41= 4{}-4Ezl 'r'dlqlE} 4+94.


    =+.
    zl r0.ao9 ol+6IE qH s+¤zl9 KaE 4&9 &tr+q +g + !l-r., uftlz|^]tr qH
    EtlE nE 4gzl9 KaEPEI +g + :14. dxlle 4*-4gzl.rdlq^l qL ++e-l olg
    3rl t+"J xlEtr. zll^lg 4lz} r*4. qlE EE 54 o9lE ¤-o189 Ka ak"l +q^lzl ?+9t
    q. r olf+ 4}&s-l &E+El +g + ?lzl ollEol4.
    +?-l= # pH: -log[H*J?l +4lE ol+6[q [H*]= E¤6t7lE ++ cre (re.+¤). 'p'
    oi+ zlg +E s¤g trll elqr-4Edq^lE &, Ezl 6}14 tr.+ alg pc4
    =
    pl(atr. *4U4.
    ^l-8-61+Ell,

    x. 16.5 ol Ttrt 4lt-4ft!71 tt


    tl K, E7l K6

    HNO3 eJ4I) No:- (+^ldJCEg Szls.)


    HF 6.8 x lo-a F_ 1.5x10 "
    cH3cooH r.8 x lo-s cH3coo- 5.6 x ro-ro
    H2C03 4.3x10-' HCO3- 2.3x10 "

    NHan 5.6 x 1o-'o NH: r.8 x ro-5


    HCO3- 5.6 x lo tl Co:'- 1.8 x 1o-a

    oH- (+^lg aEE 02- (z.r$zl)


    ^IE)
    16.8 I Kaef KbA !/l 745

    pKo: -logK* pKu= -logK6 [16.41]


    ol *Hg rl r0.ao9 .JHql -tog$ +l6}q pK,elpK6E .E¤B + 9trf.
    ^l-&6t$
    pKo + pK6: p(, : r{.QQ 2s"Cq^l(u}&-4gzl tt) 116.42l

    E ol'lllEtlelK,= 1.8x1o-solrf. ofrlletg pK, ,J0l,r1 I E&l^tflf= +90J71-?

    o ffl !+ ottrJeJ "Jcf*a,ag.


    Ezlrlol zlg oL"J= +q= Blll-J ^JC ts4= Lll ql Hl6I Eq +=+. *9 ot"J 9qI*ol tgg eEl]tr
    trl a.
    a=ol *+. .JEqo}e+ ot"Jg 5^lEE ^I^ll7I + +rHgEI. oI"J gsl+^rl gC CEoIH^l !*d flol ¤
    =
    l}Z!s tsdl]g trll g^J.J+. zl"56J H^liE ,]]= ass + 9l= EE+g:18 16.16q1^l g + 9l+.
    H2N(CH2)4NHz (putrescine)$ H2N(CH2)sNHz(cadaverine) 9 +A g+ E4l: 16.9, 16.73,16.74,16.101,16.n4, 16.124
    + otnJol 9l+.
    fl H (quinine), iEl oJ (codeine), z}4l oJ(caffeine), 4"J
    (amphetamine) Eq Y+g EE*g oi"J"lEI. +=
    "J9l
    oI"JEr+ TI
    uJ.{z}zlE, ol s+q}+=E EgTloltr}. oiul$ {r} {e ,.+

    -a ilzl6}E +i olgq Aq+.J+. olerll gg Eeg &g


    (acid salt)olzp'*4. .t"JS A-e. -E^l6tE, ol$ S,ll9-e
    i.l46J tgg AH*CI s -s^l6lq. A.HCI-e.E s.7l6ln,
    olul $ffiiE P=zl-=.6J+. qE 5q
    "Jql4"J
    ge++i DAFED
    (amphetamine hydrochloride)= "Jstl 4"Jg !1+A&(HCI,
    g
    g&)e.tr zlelrf, {l$olr}. ffircrsnrr
    t HCI(aq)'-------->
    -NH2(a4) ,ild,4e4ttr trry,

    CHs
    ALLERGY
    oJtrllEltrJ

    -NHa* Cl-(aq)
    ;;(n
    A.rihnrrminc

    .BxtPsE^Ls
    ffi ISWl^n,
    CHe
    gEl+a
    "JtrllEt"J a rH 16.16 iIBJE S,0l ¤ + fl= ol-"J EEI+^= +e d
    tlge +lgCol ,]]* z+sq, B+ q .JA6la, 6^d ot"J E-e.E6lEgqtEE =8

    qHl
    F 16.17
    E/|I_E J?l $¤ oltBt I(, s.ts ,(pl Alt
    (a)EFgaJEt ol¤(F-)el Ko, (b)SEts olE{NH4+)el K,= ?6|.119

    6tl*
    Eq HFE 4gzl"J F-eL NH3el zi4}oJ NH4*E 6I?-l {}+ 4teJ sq^l HFe+NH3E Zig Bl
    K,*Ku +41= ol+5IH,
    +o,1+ Ealol4. fEE z+"J F-eI NH4*E
    "l]rl ^J+= +¤. + 9t+.
    =
    E0l
    (a) s. 16.24 ++ Dql el6}tr, *&'J HrE K,:6.8x l0-4ol+
    Kb
    K* _ r.o x ro-t.4 : 1.5 x l0_1r
    al t0.aog ol+6}q 49zl.J r-9 raE +6J4. Ko 5.8 x 10-*
    746 163 U gTt "J:d

    (b) -E 16.4e+ Dql el6}tr, qlBzl"J Nurg ra: 1.3 x 1s-sol


    ++
    16.409 ol+6iol 4&oJ Nnn*g &= +.J+.
    *r:fl: 1.0
    1.8
    x 10-14 :5.6x10
    x 1o-s
    10

    +. ^l
    aE .s to.sql 9lE F-e+ NH4*el r al4 +19 al+g <iol > .H= qlrll2
    "J716l-=aeE+91+. (a) +olg No2-, poa3-, Na- ?91^l Hzl o1l4 $izl zl
    >-E*q$1 4. = a_s_?(++ DE zlB= 0,l+6[4.)
    (b) Bzl"J fltfl(quinoline)3 *az| rHr+ an, z|4lE
    ++ p9 zlEE ol+61q, q+ ^] gTlE z[1t ffi $zl
    q^l d $zleli9.e +g6l^le-. p& {tg4.e0ol+. +ltsAE 9zl otl4 tr-+= gtr}oJ7}?
    (il (cur)rN (iil Hcoo- (iiil sro- N
    (a)i < ii < iii (b)ii < i < iii (c)iii < i < ii
    (d)ii < iii < i (e)iii < ii < i

    16.e I oEl so o4el t-oJ7l ^JI


    ol tl-g
    ^lz}6lzl
    dqE Ag EeEg 4ldolq, NaoH, NHrel ,J
    HNo3, HCI, Hzso4el
    g EdEg ¤zlC.Jg "JIt 9lflE|. TBILI.JE 4+ql 96IH, olgE tldol4 ¤zlCS
    qal q= ag g9t'1. qlE 5E 9x1l ro.lTql^l NH,"9 &el F-9 raE 4l4}al94. 4
    +^J g *"_4s &^d E= Ezldol g + 9l¤¤ .J + 9l+. &-¤zl9l ql6J EgE trl {q
    617l dql, 5ol ilE gol pH.ll qtr g'&g;3zl ¤uJ_u_z1e a121.
    ,lel EE gg ,ll+ ,J6J dolldolsE, Eq \$ olrla;! gE Sd 6H46Jtlr. +AB
    + 9i+. trI+^l g +a49 s4d(td-grld)g gg +C6l^= "Jolg4 *"189 AH q
    szl g+. "*3 olsol 5n+ HI+6Iq u*@q) EE oH-(cq)E ^J^J6JEI. .1fl +¤q HI+
    I zt+Stl(hydrolysis)4-r..JEl. g ++.+9 pHE B^JolE ole-os+El 3,t3zlo-+ 9l
    +6J + 9lEl.

    8ol+ilt Esl 'Jt


    .JHlzlsE +.-4q^J ¤-ol9 A-= &q qi¤zle E + 9l+. ql= Etr cl-= Hclel 4|g
    7lolq, CH3Coo-= CH3CooHq 4¤zlol4. +olgol Er+ HI¤:6rq +&cl olgg "J
    E + 9l=zl= 4&el ^llzlql E6I AAg+. 1l9 rllzl$ g7l +l6]]^J +olgq ol9 i^
    g qql Bz[. o1971 "J5q4] 4]ol 16.se 9)! tzyzl rJ& +q 6r+
    ^lz] +Eq +gqq
    +8, *olg+ Eql^l oH- olgg UJE= A6Jol trlEl6p_e +._qE pHql ¤6&9 +zl ?*
    qE Eq ++.19 cl-= oH-E "JEzl 9J:_e_EE pH91 ¤6;rg +rl *=+. tr|+^J
    =+.
    ++.lql^l cl- olgg.il-¤zl sl4ql^J .J^J +at olgol+.
    uJli HAz| 771^lE r}&ql +6171 s=trfE, HA= Eilol4. ol 4* zlgzl.J A-= E
    Ezlzlg4. ol ¤-ol¤9 4=J9 E4 +*6Iq "+,tI4 +4IEl olgg ^JC.J+.
    a*(aq) + H2o(/) .- HA(aq) + oH-(aq) [16.43]

    ¤zlrl 8,.J,* oH-= +EE puE ¤4 ¤zlCol EIE+ gtrf. oP.llE& ol$(cH3coo-)
    g qE EH, EtE u+971tr^J, Er+ HI+6IE o|.rJltr4}rl +&sl olgg $$eEal pH
    zt 94zlz]l .J4.
    cH3coo-(a4) + H2o(/) i- cH3cooH(aq) + oH-(aq) 116.44l

    No3- or3g eong pHur g:d= +ts7t? cos2-E g:Brg +E7r?


    A
    16.e E 8qq tJ ETld¤ 747

    *ol¤ol uso, 4 ?ol otzlE "ll4$ + 9l= ia ol89 7l^ljr_ 9leH + q ++


    oJ
    ^J+ol
    q=ql, olfl gg oJ4c oJczlcol4.7 4r11r0.2¤). olE +"lg "_4cg ql4l
    16.leql^l lr=ol,: ols9 &elrrE tI'}]4 rTlql E6I] aag+. K,) KaolE +Eg
    &Col qr, & > &olB +.le ¤zldol ¤4.

    oJol*zl Eq ,J3
    s+qlql i z1] oltr9 oJCzl-= zlzlt_:lE 4flzt "Jolge qf$zl9 4ItIeE ,J+g +
    glq. gl= Eq NH4"= *¤zl.J NH:9 4&o14. NH4*E q}&oloe Hroql *dzl¤
    L]]+r aiolsefi.(hydronium) olgg Bd6lq puE *=4.
    NHn+(aq) : NH3(a4) + urO+(a4)
    + H2O(/) [16.4s]
    qtr ++eql^l= + q qld-6}71 qqg tlqlg "J+zl q=ql, qE EE pe(No,),E Eq
    +Hg ql r +.lg tr-Bql &dg lrlrll ¤+. qBrll olfl oJol rJzlzll qYtl?
    +^l a& olgol e&g EIE aol olBzl6l-= ^J4g B +E gl4leL}, :L1e +* ^J
    4fl 4o14. e& olgol ,Jtql e4}e-l Aflzl"Jg ^J46lE 849 Hls"$ +^lg+ ?l
    4. : 4tl9l re3n olgg HI+g rqg gszl 9l+. Fe3*e+ ?ol, 49 rTlql d6l-=
    zfzl:L *E olgEg pe3+ ole.rl u[!z]-zlE, ++alql^J ^]']+
    =
    4]^.ig +Eu+
    ^ll7l9 .816.6 2s'Cq^1 ]{ o;'o1g
    (E 16.6). sql^J Fe'*q Fe3*9 4g ulla| BH, olgE d6tzl ?zlEtfll ui4 &szl ol
    +¤-o4eltlqalt+
    ¤z{ ?zlal.izl= .J + 9l+.
    g0lE
    s 16.6q1^l :+ ole.59 & {Iol Et"J o},rllE&(&:1.8x10-)r+ =zll r}az1 gs- Ka

    g g + gl+. grJ4 ++4 +4g oJaq E-.+ olgg ^Jq4sE r-r. d6I= 4oBj Fe3* 6.3x10 3
    E4 Hlso6|zl g:e-q+ pHql g6&3 +zl ?+=+. old A ? ,JgTlql^l E f 914(r0.s Cr3+ 1.6x10 a
    =
    ¤). ql zlxl ololgol pHE *+= ^l.e += a6oEg f.s 16.17q1 zll;.la|g{Q. AI3+ 1.4 x l0-'

    ++ olgol &c +Eg "JE= ql4q+g rEJ 16.18q1^J E + gl+. ?+ olg+ oJa 3.2 x ro
    10
    Fe2*

    2.5 x ro
    1o
    6l¤- ztzlE e E +^IE Elo" S dzl-tg gqBA^J +slgrl ,,r.i,i, (13. r E). #4 olgel A Zn2*

    6t7I olgr+ +sl6|r 9l= E ezr.el &l:.,,1o1e-1 t}E 4l¤+ trJ rzl g+. r Ni2* 2.5xl0 "
    ^Jn
    =++
    0l :1*0114 +alb e|| tl-g7l r|,r|q¤ gae .fb7i?
    ^llE+9

    lffi'::<.%h
    lIo'P

    J *
    NaN03 Ca(NO3)2
    H=BtrlE E= ueqelE EF
    pH:7.0

    afB 16.17 golEol eEe.{ pHoll Elxl= B:Br Lll 7[rl Etg t.o nz 8._!sl rH+4oJ pH zt= ti-E7l
    +861?rl.
    ^l^lEoE
    748 163 u-g7tEtr

    Fe3*ei 9l= H2o E H+= gr, +olgel Hro+z[ 8dqq,


    =q
    tl^elelSE +Ee d6|: 3+oll^l 2+e -QoHq
    6-L
    ltlln
    UOvl
    I

    ^tE
    O-H E6tll -dtt. EEltrt. Etrt.
    =g=
    -lr*
    l 2+

    #;
    +

    4 +

    [Fe(H2O)6]3+(a4) + HzO(/) ;----. [Fe(H2O)5(OH)12*(oq) + H3O+(aq)

    afg 16.18 #qlE Fes* olSol +Jee 4t86l.= 7ig Fe3+oll EE|.E E Extoll,\l Enll?.! Hzo E^loll H*= rll=6|.q Hso*E u=71 nllEolrt

    zi*ol 4dq qq +cI6Ir. 9l= E +zlE o-H At}e E6llzlr., q4^J +ql E B4s
    oobdzl-=
    dzl 4+al g+.
    Eo4qF1 %fols_rl golgq Ezl qrfi
    ¤ol Eql +9tg trll &d, ?d, gzld 6 qE +"-49 "JEzl .J7l 9l8ll^l= oJolg+ *ol8
    g q.Jg E+ "Jolo}6J+. +¤-n+ ae ql zgl ':.cgE sqts"J + gl+.
    l. *olgr+ ¤.olgol E+ E4 HI-qo6lzl ?+g rI pHE 6col B aeE qlt}.J + gltrI.
    ,JtIg zlgTl.J ¤.olg4 1+g "Jolg E.= 2+g +ag g^q oJ'olg(ca2+, sr2+,
    Ba2*)o1 olql +.J+. {l: Nact, sa(NoJr, Rbclo4
    2. gol E4 Hi¤.6|q +tl+ olgg "JE: 9o189 s.Ei6l.r., oJolge 54 Els" 6}zl
    ?+=+8, puE ¤zldol E 1"e ql^J6J + 91trt. E4Iei 4¤zl.J solgrl l+E
    oJolg E= 2+el +rlg giel oJ=ol$(ca2+, sr2*, Ba2+)9e +cg flol ololl {af,
    4. {l: Nacto, RbF, BaSo3
    3. gol Er+ HI+4q ololcgS ols-g "JE: "Jolgg E¤i6Ir., ¤-"19¤ E4 HI¤:
    6I^l ?*=trIH, pH= &^dol g 4-qE qltlg + g+. ._Igzlg 44I.J oJolg E=
    d6l7}2+ ol^Jql olql +6J+. ql: NH4NO3, AlCl3, re(NOJ:
    ^+g "Jolgol
    4. gol iE6'J6lr. glE "Jolgr+ +olgol E+ Er+ EI+g + gl+8, +^IE+ ol$$ alol
    E_trE olgg E+ dc6J+. ¤:"-4ol &^J, +d, EzlB * q! aol qizlE olgol
    E4 Hi*61+ ^J'I4e ,{zl"ll grl gl'}. ql: NH4clo, Al(cH3coo):, crF:
    \T qEl 16.18
    tn "J to4E.4^J(tt^J, 6ti, "J7l^"i)
    ,l8nl7l

    rl301l +olTl gel +Eo-401 ,tl¤E^|, 6doJ^1, gTldoJ^lE "J5i^19.


    (a) Ba(CH3COO), (b) NH4CI (c)CH3NH3Br (d) KNO3 (e)Al(ClO+)s

    8ll'J
    E^l +q{ szll$ olg a.J s}E}E(g)E +E}4sE+q + +E +ql q¤ olgEol 9lsq, 4 olgol pH9l ol¤
    flt=j
    q.q qCg aC6I= E^llol+. B6Jg +=zl= 'Jts +"-qE aqdg ACB + 9l+.
    16.10 I C Z)l )1!jrl alqi +^ 749

    EUI Ezl(r.{o: )= 7}zlr. 9l+. q! olgE Er} H}+6tzl ?}


    (a) ol *q43 BtE olgr+ ol.!lE& ol$$ zlzla 9l+. .J oE++o-49+col+.
    o1$(Ba'z")g +4+ oJrJ4 tr++g olgolEE, pH (e) ol *9* CIo4 ol$$ zlzla 914. et3*q z;-o1
    At3*e+
    ql g6Jg +zl ?+=+. ¤-olg(cH3coo-)g Et}e 3++ q d6l-= 7I7l= oJol¤+ 4}col+. CtO4-=
    CH3CooHq 4Szlolug 7l+ E6ll= 6Iq oH olg
    = 4flzlo1ug pHql g6.19 +^l ?+=trI.
    zJ*(ncloa)9
    I4saE4. trt+^l +.lg ¤zlcol 94. r++^J Al(cloJ, +"-qg 4I4olr+.
    o) ol +e4ql^-l NH,*E EgTl(NHrE 4&olq, q+^l 4I > H6 fitfit1
    Col+. ct rJ4I(HCl)9 4rBzl-q, +E9 pHql ¤6J q+ +"-q- PHTI *g
    aql^] +g +-qs +gdt^ls.
    g +zl *=+. = g"-4ol &C olg(NHa*)r}pHql g6&9
    (il o. ro M Naclo (iil o. ro M KBr (i0 o. ro M NH4cto4
    +zl ?+= ol$(cl-)¤- zlzll g1o u_e. NH4cl +Eg + (a)i < ii < iii (b)ii < i < iii (c)iii < i < ii
    (d)ii < iii < i (e)iii < ii < i
    dol4.
    (c) {zl,<'l CH3NH3+= EgTl(cH3NHz, o}"J)9 4}&ol o > EE Slr{12

    -E &col--1l., Br E rJ4I(HBr)el tr$zloluE pHE 6d ++ql +q{ M +a49 "JEflg ql,


    ,^d}e-tr 0.010 q!
    ol+. 6I+= &doln at4E pu9l ¤.Jg +zl g:e-EE Eol uJ &C(E='J 9zlC)oJzl Ei6l^le.
    CH3NH3BT$&dol4. (a) NaNOr, re(NoJ, @) KBr, KBrO
    (d) ol +.-49 1+ql +61+ ++ ols K*eI a^I HNO3E 4L (c) CH3NH3CI, BaCl2 (d) NH4NO2, NH4NO3

    qHl 16.1e
    oJffi $rjzpx gol*. ¤.o{ol {i8"Ja[, g7l¤oJ4 qEolTl

    NazHPO+E Eoll+fi= til! {ld E-401 EJ^l E= E7l¤ E"-qol EJ^l ql=61^le.

    rlit <ItJ, rc,x Ka:K,(^l 16.40)= ol+6}q +++. *. 16.3q1^.1


    E4 89ol 4ltol g7l, EzlCol gzlE E= E
    NazHPou H2Po4-9 Ko, + H3Po49 x,rb6.2 x 10-8(-E 16.3)0lE +,
    4lol+. ol$$ zlzlL !lr|.
    ol +a4g Nu*eI Hpo42- KrlHPonz ) x r(4(HzPoa) : K, : 1.0 x 10 14

    744 +49 olgol tlc"Jxl, ¤zlc"Jzl= oJotol ++. Kb(HPo4z): !9I it^-: :
    6.2 x 10-6
    1.6 x 1o-7
    Na*E 14 #49 olgolE-tr pH9l g6J.9 +zl g:=tr].. u+
    ol Kb <lg Hpo42-ql ql+ & tl9 rosu11z1-9+. tr14^-l
    4^l +"lE q4C* nponr- ole.9 HI¤¤ +qtro}"t ++. ^l
    16.46-H-+ +^116}+. u+e}^l ol ¤."-43
    HPoa2 4is-tr. E= gTlE zI+B + 9l+. 16.470l
    ^l
    ¤zlCol4.
    =
    4I9E ++g q HPo42 (aq) ;- H+(aq) + Po;-(aq) > -H.6 qF.ll 1

    ++ g= + 4Ic +qg "J= aee qta3-+ fl= ae


    lt6.46l q 7l]oJ7l?(s.16.39 xItr +4.)
    Bzlg 4*$ 4 HPo|-(aq) + Hzo i-
    NaHSOa, NaHC2Oa, NaH2POa, NaHCO3
    H2Poa@fi + oH-(aq) U6.471
    (a) 0 (b) 1 (c)2 (d) 3 (e) 4
    q7l^l q ¤¤ tr-+= r*= HI¤-ol, +Eol +^d"Jrl g
    =
    Tlc.Jzl= ac*+.
    > s* slrll2
    ,r.l s
    =&9
    +olEEl+.9(K2HC6Hso7)E #Eg +C ql
    ¤01
    ^l
    t6.46E &= H3po49 K,/.A 4.2 x rO-'3o14(E zl, EzlClJ.z}?(s 16.39 zt.e *a)
    16.3). 4 16.47E f;zl Hpo42-9 raE 4t H2ror-E 6,

    16.10 I $"J71 4E"3l Et-J +5.


    qtr Eeg Eq +olE 1I^.j E= Hzl¤ol 9zl4 +I-Hzl qL +9 4EE 44421 *
    84. *"_4ol Elflg trll Ll+r+= ZF4 slql +a ^Iolql= qB +Zl7I 9)*t4? q= EE
    750 163 u-g7tEe

    El eg oHTlE flqE qH Eee oH-E qEaa fizlzl Elr., qB E43 u*E


    7l^1a-
    q-an 4bzl? ol eql^J= slE +e7I &-¤zl zEql trlil= g6"E-9 ,J+61 ¤B
    ^Idol
    ".J+.

    tE ^llTlql
    oJEJS
    +t_s_oJE
    &E ^llzl= 7e 4l zlzl eoJgl E6il^l ¤6&9 *=+.
    . H-A E!fl=+¤ +^ gzl-(H)E zl4 Ezl= H-e pa;o1 +q-r} ,Jol f+ 94 +ql +
    +4.J "JAq¤ r*4\ 4.41 SdzI ?4l(&)e 4+qt+ :i.:i-:: (8.4.21). tsz|gl +Col ^J7l
    E ag ++r+ pol Erla[flH ag tzla]4.

    ,1r;
    Ag olg^d faElE(ionic hydride)g +Col HlqlE ¤+. + H fl4* +d6l¤
    NaH4
    ?*4lEla *Cxt gzll(gzl)e. qiL"o.J+. cH+9 H-c ¤6Jll Ag ++C u-e ¤aJ*
    ticol4 Ezlc f*qlg Y}Ezl 9+=+. 9HI4 0e H-a dtl9 +col 4a++ HE
    dz} gEE Sqqq 4 d +Iol ¤4.
    . H-A s-e ¤!19 zlfl $zlzl ootdzl-= E i gEzl oI= ql E$ol rlu
    =!E|glrllzl ,,:, ls.8d). ol]+,Jq} a6Jg
    +H"ll "Jal-= Ad.g
    ^llzlolr{ "+6J AaJql
    El6l] +?,lq
    7l qBq. ol soJg ql= EE 6Je4lq} +iql^l q]+ +,q6I+. H_F aq+e +col 7l
    tL 3 u-e aqlol4. A6JE +^d"Je-e ^J4.JtrIE, HF= ,ll+ ,JoJ &e-.+. ql^J6J +
    ql4. :44 H-Ag 4.J 4lzlE eg +ql^l +ls g+a++ 441+. 4 Hr* 2ee ktl
    mol, HBrS 366 kJlmol, HclS 431 kllmol, HF= s67 kflmololQ. HFg eqlqol g.tr.
    4ls+ +i 3 zl* ^Jlrr_E, r+E gtrt}+ +iE ++Eol ,J&.JqlE ¤+6Ir HF= E
    tol+. "JHI4sE u-e ¤89 ,xlzlzl Eqle++ &el ^tlzl= r+4{l+.
    . slETlel elE¤ HA-tr+El +4 fl^l7lg"Iu| dzl olgar6J i
    ?lEzlE ea6r= ^ll H
    zll .JzlE elgzl(e )zI 9"I4 oJCdJzr 6r= aol4. 9HI4 o-e 49219 .JCCol 3
    ;4 +ls- q 'z3.444.
    ol^J+t
    olCe.$ HA9 ez| +zlgEql^l Ae +ql +.J A+ql, .JHlzlstr H_e ?6J9 4lzlzl
    t}g ^l7l= ac6}= TrtI +s6J eoJol E+. gi
    A! zzlzl4a++ u-n EB rllzl
    Eolzl= A6Jol gl+. A4zlstr'* +ql^l oI4E 4ElrJ++ A6Jqe qr"11x1-r.. 4Ig
    =
    rJlzlE rJ6llll+. trl+^J sclS HF_H_+, H2s= H2oE+ rl6.J &ol 84.
    ag +7lql^j olce4l HAq &el ^ilzlE ac6l.= +g -sqlg aEIg +colr}. g^ A
    9 421*CszI f;zlaJffi 4ICg z.rollzl-|ull, zJ$ ?zlglrl sEqsE ?J++ trl+ r
    $r{,:o:- ia.+¤). qE EH 2+71 flA.tr +Cg &E cHa ( NH: <( H2o < HFel
    ^ll7l=
    +^J7| ¤4. c-u A6Jg +dol S,7l qlEql u*4 cu,-= ElExl= ?+=+. N_H EQI
    g +col7l= 6|zlu3, NHr9 ei gzl.ll ul++ dz]t]9 zlz]|t- glr, +q]4 cag +
    E 449 Ela6J dzHlll E6H^l acqI,e, NHrE &eE +¤-6I71-H-+= gzle zl8
    'J+.
    +^e+ 2+71,3+71 Hl++ 94tr +dg olc+4}E ^]7lql 4EI izl4 a6}ol :lH
    rc.lgql eEqq 9l+.
    16.10 I t_g7l ZErl s[+ +^ 751

    74 15 16 t7

    CHn NHs HrO HF


    t0lLf g717l oloqTl ot/\t
    0t'J Ku: 1.8 x 10-s K,:6.8 x 1o-a

    tlol
    siH4 PHs H,S HCI -l

    .$0lLt g7l7t 0fl+ "J-.J g7l o r t e& 7l


    ^il
    OI'J Ka:4x10-28 Ko=9.5 x 1o*8 .=.
    7l

    Hrse HBr
    ol I Tl-,\l

    Ko=1.3 x 1o-a

    t9 ^ll7l67f
    I
    rts 16.19 2*44tl0ldE t4ilEoll tHEl tjel fi-Bt
    ^ll7l

    t^t
    ge &e *&q zJol ,* Zl ol^J$ o_H AElg zlzlL lle

    :o:

    oHTl= 7l4a- 9la+ 6d flz}9l &r flzlz| AaJoJ &9 tt+t(oxyacid)olzp {Q.
    oHTl= ¤zl"ils 5q 9lq. oHtlzl Ezle 4+614+ &eE ++61+ ae qE e?l
    ullE"Jzl oJotExl.
    oH7l7l qH g^ yql A6JdI*,+:t zlCtll tr4. yqlb += a.JE 9lg + 9l+.
    )r-o-,
    ,/
    6['+9 +*4.J 91E Ae ++.J 49o14. olEil= ++9 {zl ${;z} ull
    vzl Nar-] Mg
    **zl qlEq Yel o ^lolel dzHlS gd6l &i +s-E "J?.141 qa, rl+^J oH-= r*
    olg ¤6J ElElE"l gEI. "Ifl cl6J+E=g NaoH+ vrg(oH)ze+ ,Jol oH-E .li++ +
    =
    ?l o I]-E ¤zls 4s" t4.
    yz[ u]frgolg oe]E ArJol ++ gr';olr. oH-= 4$zl g*84. q4lql p]q]Ee t
    gtrl. .JHI4eE v9 dzl *cs_zt +TtElql q+ &E .{zlE +7}*4.
    ^dol4* 6col
    olag + 7Vl olf ullEtrll, a4= d4 EJEzt yql g4ril E"l o-n e6Jg rl E6ll
    zlr +^dg 44^J H*= drll 4+rll g+. Ezll= yoH +== ,*= +E 4EzlE 4zl]
    *ol$.Jql, v9 dzl $Cszt 4e++ .JCcllzl ull$ol4. ol A6Jg a}olEgtr.dltl
    (vou cglrl y= gE4ls+ olgol+)E & aq^l "J f 9,liull, 6JE4l gx[e.] dzl *cs
    7I ArElql q4 zJaaJ4Es ro.zo).
    s+g &a&9 6d 9zl Yql +TIzloJ &4 flzl¤ol A6J6}z ?14. rl Eq fl= 4I^
    fl4* trl+ o-Hg dzl¤ Eq%I7lotr +dg 4 rtzl4z1q. flzlql a!+.J 4Id
    =:d
    752 168 C-E7tE-d

    EE0{l^1, tsell Ax[it^lE 5,tsaib F Eiql6 6 ol! ,iel 5E7l q A?l?


    vol
    \-t r{"1 qll-rL Ef L
    !,1 ddL,t o,l
    g+E d^t "JE= Y-+
    0lE-.Jtr|.
    gd^l.tsH2O-eqE0l
    O-H tsl
    =-sfel =Elz, ^lvl=
    +dol TlTlrt .JLI. =71

    + +

    Ell
    == Y-OH YgITTIEdE .1al 8+
    6folEg^tt CI-OH 3.0 Ka 3.0 x 10-8
    6f0l+u+o15 Br-OH 2.8 Ko 2.5 x10 e

    6l0lso[0l9Ett I-OH 2.5 Ka 2.3 x10 11

    H-OH 2.1 Kw 1.0 x 10-14

    AfH 16.20 YolI7lg.SEoll nlE d|.olE-=ted]^tAL(YoH)9 {ls.

    7I"tole+= +d6l-= H7)l 'ts+'^171E a4-5 +EE, 4EzlE rl "JcE^la+. El+^J


    *d flxl voil dzl *csz[ = gzP] p]ol p{}$ffi &9 ,rllzlE ,}411+. q= 5E
    g^E &^4}ff:cr)g o fl47} g.ol A*e+=. &9 rJ6H4lr+.
    ^ll7l7l
    6folEE4tl ofg^tt g^t rtg^ l
    :6: :6:
    H-O-C]: H-O-9J-O: H-o-9J-o:
    ..t I

    H-O -cl-o:
    t..
    I

    i9:

    & :3.0 x 10-8 Ka= 1.1. x 10-2 ,JN 7l^l

    :::#
    ^tel ^il71 =7t
    yE flx}gl o gzITI gol a6J6J+E zlzlzll 93rll, "l *4le 419 ^ll7l=
    &p++:6d
    ¤E6J+8, 4I^&ql^J 6d flzl9 410]fz[ ae++ &9 ^]l7lz[ zJ6l]dq-r. g + 9lEi.

    tr Hlo2elHBrOs 6 qE aol tl
    =
    t 6Hal Ai+= 4E7l?

    qHl 16.20
    tE ¤Eal +I.E $c14o..1 te.l qE8l7l
    ^1171

    tlEoll+olTl t- {iel^117l7f ',JEH^l= +^lE LlE6[^le.


    (a)AsHa, HBr, KH, HzSe (b)H2SOa, HzSeOs. H2SeOa

    -[u
    +Htrl-

    Eq + rEE El.J+q 7l+ e+.J &ql^'l ^l4L6I¤ ,JullzlE fit¤t olC+ 4qlEEql ql6ll^]= HE d7l +dEe+ As, Br,
    +-e-E +g6lEE4lol+. (a)E HE E6JaJ olt$ pl!]Eol K, Se9 dzl *CsE Hli+trI. ol gzl¤E $zl $$rzl
    n, 0)= &44}ol+. 3;$ Hi old6l¤ trlzl qn, q4^l ,JsL&col ¤4.
    ro.ro I C Z7l )1Ejtl olqj +T 753

    &^tq^l:6d flz}9 dzl +Csp* +d gzlql A6J -+(z.s 4 2.4), H2so47l urseon-B4 ,J4}ol+:il ql=6J
    6J 4I4E += :lel+q. -A dlrl
    -T
    ^1"1.
    E^l
    EVI +4 9{¤ zld Ell=, +d g4ql A"J+ &^
    ?J2
    (a) KE +7lgsq^-l g+q fl" oE, 'l]+ 43 dzl *c gztE +7I y+3 +ol q ,JoJ t}"l4. rle|.r.1 H2seoa
    E= r*=+(rH a.sglrl o.e). IrI4d KHE H= gd6l z| HrSeo3B+ ,J+ &ol+. &sz} ?zlol-i +^J:
    E trl_Z, +qa +qlE 6 rszl zl^J .JaJ $(z|1i zJaj H2SeO3 ( H2SeOa < H2SO47I ¤+.
    Hzl)o14. > H.8 filr'li1
    ullo] fcel d7l g^.lE= z.ot] zJe_, Hl+6J rrlg 49 p+.JEp$ E4}ql^l z"r4l$ f,eE +g6}^le-.
    ,*=+. rlz]..r.1 As-H A.Jg ++Coll, AsH:E f8o_4 HCIO3, HOI, HBrO2, HCIO2, HIO2
    ql^J 4el 4+rl 9+=+.
    "J^dxl-= (a) HIO2 < HOI < HCIO3 < HBrO2 < HCIO2
    (b) HOI < HIO2 < HBrO2 < HC1O2 <
    Se9 dzl ¤.^dE= 2.4, W2 2.8o1+. s-Br ?*ol HCIO3
    (c) < HIO2 < HCIO2 < HOI <
    u-Se ?6J!_+ q +^dolsE, HBrol .JCzl-= ,.ll*
    HBrO2 HCIO3
    (d) HCIO3 < HCIO2 < HBrO2 < HIO2 < HOI
    A6Jol trJ r+(ol q=e rH t6.teql^.1 q.J.J + 9l=
    (e) HOI < HCIO2 < HBrO2 < HIO2 < HCIO3
    rll, H2SeE eI&oll Hsrg zJ&ol+). tr-}+^l *E7l + > Ir.& frlr{|2
    7I6t= +^l= KH < AsH3 ( H2Se< uBrol4. +q44+E ElqlE %r-ql^.] tlCol t*(s= g7l^Jol E
    (b)H2so4e+ HzSeo+E gg +9 o gzte+ oHTl= 7l7lj1 6ll zlg ]l =,,.l Q
    91tr1. olfl A+ql &E +d flzl9 dzl *Cszl (a) HBr, HF (b) PH3, H2S
    ^ll7l=
    +7I+++ rJullTlr+. szl. see_4 $tl $$e.zl eIrJ =e (c) HNOz, HNOr (d) H2SO3, HzSeO:

    ,l+ut
    +I9 E +E 6}+e-l
    =
    +fr E&"J o[,tJlE4](&:1.8 x t0 ')4 zJ$ z[${$o]r}
    H :o:
    H- C C-O-H
    I il ..

    +19 +aq^J *g4sE E^lg +Eg zl$dzl(carboxyl group)$-z 614, cooH.s .tr
    zl++. o}^llE4}el p+ql4g cH3cooH-+ _Ezl6lq, zt+dzl9 +i"J olgplg + 9l+.
    z}$dzlE E6J6l= 4Ig 7tE-Ht}(carborylicacid)olzp alE, fzl{lE +eg 4z16}
    = ,lz16}= 7I
    r 9l+. *&(formic acid, zllul4ll4 H1=4I3 4I9 H+olr +.q+ 9lzl=
    =
    +d1I9 qol+.
    :O:
    o:
    I
    il
    C-O-H
    ..
    H-C-O-H
    El^t
    -gt

    7}+¤/Jol &eE zl+6l-= ae + ziTl oJ4ql 7l"J'J+. a,alli zl-.Ezlq +4q A


    ,*d t}^zl dzl-E ¤qB4 o-H a6JE dz} "JE= *+r1 +dg +71^14 qi¤zl9
    qle^dg +"J+. Ealli rl+d419 elEzl(zl+d& *olg, carboxylate anion)z| +H +
    4.t' (8.6¤)E 714 + ?lbull, +d6l7t q gzlE E4lqq q+ ?}d3rlgr}.
    'l]9
    H, :o: H:O
    ll..
    H-C -C-9, .-Eil
    I lt
    H-C-C :o
    I I

    H H
    754 163 g7t EB
    ^J

    ffi
    I
    71.+¤t Gol+Eo_qE Eoil
    ==
    ttll u.50ll_|.E7l¤ E.-4= oJEETl?

    ato llttsl "J+^J "y"{iiAj


    q
    4^116l ++|l B, ++qg pHTI qr 6.00lo" tlCol HzICE+ a+
    ^ll24tlql^l +
    +Eeg +C6t= +9
    7i q= olultll(amino acid)9 'JHl4e
    =4oltl
    q=ag"J+flE}.
    +a= ot4e+ r'.trI.
    H R :o: olulr.tl9 &-g7l slqtg 16.,18+ 16.4e-Hq= ¤-!-6I+.
    I

    H-N -C-C-
    I til o-H
    ^l
    cooH= 4I9--E ++68 NHzts gTlE 4so 6E-9, olulh
    I &g + tszI Lilql Bronsted-Lowry 4I-9215 E+ 7lxljl
    H qq^.] 7l+d719 oJCZITI EzlCql ei fl4E dgg+.
    0l'J7l )l=E7l
    HO
    H H
    (g7td)
    9zlr] 6d9 tsr gzlql aB+ Rql q-4 oluli.&9 =oF
    (^td)
    H-N- C-C -OH ;-
    I ttl H-
    I

    N
    -o
    7144qq. ql= E.E zl-|r a+6J o}trl H
    I I

    H
    =4ol4lGlycine)$
    L&s-tr, Rol i+ flxlol4, g4u(danine)$ Rol c11rol OIAITL IIEI
    o d/'l r=

    +. ed E^t EHIEI 018

    H CH, ol olule{lol 9_=5_4 ,Je +471qE d4l Ez}


    ^lql^] oE
    d7l4 +^dolzl"J, szte.l .J+ ¤g old6l-=, 4
    I I

    -COOH -COOH = + ge +Ad-= ,*rll ¤+. olfl tszt= 4Elq olg


    H H =
    (zwitterion, 'gC olg'el Sgqlolrlz *4.
    gatLJ
    =aloltl qts deE+Q oluiu{ol 4ElEl olg"J.3 "J + 9l=
    olulr.4}e 7l+471= zlzll 91gs-E 4Is-+. zl+6J+. z[? "JE rC+tr .l+d EAr+ Eli.J CAg 714 aolq
    rfl olul$Hr)z\u zlzl:L llo oE SzIEE +sooJ + 9l -*" (8.28). olulLtl ?C3 e+ 200'C ol^Jq +g +=d
    trf(16.7e). q+^'l o}trltLtg "J4^J oJ^dzl.col+. ¤. ztzl:.ril, olTlol ols-.tj ilalle.l olul:.&g *
    =+ol =aolq-.
    tg Er+qls" trll * 4*4
    zJol 4IE= ¤zle
    zI+QI4. +d s.qlH+ q
    Eq E{ a- +=+. zllQz} o}ulu{l$ $
    4I: H2N-CHz-COOH(aq) + H2O(l) : zt LllE "Jd6Ie+ +d6t AETI Eq! 4+zl t_
    7l{+.
    ^Iole-l =
    HzN-CHz-COO (aq) + u.O+(aq) U6.481 HIE= u}+^l o}ulL{lol 4F+ gTlE 5l^lql z}++
    szl: HrN-CH2-COOH(a4) + H2O(/) :- + 9l= Lq-s- olElL4Ig caq +s+ ¤.&g
    *H3N-CH2-COOH(aq) + OH-(aq) "la+.
    116.491
    +E 9+ E4l: r0.rra

    16.11 | Lewis tl'al "J7l


    oJ^Jzl $2fl(Bronsted-Lowry Ezl)zl qElE NH3ql^l E f llFol, "JCzle+ A6J6J Hl+
    * dxltlol il"lot oJ4. Lewis +4= ol+6}q H+e+ NH39 EI¤¤ ++4 +ol E7l6J
    -A olrl
    -r ,\A"1 .

    H H +

    H- N-
    I I

    H+ +:N -H --------> H
    I I

    H H
    G. N. LewisE +*ql ql4q ilg_e_-tr, olfl +dq] +E_6lBr+. r= 4I4 EzlE
    a"
    * ^}-¤zl dg,J 49 zllqlal94.
    dzl%Ig +deE
    ' Lewis t!(Lewis acid)$ dzlal Bzllol4.
    ' Lewis Ezl(Lewis base)t: dzltt ?zllol4.
    16.11 | Lewis ltrl g7l 755

    S4zl ++SH Hzl=-(ou-, Hzo, oluj, ¤.o19¤- EF dzltl izJlol4. Bronsted-


    Lowry9 Aqql el+ EzlE(oJCx[ Bzll)3 Ef
    AEql E,* gzl(dzl4] ?zDol4.
    Lewis
    rq+ Lewis zllf oll 96rH, EzlE H+z| o1g +E +zlqlE dzl{lg ,ll+g + 91tr}. qr}
    .'.1 Lewis cE= t!9 gqg rTll qtl^la't. s*= rewis 4}olzl"J, +"J+ 49 olrl4. 4l

    -+ Eq BF3i flxlz| AAql Hlq fl= sHlBg zlzla- 9o Ir e, NH:el BF3el {!-$ol g
    q\l+ .r:., (s.7p). BF3i {zl-r6lt +7ll"J NH:91 4a}¤ dxl+} pzll(Lewis 4}).E 4}e"++.
    H F HF
    lr>l I
    H-N: + B-F -------+ H-N-B-F
    I

    H F
    tttr HF
    Lewis Lewis
    Grl
    t

    E^fLt0l80l Lewis ue-E ltE6lalE olE flqot6f=71?


    =801

    ol tlql^] +E 4E ag +g eoEllE 6l+ Hl$_e_E, Eg ".t¤zl-$,-}]+g i 9lo tre


    &E Ceg 7V1a- 9lS+. olfl a+ql Bronsted-Lo.'y9 4FI ¤zl9l ql+ Cel= 'll+
    ++6I+. dzlls *4zI t4 EzlE trl-= trll= ++.-4¤. ^J4.J 4*zl B:q s.E Arrhenius
    u| Bronsted-Lowry9 eelE ol+'*+. Lewis C9zt +4+ d3 oJCzlz[ olEs]= H]*
    ol olu, B+ trl He H+9 Hl¤¤ 4}-g7l Hlgo sE q-E + glrl 619+= aol4. sE
    g q6lzl +16ll^.1, Lewis9 4lHg ¤Btr rllzl ott-lE, BFael rJS s}diE--3 4}ol+r +E
    "Jg 96l.zl s+. 'Htql dzHr ts4le z++q-= slEl¤-g'Lewis 1.Po e +=+.
    =BF3e1. zJol ESd6J $dz}4lE zlzlt- 91= cI'JEEol Lewis &ql sElqq, Bg ++
    + oJol!--5ol Lewis tol E + 9l+. r qle^1, Fe3* olgg ^Iol?IsI ol$(cyanide ion)4
    ,J6rzll Hl+6rq
    ^Iol
    ?IE+e ol *(Fe(cN)0, - )g ¤ C t+.
    Fe3+ + 6[:C-N:]- + [Fe(C-N,)o]3-
    Fe3* ol¤* Hlq
    fl= sElBol olgol 4l+61+ dzl-,B.¤- Eol¤"J4
    ?lo o-e.
    ^IoloJe+
    (rtlql^l pe3" olg9 9fl s-u1gol r^ol=zl rJ ,*.\lal rl-E 4ol4). ++ ol¤+ * d
    6l-=-7lzlL ?l"lrJ cN- olgr+ rJ6l4l tr-E z|¤¤ "J_qa+.
    q-+ a.Jg 7l7la_ gl= B4¤E rewis &ol g + gl+. qlE Etr ol&p+ trizl E4
    Hl*6Iq E&(urco,)g ¤cg tr]lsl HI+e coz9l E +zl7| +46|= 4o e g + 914.
    oltrll E +zl+ dzial a\e, CozE dzl-tl Bzl|e zle" o.J+.

    ,...A?' J-'?'H-O-C
    :-?'
    ,i ,A' ,A, "
    O: H-O-C Q
    -
    " -------+

    ,A'

    ,! uzo9 dzl-t}g tsg + glzl g+. &-Hzl dlg Bc6J +"il +I+9 .Jd^I7I +=
    olEa}q +tlol EiEqdq. ^i
    ^-E
    [re(uro)u]'*4 ag +s[g oJolgg oJolgol
    xllro.s¤91r.l tr9l=ol, :.H ro.rs9
    Lewis t}eE, E +zl+ Lewis Ezl-tr z++6lq "JEqA+. E EzlTl "JdEl¤ q= ++

    "J+8, ++ olge t^E dzl_E E9'JzJ4(:aJ rc.21). ol+Al dzl


    olgr+ EJEE EJzl
    H o-u a'Jg # rl +cg trlril Elq, ++ olgql a.Jd E tszl+ ++d +qle glg
    756 168 u-g7lE-d

    > rH 16.21 +EI.EJ gol8sl t ot6l


    ^lIlTl^l ^t=
    i\l-e.-q
    E= g0 l8sl d6l-0il el=-.Jtl.. golSeBel d^l "JE
    olE:olq¤E qolEltrt.

    gol- H-o
    zsl g:d¤
    =-Efsl
    El^l^l
    ^ll7l0ll
    oJi -QOHq
    =/\ln
    lrt
    ++

    Ttet
    oL
    rlllTtxl
    ou-t- o-t= I't-e.-q
    -oL
    g0l80eq drl "JE
    01501 a:stg elolEltrl.
    gfol8ol H-o

    o
    e,6t1l 6l-n, #=lE=Et=e
    Hzo
    : H+= Lil5= + ?le
    Ea -e.oH-q t,\lnl Elrl ( ,il

    ullH+ rl &dol ¤4. ol E4= oJolgg d6I7I 44++ rl zlall4lQ. ol{e_e.3+ oJol
    gol d6I7I zlg ololgB+ q ,J,tl &Cg ?*Y Ag ¤H"J + 914.
    Lewis tI-H7l zl]'Jg ol +gql^-l El]g qel Lll+# + q ".r-H+lt ?*(zlB Eol ol
    U +qlql^l 'JqLI: HI+ilH)qlE 4eoB + 9lrll 6il=+. .,?zl EleL r+Cg Ell+AI g+
    H, EISE Tl4g +l6}q Lewis tlol gs6J qP +_s_6J ql= g + glg 4,o14. aJ EzI4
    olg9 El++ dzl-1}4, +E E^I+ olgel Hl e_HlB {-E z}+e s}qq^"1 7l.t}
    ^tolel
    +st ,l]H +E a}4olH, *_e.EE al+ ¤qBZl E lolrl.
    tgt qHl
    F .a"tl
    o E
    TIIL{
    -llE

    0l?.!{phosphorous acid, H3PO3)el Lewis ?4.E tlBllAtl H


    SgdIl"t]o1 0[Llr, 0lgdllt?]^l ¤E6l/.l9. (b)25.0 mL9 HgPOs Eo4E o.tOz nz :o
    -P- o-H
    (a)HsPOsTI ell I

    NaOH $e{o+ 486lfltl'. 23.3 mL9 NaOH Ee4ol F Sd^l'-EF= tll As!fl4E, HsPoa
    :9-H
    I

    =al/.lTE
    Ee4e] EE.E= gol?l7l'? (c)Sq E^il (b)ollll 48 del H3PO3 Ee4e.l pH= 1.59flt1'. Ks1)) Ka2tl 7E
    6[l, H3PO3el oEa[ u4EE"lK.rE 7olrl9. (d)0.050 M HCI Eo-4ol AFgt= 0.050 M H3PO3 EsIr[ 8d4ee H|E6E, 0l
    +E ¤E6l^le.

    6}lS
    E4l (a)ql^l: &e-e ++6IelE q¤ p+qt +a7l gs-f,4 +El (b)e+(c)9 BS ++El. (d)ql^li tF"Jg Hl.il.6fTl

    *ql^l E]]g 1¤ ole"t4. +El%iE, pHe+ [H*]9 +Al.E flofl olgp+ EE.$*g.Tqg aolq.

    (a) t}e *C u-x AdJg T}zlr 9l+. rB 8.sql^.1 He-l d7l


    *CE: 2.lola, pE 2. tolE}. F fllz1 +e 47]| *-CEE
    7l^1t1tr_, n-p d!13 ++tolE+ o> (8.+d). trI4^l H-p
    9 H= tlCol olr-14. rfl+ += + +r= d7l *tsz}
    :.sql ooil at+qq 9lq. q4^l H-o a6Jg *colq, u
    ++4.J oJddl-= Elril g+. ol + +^: tlCol+.
    =
    ee+ 15e EGt 757

    (b) +s+ +*ql qq} +oI HI+^le q-s4 a+. H3POs(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2HPOs(aq) + 2H2O(l)
    -
    $]-oE$ CEE+Q M:moUL, mol=MxLol4
    * ia.sB). trl+^l +Eql dzloJ NaosE g+=
    q-s=+a+. (0.0233 L)(0.102mol/L) : 2.3S x 10-3molNaOH

    Hl+49 Zl+E+q 4 H3po3 s=B 2 mol9 NaoH


    zI4s.¤4. trl¤l^]
    ^lEq =ol 91ts Hfoe9 Eib -/ 1molH3PO3
    :1.19 x
    qs=r+ ,J4. .
    (2.38 x 10-rmoLNaOH)l,\
    2molNaOFI
    10-3molH3PO3

    tr}+^] H3pO, .$99 }lE= (r.rs x l0-3 mol)/


    (o.ozso L)= 0.0476 M

    (c) 899 pH = l.Se-ESq ¤¤q^l [H*]= +6J+. [H*] : antilog(-1.s9) : 10-1se : 0.026M (+a. iz] + ^]E)
    K,r)) &zoleE ql+Eq olgg &E I Hr,ll ol
    epl +Zlql^l "JEqd+.
    H2Po3- olg 6J 7H7t "J=qe ul u*s 6I+4 "J
    H3PO3(a4) :- H+(aq) + H2PO3@q)

    H+e| H2Po3-9 EoEE '8, [H*]: a7l=E(M) o.o476 0 o


    =-qzls-tr
    [H2pO3 ]:0.020Moltr]. H3Po39 ¤¤ *:s= a tsE EEI(M) o.026 +o.026 +o.026
    7l t'Eq^J olgEl4q H+el H2pO3-= "JE "J o.026
    EB 5E(M) o.o22 o.026
    g us aols-e., [H3po3] :0.0476 M-0.026 M
    :0.022 Moltrl(+]t tzt + zlel). ol A+= q+
    r+ae ss 4=.16J+.
    olgsl EEge q^grl e+. ole+E+s: lH*],,
    dffi x 1oo% :##x 1oo%:55%

    .JzI tI6ll?.1 l-H*ltH,PO,-l (O.O26\rc.O26\


    I(,,:
    ^J+: q+n+ aEi ]H,P;J-: ---fu-: o'031

    (d)t+.Jg ¤.gcoloe + oJzlE d^ll r-oEql


    +a4
    ul-gr} cl=r (13.s¤). HCI$ A&olE-tr 0.050 M +
    o-43 o.oso tvtq tt*(aq)* 0.0s0 ME Cl-(aq)E -*.
    6J+trI. trI4^J dxllsEo.roo mol/19 EZIEg.EI
    +4. H3po3= eltlolo + HCI-E_trI= gt 4g .J
    ol olgF+6}q, HCt +o_q-H_+ rl]+ 4.g oJzl-Sol gl
    4l ¤+. tr14^l H3po3 +Eol *3tF.Jg-E-.JtrI.

    sE "i 6s tq
    Arrhenius +Et g7l(16.1tr)&4 Hzl ++"-4EdAg B^l S+ ol+.
    tr*r+. ql= 4Ie q=Irl^E g+41, gTlb 4E"l^E ul+ Bronsted-Lowry t(Bronsted-Lowry acid)3 trIE
    Eeql "Jd
    =E zf= += SAol j1, Bronsted-Lowry E7l(Bronsted-Lowry base)
    4l Hsl^Iil+. Arrheniust &C +a4el 44Zu*1aq)olg trllE
    olq, gTld +.-qgl ceg oH (aq) ol+q Tl.Jtlg "J9Ir+. : 4= Eetr+El oJC^l¤ gol=ol= EAolEI. Eg gqg g.¤
    rltl(amphiprotic) Ede., El*61-= EAq q+ Bronsted-Lowry
    Bronsted-Lowry tl4
    g7l(16.2tr) Bronsted-Lowry zllS$
    4I E.= gTlE z++6J+.
    Arrhenius TI]H.H-+ trl Eq 4+B + 9tE a otr, tlql^l oJ^JzI
    (u")z} +e+ gTls olFq: ag rJ46l-fltri. 1-1+ ol$$ $zlzi Bronsted-Low.y tI9 rfSTl(conjugate base)E 4}q^l oJC^f7l
    4zl3 zlzl ?*e ++6J "JC4tr, E E^Iql ,J6f4 AaJ+q. q- aoli1,
    ^{Zgolc^l7}
    Bronsted-Lowry Szl$ Ett(conjugateacid)S E
    ql++g il^l6l+ B4oJ Tlql a6J6J BE]lol+. tn+ raE 4g7l(EE szlp]:
    +^l E+E H*= E+6J H+(aq)-E-4b
    ag 4r-{})E stt!*slg7l 8(conjugate acid-base pair)olzp ;jc.1-.
    aq)) o E -sB6l= a ol EE
    +
    slol-EEE olE(hydronium ion, H3O (
    758 163 C g7t E-g

    4*-4gzl xt9 &-¤zl ^Jlzl= ^lE g+qq 9l+. +^I *¤zlE NH3. olEJ(amine), s+&9 +olgE¤ E.J.J+. "+g
    ol ,J6Ha+E r 4}g7l= E6llzlr., 4lol E6He++ r 4g 7171E+ !lg"6}q r gTlql ql+61:8141+ oH E.]l=Ell. r
    7l= rJ6ll{tr}. E= 4}-g7l Hi*ql^l ¤¤9 9l^l= lrr-f zJ-aj g7l 5121 g(base-dissociation constant, fr)e 44{4.
    ^]l7lE
    +ql^l B+ zSoJ $zltr "JCzlzt 0156l= B!6Je-s olEo*4. KaE Hl* B(aq) + H2o(/) -- HB* (aq) + oH-(aq)9 ¤B tl-+
    ol+. olEll B: gTlE +EUrl.
    Esl xlill 0l8Et(16.3tr)Eg 49 oJol 6llq6}q s*(aq)4 ou-
    (aq)E ¤C't14. rldlolEi{autoionization)9 AEE Eq oleB K,il
    Koel E4l(16.89 4IE
    ^l7le].
    rAE 4g7lE ^ll7l= a*
    1p;(ion-productconstant, K,: [H*][OH ]:1.0 x 10 14, 25'C) 49A K, x 1(r:K*tr +E}9 + 9lEl.
    ^lql^]
    &4 Kai 4^l-4
    e _*.^lt+. ol +41= ++{} Eol+ +._4ql^l E+ ^l-8:¤+. K. ol
    9zl %}9 dlr_l c-+.1+. 49 4}e] ^ll7le+ rae.l 4g7lE ^{
    trq E]4^l [H+]7] 4 7171^lE HI'il"J +4lE ¤B+r+.
    ^lg [H.]e+ [oH ]el Elol ^]+.Jg =+.
    zlH [oH-]7] atoi+]4. &d +"Ig oH-(aq)-u4 H*(aq)E rJ g Es4el t-E7l ctr(16.9tr) gE "qde gE 44q oJolgr+
    glol E$aln, ¤zlc *o_49 u*1a4)84 os (aq)3 4 Bol s
    +olgE HI*^Jq e.l6I^J 44d4. olgol EI} BJ+6Iq pHql g
    6J6JtrI. [H*]: [oH-]"J .11 +.lg +Colr+. 6Jg ++ A* zW Eafl(hydrolysis)ail a34. .Ja?-] ++r+
    "JrJ
    pH ,*(16.4tr) H* (oq)q
    E!- pH.f, Jt^l6I7lE +4. pH - -log
    Eo r,l tr++q olol.g4 cl , Br , r , No3 e+ ag ,JtE ¤-olg

    [H"]. 2s"cql^l +^J 899 psE 7.0001+. 4]d 8q49 pHE 2 zli E6ll6}^l gttsE+. olasg t}-Bzl slqlq^J t4lq +a
    7.00-H-EI l1]q, BzlC 899 pHE 7.008r| E olgolE|. Eg7l9 zl-^I.J "Jolgg 7L+ eolql EEI H*E ^J
    =4. poH4 d6J+. Etg qlgzl"J gol¤e zl+ Edlq e.l6ll oH-= ^Jd6J
    pK,e+ aol 49.Jql ql6lq gq log= +lSL L9 pxE -E^l6I
    7lE'*+. 8'19 puE pH ulQE +C6Irl+ t}-$zl x1,'.1qt +. Fe3*eI Aol d6IzI ++ *olgg gql^l +Elqq 9+. +
    o+ eg + 9l+. +4 ei}¤ E Ezl+ =4g-Es E+ Hlg"atq H:o*E RlEoe.
    =*{}g &rdol4.
    *ljl) rJE7l(16.5E) rltg
    rlddHaolq, ++"Iq^] sd6l
    olg+++. !-F rJ&ol+ 6J9 uct, HBr, HI, HNo3, HClo3, +!-E7l ZErlEl-qt +4(16.10tr) qE Eeol ++"qql^l tI^Jg
    HClo4, H2So4E "J6JE}. ,J4IE a]¤zl= +^lts AEE gTlEE +4gzl, ¤zlCg L+48^lb pI+ ++++q .J + :14. +iCol
    ,*=+. q7l fl6l^J= H-x palol +dg 444ot +4. tl¤g s-x
    "*ol ^l-.&q= tHTl= "JrJq ++rl +4g.JrJrl E+ =
    d,*ol e+6J r1l, +. x-21 $C.J uI ,J6lltl+.
    +q olgd +&n+Eol+.
    eg +9 o gzl= .E.*oJ t!41!(oxyacid)oll.<15 64
    oHTle+
    Eu"t EETl(16.6tr, 16.7tr) E4Ie Ed6fleolq, +'-q +9 + 9uI9 dzl g^JE7l 4A++ t^Jol 411+. Ae +C flzl-E z*
    + .J+B"J olgF+61= CE=
    4_= "lg++ Bql_e
    =4+4. 4}^&ql^l= +c g4-ql a.J6J &^ g^IE +7l."*ole'i'E
    g flf(acid-dissociation constant, K,)E S,r1a3q. IG= Hl+ =
    51a1
    &rJ.l zlt14. CooHzlE += rFfeL(carboxylicacid)g *zlt}
    HA(aq) -- U+ (aq) + e- 6q) Eb . - HtO* (aq)
    HA(aq) + H2O(I) ql^l TI1I fefl ffio1r1-. elBzl9 Hl¤48+¤ z.d6Jg ol ploJ
    +e-(aq)9 ¤B tfol4. K,7l a&olE+. ag r-"Eql^] EE &Eq g63.9
    ,Jtg =++ ,*=+. E4I9 =E|.
    &9 o|¤+ EsES(percent ionization)S
    =
    L"Eel &EPEI +aqel pHE f¤l + 9lEl. Lewis tlal g7l(16.11tr) Lewis9 .li-Ezl zl]Hg 'JCzlTI ol-U

    H3PO49+ Ag Elgl$tt(pollprotic acid)S f zll ol$e.l olc--E[


    dxP&ol zl=ol gtrt. Lewis tt(Lewis acid)S {zl"Xt $zllol{,
    6J + 9l: old ,tlEq tI 6llq *+= Ko1) Ko2 Lewis g7l(Lewis base)t {2ffi fzllolQ.
    7ll';g H* ol9-l
    Lewis
    "J^J^l-= zt4l4.
    > &r9 +ee A46J+. rI"JCzlt *99 H"(aq)E 45+ a E l}qlE 49"6J f gli1, E olEg +qlqlE zl+ol 7l-b,6fE_e.
    Bronsted-Lowry zllpEu| 4* Hflz| q H4.
    H4 ol.&c} +4ql^J ^JCrlge, pHE &r"Je-a i$al q4;3
    + el+.

    E'[a a{P
    -r tl O-l I 0l 8E -!+:d +ofl qalEe +=E:g + ?lol0}:drt
    . Arrhenius &4 BzlE Cflo}n Tgqfe(r6.r¤). . "JdzI olE *+ql^lE B¤g +lil7f t E= gTlg ¤
    ^llTlql
    +d g+E4l: 16.13,16.14 +qq ilE^l ¤E++(16.3e). +H ¤+E4l: 16.2s,16.26
    . Bronsted-Lowry,tlrl Bzl "l 4t}-a]gzlE {elap 7g;j . Eg z}4l olgffi ¤H6Ir, [sro*]et [ou-121K,^a] Sdqq
    EI(16.2e). +H g+ E4l: ld.l7, 16.18 9l=^l ¤B++(to.:¤). +E g+ +^\:16.27,16.28
    . &9 . [u,o*] Ei [ou-]z] +qd +"lq puE 414Hi4(ro.+¤).
    ^jlzlelelgzl9 ^]zlE ¤+Ab4(ro.zd).
    +H g+¤i4l: 16.23,16.24 +¤ ¤+ ¤i4l: 16.37, 16.38
    E6 Er,ll 759

    +qd 'J& E= rlgTlg pH= 44lql+(r0.s¤).


    . *.ETI +q K,= +'{}+(16.8¤). +B g+ +4: 16.77,t6.28
    +H g+¤i4l: 16.43,16.44 .4 g9 ++a!ol &d.Jzl, Ezlc"Jzl, 6c.JxlE q+6J+
    .bEe+ pHzI ?9tl E4l E.= "JEzl9 K, E= raE 4l&6J4 1to.e¤). +H S+ +.41: 16.83, 16.84
    +fl ¤+ +-41: 16.s1, L6.s2,t6.6e,16.70
    (16.6e, rc.24). ."Jflg 4I=9 tl44ql gz| fao| zlaa|{ q+.J+
    ^Jl7l=
    . olgp+ E+¤4 bETI +qd E4I E= qi¤zl9 pHE 4l&aJ 1ro.ro3). +H g+ +4: ld.el, 16.e2
    rXr6.63. 16.74). +A ¤+ +4: 16.63, 16.64 . Lewis &4 EzlE A96Ij17g.q1r|(r0.rr¤).
    . zl4}9 K,7l +q4. q}¤zl9 tu11& al4l6in, uf{z}xltr K6-E +H S+ ¤i4l: l6.es, 16.e6

    -=.o HFe- l
    OI- r- O i
    . K* : [H3O+]tOH-l : [H+][OH ] : 1.0 x 10 ra
    [ro. ro] 2s.cql^l EE olg+++
    . pH : -log[H*] ja.v) PHel a9
    . pOH : -log[oH ] [ro. ral POHE AE
    . pH + pOH : 14.00 je .zo) puelpou9 *41
    tH,o*llA-l tH'ltA I
    ja.zs)
    r\d - !L r\a E4I HAE 416114 ^J+
    LHAI [HA]
    H'l ,,
    . olgpl EEA : I
    x l00o/o la.zz) 't4I9 olge+ Etsg
    lr-[[
    IBH+lioH l
    r,
    . k.
    -
    tBl
    le .t+) E& Bel Ezl a14 tf
    .KoxK6:K* Iro.ao] ai&-a*¤zl 6[ql^] 6fl?-l
    ^J.+e+ ¤zl dl4 t'-+9 +al
    ^]
    ' p&: -logK,, pKr: logK6 Iro.+r] p&$pra9 C9
    -

    oJf +41
    tsOE Ets 7]ILJ

    16.l (a) rl-S +*ql^l Brsnsted-Lowry,lF| ¤zlE *oJolr.lg. q++ sE5- e_e(& > l) 4lB6l+zl, g+_qE(& < l)
    + aqq+7|? je.zg)

    e*O e .o_ (f-p: na {F: Hro* e: e-

    *## HX HY

    o =i'!
    o (t
    tu*:H !=N O:.,
    ol H}+ql^] tewis 4lnl gTlE qoJ6},tle. [t6.2¤,
    (b)
    16.llel
    -4, o
    16.2 El-¤- r.Bg + .J"J^Jzl& ux(a:x E= y)el ++"lg +
    e =i
    o
    4U aolq. zfi|al 44421 9l6}q E +^l= d+6i9+.
    (a) Hxe| HY +ql^l qe aol q ,J+ &.J71? 16.3 trI+ F +Eq qlB s-{lzl ^l^lEg ?z}a}S.4. ^qql
    (b) x-e+ Y- +ql4 q! aol trl ,Jd E7l"J7l? qg =4
    +q. 4+ol +"J^l 7l1l.J^lE EJ6l^le_. [re.+¤]
    (c)FgoJ r-oEe-l Hxe+ NavE 41fl9 EI ¤Bg q+r+ e (a) e S"I9 puE Sdol 7.oo-H-+ 44.

    +. O)B +elel pHE 9dal 7.00-H-+ r4.


    Hx(aq) + u-(aq) ;- HY(aq) + X-(aq) (c) B +"-!E pHi A *99 pu-u.4
    =4.
    760 168 C-g7lEB

    :a ,
    1
    i-

    d
    a .g.oH D .Q.OH 0
    0 0.060 0.12 0.18

    16.4 +g rBxiH pH trlEel A=+E FB6J *q qql 9lil^l =E(M)


    a+. [16.4d, 16.s¤] ¤E 6 "+tlE olgsl E+gq ulil|:-"E
    16.7 El-S effi u1

    (a) ol 8eq9 +++ E, HCt(aq). KoH(aq) + qL 4"J71? e4 t+4U ag? [16.6¤]


    (b)oI4 +q.l +lql 4l^lg a + 4++8, EE"Eb g"I
    A
    elzl?
    (c) pH ulelq; $ETI E^lqE ol+= +9.'J7I? ol B
    -e.
    +
    HH

    0
    12,e8
    2a n
    c.f, E
    :a ' "u==
    t- (a) &i
    +Eql E+6Irl ?*zl 4lE9l A-3ol 7I^J c+6IEt.
    G) +q olg+ El{lE7} EoEq E=6}7l Szl 4lEoil ed
    ol 7I+ A+6I+.

    fgg,tllzlzl 4I ux, HY, HZE ++.lg +ElU a


    (c) & r=oE7l¤!71q+ql q+ r+ 7l* ul$ol ol$Elslzl
    l6.s El-S
    ql+ql Bdol 7I+ c+6I+. =
    ol+. ,J*61 44421 96lq E B^l-=
    ^J+6if,n, ++g (d) 4l r-oE7t ?zlt|.ll tr|+ &71 zoTltl7l ql+ql Bcol 7I
    H3O+zf o|{ H+E Lt4*E}. [r6.sd, 16.6¤]
    "JC^l+
    (a) ol! aol ,J^IoJ7I? ¤E6I^le_.
    t cq6l+.
    ql (e) 4I :-os.zt +Tlqlql 44 olg r-oE7I ytolzlE + cdol
    o) +E ^}+ I<"7171* 4*zl? 7It a+4+.
    (c) olL ^I6tl4
    ¤.99 puz| 7l* Z7l?
    (0 & s"E7IaTlElql El4 &7I zJealzl ql+ql cdol 7I
    HX HY IIZ

    e oa c,n* o+ *o e 16.8 E+*


    *
    Aqii}+.
    ^il
    +zl+ sF oHTlE r*=q. :1El+ 6J Ezl^b Bzl
    #, "fl o olr, 6J Ezlb {Fll, +"lzl Ezl^b &E gzls o1q4.
    +9a c o+ #g
    o oo
    +

    o + o* "otI
    C #O
    (a)olg $zlz| szlglzl?
    0) q! $ulz| {lolz}!
    ell ol $zlq! $zlolz|!
    [ro.e¤, rc.74]

    (c) 91 4"lzl Ba}} tlE $zls. oiPzP


    15.6 q^e. r4E= f^ olgel L6Ee| ulzl *'-49 *.e.,'.1o1E
    +41= +Elutrt. [r0.s¤, 16.6e]
    (a) ulzl+qe rJ4I, E4I, ,Jg7l, EgTl ¤! otg 4..JzI?
    (b) (a)9 B-ql 7la6[q, *99 E"E7t 0.18 MoJ 4l puE

    4l&6}^le_.
    (c)io]{ col r4Eel
    ^l+dg cq6l Er+g+ 9li7}? A E^I B ETI C EII
    Srll 761
    =*
    16.9 4lBollgfl(ptrenylephrine)$ cqHrsNoz9 Ez}4g '/*E + 16.14 q+ dE 6 *4 ?*e ae?
    zl EltlEe, ilrlLd Hol +E6J + 9l=, ?ql zI+61+ + ¤zlLEgl,tl oH-.q r-oEE" +714?Jq.
    (a) Arrhenius

    e sE}^{ol+. *zl sdBg ^l-s6lq +4u qH


    p}Q}E (b) Bronsted-Lowry BzlE oj{zf $zllolr}.
    qlsfle.l +ab ol-4e+ aq. [16.s¤, 16.e¤] (c) E9 Bronsted-Lowry &ge zI+6J + 9l+.
    (a) ullH9lefl +"-qe 4IC, *C, EzlC + qL CdB e (O Eg Brsnsted-Lowry ¤zltr 4+B + 9l+.
    olETl? (e) -oHzlE 714. EE ++Eg Bronsted-Lowry EzlE
    (b) Alka-Seltzer PLUS'gC CE + 5IL|= qlHqefl
    Ee] 4s.g + 9l+.
    ¤&¤o14. qgqsfl g4lgE +4= qlHqleilE rr.rs t"149 Bronsted-rowry &9 4¤zlE "J6l^lg.
    +ae+ q¤4 41zl? (i) Hro3 (ii; Nun*
    (c) 9lHolleil g&g +"le +IC, 6C, EzlC 6 qe d q+ Bronsted-Lowry Hzl9 44Ig
    0) "J6I^lg.
    eg BolbTI? (i) o'- (ii) H2Po4-
    OH H
    I
    16.16 (a) ffi Bronsted-Lowry &9 zl¤zlE "5}^lg.
    HO (0 HCOOH (iil UpOn2-
    CHa
    0) q+ Brsnsted-Lowry Ezl9 4+I-9 "Jd}^lg.
    (i)Sor2- (ii) CH3NH2
    1d.r0 trl-g rgql^J NaF ?S99 7l* $ .EEt a+? E Exl-= .lS 4 El+^]g g+q^l Bronsted-Lowry &4 g7l= +
    trIE s^l6tzl 9*9tEl. ol +eqe &c. 6d. ¤zlc ¤' q!
    +6hn, e-${ql^] 4{I4 49zlE ++6|.^le.
    a"J7l? [16.e4] -rcrz(a) NH1(aa) + CN-(a4) :- HCN(a4) + NH3(a4)
    o o ooo gct'o o o (b) (CH3)3N(a4) + H2o(l) :-

    o o
    oc, o o (c) HCooH(aq) + Pof-(aq) .
    (CH3)3NH+(44) + oH-(a4)

    o o oo I
    o oa oe
    -
    HCOO-(a4) + HPOn2-(aq)

    Elg 4 HI+^19 g+ql^l Bronsted-Lowry 4FI gzlE


    o o oo o ,o o
    16.18
    E6Ia, s_=4ql^l 4.tFi 49 zlE +E6I^l9-.
    +

    p .Q.ofl
    (a) HBrO(a4) + H2O(/) : H3O+(4q) + BrO-(aq)
    A -QOH
    n6-uo-Lo- /- Q.OH
    (b) Hsof(a4) + HCo3 (a4) ;-
    O *u* | r- ($ o*r- lt) ur So42'(aq) + Hzco3@q)

    ro.rr rl-* rHql^l x= gsd flzlol4. [r0.ro3] (c) HSOi(aq) + H3O+(aq) : H2SO3(a4) + HrO(l)
    (a) f $zloll,r.l x7l *z gzlzlE
    "t! ael +dol q ,Jts rerg ("1oF]{! ol$(Hsor-)g "}+^J "}^JatCol+. J¤ *+
    ,l? Elq Els"^]g,i{.i^.], ol olgol Eql 46}q A}gE^J z}+6t
    (b)x9 dzl gdETl +7IE++ 4 B^IE &E= +7}dt ar+, g7ltr^l 4+61+ ag trol^ls.
    }7l, rJ|t;]p.7l? =
    (b) HSo3 el 4+&g .+9..Jzl? f- zrgTlb +9..J71?

    16.20 (a) HrO(Dql^l H2C6H7O5-@q)71 ETlE^l ZI+6IE q}+^l


    g o
    ) ^Al.l
    (b) Hro(Dql^l HzCeHzOs-(aq)7l. &e--s^.1 z++61+ HI+^l
    rl o
    -q- ,!(
    = -'-t+.
    (a) (b)
    (c) H2C6H7O5-e-l 4¤7lE Fi"JzI?
    a+4}g +E.J7l-? r
    .19- Egol ,JgzloJxl, qrszlolzl, +^lg AEE gTlE
    ro.rz ul-S +q{ H}+ql^l H}¤¤ql t, ¤zlE s.r.lr}:/. Lewis,
    r*izl= "J6l^ls. 4 a+ql r 4+g ^Arr, 4t^Iol a
    Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry & ¤zloJ a+E 7l+6I^19. -ro:r=4}oJxl, E4ioJzl, +^lg aEE 4lE= 7*-xl= "J6I^ls.
    (a) PCIa+ + Cl- ------ PCls
    (b) NH: * BF3 + H3NBF3
    (a) CHTCOO- (b) HCO3- (c) Oz- (d) Cl- (e) NH3

    (c) [Al(HzO)r]3+ + HzO + [AI(H2O)sOH]2* + H3O+ 16.22 L++ EAol +4loJzl, EtI.J^1, +^l6J CEq &s.¤i zlzl
    -'zlE EJ3.l^le. 4 A+q a-zlg7l= *t-. *Hzltl z*E
    Arrhenius "J Bronsted - Lortrrv9 tEt E7 l(16.1tr, 16.2E) TloJzl, EgTloJzl, +^lg aEE eTlEE 7t^lEzl= EJ
    16.13 NHrk)e* HCI(g)E HI+6Iq ol$^J lx.|l NH+Cl(s)E B 6f^19.
    ^J-J+.
    ol H}*ql^l Bronsted-Lowry ,tI3 olr 4.JzI? (a) HCOOH (b) Hz (c) CH4 (d) HF (e) NHr*
    Bronsted-Lowry ¤zlE qL a'J7I?
    762 168 t-g7tE:d

    16.23 (a) HBTO9I HBr foll.! trl AdJ Brsnsted-Lowry 4i3?


    lrfl loH-l pH poH tl8 o[LlE gTld?
    (b) F-e+ cl 6ql^l El zffi Bronsted-rowry ¤zli?
    7.5xn 3
    M
    16.24 (a) HClO3e+ HCIO' +ql^l q Bronsted-Lowry4I¤? 3.6 x 10-r0 M
    'JtL
    (b) HS-e+ HSO4- 6ql^l El Bronsted-Lowry ¤zlE? 8.25
    'J¤l
    ql+61n, EBol g+ql, ol 5.70
    'H- t1-g7l HI*E ^JC+g
    LIE s=+ql +lilE+ a.J^lE q+6f^le-. 16.36 +g s.ql^J uu}4l oJ# ill+r, 8e4ol &c.Jzl. Ezld"J
    -r6is(a) oz-(aq) + H2O(/) : xl$ uja|.r.19.
    (b) CH3COOH(aq) + HS-(aq)
    =- pH poH [H*] lou-l tld olLlE gTlc?
    (c) NO, (a4) + H2O(/) :
    575
    16.26 q+ &-g7l HISE {d+9 ql=6}n, ¤Bol g+q, o}
    2.02
    qE e=+ql +l^lg 4"JrlE ql+6}^le. 4.4xLO-t0 M
    (a) NHa+(a4) + OH-(aq) ;- 8.5x 10-2M
    (b) CH3COO-(aq) + HrO+(aq) :
    (c) HCoi(aS) + F-(44; : 16.37 at}4oJ tlE ¤.lg BJ pub 7.4001+. ct}4ql 419
    (rz'c;q,tj k:2.q x t0-'aol4. ol $soll,t1 g'-4el [H"],
    Eel rti{l olEEl{16.3E) [oH 1, poHE 414]61^le-.
    16.27 pH=7.009 6C.J Bg ro"Cvl^l *?8, pu= 7.27E- + 16.38 qlTl 69 cozE giEql +oI^] et}(H,co3)g BC6I.I-,
    zloJQ. ol B4¤ Eql ql6lq +q.E
    ^.l1
    a+ + *g ae? pHtl s.2-5.6oJ "Ja egq^l *g {+3 "J=+. ol BIE
    (i) [s"] > [oH-] (ii) [H*]: [oH-] (iii) [H*] < [ou-1
    9 [H*]c] [oH-]9 HglE?
    16.28 (a) Eq olgElql ql.J +qL Hl+4g r
    ^l-x'll ^ls. ro:s ,1^19 +"1q1 qlBe{^l zl^la}g dzfafgrir-l +.-le.l
    (b) EE olg+ K,ql rItL 4¤. xr.l-c-. ^q
    ^J+ ol ttr+4otr H6lH+. ?3 olul9 +o_qq BrB
    $olol ¤zldol4B, q+ ^-ll 4+ + #g ae?
    (c) oJ ^l^lslg
    BzlatB.qLl *99 4ol {,rl t 94og B6}9tr}.
    (i) lH.l > [oH-] (ii) [u*]:[oH ] (il) [u*] < [oH-1
    (a)ol $$ol &c"Jzl, 9zldoJzl uJ:of.rle.
    q¤. 4 +"jE [H+]= 4l&6fr., 3."-Iol ,t]rdoJzl, BzldoJ =!coJ^l,
    (b) ol $olol 714* + 9lb puel H+l= gEloJTl?
    zl, +Cq_lzlE +ts61^l9.. (c) 919 + elq qB al^lEg 4+ q A
    -ro:s(a) [ou-] :0.00045 M ^l^lE ^l-*6lE
    gafzll ulxl 899 pH H9lE qlt6J f 9lEzl?
    (b)[oH ]:e.a x ro e M
    16.40 Elzlel +41 +"-qq qlEeBql.J zl^lef$ dzla}gqq I
    +E
    (c) [oH-]7] [H*]Etr] roodl]
    = ._qq 4ol HdI^l t+9tEl. ae +Eq BrB zl^lEg A716l
    1630 q+ 4 +'19 [oH-]E al4]6[4, 89ol &Cq-lzl, ¤zlC gqq +.lE 4ol L*.qos H6Iqq.
    oJzl, +doJxlE ++6t^le.
    (a) ol $olol ,tlc"Jzl, 6rJ.Jzl, Ezlc.Jzl EJ-oI^ls.
    (a) [H*] : o.o5o5 M
    G)qg- + +.-qol TIzl= ttql Eil4q $¤ + 9l= ae +
    (b) [H*] :2.5x lo-ro M
    9."JzI?
    +E
    (c) [H+]zf [oH-]-E-tr] loootsl] (i) 44 pu (ii) pu (iiil +al4"J pH Hg
    = =14
    16.31 EE 9Ed(o"C)ql,<J I\,:1.2 x t0 'sol4. ol $roll,tl f (c) ulzl 899 pHE # q A+q EI6la dqB, qtr zl^l
    dal +EE [H*]e] [oH ]E al&6i^le. Eg +7fE 6E 4e7n
    ^l-eo
    16.32 2o'Cql^l 4I4 6f^(Dzo)g olg+ ^J+ K.: 8.e x l0-
    160l
    et!4 rJgTl(16.5tr)
    r|. ol gro{1.! ++6J +coJ *g oro9l [D*]e+ [oD-]= 16.41 trl-g f9tl EE=zl glal.rle.
    E^Jol "*=zl,
    4l&6}^le-. (a)E5 r}4ig + rl] +g oltlE +d g^l-= E6JEJE|.
    pH'J(16.48) (b) rJ4lg zFJ doll{ol4.

    t6.33 pHzl Els=rl aol [H*]= P


    ts6J Ell u]14 HEz]? (c) 1.0 M9 ,Jtl +'-qg pH :t.09 ,*E4.
    (a) 2.00 Bgl O) 0.s0 ++l 16.42 E++ +q4l Lll+ol "*=zl. Eelbzl {z$o}.rle.
    16.34 Ae+ B F +"1q1 44q A +eqel [H*]= B +q-H-+ 2soul] (a)EE r*e7lY ++sl olgg s6J6l+ gol+.
    q rEI. ol + 8"q9 pH a9 ilol: gEloJTp (b) zlSzl$ Eq '+etr pH > 7.0oJ +'+g BC++.

    q+ sql^l Hf4l o;5-g ill+r, $"lol &^d.Jzl, ¤zl^J.J (c) Mg(oHLE 3 +^l ?*71 EIEqI ,Jg7l7I ¤ + Htrl.

    zlE g-"}^ls. reet rlg ,JtI +ele.l pnE 4l4}o},rls.


    -163s (a) 8.S x l0-3 M HBr
    763
    =* =rll
    (b) s7s mL 8991 t.sz s HNorE +6i^lAg ql l6.ss qB +H+ 4a ^lEE pHZi 2.eoolEl. ol alsoll^J ,$rJ$
    (c) 0.250 M HClo4 5.00 mLE 50.0 mLE q!^lAg ql +Elq= dBol ol^llE4I(K,:1.8 x ro-5)golfl4E, o}^ll
    (d)0.100 MHBr 10.0 mlq 0.200 M HCl20.0 mLE dfi. EAIel bEE Bul-"Jzl-?
    gEl]
    16.s6 pHzl 3.6soJ HF(&:6.8 x l0-) +"1 +ql Eq flE Hr
    t6.u c++ rJ&+.lel pHE 4l&a|rle. e.l bEE al4}6l-^1s..
    (a)0.0167 M HNO3
    tla,$(cuHrcooH)el 41 6llal ,5.f5 o.r x ro-sol4.
    (b) 2.00 L+alql 0.225 g Hclo3g +6il^lag uI qHscooHE a7l l-oETl-0.050 MoJ ull HrO*, C6H5COO-,
    (c) 1.00 M}lCIIs.00 mLE 0.s00 L-e. q4^lag q] -roszc6HscooHE BB
    bEE Zl&6}^le.
    (d) 0.020 M HCl50.0 mLE 0.010 M Hr tzs mrgl dzf9]
    16.s8 olg4&(Hclor)E tI 6llal *ft r.1x 16-2ole. HClo2
    gEI
    4 Zzl :.EzI o.orzs M.J trll H3o+, clo2-, Hclo2g b
    re+s
    '1-g-
    a+ql ql{} toH-1q pn= 4}ta}rle. EE 4l&6}^ls.
    (a) 1.5 x ro-3 M Sr(OH)2 (b) 2s0.0 mL 89ql 2.250 g
    r6.se q¤-ql +qd +"{E9 pnE zl&6}^le(&, &-L +=. D
    LioH= +.ll^lag 4 (c) 0.17s M NaoH 1.00 mLE q +q4
    2.00 L.e. q4^lag ql (d) 0.10s M KoH 5.00 mLE
    91trD.
    (a) 0.0e5 M EEqS4I(C2H5COOH)
    e.s x l0-2 u ca(os), ls.o mlgl Ez}flg El
    (b) 0. 100 M 1EE& f + ol$(HCroa-)
    16.46 +g rlgTl +._qel [ou-1e+puE 4l&a]rls. (c) 0.120 M sl?-lB(C'HuN)
    (a) 0.182 M KOH
    16.60 r+gql
    +qd +"-qE9 puE 4l4}6}^ls&, K6i ffi p
    (b) s00.0 -L *'-491 3.t65 g KoH= +6il^lag ql ql+q4 fl4).
    (c) 0.0105 u ca(oHL 10.0 mLE 500.0 mL-E q4^lag ql
    (a) 0.0es M 6IolEgA4I
    (d) 0.01s jlr sa(ou)z 20.0 mlel8.2 x l0 3 M NaOH 40.0
    (b) o.oo8s M 610lE44i
    mrE 4fl9 4l
    (c)0.165 M 6l.0lE+dolEJ
    Tau purl11.s091NaoH i*o]9 r-oEE al&6l-^19.
    r-oEE 4l&6f^1e..
    ro"or ,.1u1gg ¤BE q+ss lAolb, 2s"Cql^J pKo:2.32oJ
    16.48 pHzf 10.0sql ca(oH)z ++.lE *&o14. ++"_qg rle=$ pol olgsl"J{.
    ^P}fle.l
    qr^!(16.6tr) HNC7H4SO3(a{) : H+(aq) + NCTH4SOI(aq)
    r6.4e Elgq +qa & ++"lq^l olg3'lq qlEJ s+q HI*44 ol Ee{ M*e9 puE Buf.JzI?
    0.10
    & !g .r ^le. HI*49 Hxl u*(aq)E ^JCge 6lq + 16.62 ot^ylile-] gC CEg "J.JdzI&oJ ol^.ilBgEld&
    +ql, 6l-0lEtrts olgg +q ,^^le-.
    ^JCSg o}^ul{ t "J
    (HCrHron, 25'cql^l Ka:3.3 x l0-4)o14.
    (a) HBrO2 O) C2HsCOOH
    9l soo mg9 ol^llBgEd&ol ?lqE, ola4fl +.J
    r6.s0 qgql +"lTl & ++aqql^l +I.tl?-l EI+q ql+ sl+ ++ =q
    I zso +flg q pHE guloJzl?
    mrql
    44& 49 *r.ls-. H4 H*(aq)E 4Cge 6lq ++ql,
    "1o1=43.tI(HNJs-e +gql+qd tEg +Eg ".IEfl
    ro.or
    6folE_e.t: ola--$ rj,$$E 4q Els".lg r
    ^19. g ql olegl EE&g aru6l^le-(&E ++ Dql +q4 9l
    (a) C6H5COOH (b) HCO3
    4).
    (a)0.400M (b)0.100M (c)0.0400M
    qlE&g pH= 2.44o1trf. &E 4l4}6t^19_.
    -rosr+=.t(cH3cH(oH)cooH)E4lC+ib+zllol4.o.rou 16.64 E.g']g^I(C2H5COOH)o.E El-gql +old +EE +Eg
    16.s2 qlB ot^ll E &(C6HsCHrCooH)g qlB 4lEr.+(phenyt-
    "JEflg rI olgcl EEAS Al&6}^le(&= ++ Dql +
    ketonuria)ol 9l= B"-{ql +4qol AAI zlrll E= q4 flED.
    ^t$q
    i$ollllzl ol$ + 9l= +d4 tsol= oJerJEI. 0.08s M (a) 0.250 M (b) 0.0800 M (c) 0.0200 M
    C6HsCH2CooH +.19 pH:2.6801+. ol &E &E 4l^I
    ro^os ":a+e-l gEHql Eq 9lb.r.lee{!(citric acid)e +o}C^i
    6I^19_.
    tol4(s 16.3).
    ro*sr qroo M 3Eeop,<-1lE+(ctcHrcooH) +oqg ll.oyo (a) 0.040 u ,tlE=.& +"jql.,.l pHE falrle.
    zt olgE+EJtri. ol Ctr¤
    ^l-&6}q [ClCH2Coo-], [H*], o) al&ql^j %LBolLI z|{ol glog gg
    [clcH2cooHl H K,E 414]6]^le-. ^l¤:6'J =^l-zloJ
    =-eeo141Et]q 6I^le.
    16.s4 0.100 M uE-Eo}^.llE4}(BTCH2COOH) *99 r:.zx (c),rlE-e.,t} ol$(c6H5oz3-)9 t,s= u" ol39 r-oE_E-+
    7l olgsl++. ol {_H_g [u*], [srcHrcoo-], zldbzl, olrlB zJ4Ezf?
    ^l-.S6}q =4E7L
    [srcHrcooHJ "l -aepop,t1E4]e1 &= 4l&6]^19-.
    764 163 t-g7t.J-d

    16.56 4Ele&g iEtr 59 4.J+ql Eq fl=,tlss, EE+g (a) 41ts9 HI*ql 4+ & 'rA^le.
    nB Ceq6}+0l+. o.2so M qEtet*99 pHcI, 44 ^lg
    qlEq zl¤21.il 46J KoE
    (b) +61^le.
    e{ ol$(CaH.ou'-)9 +EE +61^19. ,l} 611"-l tri= e (c) 9lE=* Etr+ ,J'* &oJ7l,
    '+t t}9l7|?
    16.39 0l+61-r., 4l4}q^l TIAol 9I"E tI61lE C+E ol+6}q
    ^F*6'J =^IBr+ 16.76 -s. 16.39 4lcg z11g
    E}s-r+ rJol
    ¤E6I^le. olgg gzlrjol ,J6J aql^l "+* ag +^ls +gdl^le.
    e+E7l(16.78) so42-, co32-, so32-, po43-
    16.67 ofol E gdol-nJ(NHroH) ql ql ql^l
    ^J4oil -e_z}. retz Olo},r]lEtIg &E r.e x 16-5ola, s}olsgi4}E &E
    ololg${of"JE 4^}g Fl"Jzt?
    (a)
    3.0 x l0-8ol+. qL aol q ,J-J,tl.Jzl?
    (b) gTlE z++g q 610leqdo}trJg qE flulzf o]rjz[
    (b) oI^JlE& ol$$ alolEsi& olg + qL aol q ,J6J
    E H}ol¤olb7p E7l"J7l?
    (c) ofolg${o}Elql=
    "}cz}E Bol-E9 + fl=, a!}ql cHrcoo-el clo-E r(bE +6t^19.
    (c)
    4olzl 9*g F zll9 gzlT} 9lEI. Lewis *.44 ¤^l d6I
    16.78 (a) "JEqol9 KaE t.s x 1s-sol7, alolE$:joful9 rrb
    -: (8.s4)s ol+6}q gH flzlzf 4E flzls4 "Jt l.l x l0-8o14. qe aol q ,Jg719l7I?
    e- tsolEolbzl ¤B6I^le_.
    ^IE (b) "JE.ts ol$$ alolE$¤ssts ole + ol- {o1 q z3-
    15.6s 6}olsg4.& olg(clo-)g EgTlE ++6J+. ,tI.JzI?
    (a) clo- ol$$ rlolE${o}"Jtr+ zffi $zl olz}, qh"J g
    (c)NHn+eI H3NOH+E
    &E +6I^19-.
    7loJ7l?
    ..re 5-q D9 ^I.BE ol+4q +g +EEg toH-lel pHE +
    (b) clo-7} gTlE zl+g r{. cte} o + qE gz}7} oJ^Jz}
    6.I^19.
    $zllz| rliz|!
    (a) 0.l0 M NaBrO (b) 0.080 M NaHS
    (c)¤4 d6l¤ ^l-8-+q O)q Bg ¤Hg + 9lE7t? g*E
    (c) 0.10 M NaNo2 894 o.zo u ca(ttoJz +eqq
    r1g- BzlEg +$Eq^lel HI8{4 Ka !g ,
    (a) rlolq1 go1{((cHr)rt tH)
    ^le. 16.s0 ++ DE zlEE "l+4q El-+ +"-4EE toH-le} pH= +
    -turr(b) +tI olg(co3r-) 6l^19.

    (c) +.& ol$(eHor-)


    (a) 0.10s M NaF (b) 0.03s M Na2S
    (c)0.0as M NacH3coo 894 o.oss M Ba(cH3coo)2 +
    16.70 El-g EzlEol E.q Hls" 6l= 44 Ka zl9 *r.ls_.
    g*E
    "-qel
    (a) uesolql(crHrNrir)
    (b) "JtI +i olg(Hpo42 )
    16.81 ol^]lE414.E(NaCH:COO) $-o-qo1 e.70el pH rtg r*:+.
    ol+EE EEoEE B"IoJzI?
    (c) HIa& ol3(coHscoz-)
    rezr qtg.ltrJ(C2HsNH2; Ko:6.+x lO-a) o.o7s M*99 oH- 16.82 H.e.EJp+ 94qb(csHsNHBr)¤ CsHsNH+el Br E olr-l
    olgel E.bEE +6t^le. ol +"lq pHE 4l&aBls.
    qE Ab.J dolldol4. _uE"Jsl qdlqts ¤.99 pHi z.ss
    olE+.
    16.72 6}0lgrr +u311 ol.g(BrO-i K6:4.9 x 10-6) 0.724 M *E
    (a) ol 4lc pH.tr *E9E HI+4g }^ls.
    9 oH- olgg +r="E= +6}^le. "l +._qg pHE 4lta} (b) 5+ DE ^l-*6}q, H eEl+ qEqtsg &E Al-tI6I^l
    rls-'
    9_.
    rczr qtqsfle 6+ 4laalE xH6lb Ede, aql +E]+ g (c) HeEJ+ ul?.]qts *99 psE 2.esolE|. q4qE.Jol
    e xll44lE ^l+¤+. ol clqlBg .-FaJ -,?zl ¤zlol4. gq bE= g+E B+l.e. gEloJTl?
    c1eH15oN(a4) + H2O(r) : CloHlsONH*(a4) + OH-(aq)
    qlqlEfl
    r6.s3 trl.gql +qt elElE9 i&9ol &C.Jzl. ¤zlCoJzl. ?
    o.o3s M *99 pHb 1l.33olEl.
    c.Jzl= ql+6l.^le.
    (a) croHrsoN, croHrsoNH+, OH-E ¤B Es.= +a},rl (a)NHaBr (b) FeCl: (c) Na2CO3 (d) KCIO4 (e) NaHC2Oa
    9_.
    +.gql +q4l cHlE9 f 89ol trJ.Jzl, ¤zlC.Jzl,6
    16.84
    o) ql4EgE KbE+6}^le.
    CqlzlE ql+6}.^le.
    16.74 nElloJ(CrsH2rNO3)g e++ +71 Ezlol4. aEloJ s.o x l0-3 M (a) AlClr 0) NaBr (c) NaClo (d) [CH3NH3]NO3 (e) Na2SO3
    8"-49 pui e.esol4. Kr= +6I^19. ol gTlel pKaE I
    EloJTI? l6ss zfxl S NaF, NaCl, NaoCl + qe a.Jzl g + S= E
    ^f
    0.050 mo19 Eql +q^l 0.s00 LE +'-qg
    ".I5fl4. ol 3'
    Kael Kbel Etll, g Ee4el$-E7l ¤E(16.8E,16.etr) 99 pHz| 8.o8olfl+E, qB g9l +aloJrl?
    ro.zs ullE(ces'oH)9 {i 6Iq t}+ &b r.: x r0-'0o14
    +7l'Ea E^ll 765

    16.86 El^19 ¤9 rs., NH4C], KCN, K2co3 f aluiolr|. ol $ (c)EFsfl¤ {zl $rJez} 7l* giolEtr, HF: .J
    =
    9 o.too M +Eg +sqol +Col+H, ol gg Ft'JzI? 44zl* rJ+ 4IolEI.

    tl-g7l ¤¤3t Elqt 74(16.108) Lewis t!4 E7l(16.11tr)


    ro.az rl-g dI + q ,J6J &g ql+6i^19_. 16.93 SEqoI(NsJ= ++aqq^l Arrhenius Szl-tr, Bronsted-
    (a) HNO3et HNO2 O) H2Se+ H2O Lowry 9zlE, Lewis SzlE 4+"J+. oJ-e-qo1z1E4 HI
    (c) HzSOrel H2SeOa (d) CH3COOH9I CCI3COOH 8.61+ 49 ^{r., oJEqolE qB Caol 4 Hzl9 C9el
    r6.s8 q¤ tL 6 q ,J+ tlg ql+6}^le. ¤?!Ezl ¤B6I^le_.
    (a) HCl4 Hr O) H3PO49I H3AsOa 16.e4 5+sflpl olgg gr+ HI+6Iq HF= Bc{}+.
    (c) HBrO:4 HBrOz (d) H2C2O49+HC2O4- (a) .l Hl*9 clo| HI+^.lg,r^^le.
    (e) da&(cusscooH)r+ qlE(ceHroH) (b) d+ NaF i&9¤ +iCol4lEzl, $zlrjolfliz|, f.{
    ol4=71?
    ross
    'l-g ?9d
    aC "f +4, 4*-4$tl +4lql t46}q q
    ,J6'Jg7l= atrrle. (c) olgol Er+ HI+6J ql Lewis &eE zl+61+
    =Fj.fls}
    z|! Lewis gTls zI+61+7I?
    (a) Bro-4 clo- (b) Bro-el Broz- (c) HPo42-eI HzPoa-
    q+ +q{ at r1-U. EI*g H}¤¤ql.rl &4
    Lewis rewis g7l= Ei6l^le.
    16.e0 "l +3, 4.$-a}Ezl +alql El

    ,J,* g7l= ;r=r19. =A6lq (a) Fe(Cloa)3(s) + 6H2o(/) ;-


    (a) No:-q No2- G) por3-9|
    -*rr IFe(H2o)6]3+(a q) + 3 Clo a @q)
    Asoa3- (c) HCo3-e+ co32-
    (b) CN-(aa) + Hzo(r) ;- HCN(aq) + oH-(aq)
    rcsr +gq ?g+l ¤B.l *=zl E7l=zl Et6lr., E4E "*rI (c) (CH:):N(S) + BF3(g) ;- (CH3)3NBF3(s)
    n^l^19. (d) HIo(/a) + NH2 (/q) : NH3(/q) + Io-(/4)
    (a) 9HI4 o e ol{+4}g +7lgs9 a3 +7lql^l eEq (/qE 9zll S-ELlolzf SullE aB99 +EIU4.)
    sE rJ++ 4}el
    ^ll7l7l-+7}*trI. td.e6 trI.S 4 Hl+q^l Lewis &rI Lewis Szlg Etdl^19.
    O)Ag 6C flzlE ,*= t}e +C g^Iql 4a34 f4 fl (a) HNo2(a4) + oH-(aq) - ' No2 (a4) + H2o(l)
    xI9 fzl Flg++ +7I.J4. (b) FeBr3(s) + Br-(aq) .- FeBr;(a4)
    (c) TezI S-H4 dzl gCETl Ir e, H2Te= HzS-E-Q z316 (c) Znz+(aq) + 4NH3(aq) : Zn(NH3)42+(aq)
    =
    tlol4. (d) SOz(g) + HzO(l) : H2SO3(aq)

    16.e2 Efgql +"141 ¤Eol "*Yzl E:el+zl Slalr., E?]E *rll r6.e7 q-gql +q44 *ql^l q! 101 rl d ++"-qg "JE
    til^19_. zl$ {q;}.rle. ^Ic
    (a) H-A +zI 4lgel 4Ie Ael a7l7l 44i= t}g (a) K*4 Cu2* (b) Fe2*9+ Fe3* (c) Al3+9I Ga3+
    ^ll7l
    +7Etq. r6.e8 tri.gql +q44 *q^l q! aol q d t{ ++"-qg "JE
    7l
    (b) +d SzI9 dzl gdE= 4e^loJ Ag +=E ,*= &
    E^l= ne^lg.
    e +c flxl9 dzl gdETI ad++ a9 ,qlzlz| frr (a)ZnBr2 CdCl, (b)CuCl4Cu(NOJz
    .JtrI.
    (c) Ca(Nor)zel Nisrz

    ?l ?1+ +41
    l6.ee El-g 4$ol "*Ezl, .=qxl qoJ6}^le. 16.r00 0.30099 Ca(oH)z(s) "l 1.40 M HNo3 s0.0 mLeI *ts
    (a) EE Bronsted-Lowry t9 Lewis 4lol4. si "JE +E+E-gq]6}q "JE zs.o mr9 *9ol ?14.
    (b) E.E Lewis t9 Bronsted-Lowry 4}ol4. E! aillzf +9I+H, 4+ +qq puE guf.Jz}?
    (c)
    "-I9zl9 44Ie rlgrlE 4,tlu4 trl {l &c *99 "J l6.l0l ^Jdgl ts^l]= gi}4e-trb olul rll$Qlrll, 561 ,lleo}"J
    ^Jdg ^lqlql H
    Etr}. (curun;o1 flelol4. Eil 4E a4
    (d)K* ol8g E+ +s+ HI¤¤ 6IE-E ++sqql^l &Col I ¤Eolirll, qleqE 5q 9iq. oL"Jg
    ^lEe4}ol
    +. r+ HI*6lq .J^H7l $.= trI+ql 'J tds} ^I
    ^JCES ".lE7l
    (e) "J& ++sqE olg+ E+gg &q t:ETI *ofdt=
    ^JdE "J*g "Jtzlzll t4. ++ DE
    zlEE ole-o6}q
    ^l
    bolal4. trs4}E,llE"I"J9 HI+q ql'J B¤ ^J+= +6}^le. ol
    +pI HI*ql^lE a H4l +4"J(&,) zl{aJQr r}C6Jtr}.
    766 163 t!-g7lgE

    u6.ro2l+g ¤B 6 #g ae? (a) HIa&9 zl-Ezle| olHflq 44Ig +EoJ7I?


    (a) $tltl rle+=- pKatl4o144. (b) gE+"IB?]ts(c6HsNH3cl)gr&I dqieE, olBElts
    (b) Ezlzl" rlg+q' pKuTl 444. olgg Lll+=4. o.to u d
    olg(C6HsNH3.)q ge+
    (c) fiz\zl rJEI+E razl zloid4. 0.10 M ¤EI olH4b +E 6 qs 4.ol
    =& +"-q4
    (d) Ezlzl rlg+E- ruzl444. q &dg 444EzI?
    (e) Ezlzl rlg+E 4tI9 p&zl+oltl+. (c) ol4 +qd ¤B ^J+ <I3 g"Itzl?
    ^lE
    @ HTlTl rlg+E 4*4prA7l44:-+. C6H5COOH(a4) + C6H5NHz@q) :
    16.103 +qA +^I+ olgol ++"-4tlq^l Bronsted-Lowry 4lH C6H5COO-(44) + C6H5NHf(aq)
    _9-e qe4 zt+6tts^l ql+6}^le. +qd "J¤ql '^I',
    '9zl', 'E +, 'q! {s, o1g'o e s^16}^le.
    16.r06 *99 psb guI.JzI? Bol
    2.s x l0-e M NaoH *^lql
    +6J61+7I? ol a+ql olB zfcol peo;|z|!
    (a) Hcoa-(t&fi ol9
    (b) u+$(Prozac):
    16.107 +g4}(H2c'oie oloJczld &o14. ++ DE g+6lq
    q-g +qd E+ol
    H - ^IdoJ^l
    (a) HuCzO+t: Brsnsted-Lowry
    Ei_oJ6I^le_.
    gTle 4+6J + ?ItrI.
    (b) cro42-E ^F+
    Hcro4-q 4Hzlol4.
    CFe (c) ,JdoH¤.J KHC204E +8"-49 pH < z9 1014.

    I 6.108 olellol fazf +q4 glr eq^J H2sucol4l aE 4


    ,ll4XH2C4H6org oe +st oloPdzlC 4}ol
    ^JEqzl
    (c) PABA('+eld i}+^]l de) 4. zs"cq.q 44l4}el & 6ll?-l tfE &r:6.ex l0 s,

    IQz:2.5 x t0-6o14.
    HzN COOH (a) dH4l "ll4qlol elulz| llQL zf{a}r., 25.cql^l
    0.32 M 4,tl4}+qel pHE falrle.
    (d) rNr(e4ol+ol=EE+q1) (b) (a)9 ,ll&ql^l Suc2-9 +!-"EE +6}^ls.
    (c) 9* ¤4zI (b)el a+ql 9at{ ¤ErlEz}?
    (a)oll.!
    orN (d)NaHSuc g ++qqg &^J, 6^J, ¤zlt 6 qL
    ^de
    g EolETp
    HH
    NO,
    (e) w-ull¤ul4eb
    H
    l6.l0e +q-a4}(buryric acid)e tslElE B3]|+.J^ll¤ Lllb CE
    oltrl. +E] E,tI9 p&E 4.8401+.
    N*'
    (a) B4 E4I olg9 pKaE +6i^le.
    I
    +qe4l *99 pu= 9"I?lzl?
    (b) 0.0s0 M
    [16.104]z.so99 t]E] 4¤'(Liro)o-s 1.s00 Lq ++"-49 "J5fl (c) 0.0s0 M +q etl4E +'lE pHE Zl4}alrle.
    I4lps¤ ZltI6I^le. r6.n0 Elg slEtEe 0.10 M +.-qg "J¤99 rll &s7l +ztol
    l6.l0s HIaII(c6HscooH)r+ oiBfl(cuurNHrg E+ Hl4l il : +^lE uiga|.rle(pH ,Ji +).
    +ill"l+. Hla4}g Ko:6.3 x ro-soJ t}"ln, olHflg (i) NH4No3 (iil NaNo: (iiil cH3cooNH4
    Ku:4.3 x lo-rooJ gzlol4. (iv) Nar (v)cu:cooNa
    16.111 0.2s ME NaA ¤ *93 pu :e.2eol4.4l HAE & A
    H I EuloJzI?

    -o ,{,-" u6.ll2lu]-$$ oloj.rizld 4I.J HrAq Eil4q *B¤ r}¤Eol4.


    (i) ure o.lo M *99 pu:3.30 llg ,*E+.
    (ii) NaFIA o.lo M +sqg 4ICo14.
    r++E HzA9 p&z <te q-g + +EoJ7I?
    fl]^t OI=AJ (i) t.zz (iil s.ro Gir) z.qz (iv) s.az
    767
    =* =* =x1l
    l6.t t3 {a flz}zf Eq fl= 4r** zzl9 o}'J¤g Eql + + H2N-CHz-COOH + H2O:
    gg "JEH qlTnE eoollETl "*ol ?zlal4. I +H3N-CH2-COOH + OH- Kt : 6.0 x 10-s
    ^l ?*e+.
    (a) &4 Ko ll9 ol+6fq 4HlEl olgg Bd6l-b El-g +
    49 puE 2.s4 6t:1, 49 E¤E"l I +ql^J Ezl9 B
    qtr flg^1. olCulzl-BzI¤ B4e 9lgzlE ql+6}^le-. z| rll olrjzf dg H}¤.E ¤B tL+E ql+6}^1s..
    r]zB(I(a : z x t0-7), zl4l"J(I(u : 4 x l0-t4), 4 H2N-CHz-CooH : +H3N-CH2-Coo-
    e el zl {(strychnine, Ka = I x tO-6), 7l H(quinine, (b) o.oso M ++Eq puE gultzi-?
    Ka: l.l x 10-6) pH: 13oJ=4olt
    (c) q qB BEile 9lEzI? pH: t
    .J ,ll= =4ol4lg
    l6.l l4 E+ql^l +q-4 ag B "lH B4.Jzl?
    =+old(HrN-cH2-COOH)g 16.l15 E9 oK'F
    ¤9 olE4.
    H2N-CH2-COOH + H2O: (a) r (b) 7 (c) la (d) {elslzl gg (e)B s,*
    H2N-CH2-COO- + H:O* Ku : 4.3 x 10-3

    EEJ "J+ +4I


    16. r l6 gE 2s "cql^l +++ E r.0 mlgl 5q fl= H+(aq) ol (c)Alcl:q NH37I EI+ql g6"Eg +zl *E +qlq^l E]+
    gel+E Zl.tI6I^le. 6199 trll, HI+ ArI= ql+61^le.
    (d)Alcl3e+ H*9 +^ICg ¤B6lb qqlE qtr &-¤zl
    16.tt7 pHTI2.0soJ Btl to.o LE ElETl fl4^lb H mtel {
    {} g^}(ae*-g-E- 36.00/o HCl. gE: r.18 g/ml)ol ¤9 ol$ol z|f,t 4BaJzf?
    i,J7l? 16.122 EJET} 1.002 g/mloJ o.to M NaHSoa +"lE #+dg
    gol.JzI?
    l6.ll8 Cqlg +irl= Hlflg rll so mrq.t1+e.l zls-ilH r r
    +,l9
    7| g+. 919 Pulzl400 mloljr., .ll¤¤E pHz| 2e]{, 16.123 s.8.4e.1 E+ e* $B{E ol+6}q, 4* zlzll^J tI*
    +lql 9E H* olgg E+E gtrtoJT}? EE n+zl sclgl E ,J+ qlgqE +6f^le-,
    ^l
    *+8, 9&9 e5 Z.i+^|vl7l96ll^l +&+^ +$ 1: HF(g) + H2o(s.) ;- F-(c) + uro+(g)
    ol H rH g_s_+7|? ^E ;-
    HI* z, Hctls; + H2o(g) cl-(g) + H3o+(s)

    16. I l9 4zl9 cozi r+Z 40H ,tlololl 320 ppmql^J 400 ppmo + +* E+ gg t}Stzl? ol AEg E+silq+^&
    9 2oo/o zl7lol rtzlalflrJ. + g4lE ^-llzl zlole+ qtr +4lzl9liz}?
    (a) eEts +*6l]
    ^J4ql^l
    qrl= HIE pHi s.4olQ. +o 16.124 ?zloJg .ftl #zl gTlola, gx}^lg CrTH2rNO4olEl.
    LJ d ++6lj tLql.J BIE pHE? cozq Eol E]+4q
    qtr nT}ql ++slq pHTI8.s3oln, ls.cql^l +F"Jol
    E4i(HrCO3)g I'JEE Hlgo
    I'J pU9l ¤t"rg +q1L 7l 52.7 torrfl4. ?71-oJE KeE +6l.^19.
    4+4.
    U6.l2sl o1ol9Q,t} ol$(iodate ion, ror-)¤ op]{$(sulfite)Ql
    CO2(g) + H2O(/) i- H2COs(aq)
    E6ll trl..S4 Aol +fl¤+.
    o)stsBq {E zo.o Lql Eq flE co,g] 9u13 IQ r-(aq) + 35o42-(aq)
    @Q + 3 S}3z-(aq)
    2s'C, 1.0 atmgl^l g"IQ_lzI?
    -
    "l +-&E +E= ro3-ql ql6}q g^L ql6|q
    So'2-91 .J
    16-120 gE EE olg# t+ k:s.48 x r0 "o14.
    s0"cql^J
    i1, n*91 r.ll6}q "Jal"Jg.Jqt+.
    (a) so'cql^l ++6J EE pnE guloJzl?
    (a) ol Hl+E +E Hzlg rA^le.
    o)gEql rlE r,9 HE+= iLEJ6lq, EE zl4l olgsl
    4 tuzl o}+oJ^l, sf"Jzl, olqB 0tzl ql+6}^le.
    (b) pHzl s.ooql^l 3.s0 o s *oltrlH, HI+ +EE H6I
    zHzo(l) : H3O+(a4) + OH-(aq)
    ,ll 6l+ oJxl-b *qoJzp *e pH9lrl ol +¤e BrI
    ^l=7f.
    *q^lE7I?
    t6.t2l "*g E}+ql^l Alcl3E: Bzlalfl9 trll= H*E Bzla}99
    qle+ Er+rI a+.
    (c) rJlta.od9l,t'l 4S 4¤¤ ol+6}q. dill EI+^lql H*
    ol Lfel 9l^l ?*gqlE ol Hl*ol 9$zll pu9 ¤'J9
    (a)sE 9zlzl-Bal d6l-= ,*zl g*Eq 4q Arcl3el
    ts=^l d$6t^ls.
    Lewis +EE rE]^19. VSEPR HJBgtr +aE ¤C
    16.126 (a) P* DE 6llr.l t+= ol+6|q 49 4 HI-3e1 ¤B tl
    6I^lg.
    (b) (a)oll,tJ AA6J +4 6 q¤ 3o1 elcl:9 ol6ll +E +6h^le-.
    6l+ Ell E-sg +=7p ^ICg
    768 16t
    ^t-97t8:d
    (i) HCo3 (a4) + OH (aq) Co3z-(aq) + H2O(/) qBol g4 tI4E ElEola + sg ul, +"J pl¤s
    =-
    CO32-(aq): NH3(a4) + HCO3 (a4)
    (ii) NHa+(a4) + E ^l-.soJ+. ol *E4E "J+H, +lel qtr BBql +
    (b)+ul= Bti ¤Bol aHI+ +qtr E*ol il+il7l+(I( g gH-EE + 9lb7l?
    ^l-&g
    zI tts4,ll+ oll), ,llaElq
    = ^8CE.l HI+4q^l

    TEJ ¤4I E4I


    qq+e i+tr+q Bql BrJ FBt EillE B9tE+. ol .-qillb (d)
    ^lE7t
    E^iol4r z|{a}r., +bEE gn 9lE NaoH(aq)
    +E4E +lgcol 9la, Eql +4qq, & ge ¤zl.J f 914 E EltElH, ulzl
    ^lEel ^Egg
    9zl 9+ dE r}4g q
    r.6J+. ulzls.l .rle$ "Jolqrl fl6|l ¤{lg ¤al6}^le_. Bril q=7P
    (a),rlEz|,t}.Jzl, ¤zl.Jzl ac6I^le_. (e) rlEz| &ol olqn ¤zl4r. +qE, zj$zlolzl elgzlqlzl
    (b) 7lc6IH, qBril $A aC4r, Eg7l4H &= +CBi7l 9l4q d{l r+A 6)
    ^lE7I^Iol4.a 'J^Itzl "J&.JzlE =
    4"J71? el G)= qBril EEI^lrloF dl+7|?
    (c),rlEziE&ol4H, K,kg qBril aa'J A{71?
    E

    I
    /

    #* --

    tril
    ¤*-
    xcP -*
    b tg t
    $ akr# {*E

    E4r .(If
    e :tE
    ff

    -=ai #
    --t-
    sF,3ff
    +-
    ii;-=3 t- *"
    5t
    IJ L

    F*
    I
    r;t
    \ 'l

    *oi 't
    *

    i
    17.1 > 85 018 Ert +F ol$ a$zlr. I
    441 re chatelier g4e] 5E+ qE
    . gqeE^l ^l+oJ+.
    17.2 > S= EE S+ +.-q9 4Cg tqtr
    n, Ae}el ,J4I"l+ z!$zl$ fizlz;)
    ar\
    T o-I .e.oH JII
    o
    -l -(D o E, l- h-r- ,ll, s+ *olol pH Hclql qBal
    6J6l+^lE HHg+. ^l

    EJ I{
    EI
    -
    17.3 > t!-g7l 48 4}-g7l 4C9 xl,tlltJ
    4+g ++q, +l-Bzl 44 6 5C
    puE TalE %tBg .JoI
    ^ldql^lE
    84.
    17.4 > E"-llE gE +4E+ {-+=
    Eg I l+80llll 7 l+l !tE4o rr, 7 fB ¤ie-d E,rrE, r so I E ^}¤-q-q
    \++^d gol Eql qL CE +:^lE
    +-g E'J olLlal qal 7l^l EtrE +01= tsal q=q 6e-d +liloil 9l +61-= Bg Ellg+.
    q. ttEn= =+El qlolrl'. #trjE=
    El+ rtEoil rl1-d Etaalr.
    6l=
    ^80il^1E9
    EEoll el6t| U=olfir, r'I=3 =:3
    'JE-d
    EJtl +A q=4o + ol+q 17.5 > E6}|E0ll E:BF$+ts oJxt Er+e+
    ^tg F
    a" olg c.4=. sB6Iq ^lE
    +6l]Eq g
    firl. qel=t]E= sazl E5qo] EJt Ploil u 6J¤ Elil.= oJzlf$ e^Idl gq.
    ^lrJol ^1,-J011
    Eg+oll
    =#tsHalol=alEollll
    rallolE ^4E E
    E+. 0lalEl +6e.1371= 0l 89 ?]ts
    ol= a^lH 4rll-g + 9lrl. 17.6 > 0l8ol tsErlEal ¤-6llEE ;|ol$ ol
    +6Iq olgg qg4 dq4-s.e ed
    ^\rJ
    + ?lizl= Eie+.
    54ls= +"Ig '[+ olg(car")r+ B& olg(cof ) "tr rEg e.] 17.7 fl40t8¤ E{ +6ilE9 g4e+
    g4g"J=+. ql"JE q+Eql co32 L.ETI4sslqq gl4=^l =+
    +Ep+ BBE fl4= ol+6}q +'-4 +
    dol ol rldql E+ol 94. 4zl9l co27lfztal$ Etazl E= E "Jolgg qBr]l CC4ee +.J6I
    6l+ Eel qlq}g sEJ-s_-+ "JE *=lz\ ll4. 4zl *4 corzl <]l ¤B.Jrf.
    =zlE
    6lE ql.Jql +6llqb cozg olE +7l.*r+. olag ql.JE pHE * m
    +a-, co32 I *EE ,JA^lrJ+. :L 44, E4IEel trI= +'q+ 6ll
    oJ
    ^JEol
    r=q qg4g +z16l+ a.l qBrll 94. zflrsar9 s
    HI+q^l= ql"J {I^JEle] A+= +9 rf,Al ¤Elg 4o14.
    &sa +dE zlzzl q= c1+g olallalzl +16ll^1= ++'-q ¤B
    9 {H$ ol6ll6llol oJEl. ol Alql^J= *d &-Ezl ¤BE +8¤
    rJ $fl!-r, rqqt +d-6J +.-49 olallalzl +l+ gA+g qqg
    4o14. olae +"J +eol +ol 9l= a++ olq4, ¤4 *dol s
    d.g +.-qg ]EJ6l] Ezl flall.rlol4. :4¤-, +a4q ErJ += g+
    I ¤84. ++ ]¤g ^J{6}: 849 ++.1 ¤Eg qt}6ll^l d
    Htr 1o14. .]++E 4*, ol tlql^Jq Eele} 4l&e rszlr+ r6t}
    9 SzJol4.

    < ratlolE H[a101 ellr(qlEial E4= tJEE) 0I +4= EJt!


    'J6(Caco.)
    oP 0 l+olll oJt[. :',rdeb22lshutterstocx
    =

    771
    1 7 1
    rtE
    oo o 9-
    t- tral
    4lr01tql,! E&r+ eIEzlE EE.61+ +"-q + olgE B¤ +-EE ¤rltrgl+. olzll= ot^Jl
    E4I(cH3CoOH)r+ Ag E{}r+ ol.,$lEt: 4E:(cH3cooNa)4 t2 t 4}e-l +6flC gg
    Eel6I= +"_qg aq6ll -trzl olE +Eg E+ +F ol$(common ion)oJ cH3coo-= -jr
    B++. qer^J Le Chdtelier g?-lel +dg zlz\t- ol .trffi Aqtr= {ol -gela}r} re
    1rs.zd).
    o[,\1]c.& olg AB e[a]golEg zJd"lldol4 re (4.1¤). AEzis.E.
    iEg z]-&C
    cH3cooNa= ++..4q^l $d6l 6I?-l6Iq Na* olsrl cH3coo- ols-g
    ^Jc.Jrt.
    CH3COONa(aQ) Na+(44) + CH3COO-(a4)
    rq El6lq otrllEt}S -
    ojf-{fuJ olg+6}=
    ¤¤ tr-qlql^l Edqleol+.
    CH3CooH(aS) .- H*(aq) + CH.COO-(a4) [17.U
    al tz. 2s'Cql^l I(, : 1.8 x to-sol4(E 16.2). o[,$le& ++"-qql oP.]l-E&
    t9 BB tI+=
    dzlalE, cH3cooNaq^J +g cH3coo--tr "J6ll B¤ LoEE g+ss ol$;|E
    ^.E¤
    E-H+(aq)4 *u.THII;s)
    : H*(aq)+ cH3coo-(a4)

    cHlcoo-Ei E7t6tE lH l=
    zJ+xl/ EEol0lE-.Jrl.

    trI^l "J5t8, ot^jlE4} olgg dztalB ot^llE4l9 olgcl: Ai6J4. olag B= ole Ert
    (commom ion efiect)4r 6J+.
    EA4eq +F olgg sE}6tr. 9l= zla4eol +.1 4q ,Jol qg q= eld4e
    ol gs qg qtr+ olSclz| a^+q.

    S¤ ^J+ xlill= H6lzl 9+=+. ¤B^lq il= tr-ql4e ^JCEI+ Hi¤¤E tlq4.J tE
    {t"J E6}r]l g+.

    qHl 17.1
    +t ol*ol -{"EJs{q glb A+q pH 4lt
    0l^llEt 0.30 mor.zl 0l^llE^l 4E 0.30 motE 1{r ts71-6|.q 1.0 L7[ EIE= trJE E%ol pHts grl?]71-?
    =¤ =Edl
    Ttlff
    E4 +E olgt
    cH3coo-= s+61-= EdqleoJ o}^llE E E= EzlE.E aEl6t4.
    4I(CH3CooH)r+ rldd e ?l oi^,ll E+ iE (CH3CO oNa) * (2) H*E +gol qr, 44^l pHE ae6}7ll q5 6erJ ¤
    99 pnE +61+ Exllol4. ¤ Ei*g q.J6I+.
    Ilel +a sqi+$.ILoJal+ 899 puE +6llot 6t= qq (3) ¤Bql +q6l+ 4 Elu++E azl r-oEeI *¤ r-"E= 4l
    6J +xll4E, Elg.+ ae gEg br]4 +4ql IrI4 {86} 41614.
    aol sagol s+. (4) [H*]e]pu= 4lta]zl 96]q ¤B t]+^lg g.s"6[4.
    =
    (r) +"1 ++71q=slq}+gq"J6l-4. r?-l-ar5e]
    ^IC
    772
    rz.r I 35 olP 6z1 773

    Eol a4l, cH3cooH= qld6]]4ola, cH3cooNaE zldoll


    dolo-e +"-q + +7I q= +ql+g cH3cooH(E4I), Na+
    (t}cE o}.!a szl{E otqq, ,|}-Hzl c}Eq^l +atol
    +), cH3coo-(cH3cooH9 z]¤zl)o14.
    Erll, [H*], 4pHEcH3cooHE q14 ¤¤ql Eql adg+. CH3COOH(a4) -- H+(aq) + CH3COO-(a4)

    ({zlrl ¤¤¤ sro*(as) 4dql H*(oq)= +44fl


    ^l-&6}q
    +. 6lzl"J +EI¤ .JC4¤ s¤6t= ql= ErllTl s.+.)
    rset4 roz}9 4E ¤¤ ExIE *71 9l+
    .1a11, \z)fl ztl \
    Ee+ E¤ bE=: EE+6J+. CH3COOH(a4) ;- H*(aq) + CH3COO (a4)
    CH3Coo-(+r'¤i ol$el ¤¤ bE= CHECooNa(o.ro lr)9 i)l(M) 0.30 0 0.30
    olgqql g6'j azl +Ee| cH3cooHg ol¤.p+s .Jqt +E Eil(M) -x +x +x

    HsXx)E ql{ 4o14. 'JE(M) (0.30 - .x) x (0.30 + .x)

    .: H+lIcH3coo-]
    B¤ ^J+^lg 4*4,Jol + + 9l+
    f
    olzll K, = 1.8 x lo-s
    lciltooHj_
    2s'cql^l cH3cooHq "l]el ,^J.+= s. 16.2e+ ++ o9l ?14.
    CHrCooNaE Ezlolls ol ^J+ Alg H6izl ?*=4. ¤B t+ : ": r(0.30 + x)
    x
    ^-lql
    EE ¤e bE= ql"J6}H trlg-r+ A+. Ko 1.8 10-s
    irr, _,
    x.zl $9v-tr- rE CHgCooHeI CH3Coo-g E4 tE(0.30
    Mql El6ll 44.2 zfCt+. u|+^J 0.30 Mql Bldl otf 43 x .: x(0.30)
    E +^lg f 9lo oe +¤¤ e=q.
    Kr: 1.8 x 10-s
    ir-
    x9 ?4 <lg dzlle o.aoql uloll z}l., o1--- ErllE ,Jt6l4
    qI= $Bdl+= 49 9'1t4. x : 1.8 x lO-sM: [H+]
    =^IHol
    ulxlu-|etr H*(aq)9 S¤ EoEtrPel pHE 4l&6JE|. pH : -1og(1.8 x t0 s; : 4.74

    +s.l xllt6.6Aql^1, 0.30 M ot^llE& 8ol9 pHE 2.6+ zf zJA,tI4.


    fr.gq, olts [H*] = 2.3 x t0-3 Mql 6l]']6Jr+. q;t (c) ¤¤ rJ49 He +"-4ql KA HS izlalB, A E bE
    cH3cooNaE dxlle [H*]E ai^lae-q, olE re 7I A^+q-.
    ^J
    chaelier 94tr+q qlt4q'J Hle+ A+. (d) ¤¤ tt49 ue *9q1 re HS +zl;IE, pwl rttl
    > HE qlrill +tr]-.

    AIE 'JHI ¤¤4 He1aa\;- a*1aq) +e-(aq)il +El 4 F. -U.fi Uliil2


    O EzLz OO rOO
    EEd 6E'E- 0.08s M of!,1!(HNOz,
    Ko:4.5 x to-a)r| 0.10 M ofetl
    =i
    (a) pu H49l E|rl ¤B *izl E++.
    899 E$+:(KNor)g s{t6|= 8q49 pu$ 4l,l}6l^l.".
    (b) B¤ t49 He *991 re 99 :+zlalH, HAE *E

    ql4l17.2
    +g olgol -s.E'Js.lq g* ?+e.l olfl g-E 4lt
    0.20 A/t HFet0.10 At HCt= s:-.6l= E-qq 018 SE.elpHE Zl+16l^19.
    =+9.al+
    Etlff
    E{ Et}.J HClg E6J5l+ 8"-!9 r- olg t
    HFe+ rJ&oJ 4q qlxll 17.1q]^l -E_"J 4+41 r+ag +^l gs"oJ+
    Ee| pHE zlt}6l+ Exllol+. ol a+ H+21;5 olgol+.
    774 173 +Eo-q g:dE += rJE

    Eol HF= e+&oll HCtg T"L,t}olstr. +"_q + +71q= plq}


    Hr, H*, Ct-ol+. cl-= rJ4l9 4}gTlol{, _e_E {}-$
    =.3
    7l plqq^l +a# olg"J +oltrt. Ealql^l= ur$ olgsl-ql

    ^l ^Ja
    tr-lE EE4. El+^l +s"J *¤e +++ eEI. HF(a4) ;- H+(aq) + F-(aq)

    ol $rlloll.r.-l *E ol¤* +a olg(E= 6l-olEs+ olg)o14. HF(aq) : H*(oq) + F(aq)


    ol Beql +q+ 4 Elq+g izl :-oE4 ¤¤ r-"E= *+ 471(M) o.20 0.10 0
    "J
    A 6lrl
    lE- -I
    l^'1 .
    Eaf(M) -x +x +x
    =
    EB(M) (0.20 - x) (0.10 + x) x
    J

    ++ Dql^l HF$ ols-sl- ¤B tF+:6.8 x ro-4olq. *¤ tI . :ffi:\76-,]


    lH*l[F-] (0.10 + x)(x)
    Ko:6.8x10-1
    +eI ¤¤ EE ¤B tl+^lql qloJaIE tris=r+ a+.
    .r-"

    x 7,[o] o.ro M E= 0.20 Mql ElEl t]ql4e-e 4]+-,1 7t46t (0.10)(r)


    x lo-4
    E, ol 49 rfe=$ zJol ,J*6H{1+. 6:6'8
    , : ffitu.t x r.o-4) : 1..4 x 1o-3M: [F-]

    ol r- *.EE HClg ?zlalzl s3 0.20 M HF +"-qtrEl ¤rql


    e q 4+. +F olg H*= HFg olgrlE 9zll,¤14.
    H* (oq) I *ri rlo-- q- z; 4. lH+l : (0.10 + x)M :0.10M
    trI+^l pH : 1.00

    +et d4lE +d olg EoEE EF HCI-E+q ^Ja aql + b) a.$ M (b) 0.0800 M (c)z.txto 3
    M
    916}?+. HF= Hliilzl +^l6J 4Eel ¤.Jg (d) 3.6s x l0-3 M (e) 1.73 xto 4 M
    =EI.
    > .H.= qlr{|1 > E=qH2
    0.100 M qtrt} +s!(CH3CH(oH)CooH, pK,:3.86)r+ 0.050 M +4}(HCooH, Ko: r.8 x 10-4)r+ 0.100 M
    0.08M Hclel gt'J-gq + +tr& ole-el :-"E5 4lt}6i^le-. HNo3E gE. +E + +4I olg +Eel puE 4l4latrls.

    9l4l rz. t4 E+ Et}ql +oJ aol+. u|lizlzl-tr qlgzl9 a+E +F olg9 a


    t7.2Y
    7l-61-E ol$olEz| Ar+q. q= Eq NH:9 Ezl ali4 ¤¤g NH+*E flzlo|fl(NHacl

    E ,Jd6lleql.rJ NHa+ olgol ^JzJ4) 4 rz.z4 ¤Bol 949.p oF=o6Iq oH-E ¤¤ t.


    E7l Aa6}r, pH Alol *ol+14.
    NH3(aq) + H2O(/) ;- NHa+(aq) + OH-(aq) [L7.2]

    NH4+E ts7l6tB E:dol


    o$6tq [OH- ] 7t,J4-.Jtl.

    a NH+Cl(aq)rl NHs(aq)zt e:Er'ElE, tl-g7l EI+ol golLl'ts E"4 +el qE olSol +eE
    I oLgot s;l=)l? oltr BE HJBoI toH-lel.r Eo4el pHE ZdolEzl?

    17.2 | +!.+ soo4

    "+* 4l&-4}¤zl aJg Egr-d+ = *'E(10-3 M ol^J)g +"-qg EJg ,J4lol+ zlgzl*
    dzt6J trllg a4^fl pH Hs+ql xl6J6J+. olBl6J +"_qg eJE E4(butrer sotution E= A
    Elal buffer4]l 6J)ol+r..J+. ql= cEg * pH7.atr_ #zl9= +}.6 +E
    =q ^I+lE
    1i.2 E6 E'-4 775

    olrl(ol e Eel "g+ ¤:orros^JE c.l" +a). ElREel 94 ztxl 3r+q}4


    4# psgl 9all aeqq, EE =zlq^l qI pH a.1-8.3e.tr $#¤4(rz.s n n
    ¤E "Eil"Jel 4I^JE+' +a). ¤!+ +"le Be ¤Ed$ 9_+i1 +,q6IZl ¤+
    ^JEqlzi Hl*ol 4a+ s+ +.-4ql^l"J
    gr+(r=J f.0. E*g ++q 4l4a}
    P .-
    l

    qq 4l"Bg4. ¤4+ol ^Jslq} dEdql^l "J6Izl grlE, ^Jelq} +89 +l ,-))


    i

    qq ++9 ¤}+ +"lg E 4o14.


    "ll^J =Hl6llot 7-
    t+ E"{ a^Jrl4E
    s+ +._qg ou- olgg +al6l+ s+qla"4 H* ol¤9 g7l
    ==aI6I=
    ^I^d x].Jd+. 6tzl"J ol=9 +Ic ]I+o+
    c a+E+g -E-+ Ee-6]-!_E, pH EEI9I
    4"4 EzlC slql+g +s| HI¤¤ F6Iq iulrlxl ?*olo} q1r1r,"'- (4.3 246912
    ^ls
    ¤). ol4oJ -g-+ ^[6]-s- cH3cooH/cH3coo- Ei NH+*/NHr ?3'JaJ arH 17.1 eJ=E._4 ¤ea-e_es6fE=5
    pH #9 ge EqE +"J-'J + 9llt.
    4&_qrgzl tr-ql 96I ++g+. +s_6J ae qlql Hli6J bEg E4Ir+ E
    BzlE ^l¤-5llot.J+= dol4. ¤}e +"_49 r]5zl glaJ,JHql= + 7l^l7l ilq.
    . E& EE s+¤zlE 4 & EE Ezl9 ¤4 4E uJBol4. qlE Eq cu,coos 8o-{
    ql cH3cooNa= e7I*e.EAl cH3cooH/cH3coo- $e +"-49
    "JE + 9l+.
    Hl

    +6tr]l, NHr 8a491 NH4Clg eTIEi_e-e,Rl NH+*/NH: ¤F +Eg "J= + glrl-.


    . elezl4 E&g rJ4}olq zlgzl+ H]¤-^14 4+4I E= qlgzl= Eg + 9l+. q= 5
    q cH3coou 8991 "JC*g NaoHE EzlalE ot4 Hl*ql el6}q cH3cooHE
    AHI AEE +cl^lA + il: CEE cH3cooH/cH3coo- S+ +'-49 "J= + ?l+
    "* (a.3¤).
    CH3COOH(aq) + OH-(aq) CH:COO-(aq) + H2O(/)
    -
    6ql HI¤+,lt+ + BB ^J+E zlzl:L 9lr, ^J^dq= o[.!]E& olg9 oJg f q= 4]+
    zJ¤zl9 .Jql"J E¤g lolrf. a44sE gg +alg o[.r]l-E& ++"lql o],rlle{l as
    9 dz},* A+e+ zJg 4olz, +E .liql= Eli+ o3=g ol.,<llE&4 4gzlzl Lol4.
    qq.J =4E
    4¤.J C+r+ tr'ql4g *.EE e¤¤-_s_ErAl, pHgl al]%Iol= ¤F +elE trJE +
    el+.

    A q-gor Eu-487r I Eq 6 or! ,ior s= Ee4o+ Ata-g + g^E7r?r or8= ¤Edr-


    czHscooHelczHscoo-, HCo3-e[ cos2-, HNo3e[ No3-
    I ^,o
    qBr]l ++ *.lol 4.*alEzl-= q ¤'ol6H6l7l
    "J& Hec+ a7.4 H une o1-7
    +l6H
    q{ ++ +a!g ^J46l] _H_z}. o1q1 M*= Na*, K* E= rt= *olg-s.-+ Eql^J H}+6l-zl
    ?+=+. "l ¤}+ +E9 & 6l]q ¤¤ql= 4Ir+ r 4Bzlzl E+ +ol6J+.
    HA(aq) ;- H*(aq) + N(aq) [17.3]

    olql tl*6t= 416]]4 ^J+^lg

    n, : tllllfl F7.41
    IHA]
    ol 49 lH*lql ql6H EE
    [H*] : o,,++
    [A]
    t17.sl
    776 173 +8.-4 E:del rl= BE

    ol oe+q [H.], pH= + Ttal oJ7]ql E6l] aeq: ag g + 9l+.


    ^l =
    . ¤}e +a4e_1 E& CeE K, ,*
    . 4$-4421 %F9 L" EEI (tHAl/tA-l)

    oH-= S+ +.-qql Ezlal$, ol= ++ +.-4E {! Cer+ EI+6Iq Er+ A- = ^Jd+'|.


    oH-(aq) + HA(aq) --------> Hzo(/) + a*(aq)
    [17.6]
    ETIE E7I

    6sl HISg tHal= +L^l7la-, tA-lE rtzl\t1q. rel+ s+ +.-4 + HAe+ A-E
    ol
    "Jol e7[g oH el
    oJq Hl6l]
    "*str tHAl/tA-l EI= uzl E6tzl 9*=r+. q+^l pH H4
    714Ll.
    H* ol89 ?zleltr, $+ +'-4el Bzl CE4 Hlq"d+.
    + A-(aq) uA(aq) tt7.7)
    X:gr) -
    ol HI¤+ H30*= ++B +E 9l+.
    ^l-&6}q
    H3O+(aq) + n*(aq) nA@q) + H2O(l)
    qL Hi+4g,tf$alQrls. te-l= Aa6[r.,- tHA]= +7ti'Jtrt. tHAl/tA-l ul9 HE]z[ z]
    zluJ a|fl pH Eel-L 4[r]l g+.
    azJ fl.2+ a3 r-"EE g+s_fl+ +4&(HF)r+ olg(F-x+t)o e ol+gd
    =+sfle+
    HA/A- $+ +eqg +qU 4o14. oH-= dzlalB [Hp]z] ,J46]r., [F-]z] +7[6J+.
    HlEql H*E e7l6IE [F-]7] z]46[.7, [ur]z]
    6z]t4.
    q+ "te rltol+ z*$zl$ g++"lg Hq¤ + 91tr1. ol tel A++ql^J
    ^l-&6IE
    4"J ql¤¤ Q z|,tllol gqg 4.o14.

    (a) cH3cooHelcHscoo-E 0l+olT]s= teqq NaoHE ts7t6tE olttlEl g0l goi


    Ll=71?
    (b) 0l E= Eo4oll HcrE ts7t6l.E olEll El=71?

    HFTI E7l F-7t


    i{rLol =I1|-Bte.-er{
    GShg 7t^ g:Btg ?d. ^i
    ETIE=rtl-sfgEr"q
    r4at^] pH +trt. r4at^1 pH e^E +rt.
    =7|=
    ET|E E= to-{
    oH- E7t + IHFI : IF l H+ ts7t +

    OH- E7l H*Ezl


    HF F- HF F_ HF F_

    H2O(l) + F-(aq) <- ItF(ail + OH-(aq) F-(aq) + H+(aq) --------+ HF(aq)

    LaA 17.2 g= AtA HF/F eJA E-49 puts tirl g7l= E7[d|'tialE 219 E"=lxl *EtErL
    tz.z I Se 8o-4 777

    eJ+ to{sl pH Aru


    4*-4Bzl tlg +E olgg ++6|E.tr +F olg a$g +l+6J Ell ^l-+,il g+ +E9
    pu 2lt4 +Ae 'JBg
    ^l-&g
    f 94(9lzll tz.r). s += %[H oe= 4 tz.se.*q I
    -E6J 49 zlz.E 6ll^l d=6J +E ?l+. rl rz.s9 "J+ql -logE +l6IH

    -rogrH-l : -,*(offi) : -,o*, - r,sffi


    -tog[H*J : pHo]J., -log& : pKool E.E
    pH : pK, - loC
    tHAl: pKo + tog
    tA-l
    [17.8]
    tA-l tHAl
    (4l4}ol qBril qizl 3 EE4H ++ A.2ql flts e,:z +zlg 7lq6}+.)
    olBlal O E

    pH : p& * ,"*ffi l7.sl

    ¤zld t4ll4 t¤zll= 4&-ulgzl r$(conjugate acid-base pair)el ¤¤ bEol+. tg


    ,ll: t4I'J 4l pH:p&4E aq +E614.
    17.9= Henderson-Hasselbalch 4(Henderson-Hasselbalch equation) oE gq4 9l
    ^l
    q. ^J5q4, ^gE]4xl "l trllulltr ¤F +"_!g 0l+61+
    ^I*=g s+ +Ee.l pH 4l&91 ol
    ^lg ++ ^l-8-oJrl.
    ¤e 44Iql^J olgsl6l= g+ +"_4e.1 +Ft Ezl9 oJg oJHI4sE +
    tr9lrl. q+^J qlxil 17.3q1^l E f 9liol, al rz.sql +I,e +EE &4
    ^lg fE 9l+g r-oE=
    Ezl CE9 a7l 4d ^l-Sg +E 9l+. 6[z]"J $+ +E 49 azl Bzl CE
    I *.E7I ¤B ^Jelg] +Es+ {olz}i d*
    zrg z}d"J sol+. ql4l ^F]
    17.4q1^l g + gl=
    ol, a+ q ¤EJg 9ez1 fl= A+7} ?lg 4o14.
    ^Jl"J6}4

    qH 17.3
    t+ t'{E pH 4t
    0.12 M q-Ed{CH3CH(OH)COOH IE= HC3HsOsll[O.tO n4 q4 AE(CH3CH(OH)COONa lEE NaCsHsO3)E sEt6lts eJE
    Eo-4e] pHE Zlt!6l^19(trJ, +Etel Ka:1.4x to-40;r9.

    6Ht
    .84 qE&(HC3HsO3)r+ t4gzl qElI olg(CrHrOr-)9 99 fz| q= PI++g HC3H5O3, Na+, CrHros-o]4.
    Eqld-= $+ +"+9 pHE Zl&ol-b Exllol+. Nan ol$9 +aE olgolq. HC3H5O3/C3H5O3-E 41I_
    rflq +C 17.l¤ql ¤B+ %Ltsg pHE ?C6J4. 4Ezl A}"l [H*], + pu= EC6J4. [H*]= +E&q & 6ll
    ^l-S6rq r,l BBg g+6}q +6J + 9l+.
    HC3H5O3= Ed4aol.I., NaC:HsOrE rJd4eolEe, +
    CH3CH(oH)CooH(a4) .- H+(aq) + CH3CH(oH)Coo-(aq)
    Eot ol ¤¤ql +q+ aF++E a7l r-oEe+
    pt(M) o.l2 0 0.10
    ¤¤ tE= tri.gr} e+.
    EEt(M) -x +x +.x

    E:d(M) (O.r2 - x) x (0.10 + r)

    BB tE= Be4q $alS xlufl$Q


    Ka:7.4 x 10 a: lH+llc3Hsotl x(0.10 + x)
    IHC3Hs03] O.l2 - x

    K,7l 4a_ +=l olgol S4lolEtr xY 0.12


    M E= 0.10 Mql Bl6ll z+3 aos qt}g .: x(0.10)
    Ka: 1.4 X l0-4 ."_
    4. trI4^l Elgxlfl A+d g + 9l+.
    ^le
    778 173 +Eo-4 EEe.l rt= 9E

    ,rql El]6Iq EE, A'J+6t= Alol *94 : x : (ffi),t - x 1o-a) : x to 4M


    =^lBg [H*] 7.7

    :z 4s pHE 7E + 9t+ pH : -log(1.7 x tO-41 : 3.77

    E trl= %LHss, pH: p& * bsm:3.85 +


    : :
    "r(H)
    pH 4l&"ll Henderson-Hasselbalch 419 z.ld
    ^l=a."oJ
    + 9ltrI 3.85 + (-0.08) 3.77

    > E= qlrlll (c) & dE9 tEe+ 9zl dE9 Eo EE 'J4.


    s+ +EE PHTI g+ +q 4 & CEg P&el e+8, ol (d).ll ¤+E Eo 5e| ¤zl CE9 E= &e+ Ag aolEl. .r-o

    $+ +"1 'I9 4I C++ at¤zl CE9 tlql4 r-"Eql (e) Ezl cBg r-oE= {i ¤BE tEql El6ll 2.3HH r4.
    =
    +4q +ig 94 ?tsz|? > H= qlril2
    (a) CE9 :-" E= 0ol+.
    4I o.t2M Hl4+4 o.2oM HIa^} lE oe ol+qd $e+
    (b) g7l d+E r-"E= 0o14.
    99 psE 4l+a}^le(++ D +6).

    qFil
    F 17.4
    Henderson-Hasselbalch 4lol ¤qlq gxl ?Jg qE pH 4lt

    ttdl^le.
    (a)Henderson-Hasselbalch 0lE6tq Z|t!, (b)g0ll tllEt 7l.8 B.0l Zlt(olil'J8^.lE -Brg elol)(E, CH3COOH9
    ^l= ^tE6H0[
    K,= 1.8ox1o-5olrl.)

    6ilt Hasserbalch49 ^l-S4q pHE 4hI6J4. ol %lH os At


    E4{ $+ *99 puE + 7l^l EJHstr al&61+ Erlloltri. d-al 4l4IB + 9l+. r +q EoEe|.Jq ql+ 7Ia sol, +
    e}4F+ 4IEzl9 zzl *EE "Jr !la, e+&9 p& atg g al&¤' B aol4. ol ,JHql^l= 7l=ql +4618.=ol, ia
    ^l r-"E/He+"J/B¤
    a 914. 7l +E Alg 4ltlsllot ++. +7|tr olil
    4q +d p& <i+ &-g7l }.EHIE ols-"oli Henderson- %r-C^lg ol++q 7IC $.ol olg Al&.J 4olr}.

    E^l
    EUI
    lcd zl I
    (i) Henderson-Hasselbalch pH: p& + rosftf
    ^]9
    +9 & <l(t.sox to-s)¤ oJ:z 9o og, p&(p&:
    -tosKo:4.74)='J + 9l+. E.+ e7lfl of.$lE4I
    dEr+ &.J o|,<ll-E&9 a7l bE= oJa gla, o1
    <iSg *l¤ E.EE 714*4.
    trI{^l ol$ (1.00 x l0 {)
    CE6ll-HE. oH:4.74 llos-
    r" --'(l'oo
    x 10 3)
    : 4.74 - t.OO - 3.74
    (ii) olz'llL 7td S.ol 4l&g tri^l +q6J 1o14. ¤¤ CH3COOH (a4) i- CH.COO (a4) + U+ 1aq)

    ^Jqlql^l H*E bE= rB F-r., puE 4lt}alzl I


    *71(M) 1.OO x 10-3 1.00 x 10-4 0

    at{ ol9l ql6}q !g + aol+. Hat(M) -x +x +x


    EE(M) (1.00x10-3-x; (1.00x10-4+.x) x

    IcH3coo-][H+] :KO
    IcH3cooH]
    (1.ooxto-a+x;1r;
    : 1.8 x 10-s
    (1.ooxlo3-x)
    17.2 | eJ= Eo-4 779

    1.00 x : 7.8x l0-s(1.00 x 10-3 -


    10-4.x * xz x)
    x2 + l.OOx 10-a.r : 1.8 x l0-8 - 1.8 x 10-sx
    x2 + l.l8x 10-ax - 1.8 x l0-8 : 0

    x: -1'18x19-+1@ 2(r)
    -1.18 x ro-n + Vsit ar lo{
    2
    : 8.76 x tO-s = [H*]
    pH : 4.06

    +g ql4l r7.3ql^.1= olil %IC4g E6I Zl&+ pHei, azl > !a= qF{ 1

    *Ee+ BB L"E7l zl+izlzJo tr rJ+61-ll al,l}* <lol ^-l s+ +._qol o[,r]le.& 4E(cn,cooNa)4 o[,r.]lE4]
    -q .Jzl6I9+. ol a+q= 44}-el¤zl ,it9 EoETt KoAkE (cH3cooH)otr "JEqA+1*, o[^]1tr&9 &= r.eo,
    + a uH o1* ilzl qlEql Tlaol *aa1qq-. oIzlEJ olH ql t0 sol+). ol S+ *99 pu} 3.e8ol+. ¤E ^J49 "l
    zltl-4gzl9 bETI &-E_+ t0-l00HH r7l qlE }.Erl o}^]lE4I9 bEHl= 9"toJzt?
    ^llql^l: ^lltr4}
    4r,, xtl a7l l-oEql Hl6Iq ++61 z}4a 21443 f fl4(ol (a)-0.760 (b) 0.174 (c) 0.840 @) s.7s (e) 99 Talzl
    += BE, azl tEel ¤q tE7[,J4r z]Cts + fl+ ql= +q4l C-H-7].+E6lzl ?t4.
    =
    Etrlol+). ol ql4lE 7I+ c+.J B9 r9l ql6J 7la sol > .H.= qlr.il 2
    =
    ?oltl pH : A+zl9E Henderson-Hasselbalch
    4.0601+. aTlql 6.s0 M Naoclg E
    xto-4 M Hoclr+ 7.50 x l0-4
    4e "+6J 4l(E= ¤zl)9 z71EE7l &(E= KrB+ ztg g.d $+ +E9 BB tlEilE al+ puE Zl4}of^ls(+,
    qlql: AqETI Eqdqa g + 9l+. Hoclg & atg 3.ox lo-solEl).
    ^tE

    qlzll 17.3q1^.1 +F +gE pHE 4l&61fl4. :44 ++ Hiql HJ6J9 zlEE gs-tr B
    1o14. +C pu5 921 +16ll &4: zlEzl9 .&g 41416l+ 4*o14. ol 4&g qlrll
    =
    17.sql ++4fi,+.

    qH 17.s
    tt+ 8.{ tJETl

    0.10 M NHe 2.0 Loll NHaCr H E7l-dtE pH 9.009 sJ= E"-48'JE + ?1ts71.?(.J, NH4C|ol ts7IE Ee4el +El7l EAl6f^l
    =¤
    Lr=rE 7t8-drt.)

    rfls
    E{ pu 89¤. "JEzl glal] get NH4*E o}g +6} EBll+q4lq.
    =4
    Eallol+. NH3(a4) + HzO(/) r- NHr+(a4) + OH-(aq)
    =
    +E ++71q=3I}4+gNH4+, Cl*, NH3ol+. ol5
    4lEl I(r: [NHr*][oH-l
    - - -lNH3- : 1.8 x 10 r
    + cl- olgg *z+ol4(olag rJ&E {$zlolQ). u}z},rl
    ol qlElg 4d3 [NH+*]= 4l,|!6]zl glifl ra
    NH4+/NH3e_l 4&-4971 *Jol $+ *99 pHE a4+q. ^lg ^l-*61+
    ^Iolq ¤¤ +41=
    NHa*4 NH3 NH3el Szl 6l]?-l EI*ql 4.o14.

    Eot pHs+q toH-l= +*4. pOH : 14.00 - pH : 14.00 - 9.00 : 5.00

    [oH-] :1.0x10-sM
    K6tl r.Nl zln. uHn*z| +si ol$9E ¤Z]]6IE-E NH3E
    B¤ t.E= a7l r-o EeI o E e+.
    [NH.1 :6.16'
    =84
    INH"I
    [NHn*]= +6]71 fl6ll Ku 49
    ^l-sooJ4. [NH/] : Krffi = (1.8 x
    (0.10)
    : 0.18M
    (1.0 x 10-s)
    780 173 +Eo-I E:dE Ll= r+E

    *99 puz[ e.00ol q7l +]6ll^J= *o-49 [Nru*]zt o.te ll4r+


    ,Jofo} tl4. gsoJ NH4ctel E+= +"+ +qe+ E+E= +
    t <tol4. (2.0 L)(0.18 mol NHaCI/L) : 0.36 mol NH+CI

    6el NHa*eI NH:E e}&-4Bzl 4-olE-p, ol E4l= > H.= qlrlll


    7l +lq-q Henderson-Hasselbalch 4(ll tz.s)S = pH e.20el $+ +aqg "JEzl glall 0.s00 M "Jsqot +
    ^I+E
    + 9l+. ^l 16.419 +d ^l-8-6l]^] NH3el pK6 ttstr+q I z.oo roll lzlqlop 6l+ ge+ sEkq 3*3 gulqlzt?
    NHr*9 p& atg 4ltlt}+. $+ +Eq pHE 4&B 41, & eeg flzla[{=. +"-49 +u]= H6}zl *=4a 7}46}
    s) rc"zl olul4 4¤zl4 rcozl +qAg ullE Henderson- -r1, *Eqo}fl KrE 1.80x 10-5ol+.)
    Hasselbalch 49 ^l=so6J
    + 9l+. ol %lBg +,ll6J + 9lE+ 60j S O) 30.4 g (c) 1.s2 g (d) 0.s68 g (e) 1.5ex 10-s g
    (a,)

    ¤+6llHrJ xlloJ6J+.
    > E= qlrll2
    pH a.00oJ *99 ".h==lz}6J ull, o.zou Hl=d(qH5cooH)
    *q491 ¤zllol-L da4} rEE r-o E= 4l.tl6t^ls.

    t+ t%Fal pH H+l
    $|6 +"-qel + 7l^1+sq} ECg +16 +=*4 pH Hglo14. t!= AEJ(buffer capacity)
    e *F +EE pHzl- flzial Hpl6lTl 47lzl4 ¤F +.lg +plg + 9l= tlol4 ¤zl
    9 oJol+. ol g+ +ed'e +}¤= +._qg "JE trll ^l^soJ tI4 Ezl9 "Jq E=drI. qlE E
    "l r u CH3CooHe+ 1 M CH3CooNa gajg l L +q pHb 0.1 M CH3CooHeI 0.1 M
    CHaCooNa gqlE 1 L +9 pHel ?4E ag l7.s-++El "J + 91trI. rBl+ a Ball
    ^l
    *a4E +F +%Iol q =q. q '*g cH3cooHe} cH3coo-E Egralzl "llE"l4.
    S+ +Eq pH Hgl(pn range)i-r $+ 8.-4ol g.44 oE 4e"B + 9l= pu HflE
    "J.J+. ¤15t +Eg E&r+ :z qr¤zlg bETr 4E +3 Eil qL B"6Je_+.= pu Eolgl zI
    1r En+zl oE zl6J6J+. u.eql^l E4I4 : qi¤zl9 *E7l Ag ql pH:p&"JS "J
    ^l
    gl4. ol +AlE $+ +.-4el +14 puE +4Utr1 tr|+^J S+ +sqq tI ¤4zl 7*i pK,
    &ol gd-= pH4l zl*E+ S+ +"-qg dq+q. d4s $+ +"iE * Ce $Ez| Q-q
    CEr+ t0Hll olt}zlolTl. t+E ¤le bqg H+ A Sril gtl.. logl0:1olE-e, $+ +Eg
    pK, Ael tl qql^l 4E+ H+lE ,*+q(= pH:pK, t 1).
    ^l^+

    7-.\ o ltrt!(H NO2)"l sfo lEgA|(HClO) o


    l K,',1? 2:)f 4.5 x 1 0-
    4e1
    3.0 x 1 0 -8otl. ol E'2i
    l

    0l pH =7.0 E= Eo-4oe ,\18617101l t1 4BEPI? S= E4E trJE= tll =J9-.J tl= EEg +
    1?l7l'?

    sll+ t"4q ,Jt sts 4o+Tlol471


    olxll zj4lolu| zJ¤zlE dz|6J *I Cle+"lel A¤-g rl A=*zl oJ$ss ^J4"li -trz.}. ol
    Ezll= gqH ,Jl4In+ e|$zl .r.1o19 ++ Hl+ "l z}¤zl4 E4i 64 *¤-ol saq
    ^tolel
    aqq= HI*"JS olollallo['J4. o]13 E-g ^Jc6t= H]*olzl ollEol4(Eg
    ^J^d6l+
    EI+e.l ¤B t+ rf K.:l0'4oltrl re (16.3p)). u}+^l $+ +.-4E +}6! +=J¤. a46lzl
    ?t= 6J, zJ&olul ztgzl:_ c}+ +eqrl Hlso 6Iq $d6l iHlg+r +48 + gl+.
    E&(HA)4 : z|¤zl(e-)$ +a;a15 S+ +Eg ^J46H -H.z1.. z3-gg ol gA +.1.il
    EztB trll H*: A-ql E6ll iHlqq HAE ^JdEltrl. 44^l tHel: +7l6la-, tA-l= rJ
    17.2 eJ= 3.-I 781

    7L\l-9 9I= 90Hol


    llclTl ,\lElit Hl.9.5lrt

    tt E7l

    I
    A- (aq) + H+ (aq) ----) HA(aq)

    Etl HAet tHA]. tA-IE &, tHAl, tA-lE


    EA6E ,J= trt^l 4tl [H+]E
    ^It6g4tt

    '7J%)l d)t
    I
    HA(aq) + OH-(aq)---->A-(aq) + H2O(l) I
    7l(J4llL ql= .Q.oHOl
    ol^l 2\lqf,L Hlgelr!

    ;16Elerl EB Xltl
    4ttl

    arB 17.3 t IE= ET|E E7l-.J + S= EEsl pH zllt

    ol a+q tuelE rJa6}J tA-l= +rI.J+(^l 17.6 +z). olelfl ^J+g rH r7.2
    =rf.
    q,qE6lfl4.
    ,JAIol+ ztgzl= dzlB ql ¤I,e +.-I9 pH Aol qBal ,Jg""l=71-= 41416l-= ag =
    eJ f.3ql 4^16} rJBg tr|=trt.
    r. ,il-g7l +3rl-HI¤¤ nq6t-r., tHAle+ tA-lq Elil= ¤6&9 AA'J{. ol +rll= +
    4l Hl¤¤ +qqfE4 4l&(limiting reactant stoichometry calculation)olr|.-n:' (3 6d.
    3.7 4).
    2. [H*]= ,114]6]71 +laH &e+ Zl4]g [HA], [A ]9 ftg ^l-Se+. ol ,JHe SB 4l
    &(equilibrium calculatio")o14, Henderson-Hasselbalch ol+ drll +
    ^lg ^|S6Iq
    B + g+(E&-gzl gg Lo E7I &E K,ql Hldl ,l]+ trll).
    =
    hN qH 17.6
    /7 t+ t'4E PH Hriizlt
    0.300 mol cH3cooHe|" 0.300 mol cH3cooNaE ts71.6|.q 1.00 L7l EIE= E_+ Fa gt= Ee4E uEfl+. E= E"-4el
    pH =4.7401r(qFll 17.1). (a)4.0M NaoH(aq) Eo-{ s.o mLE tszl'-et F 0l Eo49 pHE Zltlottlq O) HIE= 9l6tot, ++-d E 1.000 L
    oll4.o M NaoH(aq) E"-4 s.o mLE tszl-d + Es4el pHE Zltbl,tl9..

    6tlt fitel ol +41= += E] rB 17.3q1 so+* + +417I


    ^l-&g
    EAE +q7l$ Ezlal * S+ +s4el pHE 4l4}ala,
    E^1 +. "IE^l HzJ dzl¤ oH-7t g+ +"_q 4dql qE ¤.]
    ++p Eql Ag .JE ztgzlf= Ezlal F pHE 4l4}al{ ul $ ulzlfzl$ "Jzl flot{ plqL=*EzJ 4l4lg 6llot 5Jq.r
    -noJi $xllolr[. fl F pHE'Jotqzl +l6}q ¤l-e +EE 4dr+ Henderson-
    Hasselbalch E= BB tl-+^lg ++.
    ^l ^]-$6flot

    E0l
    (a) Eltffi54 4l&: NaoH"ll^l 49 oH-zI cH,cooH
    (e+ *Ee] E4I d$e+ .$d6l HI+*4. Fvlzt
    H6lzl qlEql Hi*ErI ^JCEol 9"t4 ^JdqE
    782 173 +3"-4 "J-dE Ll= rJE

    ,I= ++ql e3 b
    tl+6}41 4lt}6llot 6JtrI. CH3CooH(a4) + OH (aq) HzO(/) + CH3COO (a4)
    EE !+ +E= +btrI. olag +p+ Hl+e Ei8 E(mol) 0.300 0.020
    - 0.300
    -tr, cH3cooHe+cH3coo-+44 0.300 mol EeHzr4l
    0.020 o.o20 +0.020
    ol4. dzlB ¤zl9 oJ9 o.oos L x 4.0 mol/ UBEXmol)
    Hl8 F(mol) 0.280 0 0.320
    L:0.020 molol4. 0.020 mol OH 6+^l
    7l= ql= 0.020 mol9 cH3cooHTi =
    9s-a14.
    ¤4498 CH3COOHE "J3 o.ozo mot #A
    t+. r4n cH3coo-e.l +p+tr d¤q=.J
    3 o.ozo mol f;zfaJr|. oH-9 HI* ?4s,,.1.
    S+ +aqgl E+ CE# EsE 4C6IE trI
    *4 Aq.
    S¤ 4l&: olzfl| gi 8._I9 pHE +6}al ¤
    o},rllE&9 olgslql q6J ¤Bg gqEz}. CH3COOH(a4) ;- H+(aq) + CH3COO (dq)

    HI* + g+ +"-q +ql BoI ?lb cH,coou


    ef cH3coo E "Jg ol+6lq Henderson-
    Hasselbalch 49 zl+Elge;{ pug +B + 9l

    +. olzll +a4e.l +q= NaoH *o_4 ATIg oJ6ll 0.320 molli.005 L


    : 4'74 *'o,orro*ovrr*, :''to
    1.000 L + r.00s0 L: 1.00s Lol4. PH

    (b) +++ E t.ooo Lql 0.020 mol NaoHE Bz16l-


    q "JEq{ *.-49 pnE 4461719611^l a H
    allE +a4 qlel oH olgE *'E= aa-J+. [OH-] : 0.020mo1/1.005 L : 0.020M

    poHE 4l4}6t7l fl6ll 16.189 :r.


    ^.1 ^l-*6tn,
    fl trIg pHE Szl gd-q l6.2oql 4lt}¤ poH : -logfoH ] : -log(0.020) : +1.70
    ^l
    poH {tg B=+. pH:14-(+1.70) :12.30

    4.0MNaOH(aq) 4.0MNaOH(a4)
    5.0 mL tszl 50mLBzt
    +
    0.300 M cH3cooH
    0.300
    1.000
    M cH3coo-
    L s= EE
    pH
    4.74
    pH
    4.80
    1.000 L H2o pH
    7.O0
    ,+ pH
    "12.30

    0.06 pH E+tEl= 5.30 pH E+IEJ=


    (a) PH e7t (b) pH
    =7t
    rg 17.4 ,#71= S= Aq4 ts71-61-H= r4E E"l
    =ofl

    +9 zlg o"t$ NaoHE fizlolQels. EE pH= r4l EoJ 4 *=4. (d) r6+tiol+ g7l
    EI¤:6I+ Etlr+= Hlg"6l-zl
    +. HlEql NaoHz| Ez}9flg uil $+ 899 pHi:aJ $+ 8'-491 Ezf4E ¤F 899 p& EE pKab Hsl
    f.4ql ++U a^lfl ,l]+ a+ H6J+. =
    4. 1e;2341o1* 9zlE ¤}6 +aqq e7ftr trIE al4}e 6
    > !r8 ql8l1 + Els"n+ B"3zlltr+El EaE oJg 4l4I6HoF 6J+.
    ol= + qL aol dd.Jz}? (a) g.# +.lg ,J4Iol+ g > .E= qF{|2
    zlg frzlallE pH: A.z H6Izl ?+=+. (b) S+ +qql qlxll tz.0oll E"J (a) +l+ +.+q 0.020 mol9 HCtg 7I
    ,J{Iol+ Szl$ flzla|{ pHE 414}6}71 +l6ll^J= t{ 6}flg trllE pHE Talrl-c-. (b) ffio3 E r.ooo Lql HCI
    Henderson-Hasselbalch 996l+. (c) zj$zli zj4! 0.020 mot9 dzla}Hg oll9 puE 4l4}6t^le.
    ^lol
    17.2 I gr= 804 793

    t+ ¤_q{-e_-a^1E eJn4

    ^JB4lql^l "Jq+= +q Hlg"g pHql 4+ "JA6t4.


    ql= 4e+EH 17.s)q^l gaq: qlE=EEt +Eee
    ol 91trI.
    EE +e+ ^JEtqL Hl+g +,ll6lE *g nise 6e H+l &d= +Hl*+. 6llE=sHl(Hb)g H*eI ozoll zI94 "-e
    9 pn 49lrl"J Erl4oltrI. olel6J ol$e ?l;ll= a4 ^llE aql+q. ol F Eee Hbg +n a^Jd+ql. q-g ¤¤4e
    + ^llE= +HI5l-= "-4ill qlql ,]|+ +tltl $"Zl= -,$zlap E +48 + fltr}.
    9ltrL # +4+4vlzl SHI6I= C.+g ^JB4lql ilq HbH+(aq) + o2@Q :
    H+(aq) [17.11] Hbo2@q) +
    ^Ii=
    S+9 +s{g trq += ¤=sal gl9 a}4ol4.
    .JA es49 C^J4e pH {tg 7.3s-z.4solr+. ol H+lql t}i= El= 54 e.-4ql +"Jq=ql. ol*ql^l tI^= 4¤
    +.E. 5q7t nb$ pg-4j4. o29 r-"Ezl *g
    E+ql H.q+E ^,ilEEE "JCE, +EeE +a, EiE ^llsql Bo-4ol
    ^.1 Eg6IE 4 rz.rr9 ¤eg g+qs ol¤l6}q oz= 4taE4.
    ¤+^dE
    =-q
    ,l]+ d46J g'&g trlA+. pH ilol 6.s-H_tri * ql= ¤f,$ 6I= +q], TIzl eolol a;41 486I¤ oz$
    44 z.s-H-4 *:oE ^JEg S=4. pHTl735 of4s Bq gE +"J ^ll
    ++6J4. 4 eoJq 96J3 re chatelier fl
    zltr &E?(acidosis)olzp. 6}l, 7.4s-H-+ tolzlE 'JrJ4 ^llE.E
    4= ^l 17.1lql 4+4q 016ll++ 9l+.
    ¤*(alkalosis)ol4n ++. "J+49s 4IB+ol q e- "Jq
    +=q1, rol+= 4l,Iql^l "Jq+:'JHI4"J geql^Iql E r.o27l^HlqE ¤Bol g+qs ol56}q H f*9 orzl
    6l] qBl zfzl 4lo1 trllEol+. ILr-=g+.
    "JEqzlTl
    E.l9 puE a36I= Ell ol+q= $+41: +&-+4I+ 2. E3ql^lql EEI ^Jtlq= "*g-JE co2= [H+]E +7]
    4 $641(carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system)o14. E B¤ol g+sE olE6}q orzl HJ¤¤+.
    ^14 g-c.z}6zle}4.
    &(ttrco J4 +^I+4' o I g(HCo3 - ) g 4L4I-4l g 7l r^.Io I tl. r. t;ll9 olf+ rz.rrol gg HI*ol
    ^l
    tr-tr, gETl-+71-6lE g¤g gqeg olf,,rlzl o2zf
    +&g oltlE} +d
    trl+ol zlzjle| $-e +6l]¤+. ol $+41
    q *¤^le +gn+ rJ+. EJ=g+.

    H*(aq) + HCQ @fl : H2CO3@q) ol s"J=g azlql^l ozE *¤rlrJ .g"J olq4, pHE rJr
    : CO2(5) U7.101
    H2O(/) +
    dE+E +71-= zHdl q Be 02= :=-6}r, cozE
    ol ¤¤4ql= +-E_aJ aSol 914. a4l, +&ol ololCzl ^lrJ
    zlla*q. ¤¤ ol54 pH Helzl. ol+41 aj/6}zl flaqxl
    &.JqlE ¤+6ta, ol alql^l g4i ol$(co,, )* +s-a1^1 s=+8, azlql^l ozE #46}2il ed^14 trl oltE g¤¤
    s+. E4ll, ol ¤B4g 6J cE.J co2= Tli.lloJql, "JillE "JE= aol Ezl-bal4.
    old aa=-ql^l tr._4E s+ +rJ+
    6l-.1+ B¤g a¤61+ ql4q+9 6J+. + Eg:g coz9 tsi}g E4 qlq pHTr q+ *ril Bq4 +¤+g +
    '*E+
    ¤:4q corE %Ie"Jgeal BBg eE+g.g olf,^lzl_r., g^l7l: .Jol .Jgqzl ?*s4 puE +z16}= 4ol Ei4ol
    &g iBl6IE+ 6J+. {x11, ¤E Lllg ¤}e4l= pH 7.4q1^l +.
    4Eq+q, ol Alg H2co3el p&, ,,i(S444"J 9-rq1,<i +A g+ #^n: 17.2e
    g4 Bq4 gl+. *+4l7lpH7.a*z)
    6.r)o_tr+El ^J"J6l
    7l +l6fl^l= t$zll/t+ll9 HlzI E 20ol qqot
    "J+. Ctle
    I r F-f
    .l

    t}g HCo3-eI H2co3el t.E= qlqi 0.024 Mt+ o.oot2 M


    ol+. e44es ol $+41= ¤zlB4E qEE &g ++^l
    t
    e + 9l= +"*g zlzl:L ))cl.
    =
    ts^I-*t}+^ $+4lE pHE r¤afb ?e zl$-o- q1q
    tl^Jol4. qE q¤ ++rll= .J^ll9 H*s+ Corel |,r.q1 up
    8l; ; A
    + "JrJ6l+. Co29 r-oE7I4xlE ll t7.loej ¤¤ol g+e
    g ol$a|-r., olE H*zl trl *ol ^JdqE+ +trI. llE ++ ry-.
    ill= ol= oJzl6iq s.g:g mlE_r. ,J4l 6lE+ "J=q. qlql
    .<l coz9 zll4 +E= +71^14 ¤89 -s=og olEi.tlzl
    h.* i
    \
    l*

    +. tr"_4E pHTL q+ +of^lE tltlg B"_qsE+q HCO3


    E rllzlaJrl. olelrJ $$etrE BB ol5lg H*9 bE= +
    7l^lvJr+. _L aal PHT} aa6J+. ArH 17.S 4E+ EEsl Af. 7l^l= E6|l olEdl= 4E?E
    43 +^15^l -dolA 4E+ rH* 0.010 mm
    tr,J9 pH a¤g dill ^llsql o,E Sqlq 4d4.J +fl 0lrt ^lTl. ^1lE= ^l=01
    784 17H +8.-4.J:-Jet rt= ElE

    17.3 lt-"J71 4x
    g-de
    NaOHE HCI EEoll ts7lg nl| olE
    tr PHzf HilE zio+ q661=7i?
    44e Ei¤¤ql El= HI*ES ^l^J6l
    A716I= 4Col4, r rl4ql^l B¤
    voETl E.qqBg+ ,,4dql= + 7l^l ol#z| il4.
    *," (4.68).
    . Hl¤¤ + 6t+el +E= "J.tot 6l= a+
    5i5.= ot'=
    NaOH(aq)u 1 . Hl*e.l BB tr-+E.Jo|"I6l+ a+
    -ra
    I-l
    II
    tt
    1r
    tl-Bzl 4aql^l= +E= .Jr 9l= Hzl 899 &ql ^J^l6l EzlEI4
    tl (E= &g Ezl9l dzt;J4) ,", (4.64). &-Ezl ziAE
    lltt
    ir ^l^lEg oJql B=&d
    ti
    }T
    lr
    (equivalence point, a|$ale-4se. &4 Ezlz\ +zl +rJg Eg6l+
    II
    ir
    II
    tl
    1: d)9 da-e ^l-S6J + 9l+. E= e7I* !{xll(titrant)q +qq 4t pH 4
    'la E:ld(pH titration curve)9-tr El*E dB 4A(r=J 17.6)9 oJolBzl 9l6l.q
    I
    pH ElEl pH trlEl=
    ^l-s"oJ
    4a +dE Eolg 4cq B=Jag acg +
    +E glEl.
    ol^l SEel 9lril 'J+. +de 4e+ 7'l^lEg dqg + 9lril 61i1, zld6J E&E
    zJA
    HCI(aq)tl
    E HI71
    r,4 Ezl9 KoE itB + 9lE+ ei+.
    44 +dol ell qB 5ol6.J EoJg ,*y7l= olollalzl g16l trl+el ^ll ao #9
    a 4dql ql.J +dg gEltrE+ 6IzL (r) ?yJ-]tq7l|. (z) .Jt-zJ¤71, o)
    .t7.6
    4oJ^Jz].&-ztgzl. olE +dol "JEzlzi E'Jg a+e+= qBrll +Aol 9l
    afB 4E ?+49 pH 4E z+61 ¤qBE+ ++.
    =zlE

    \ E7l--J gTle-ItsE7[ 0.200 MolE, =JaJtroll-E-J6l.7l +l6tl E9.el NaoH9 +tr|= go[?.]7p
    1.4

    1.2

    10
    .Jgtroll,'.l pH: 7.0,
    NaCl(cq) E Eo-4

    8
    pH
    6
    Etatxl

    4 gTlE E+: +t9


    q.JaJEojl
    2 =+g
    EEI
    +=

    0102030405060 80
    NaOH(mI)

    e"\ o4 e o e
    o
    !
    Na+
    CI

    o o c oc
    486t71 d Olfq ETle H* ,J4, orrol Eal u*zt Orrq BJ36tr.
    SE6l=Et (pH:7.0) "PJEH+21-flE{pH > 7.0)
    HCI(aq)trJ Ert| H2O $d(pH < 7.0) 'JP

    Lad 17.7 ?&!Z rJETle 48 o.too A/ Et 50.0 mLE 0.100 Azl NaoH(aq)-+ 4561ts pH *d. BqfdlTll 6171 916l.q E E^lE reql^.1
    8+6lfitl'.
    17.3 t g7l 45 785

    ou oE'l-1*vl0
    7l^l-7lo17l
    z}fitl= rJtq Ez|tr oll EqzlE 4A +de_l "JHI4 E.Jg rEJ 17.7q1 444S.4. ol
    4¤ +dg 0.100 M NaoHE 50.0 mL9 0.100 M Hclql 7IB trll Lt4+E pH Hffi -H
    eq. qel zl4 +4lql^J9 puE 4l4}g + glq. .l 4l&ql 4* olal]S d4l 6}zl +l6lq
    +dg q1 5-$q+ ++s+.
    r. EztpH: 9zlE dE +Eq pHb rJ&9 a7l +Eql 96ll a4¤+. 0.100 M
    471.;17\
    HCI +o-qq [n*] : 0.100 M, pH : -log(0. too):1.00001E]. Ir]+^l azl pHb *+.
    2. a7l pHet =JEE NaOHE Ezl*ql pHts. zl+ql :1 trIs
    ^]ol: "14 ^l^j6l +716Ir.,
    q 'J+d uule4l ?7i.J+. B+d d9 +._4 puE 64921 ?+e &E +E
    =7lql^l
    q q4 acg+. ol zl&g qlxl rz.z(a)91 Hgtrl.
    3. tr-BEl: 'J=*Aq^JE NaOHq Hclol eg E+e Hls" 6E, rE:g ¤(NaCr)4 +qEI
    ts=+. zlgz\4 oJolg(ol ?* Na*)4 ,J4Iel ¤.ol9(ol 49 cr-)g 7I+ +6l]6tzl
    g:sE_g pugl S6JB +zl g:e rrg +.-qq pH : z.ooolQ .-_= (ro.l¤).
    4. =JSE 0t+: B*A ol+9 +"-4 puE 8"4
    'j]
    r+*E NaoH Eo E9l rl4 ¤d94. "l
    zlAle ql^ll 17.7G)q trq+.

    \\ ql4l17.7
    Z Tt_Todzl x{e-lpH 4lt
    tl= +tr|"1 0.100 A/ NaOH EqIE 0j00 fil HCI 50.0 mloll tszl-d rq1ol plE Zlt6l.,\l9. (a)a9.0 mL, (b)51.0 mL

    6[l.J
    E4t ,J4lg *q7ltr 4a6l+ r+cE + ^ldql^l pHE 4l ffi +4. zc}.* +p+ +3 + Be 4 olgg moli
    oJolo|

    tl6l-bE4lol+. a H4 rldgBeld zldol+. IrI4^l ot4 4l+B + 9l+. [H*], + puE 4l&a]zl +16[q 4a^]l
    =
    E EzI.J9l rt4 6z|tJ +"lE +!l= Tlqoflot +4. +
    6pl9zl ?+g zlg oJg ,Hiq E6l] pHTt 449 4e_e 9l
    4]ali E! +aq *'ETl #qag 7lq4ot il+. rBIEE =
    +e + fl+. + dzll zldg B?*d ol+o14. trfE+^l AeJg
    ar+61+ zJ¤zlofl 96l| pHTf ?48 4ee ql+B + 9l+. tr^l +++ aol 3ldol4. r4:/ di.ll +"_4E +q=
    =+= EE H]-Er+(^]E
    r{lc! (a) NaoH 899 Ho +Eql dzl.4}91 ul.4 H*(aq)E ^FS6[q
    Er-o Bul9l Ezl +fl$ E]6J+).

    oH Na*elCl-=+E9
    (aq)q Els"4q H2OE^JC6J+. (b) 'J=td olgolug +q +ql oH 7l-H*.H-+ *+: a
    pu9l zl9 golg +zl ?*= +aE "lgolE}. *"-49 pHE $ zll$op. (a)qlr]e| e3 %r-Hee 6IE g+.
    +6f71 +l6}q 94 glH H+9 moliel EzlE ou-9 mol

    E4 HCI +eq +E H*E E+= +.-qE +rle+ r


    =01
    (a) /o.toomolH*\ :
    (o.osoo L¤=q) 5.00 x 10 3molH*
    gbE= *61tr eqd+. \ rL-"g /
    u[!z[zl-E 0.100 M NaoH 49.0 mL 6 oH-9 E \ :
    -r:il
    (0.04e0 Lso q)
    1-'gr/
    /0.100moloH
    4.9O x 10-3 mol OH-

    oi4 'J*dql Eg:"Izl 9*?t7l qlEql oH--H.r+ H* H*(aq) + OH-(aq) + H2O(/)


    z| ul glol lrlo-=. oH-zI6JAl Hl+E UB d(mol) 5.00 x 10-3 4.90 x 10-3
    =^lj6J+.
    oltrl. I mol9 oH-E I mol9 H*eI HI*6J 4.o14. EE(-dZl frBE)(mol) x
    -4.90 10-3 -4.90 x 10-3
    q4l 12.69 %LHg 4+6tE UB F(mol) o.1o x 1o-3 0

    4A qCq^l HCI +o-4q NaoH *e49 dztJil


    Irl4 {}8 g6JEq Pulzl ?zl,*+. tr++^J ol dql
    786 178 +Eo-q E:dE rt= SE

    ^l
    +"lE +4= 50.0mL + 49.0mL : 99.0mL : 0.0990L

    u14..t1 H*(a4)9 L"EE : H*(aq)e=i o.1o x 10 3mol


    lH*l qq+ 0.09900 L
    -1.0x103M
    +.-q
    olql {$oli pHE -log(1.0xto-3; :3.99

    o) *q^le+ ,Jol, + HI¤¤E .Je rEE +q H*(aq) + oH-(a4) H2O(/)


    el +Ee+q Eg + 9l+. e+El'jE4ee HJB d(mol) s.oox 1o-s 5.10 x 10-3

    49 "J(,*a Hl¤¤)g HI¤¤ol qEE +{} EE(-d4l UBE)(mol) -5.00 x 10 3


    -5.00 x 10 3

    sI ol89 BTla Sd6l il.g+. UB F(mol) 0 o.1o x Lo-3

    ol A+ 4C qlE +4= 50.0mL + 51.0mL: 101.0mL:0.1010L


    =4^r OH (aq)t-=| 0.10 x 10 3mol
    tr14^l LllE oH-(aq) EoEE [oH ]: :1.0x103M
    =4lr +"1 E_lEl+ 0.1010 L
    ol+"19 poHE pOH : -1og(1.0 x tO-3; : :.OO
    Ei4^] pH= pH : 14.00 - pOH : 14.00 - 3.00 : 11.00

    +sl +tls+ 4.E +"-q 4e mLzl zl* Bzt¤ Foll pszl t.oo (a) HCI $o-{ol NaoH +EBtr} toET} z}4.
    ql^l 3.002-zl $zl 2 pH +9 (b) NaoH 25 mLE dzlatB pHTlTHq 4q.
    "J+"J +7li,J aql +E6I4.
    fel+ B*d Ezl¤ 89ol 2.0 mL Bz}qfl,g ull (c)'J*d "ll,tl pHE 7.00014.
    =^lql^l
    3.00q1^l 11.004x1 puz[ sEJt +Ifl+. .]"+d (d)'Jeld ol-goll NaoH *9 r.oo mrE Ezta}fl+H,
    =
    pHel oleloj #4el ?zI= *.*1+ *e7l= Ee-61= 4aE
    =aql^l pH= 7.00-tr+ r4.
    Saol+. (e) B*d9ld *"-49 os- EoEE 3.67xto-3 Molq.
    > ts¤ qrlll > .E+ qlril 2
    0.1000 M NaoH ++ol og
    ulzl {'E$ HCl 2s0.0 mL= 0.100 M KoH 2s.0 mL *Eq 0.100 M HNo37t trl^e--i+

    44B trI **4t\2136.7 mLzl dHlq$,+. tr+-S rll+ + zJol Ez}9flg trI$ pHE 4l&alrls.
    *^l ?+3 ae? (a) 24.9 mL (b) 2s.1 mL

    74 z"r4l$o_letr zJgzl= 4Cd+ a+E Hlidlal EzI¤ tgl


    46J pH9 +dol Eqd+. rq+ ol a+ 4d zzl4 pH Alg
    12
    rr, ql.$o1 Eg tril *old aol+(ral 17.8). ,JtI-zJPt1 44
    10 zJol, Beldgl,rJsl pHE {dal z.o(zs"cq^l)ol+.

    8
    pH --+ A o.1o h/tHNos'tl 0.3 s9 KoH= s:B[6lE Eo+E E7l=*E
    q. .JaJEoll,llel pHts Eo loJz l?
    6
    Elal^l

    4 il
    oFAl--7lo{71 z{z{
    -rU OE-l-O
    2 + zt9zl3 0l+* E&9 4C +de :74 u.71+ Ag rJgTl=
    ol++ ,J4lel zla +d E"Jr+ ql+ Hlt6I+. qlE Eq f=J
    01020304050607080 r.9e] zjol 0.100 M op.lle{l(cH3cooH) 50.0 mLE 0.100 M
    t(mL)
    NaoHtr zlC6I= 44 +dg ^J46ll !-z|. olrl ¤H+ glg
    :r.H 17.8 zJE7l= a&e-+ 48 'J8710.1004,4 50 mLE 4+6Iq ol +d^Jg dEql 46J pHE 4l4}g + 9l+. zl9zl3
    ,Jtt o.roo A/e 4g6l.E pH 4d ol++ rJtI 449 a+e+ ?ol *dg ql gEss Lth"l Bzl.
    r. izl pni ol pHE uftr- 0.100 M CH3CooHq pHol+. z1lr0.0¤9lrl olel6J ++E
    4l4l6}flrt. Al4lg 0.100 M cH3cooHE pH= 2.8eolE}.
    17.3 t-g7l 45 787

    2. *71pHet'#EI^1o!: BeJdql -Eg6}7lql *rJ, &ol +alElq \Ezlzl ^j{gr+.


    CH3COOH(0q) + oH-(aq) + CH3COO-(aq) + H2o(/) l17.rz)
    ol= +.-4¤: cH3cooHel cH3coo g6JBg s.J6.J+. olEl'* 4a +d gEql^J
    9 pH 4l&'JHg F talE 4Aq. a H4l, +elql^l [cs,coon]e+ [cH3coo-]
    9 ]FEE 44617]|+16l] cH3cooupi ou- ,Jq +sl qI¤¤ _nEl6}]ol ql+. + Hal,
    v tga] 3 .244\d ¤E"J ,JBg ol+6|0l olelal S+ +sqel puE 4l&aJ+. .JHI
    4,JBg fal 17.10ql 444H.1. 9lxll rz.zql q]= EHr+.
    3. tr#JE: 0.100 M NaoH 50.0 mLE 0.100 M CH3CooH s0.0 ml9l EzlalE B%Idql
    3
    Eg,t}trl. ol 'J*dql^l 5.00 x 10 mo19 NaOHz[ s.00 x r0-3 molg CH3COOH
    e+ l.F HI*6lq s.00 x r0-3 molg cH3cooNa gg ol gel Na* ol¤3
    ^JC'J+.
    pu Zi9l rTll S6Jg +zl ?+:+. rel+ cH3coo- olgg sfgzle, Er+e.l HI¤¤
    +^lg + H_e_E_e. B*dql^Jg pHE z-H4 q aq. d^llB *t}-z.tgzl 4aql^l

    EJE q7loll 4¤Elts of^ilEtlol E{Js..e .a'illElE, BHE EElo{l E=J6IE r1l Bg-d ETle-l g3 gElg!7|? .JtsFtr Hiloil^j
    PHts?

    BBE EelE
    =ilslpH rrlHrL
    TlLl-71(A1l xlrt
    -o *U.!"t -"t.
    ou oE. t ^lxl

    1.4

    12

    10
    cH3coo o+g7lE^l Eat
    EtalIl
    =
    HJ36|q OH-E.g.36lqE
    'JaJE0ll^.lel pH > 7.0
    8
    pH
    6
    ) I

    2
    o i

    ETlelE+:&E
    t
    0102030,10,607080
    E+"J nli .JaJEolrt

    NaOH(mL)

    !
    J.
    !. cH?coo

    @
    T
    4¤6t71 I oH-= 7l6fE cHrcooH(aq) ETlol ETfe tol rleJel OH et HJB
    CHTCOOH(aq) Tf CH3COO-(aa)E EE!, eJd6l r :Lr Ltq lta
    vt{ELeLu-
    q9
    4"4 9l= o- a/\l
    uo -QoH 60
    =EL =af
    CHTCOONa(aq) E Es4

    A.fB 17.9 e+ttg egTlE 4¤ o.too A/ 0l^llEtr #E-4 so.o mLE 0.100 Azl NaoH(aq)Eq4o+ 4¤6l'= pH *N. Eq6l.4] 617l Pl6H E
    E^t= reql^1 8ej6tfi+.
    7gg 179 +Esq'J:.Jg Lt= gE

    5et u3:
    tHAl'2J4
    tA-l=7t
    o!,^'l9
    le= HA(aq) + OH-(aq)----> tIrAIel IA-l et &, tHAl, tA-l=
    I8ELL.
    4tsvtL .e.O[
    )lcxa A-(aq) + HzO(l) ,J= rll4lt! [H+]=
    o-
    od.
    I
    I ^[86H
    4tt!
    a)l

    it-.faJEI EE Zlt
    zlt

    arts 17.10 qttol zJg7l0ll 96t| g+ ull9 pHE 4l{talE 48


    =El-Elfl=

    ""l=*dq pnE ^JdE E9 *ol9ol e}¤zlol,-tr sIEz] *"1


    6JtL pH 7-E-r[
    =4.
    el pu 4l4}9l 4* qag 16.7aql zlfa[fle{, ql4l 17.sql qlE Efl+.
    4. tr-BE ol+(!E elETD: 4C +dq ¤qql^l cH3coo-e} Eq q}+ql^J ^JzJ tou-l
    rle}g NaoH.trpei ^Ja [oH ]e+ Hl.ildi^.] +^lg cEol+. tr]4^l puE r]*
    =
    9 NaoHe*q ^Ja oH-q +Eq el4 acg+. rElos ol ¤qql^l pu 4l&*
    H9 {lxll 17.76)ql^lE ,t,J-r}q7l444 e+. q+^J 0.100 M NaoH 51.0 mLE
    0.100 M HCI E= 0.100 M cH3cooH s0.0 mlgl dztalE pH 11.00 o e erll g+.
    r4 t7.7417.eq1^l B*d ol+E ,J&r+ E4IE 4C +dol +rJgql +96i+.

    \\ qH 17.8
    B oJ{._rJroJTl
    4¤sl 4lt
    0.100 A/ NaoH 45.0 mLE 0.100 M CH3COOH (K"= 1 .8 x r 0-5) 50.0 ml0ll E7i-.J +, Eq{9 pHE Zllt6l'119.

    6tl3
    E4 E4Iel zJflzl 4C9l^l 'J*d d9 puE 4l+61^= E 4lEl trzl ++ qI¤. *gl ¤zHolE cH3cooHe+ cH3coo-
    zllol+. E _5+E Zl&6}lot ++. oltrll [cH3cooH]e+ [cH3coo-]
    "J4l &= ^ls"4q pu5 44}f,4.
    e+

    E0l 0.100 mol


    (0.osoo L+E) ( 1 r
    : 5.00 x 10 3molCH3COOH
    -Oo}l
    4 +"-{el +ule+ *EE *6I
    ElEl=*$4 4l{}:
    0.100 mol NaOH
    H +p+ ++ dq 4 Hl+5E E+= Eril 94. (o.04so L+E) ( : 4.50 x l0-3molNaOH
    1L+q
    CH3COOH(aq) + OH-(aq) -+ CH:COO-(aq) +H2O(l)
    4.50 x 10-3
    molg NaOHE +.sO x l0-3 molg
    cH3cooHE aul+4. UB d(mol) 5.00 x 10-3 4.50 x 10-3 0

    Eat(-LrZl U35)
    (mol) -4.50 x L0-3 -4.50 x 10-3 +4.50 x 10 3

    uJ$ $(mol) 0.50 x 10-3 0 4.50 x 10 3

    d8l+q=
    *"-qE 45.0mL + 50.0mL : 95.0mL : 0.0950L

    fq=E HI+ + cHrcooHel : 0.50 x 10-3 mol :


    [cH3cooH] 0.00s3 M
    0.09s0 L
    CH3COO-E 5]-" E= x
    [cH3coo-] : 4.50 10-3 mol : O.O474M
    0.0950 L
    17.3 ltt 97148 789

    ¤B 4l&: cH3cooHe} cH3coo- ^l IH+IICH,COO


    L-- rL---J--- r:
    I
    r. _ l.g x l0_5
    OIE B¤g CH3COOHE B¤
    ^}+^Jg '\4 [cH3cooH]
    tr|=4.
    : &* (HHi) :2.0 x
    [H*]91 q6]q +E rH*t
    ffi: (1.8 x ro-s) x to-6M

    pH : -log(2.0 x t0-6; : 5.20

    f9 Henderson-Hasselbalch 49 pHE *'zJol 7 : p& (b) EI'J*dg pH: p&


    (a) t+=Jd.ll,<l pH
    ^LSqlE
    .J+ 9l+. (c) 9zl dzl. d9 pH:p& (d) r+"*9 gzlE dztal*g
    ql r4sE +EllTlE pH:p&
    > H* qlr.il 1

    E4}-rlg7l zla r+a + ++ .Jol "Jol4=aql 46lq > H* qlxll2


    ,JAl ullo gul_e+ 49 ull¤ + (a)0.0s0 M NaOH 10.0 mLE 0.0250 M HIa4}
    +E ^J46I tsH, 9l+.
    qlE^-l rH t7.eql^.]= o|,rlltr-&9 4Col +lqqflEzlE (cuHrcooH, Ko:6.3 x tO-s) 40.0 mloll dzt6J ull
    .J + fl4. &E Ag"Jes +4
    "JaI9 pr,5 4ltlg + *"19 psE zh}6}^le.
    9l+. rTlr. 4a +c9 gHlE +l^l= *g + 9l+. trI-g (b) 0.100 M HCI 10.0 mLE 0.100 M NH3 20.0 mlql d

    + ola{g 8t7l +16J 7t* +g *H3 F{"Jz}? 7lg trll *99 psE Al4I6I^le.

    Ezlg Bzlg 4rs"-s--e pHg Hsl¤ olallalzl gl"ll^J= BF*dql^lel pHE 4llIB i ?l
    9ot aJ4.

    ll qFil 17.e
    E taJilo1^lslpH 4lt
    0.100 A/ CH3COOH 50 mL= 0.100 A/ NaOH-E 4¤-'J tttl =JaJE9 pHE Zltol,tle.

    ail=J

    E4 E4¤ z}Szltr 48g EI B+dq^lE pHE 4l&al-L azl9 E.++ B*dql^l ot^:llE4} olg9
    ,11q of.r]lE_,t}9

    E4lol4. E&E +E= r-ael +olgg ^}cq-=ql, olae E+e+ z+r|. of.'.-lle{} olg9 bEE al4}6}71 96fl '}=}dql
    .J¤zle Erl Hls"g + 91trI. u++^l B*aoll.!$ pHts z o|,!lEAI olge EgTlolIre,
    ^l +"_qE +fl= ^l-s+4.
    tr+ ag el+g + 914. Kre+ [CH3Coo-]= pHE Zlt]g + 914.
    ^l-s'o6f¤
    =
    gur

    azl o[,t11e419 E+= +Eq +r]e+ $+Es+El +g + g+ : M x V : (0.100mo1/L)(0.0s00L)


    9trl. : 5.00 x 10-3molCH3COOH

    trt+^] s.00 x 10-'mol9 [CH:Coo ]7[


    ^JC¤+. %]=]d
    ql EB6izl floll^'l= NaoH *o-4 50.0 mlz| ig-g+(:r?
    r7.e). E}"Jdql^lel g +EE +q=tFI Hzl +qE 6Jstr,
    50.0 mL + 50.0 mL : 100.0 mL :0.1000 Lol+. trt4^l
    cH3coo-g tE= rcH3coo-t :' o%;#T;*" : o.osooM

    cH3coo- ol¤+ EgTloltrE CH3COO-(a4) + H2O(/) i- CH3COOH(aq) + OH-(aq)

    cH3coo-E raE 4^}9 & ties+q al^I6J + 9l+.


    Ka: K,lKt:(t.o x to-t4)/(t.S x tO s): 5.6 x 10-r0
    ICH,COOHIIOH-1 (r)(r)
    r':ffi: s'6 x 10-10
    Ka ol+6IE trI-s-4 aq.
    ^19 ".#;:
    0.0s00 _r: 0.0500o1q qB6Ia x9l 4dlr.l EH x: :5.3
    [OH-] x t0-6vola,
    pOH : 5.28, pH :8.72o]1q.
    790 173 +8.-4 "J:de.l rt= rJE

    ,JE ,Jg7le+ E4IE gql ql6il qltl6J rl-E pHE 7 ol{r-ol (d)'J%Idql^] qls"+4.
    ^Jcq= elgzlts Er+
    4. (e) **d{lll pHE 6Jt ol
    7ol+. A+g 41014.
    > s6 qlr1l1 > H= qlrll2
    e}+g zJgzle 4eB ql, 'J'JAql^J9 pHzI THL| v)^l +'$ A+ql 'J*dE PHE 4ltloirle'
    olf+ FLqlz}? (a)0.02s u Hla&(coHscooH. Ko:6.3 x 10-s) 40.0
    =
    (a)'J*d 9l^l 4*9 zJ¤ zl 7t mLE 0.050 M NaoH-E 44ts ql
    =41,*tr1. zjc6J
    (b) *elaql^l 4=J9 "*tlol (b) 0.100 M NH3 40.0 mLE 0.100 M HCIE tril

    (c)'*eld{lrl ^JCq= 49 zlE=46J+.


    rlg 7l ol4.

    e+4}-zJ¤zl4C(:H t7.e)9 4A +d3 trl^$el ,rJl zlzl Eq^J ,J^I-z*Ezl44(r


    4 U.z)g +dr+ +e+.
    l. E4I +Eg ag r-" EE ,J& +"+H+ q tg azl pHE 'z*=+.
    2. BelA +lzl6|q 44 +dol mtq4l +7161+ ++ql^lE pu HElb Etlol ,J
    =zlq
    4IE+ trJ 4+.
    3. E&-rlgzl 4Cq a+, Be*dg pH= 7.00-E+ 91"il 9l+.

    A Plel Ll]E 301^[doJ 0l+= trB6l^le.

    &ol qf"il¤f E ol4+ ilol= rJ+ * q4*+. olfl a$$ Hq +7l$dl


    =g rz.rr
    9 4C +dg gElE^}. ,tlol E6He+¤.(4 rc,zl4otdi
    *) azl pHzl rtz$l:t-, r pH9 Hslzt B.Jd 4
    qAEl= ttol q E6HE qlel EclE .JgEsl pHts olEXl I ota+= ag gltrI. =i]ql^l
    rl+ol B=Jaql,<Jg pHE K,zl z;
    "J +
    ts71? BHE EEloll .E.EE[T I 9{"-11 "JsEt NaoH(aq)9 +.ulE A6J+-a +=61 +7l6la_, r E4I9 4¤zl9 .rllzlE
    4. pK,zl10 E= r ol^J'J 4l ps9 Hp+= q+ 4[i1 dtl4
    ol.J4lElts7l'? =ozlq*

    1.4 olzl ullE{l 'J=Jdg 446[= AeA4 EzP"at4.


    Elalxl
    pH 44 ¤Ee E&E p&E ECd-b +g %r-Hol+. r
    B rz.rr$ ¤rl$z}. ,+r+4 4I +Eq qq B=Jdql Eg6l
    12 -r T
    I

    K,,7t 2JLEI+=
    10 *zl pHE 5zl 4H so mlel z"l$zl7| gs-6[+. "lag HA E4= 4¤zl.J
    : A- golgqe H+t^l7l: rll s0 mL9 Ezlzl9s-o1ui5 U
    Ka 10-8
    8 9 9olaJ4. EEI HIB*d(zs mr9 Bzlzl EztB zld)ql^l
    pH +"-4E pHTl pK,q 49 e+= aq +E6l-4. +gE
    K,,71
    6 'JL"J+4
    .JBE(Be-e s gzlqlzt? fBzl ^lE srl. ¤¤ 6,:[u+][e-]/tHAl.J
    ^Jqlql^J
    g ^J46tl trz}. E}'Jeldql^]= tHAlg 3q1ol [e-]E H++g
    rl)el pHE 3zl
    4
    4. ? tuel:[e-]o14, iHAl/tA l:tol g+. ol 4+, K,:
    2 [u+]oll, q+^J p& : pHol+.
    olxll pH 44 +dg ol+6}q
    "+"J {IE p&E }fl-b 4
    0-0 ol z]g.ale. oJS q.J+
    10 20 30 40 50 60 'J=*dql EE:"|E r1l S-9el ¤zl9
    NaOH(mL) +, EI'J=+dq1,<Jg pHE *=4. r zldql^lE pHZI E,|}q
    A:18 17.11
    =d=ol.Hq
    +E ae Et='JE7|E 4¤6tg p&91
    "ll%+oJq.
    rqq 4I9 E"E7t q+ *eH EE zlill ol
    trfl tlE +cE ul^|= a4olrl'. 4 +d3
    = ^ll7t7l-4E =80il
    O.1O lV tI50.0 mLE O.1O l\l NaOHe LfElL.! ?i0l
    e+= +^l6J f Szl trI$ql, "l %L^lg 541 d++ p&= e
    r[. =8Pt '/i= aol qBl9lrltrI.
    =
    17.3 l|| gTllE 791

    t-"J7 I 7,1^ loj_e_E_


    4tr'P I

    ++ +-E7l 4Cql^J pH trlEltr+= zl,tloJol rl z| Atloll 3g7l= 4tr-g rtt|. stlEJ aJl=E E.JEI .JE ¤E
    + ^l-.&g+. zl^lE3 ScaJ pH H99 +._qql^l 4ol 6i,\l9.
    ^l^ls+oJ7l'?

    E6l: plaJEol4. 7l* +e ae 4dg rll zl.'.lqo1 1.4

    B+Bql^J al?ol H6}lot ql4. rq+ dxllb zl^lEol 13

    B+dg {$al 9,11;3 gs= S4. pu* Bd6td 12

    ql^.i ,l]+ uul-_eZl HdlEtr, ol gqql^l= 4AeH +=a


    %I
    11
    10 trllEs=J11lE
    ¤ol P ++lE psE Hslrle + 9lrl. trt4^l zl^lE 9 +7J
    ^qE+
    9 il+4 ¤e.l ^4^J H4+ ++6}rll +716I= 44 + 8

    dol B=*d.1 EBq+ uJl ge¤I 44 +q= ql+ A pH7 EleFxi

    "J6|Zl +A+El. zl^lEg 4HsIr[.JqU 4C zld9


    6
    5
    "l* tl*/\ +lil6t= B*dr+: +E{q 6"Jd(end
    q=J allE
    4
    point)oleP qlQ. J ^qE+ "7J

    a4 fl.12+ zJtI(ucD4 z]$zl(NaoH)E zlA +d 2 i


    I

    g +Elu 4.o14. PHTI'J"+d 4*:oll4 rrzl


    1

    =i].J
    zl -"4fl Hs+fl+ +dE +! ++g g + 9l+. trI 0 10 20 30 40 s0 60 70 80
    HCI(mL)
    +^J ol 4dql^Jg 4^lEg ol H+lel E= Tldql^l
    44HEl¤ g + 91rI. 4++9 7yJ-rlq7l 4C3 ol L aH 4{jal AE7 lel 4¤0il^lsl r Nqr
    17.12 trll=s ?.lrf
    oll=4lE -E= 5d +N9 E4-d 671+Eoll^l ^4 ^lE
    E-Lrtl-.
    =all
    H+l qlql^.] 4ol H6I7l uil+ql. zl.(ltr!L-+ qlEEgEil ^!01
    q_lg rl-s"6J + glq(rB 16.8 +a). qlB qlsE erJ
    6Iq Hq r+= zl^lEE "J+.8+. tfl 12.129 q *3 BE pu Hfl a.ze*
    ^4tr1E ^qe
    6.0
    ^Iolql^l
    H6lrl ql$ql ^F&g + 91trI.
    t4 tz.llql^l _H-= EI9I zJol, B=Jd pH Holzt K,el a^"J+ 9 zlotdzl ull
    =rlel
    ,J^Irl ztgtlq 44 trllH+ + q +s6[+.
    +ql, E^l-rJ¤zl 4C"Ir] zl^lEel dqe
    ql= 0.100 M cH3cooH(& : 1.8 x r0-)E 0.r00 M NaoH-tr 446J ull, pHE zg]
    =q
    LtvlTlg pH Hglql 6J6ll^J+ ,ll+ tl+61 +7I6JE|(rg 17.13). .lBlEE ql=sgrll"J
    ^)
    g oltl4ol zl;.1qro1r1. ell+6tH slltsEBql"Jol 'J*d pH TlvloloJ pH 8.3g1rl 10.0
    ^l-
    olql^l 4ol HslbtTl ull.tsol4. rq+ I}llg qlE= %}"*dql Ep:olzl d"J pH a.2oll,! 6.0

    ^Iolql^l
    4E:ilz} ^l4}6i7l qEql 49 d4.14.
    z3{$o-!(o.e00M HCt A9r+ *Ezl(0.100M NH3 eg)E 4d +dg fal f.14ql +
    El-'IH+. ol qlql^l B=+dg pH s.28ol+. Irl-+^J ,lle qlE= oltr-49,1 zl^lEolzlEl, sll
    SsBEll.Jg 4S d4ol4.

    trl.J*JaltE 4t
    e+4lol * 7l] oltl.E "lgs+g +^ fl4-= Eelg ql" ¤414e t4lEql^J :1 HI+g oH-E
    s6J*+. ql= EE H3po3E +Csl= + +Altr .Jq*q(pe+ A6'J6.J
    ^ll
    H4l Hg olgsl
    6lzl *=r+).

    H3PO3(aq) + OH-(aq) .+ H2PO3 (aq) + H2O(l) [17.13]

    HzPq @d + OH (aq) -+ HPO32- (aq) + H2O(l) [r7.r4l


    792 173 t8o-4 E-de.i rt= gE

    trlEsEJ4|E rl^lE oll=J 4l= rlllof


    }rJ (8.3 < pH < 10.0) ?Z (4.2 < pH < 6.0)
    1.4 ^{E+ 1.4 ^{EEl
    -

    id
    I
    12 12
    i&
    Elal^{
    10

    8
    tt m ;
    10

    8
    PH pH
    6 6

    4 4

    2 2

    0
    10 20 30 40 50 60 80
    0
    10 20 30 40 50 80
    NaOH(mL) NaOH(mL)

    gH[= dEj. g-JEol +Zoll E017lqe E=E dq.'JeJEoll 0le7l dql Edlse
    Ett+ eg7l9 4E0ll^qEs]
    flol 4E:.J xl^lo+ Ettr+ agTlel 48011
    ^q0l
    ?lcl +4E-.J r|,t|9t

    arg 17.]8 qrtrt,JgTlE Edoil^1E Etr6l.7]Lt+4tr-d


    ^^lqt

    tr1l5sEJelloJ rl/\lqt oll=J a1l=


    ]rJ (8.3 < pH < 10.0) ?zJ (4.2 ^lll"+
    < pH < 6.0)
    74 ^!E+ t4 ^{E+

    12 t2

    10 10

    8 8
    pH PH
    6 6

    2
    \
    l \
    4

    2
    Elat^{
    I
    0 10 20 30 40 50 80 01020304050 70 80
    HC(mL) HCI(mL)

    s=E d.i.'JaJE0ll 0le7l Eoll qol E6[se gHl= dE+. BaJEol TrJoll
    EETlel etlq 48011 91ol +4tr-Lt ll^le+ qETtet,J tel 450il^48+
    ?tot 4tr:d =ol7tsB
    ^t^tE
    alB 17.14 qtgTlel3+Iel 48011^1el 4tr61-ZLI +4tr-d
    ^l^leJ

    4oJCzltI eE 49219 +El HI* +4171+Edl Eq4 9eE, r zlAg ¤4 zll9


    B*Ag ,*=+. f.eJ 17.1s= 4 rt.na] v )4ql ql'J6l-: F zllg Beldg Hq
    a4 u.lsql +4u 44 rJol, 44 zlEE "fal 4*dz}&9 p&= alt}6l+ Ell =+.
    ^leo6J
    + 9l+. ql_e t&ql 46J &rr} &rE. ,{l Bz}.
    17.3 | lt g7l 48 793

    H3PO3, HzPOs-. HPO32-, POst- ¤i pH=4?.! EEollAl Te Erllsk 6lqtE3 +1oJ7l?


    pH:11?J EsqqHE olgzl E7JlE7l"?
    2-

    r lxlxl 1+l Elalx{ ,iI Elzixl

    14

    12

    10

    8
    pH
    6

    0
    0 10 20 30 40 s0 60 70 80 90 100 110
    NaOH(mL)

    ArH 17.15 olgdrtt"l 48 +d +Ce 0.10 Azl H3Po3 50 mLE 0j0l\/lNaoHE 4E6lfiE tttlel
    pH flelE -Eq E+.

    : HzPOt(aq) + H+(aq) IH2Pot][Hl


    H3PO3(aq) Kot -
    IH3PO3]

    IHPO32-][H+]
    H2Po3 @Q i- HPo32 @fl + H+(aq) Kaz:
    IHrPOt]
    olE ¤e49 4lA?]6[8, Henderson-Hasselbalch ^]g E=tl-.
    PH:PK,r+loglElotl

    pH: pKoz* l"s!ffi;l

    :a4oE. 7+?+E 4I&r+ zlfizlS9 tE= 44E ¤Bql^l E"J6|tl. 4log(1):so1


    l, pH:pK,ol+. 44 + olfl aSol tzll 9olBzl? 4ag ^lzI6IE il+ql= oloJ4}
    (H3ror;o1 lz} B"Jdql^J l.F H2po3--E Ef,r+. :aeloE lil'J=Jd +rJql^J H3Po3
    9 dtlol H2po3--tr E6J+. HlBr6tdql^J H3po39 LoES H2PO3-9 EoEel rJLl. a4
    l B=+eql^l pH:p&rol4. ui{z}{E 2+Al ¤¤ HiSql qoil^lE rJr+.2^l 'J*Aq
    PH:P&zol4.
    4d EllolEle ul.-tr "J + 9lr, 4A +des+El zld 4.JCzI&9 p&$$ .J + 9l
    4. olfl 4Ce "lzlE +"JCzI4Igq.J6l+ Ell ol+f+6I+. qlE fB 17.15oll,tJ 1il.
    Br*dg NaoH 50 mLE dzla|99'll +4t+. HI=J+dg NaoH 25 mLE Ezlat99
    qel eq. ell+6lB NaoH 2s mlqlrli pHTI oJtlE pKar:l.se+ Ag l.sol7l ullEol4.
    794 17At +30-4 E:dE rt= +E

    2il B"JA9 NaOH 100 mLE Ezlalf.9 0llol4. +?Jde NaoHS 75 mL dzlatH9
    ollol4. rellEglrl NaoH 75 mL 4zl tl pHE a.sE 7lqvJq. l4 oe. olol{l(H3poJ
    pK,zq 6.sp] ,J4. F Tllel pK"! 2tr2tr9 {19 p&, : r.3, pKo2:6.7o14(ieilql
    =d).
    ql+4o+ :aln,
    A IIE= Na2co3E HcrE 4d61.= e+el4E +c= HCos-7| +EJ El+=oJ
    "J6l^le.
    I

    17.4 I s"aHE tsB


    z.)!7lz\ ol tlql^J relq} BBe &4 ¤zl9l +6J ¤¤019q 4l4zl r=g +"J BBol
    *+. -E= s}++ol ae tlql 9lH+. ol t[9 4"]zl *8q1^]= olg a6J 3r].J89 +
    =
    6ll E= edg ¤qE+. ol5 Hl+g H'J ¤¤o14.
    sI.JEol +6IE]Z+ aAq: dtr-e *4 *ol4 +q +9lql^J .Jq+= ¤tol+. q=
    4Ic +e4 +ql^J= ilol qlLlgE +61]e oJ6il +zl7| ^Jaq. +4EE d*ql qtr
    =q
    HFzI aAqE {t e4e ^J¤6J+. zl+ JE Ee zl^}ol+ ^16l-= ^l+a ql g=¤- +
    o1r|. xlale$el9 caco: ede 4q4 E=9 ++^lr+ 4+¤- gqlol EtrI.
    ^J^d6I=
    *E ea HI* ¤Eq^J=, Eql ?lE t-F g+9 +6llEE ql+61= 4. tlz) 'JHI +4
    g rBl6t9rl ,,, r, (4.2¤). ol5 +49 slEtEol Eql^J zlg +6llE= z[{zl Ei +"ll
    E= T}azlql ql.J aczl 9"1.= 7ll^l++. ola] ulra|{ +6llE ¤Bg r1El6}8, =+qd
    p+-J$fl +"}|q= .Jg {rJ4e-e ql=-J + 9l+.

    t"tlsg tf+(K,p)
    eEl SgGaturated solution)$ *'lol tl ol^J +6]]Elzl ?+g +er} d+6t-/ :lE .$9ol
    += Ag tzlal4 ,,,-., (13.2¤). ql= jr.il saso*q d+6l.a gl= BaSo4 ++"-Ig
    =q ad6Heolr,
    olg aE.s]*EolIr+ +
    ^J46ll Bz[. easo+E Eql ull na2*1a4;e]son2
    (aq)0199 ^J^d6lq, +*E ¤¤ol d4l CBg+.
    BaSOa(s) ;- SOnz-1aq)
    Baz+(aq1 + t17.151

    += qrq+ ¤Br+ u[4lz[x]E, +uI t]¤.ol "Jq+= dEtr ¤B ^J+9] zz)tr ++g +
    ?14. ol B¤ Hi*^le r,ll9 +611= ++Lll= aoloE, r qlB ^J+= rllllTl Eql +=
    AEE +Elqlq, E"=llEEi tlf(solubility-product constant) E= ++61 Eoll-EEi(solubility
    product)ole|-r. +4. oli K,p-+. -EBqq, spi Sal]E*.Jg +4U+.
    rille+:a rill= +c6l+ olg=E ++.1 ^J+4e E +e ¤
    ^rolE ¤Bq
    Ell6J ¤B

    B t|+!4 ee +{q 44 +tr}. rel{ ri]|= $foJ ¤¤9 ¤B d-+^lql^l +4'J


    + S+g 7lq6I+.-," (15.4¤).
    qe}^l 17.rsq +4,J BaSo+9I ql6J +qlE+ tl+4e q-94 eq.
    ^l
    K,p: l&a2+)lSo+2-l [t7.t6l
    E+ 4 ¤B H}+^lql ql6J olgE 4l+: E+d.EE e+El^lq^l oI4 ez}e} e+.
    "JHl4sE +B¤E *4E+ tf K.pE ¤Bq sEI¤ olgEE L"E*4 ?n,
    ¤¤ H}+^lel Aizl4L"E9 zlfzl¤4.
    zs.collrl ¤4 zl-zl olgC r4l9 K,p {}ol i Dql 914. BaSo+9 K,p #9 ,l]+ 4Ig
    t.l x l0-r0olr, ol= 2s"C Eql ,}i+ 4g oJ.u.!ol=\|ulE ag +ElU+.
    17.4 | 86IlE E-d 795

    \\ ql4l 17.10
    /-/ t"tlsg t*ll

    CaFzA E6[|EE A+^l= u;r, FE D0lIl Ksp ,JE *e,t19

    trilu > !il# qr{ 1

    S¤ caFzzf Eql += 4Aq 4+ ¤¤ t}+4g L= E^ll E|g + ++.lql^] Ag:Poe9 +6llE# tl+= Cqd E¤
    ,* 4g-?
    "14.
    ;"tiq ¤¤ ^J+^lg 4= +4g 4+614, ^rql^l jlill
    .JHI (a) [Ag][POa] @) [Ag+][pOa3-] (c) [A8+]3[pO43-]
    (d) [Ag+]fpoaf-]3 (e) [A8+]3[po43-]3
    qI*E-g ol o}oJ$ol r +c cE olgoe sd
    ^llel{Lrl.
    61 6llalg+_r.7Ia5J+. F H,* Siili2
    CaF2(s) ;- Ca2*(aq) + zF-(aq) ++ e+.JEql qlfl +6IE# tl+^lr+ +611E# t+ At(+
    * oe+q;g zll.tlofr.le.
    H*i K,p 49 q-.gn+ eq. (a) E& HtE
    (,p : [Ca2+][F ]2 G) qI& e
    ++ Dql^l K,p {i3 3.e x lo-11olq-.

    EuHEel Ksp

    +6HEe+ +6l]E*. rr-+E +4 4Al +E6l+ Ae +s6t+. E4E +6llE= EeI +._qg
    +e
    ^J^.rg el
    o&g
    "J*+ ,, (r3.2d_). qlqls +dllE= +E 4Ei'J +e9 _zB*G/r)
    tr s^lg+. +salE(motar solubility)= +e9 ssl +E 1 LE EJE trll gsoJ +eel E
    iol4. +6l]E+ ^J+(K,p)= ol$.<J -]L^ile| raq Esl8"-4 ^iolE ¤¤ tr-+olq, E+lz[
    sb rJi"l4. trI+^l KspE =.71= EsI +.-49 "JE trll += r.illel .&g goJ4.

    n Eeq
    ZltE 6lxl Ea. qB aE'E e Eql^1elEEdHE7l7l8
    AgCl (K.r:1.8x10-10), AgBr(K",

    +6HE= ¤4 zlxl .JxI9l tlBt ¤6&9 *=+. ql


    :5.0 x10-13), =
    A= qE6l^le.
    Agl (K"r:8.3x10-17)

    ue(oH),q r'--a- +&sl-99 +6llE= +.lE pHq rl


    = =q E[-.JEe.l
    K*
    + rrll E.JEI. soJ $allEi: +._4q 4E olg, 5 EBf EaflE(s/L)
    =4q+
    6l +E olgel +EqlE g6J-g E=4. +^l "J6IH, +"-qtl
    ql

    =
    =z]]6l=
    +E tr3rlq qq +qa *{ql rll't} +6]|E +71
    ilol= _H."J4. HlEql, +qd +eql q+ +611E+ ^J+.J
    K,p= 5C gEql^l 'J4.J AFl4.. r.al 17.169 {4 z}zl I
    4l +Hel
    =L6lgol
    1l611l
    0l3E
    E6l]E EC

    "llE ^14
    K,p
    ^tol9 +41= sqts"J aol+. EE;llE.(mol/L)
    --E(moYL)
    fl44sE ¤9 #g +"JqL aaofql^Jel +6l]E= 4l
    K,p
    arg 17.16 t6tlEeiKsp E+7l.8 o/Le rlE1.LJ apg
    t}6t= Ell ol+.J + 9l'I. dxlle ol eq "IzlE ++ql 9l: I pg $afl-rts +^q al¤r=
    ^l.ole.l KspE
    4af +61= til ,\ltEtl. Ksp
    '+dlE+E +rll'q^J 44oJ ol+ trllEql, r+r,ll tr q Bg e+El 5=^q q¤tr= rtal pg $afl=E zlt]-g +
    =8aIiEL1
    aqzl gs6}+. ol$el {a}zt z}r(1+e+ 1-) 7l.+ E"}]slzl olr!

    ?*= g9 a+, +a+ +6]]E Ai4 r,pEFEj 4l&* +61]E


    {tg ^JE
    7l* *
    "Jzl.Jrt.
    -,li+ #g +.-4q^l"J oleloJ dol g46}ril 4*¤+. r,, <lg Eql^.lg ol8 ¤:dg d8l r-"E7I +7tB EI E+i E++
    rel+ "ll+ c+col s+El: 4gq^J"J aqq= olq+.ar+b +^l6J + 9lrl.
    796 173 +8a4 E:dsl rl= trE

    qFjl 17.11
    t"flsege'1 4tt

    -eE
    25"c0ll4 nrll e(Agzcro+(s)E ++-d Eoll E7l'6lHtrlll e+7Jel rr1l7l=al^r Hlqoll ?Jr H9trl-. +rl -gJP
    =-eEAl =^l
    AgzCOa(sEl'Eo-4/.l'ololtrJEoleJ=ElE=qEZ^Jq +flqr E:d Es4gE4diHtlLl, S ol8e.lEETl'1.3x10-4 A/olfltl-. AgzCrO+
    Eo-4ol EEfElflr, ae4 60ll Ag*e1croo2- ol8ol IJBEJ olE rl-E 6i9-d
    EJEE glrl? 7f8:g nfl, Ag2coael Ksp= zlc6t,\|9"

    6tl'J Atr *+C ¤ol4E a-e-tr+El qlt}6}9*ol, 4Ie <ig E


    E{ AgCrOa .tro}+sq ?9 Ag* ol9 soEE +iL Lg2CrO4 94. rl +ot7t 4l&'* ilg ++ Dq 4^lg 1.2 x l0-r2r+
    E K,P (}g +6F= E4lol+. 49'JzlaJtrI.
    fllst BB Hl+^ln+ K,p 43 > s=q|fl1
    Ag2CrOa(s) I trg+ (aq) + CrOrz- (aq) a4l .JC +q(nxcu3(po4), 10.0 sg ElTlql $r. T:2e8
    K,p :
    - Kql^l E 100.0 mLE 7I6t*+. ol lilli +6ll ¤11.9 +
    [Ag*]2[Cro42-]
    44zl *:t4.7W 4q afl.! eil rlz.l$ zlrlaj f6-
    K,eEAltdIqE Ag*el CrOa2-el *B E"E7i g.s.6}4. ¤ qq1,t1 cu2+(dS)E ¤B EoEE +46Iq s.0txt0-8Mol
    "Jq^l [Ac*]:1.3 x t0-4 Mol+= d9 9l
    gl+. +s4 6
    ol$$ fl+. e+ +El(r)el K,ri gulolz|f
    EE Ag*el CrO+2- \$ Ag2CrOrESrl ^JzJ 4ol (a) 5.0r x r0-8 (b) 2.50 x 10-1s k) a.2o x 10-rs
    trl+^l [Ag*]5
    trI. [cror2-] {tg Al4}B + gl4.
    ^l-&6]q (d) 3.16 x 10-37 (e) t.ao x lo-37
    Eol 3.E.E-4I gq clq^les+El +"-q +4 4 Cron2- o1
    > H.= qFJt2
    ¤."I4 Ag* olgol + 7l] glolo} tI4. ar+zlg_E Croa2-el
    2s'cql^l +zl ?+3 tr,tn(oH[G)e] d+6ta ilY tr,tg(oH),
    bEi Ag* *.EE eHloltrl.
    Eif $$o1 gl+. +"19 pHz| 10.17o19.4. tr{d*e} oH-
    /1.3 x 1O-a molAgt \/1 mol CrO42- \ :
    : (- ol¤ol ${a}i +E E¤ol $,+a Ttag 41, ug(ou),
    [cron2- 1
    r(-ffi/) a.s x to-s v
    9 K,pE 41416I^19-.
    olzllE K,p (tg 4ltlg + glEI.

    K,r: [Ag+]2[Cron2-1: (1.3 x 10-4)2(6.5 x 10-s) : 1.1 x 10-12

    \a qFll 17.12
    fr t*fls 4lt
    25'Coll^l caFzg K"pE 3.9 x 10-11olrf. rillel E6flE caFz zJ0ll EEol oFq^E, E6llE0ll gBE Elil= rl.= EEol
    =9-d
    flqr 7f8-'J rfl. CaFz9 E6}|E= g/LE Zlt6[,\le.

    6[l'J Be4 q¤E= u}4z}"t ++. +d +6ll r+cql ql+ slq


    E4 carr9 K,plk& ^l-Sqq +ElE= +6'I= Exllol+. E 49 zlr, zzl u+¤¤ tEs= ztd.JEl. r.a EH-ql- B
    eq +6ilE+ s"olloll * + 9l=.J.J Hl{ql, +qlEt tl ¤ t+^lg ^l-s"6J4. ol a+ K,pE "Jr. 9lo lrs +"ldl-E
    +(r*l= B¤ tl+'Jg 7lq6}+. ol9 EoEE +ts + 9l+. olg t.E= oJE, alq4+g
    ^l-+
    nt¤l K,pE+q +6l]E= +6171 +1611^l= rH 17.l6ql fl= 4q +dlEG/L)E +6J + JtrI.

    E0l CaF2(s) i- Caz*(aq) + ZE-(aq)

    a71"il= gol dq +xl ?tr, *lBql Eg.6}qg q caF2zl 471EE(M) 0 0

    r mol/LEE El4.JEla 7lCtJ4. EEi(M) +t +2x


    E:d 5E(M) x 2x

    *l¤ 3rlql%lEql qEH. x moUL{ CaF2zl4ol2x mol/L9 F-


    olgg olxll K,p {Je +E {tgl x {tg 4"Ja}
    ^Jc.J4. ^.lE
    q ++. K,p: [Ca2+]lF 1z: Q)Qx)z:4x3:3.9 x 10-11
    17.5 I E6llEoll g-Bt= += oJ^l 797

    (C:r'r'"s* 7lq6}+. qB +9 4l++g al4I6I


    4E 4l4}zl9 l6J+ql ,:+g q"JeI4.) trI+^l V59 x lorr :
    a
    CaFzg ¤+6]]E= 2.1 x l0 mol/tol4.
    x: __:::;::_ 2.t x to-a

    r 19 8"-49 EI=71 +lall Eql + caFz9 4eJ3 / 2.1 x mol \ / 78.1 s CaF, \ :'
    +gr+ eq. (ffi)(ffi
    1.O-4 CaF,
    )
    u x to-2gcaF2ll$o-!

    As kl+C ge-l +q]Etr+El Ale <ig qltl-6}fl4. qss tr-qlola, olg=g ++"_qql^l "1ts Bz[ H]cor r1z1 gg1
    4l4I6lE, rr--(z.t x to-a)(a.z x 10-4)2 :3.7 xto-t1ol4, 4r zlCt4.)
    ol= r,r:3.e x ro-,,91 Tlvl& *o\r+. K,p:2.8 x l0-13
    ^l+ql io14l =-e,E{l *(10,
    (a)

    49 r z1*&9 +olgol.'E. olg9 zlf EallE capz ¤. (b)+++aBE(IO, K*:t.3 x lo-rs


    6]|Eql g6J¤- qlt'-g + 9l+. r-9 ¤zls} {tal (c) 3&Fi ?$E(ID, K,p:5 x to-22
    =+j1
    4-e-E-e(Kb:1.5 x to '1) zl.1 +6ll= a=:trJ 'Jq+r, + (d) +tlsl3EE-(III), K,r: r.6 x lo-30
    6l]Eql rzl g6}9 +zl ?t=trI. e;r$ $;llE= 2s.cql^l (e) *lE* 3, K,p :6 x 10-sr

    o.ot7 slLoljl, ol= *E Zl4l*r+ g "Jil6J4. > -86 qlrll2


    > -H.E qir{ 1 LaF39 K,p= 2 x lo-teol4. Eq^J LaFr9 *dlEE mol/
    ++r+ ag 5Tl]E gol 9l+. ++.+ql^.] olE "JolgE b L.=. $ololzP
    E7l7l* te 4e qL 4oJ7I?(+, E.E I 89e eo+

    +6flli+E 6J4t

    K,pEPH Alt}g olgE *-E= ++ ¤E*r+ ^lol= ts-oJ E g.Je *.-4ql^l 5^lql .Jq+= 4= ++E B¤g +
    4. 5g{ oE ol4+ Eil+ +.-41}E olg= ^}olE CdTl aol+. ql= 5q +l-g7l BBg +6llE B¤r+ E^l
    ^l"J
    tl-E 4+q 96J olgt}g ¤^d trllEol4=a.'(r3.5¤el "T-l ql "Jqts + 9l+. +3 d6I ql =.zlElE. zlzl= g
    6l]e +Eel +"JC" e3). ol4,* tln zl+g olgE tE zl9 +olgr+ "Jolgg 7t+ Boll HI¤¤ oJozltsrJl, zlf
    =61.
    zI=!zle:9l u+4 ,lzlq, ElEq olg9 d6}7t +7IB trllE +6il HI*e gEE +6]]E= tl$6l rtzlxlzS + fl4. ql
    44+. olel+ olgE ^Iole.l .tc.4¤¤ le1a1q !-46}zl E Eq cacoet: Eql^l 7t+ Eflq= HzlC9 et} olg
    ?tetr, K,pBPEl 4l4I¤ +6l]E7l zlol^l= a.Jol 91trI. (&: r.s x ro-a)S .*'E-61-r. 9l+.
    olE.J olg l*E 4+9 sr+q qlE^l CaCo3(uJ6ll4)7I corz- (aq) + H2o(,) : Hcot(aq) + o[-(aq)
    ?lErll, +uilEt: K*:4.5 x ro-ee-e+El zl4lg +ol]E=
    8._4ql^Je.l olg ++ ar+e+ +"lE q ,I+ E6ll ¤¤
    ^JE
    6.7 x l0-s mol/ro14. +Etl-E olg tls 4I+g 7q+ tr
    Er+= t^lql r46tB, 1.4 x 10-4 mol/19 +8llE= 4l&
    4g d^l6IE. E+ 4&rtB4 te +qlE zl.J 7.3xro-s B + 9l:q. ol= +4l}r+ g .Jil++.
    mol/LE g=r+. 6}zltlJ !--ag +6]|E= olB+ + H|] AE
    "JHlzlstr olg a6J s+.J¤e +ql¤ ql, rEel +c c
    +g Zi"J 1.4 x 10-4 mot/LoJrll, ol= 6t+ ol^J-g +7[ S_^ g ol$g--tr gd6l +6il841z14a3q. ol*ldJ Tlaol 6}tr-
    7I +Eqq fl*$ 9"1.J4.
    4'&6J Ag otqq. qE Eq MgF2zl *6llg trll, +"_44-ql
    K,pEBq olg bE= 4l4I6J trll szl-= g o 7l= E + olgE
    E Mg2*e| F- olg+trJ olL-le| MgF*
    =^ll{}tri.

    17.s I tGlfiql oo{6op + "Jzl


    E4el *uIE= gE+"J olq4 += +eql el"li^lE g6.E9 E:+. ql=
    t9 ¤4i EeE +6ilEql = ¤.Fg ir+. ^llr7. eql^l: ++qI Eql^Jg olg a6J=qe+
    =zl]6l+

    Elgel +"Hql ql6ll +Eltrgt4. ol ¤9lrl: olg a6J E+.JEE +6l]E7I (r) ffi olgol
    9lg trL (2) +Eq pHTI Eg oll, (3) +p+4lrl. qlql qE g6&9 *Ezl9l q"l] ¤
    =4g
    tlE+. E6J pH4 atslzll9 + E4e+ +fl¤ oj${(amphoterism)oll ql6l^l-E "Jotts4.
    798 173 +3"-4 E:de.l rtE 3E

    olSE F-213o4q1 gg. olg Ezl


    =E
    ETtElE, CaF29 5Ets
    uutBll ,J^-.Jrl. +"lql ca2*(aq)4 F-(aq)zl E¤ L"E7I g+g.e ol.:=o6|EE CaF2$ +6]lE
    =4l6lE,
    7t a^*+.
    10-3
    tl CaF2(s) ;- Caz+(aq) + zF-(aq)
    10-4
    o
    E 10-s
    u
    {o 10-6 caz+r-; F-= E7t6fE EEol olEi6i-q
    qo
    olru
    E6llETl a^-dtrl
    10-7
    ol-'
    N
    frr 10-8
    \
    (!
    U
    10-e olq6"J +"llE +i= +E olg 849 E +E;-g-olQ(rz.r¤). caFzgl Ell6J f.al 17.17
    ql^le+ Aol, .JHI4e-e *¤i- olgg rll+= + H4 *dol ++C gE +
    0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
    =4++8,
    NaF9 5s(mol/L) 4E= A^+EI.
    ArB 17.17 ol8 Er[ CaFz
    =-=
    el tsEts los EB"Joll +sl6l'al'.

    N ql4l 17.1s
    12 tBllEoltqt tt ol*.E odEJ
    4lt
    25'Coll^i (a)0.010 M Ca(NOs)2, (b)0.010 A/ NaF Ee{ +0ll 915 carrq EE6[|E= Zl{!6|'^19.

    6tl'J
    E4 caFz9 *F olgg EEI6I= + Tl4 rld6tleq^l K,p{i"J 3.ex l0 "g ^l-.&6llot yL4. K,p <}g +E +eg
    caFz9 +dlE= +61-= Erqlol4. (a)91,H +E olgg Ca2* q Hq +qE. H6tzl 9*=+. 6Izl"J +F olg E4 trllEql
    olr, Nor-E +at olgol+. o)ql^lE +¤r olgol F-ol *=r olgol +^H.J trll gg g"llE= rJ46J+. caFz ¤¤ EI
    {, Na+E +AE olgoltrt. *^letr+q ^146[q ?l ") ¤¤ +Eq s.= EJ=_i1, K,p
    Al4 carrzl E+C s1'J¤oloE, ++ Dq 4lz.lg carz9 49 ol+a}q caFrq^jEJ 4s_5 o1c- bEE aC6J+.
    CaF2(s) i- CaZ* (aq) + ZF-(aq)
    =01 ill
    (a) Ca(NoJzE +Hrl qEql C"'* 9 =71
    r-o E= 0.010 Mol+. EE(M) 0.010 0

    EEt(M) +x +2x
    Ee tsE(M) (0.010 + x) 2x

    ol$ $aNr$ ql.JEJE+ K*: 3.9 x 10-1r : [Ca2+][F-]2 : (0.010 + x)(2x)2


    ^lql
    xE o.orooll Hl6ll ,l]+ zIe_EE +gr+ Aol *+3rlg +
    91trI. 3.9 x 10-11 : (0.010)(2I)2

    x9 il"l ,Il* zlzl qlEql, gq^l Ezil= ++6tzl "J= :'';(;J,o;" : e8 x 1o-ro
    TtAg +'o}6itrI. ol 4l&g 0.010 M ca(NoJz +.1 I L%+ "
    3.1 x 10-s molel -Lill CaF27l +=+= 49 9oltJ4. ,: t/g.e x 10-ro : 3.1 x 10 sM

    (b) *E olgg F-ola, ¤Bql^l 4 ol39 *'E= trl.q_rl e


    trI.
    [Ca2+1 : x, [F-] : O.O1O + 2x
    2rt:0.010 Mq Hl611 4+.l. 7tA4E(+ 0.010+2x=
    o.o1o), +¤'r+ 44. 3.9 x L0-11 : (x)(0.010 + 2x)2 - r(0.010)2

    ul4,tl o.oro M NaF +E l Lq 3.9x10-7 mol9 r.8l


    ,:3.9xlo-tt:3.gxlo7M
    CaFrzl ++. (0.010)'
    I7.5 I S6llEoll g-BF= +: E^t 799

    +g Eql^J caFzg 5+611E= 2.rxr0-4 Mol+(ql7ll 6l-= ,+= *o199 MA3g so] .sqol 9l+. trl-S + ++
    rz.rz). +lql^] Eg 449} ullalH, o.oto M Caz*zl ? q4ql^.1 MA39 K,pq ¤6Jg trlil= a+L_?
    ull CaFzg +ullE= 3.1 x l0-s Mo\jL, 0.010 M F- ol (a) g.4.ll M3*E rl ?zlaJ4.
    ^Hg
    gol ull CaFzg +6l]E= 3.9 x l0 ? uol4. r}4rl G) +Eq e-E rl dzlaJ4.
    =4]6'J
    cu'*4 F-E caFz +.-qql q6l] +E +dlE7t zJ^tt4. : (c) *99 #f,+.
    q+ +6l]Eql 46J F-E Solg ca2*e-l g6}tr+ +l,|s EB (d) +'+9 gEE r-?I+.
    6[+. ol: CaFz9 K,p [F-]= 2^ll*.e.e 44421"J, (e)919 a^+6I+ol'Bol4.
    ^]ollr.l
    ca2*E l^lltos sEqTl ull+ol+.
    > H=qd2
    > H* qlrJll tvtn(oH)r9 K,p ll9 l.6xt0-t3ol+. 0.020M NaoHE
    2e8 Kql^l ++qql l+ dal¤ r*= "Jolg ++rI 1- d E*sl+ +Eql^l un(on)29 E+dlE= 4l4}6i^l9-.

    t"HEgl pH
    +"lg +E+ &col.* ¤zlc o-s "J=H, aE E= olg a6J 9+6JEE Sollszl g+3
    *=q. +q.J 6I+ E= + 714 olgol q- 4E &Col4't EzlC"J trI, r ¤6Je tB
    6l rq. ug(os)r$ ee ++ +tI+Ee zlfizlC olgoJ +4l3tl olgg sEI+ El.JEq
    +e qol+. ql= 5q +4E B¤ol 4¤. ^l!+ ae ug(oH)rE gEltrz}.
    Mg(OH)2(s) ;- Mg2+(aq) + }OH-(aq) K,p: 1.8 x 10-11 U7.l7l

    Nag(oH), ssl +E9 pH= r0.s2oll, Mg2+9 tE= t.7xr0-4 Molq. olll zzll
    ug(on)zzl pHzI e.oql ¤}+ +qr+ ¤Bql fl41 zlAq -H-z|. lelp e poH &$ 5.sol
    i1, n}4^l [oH-]:1.s x 10-5 Mo]+. "l+ZI +6.J [oH-] {tg +6ilE# q"J6}H +
    ^lql
    gn+ eq.

    Ksp : -
    [Mgz+][oH-12 1.8 x 10-11

    [Mg2*](1.0 x 1o-s)2 : 1.8 x 1o 11

    rMs,-r:#+#,:018M
    ut4rl [Me'*]:0.18Mol g ullz[zl Mg(oH)rE *.]"ll +=+. +E'J
    g ^]dg Aag(oH)zzl
    +._4q tr.'J.61 +=+= Lo14.
    +.lg gd q $dss uJseEal [ou-15 *=+8, ¤¤ aag +7]^l7l7l +]dl
    Ms'"9 *EE rtzl\4oy.Jrt. trI4^l -74 4.e(r47+)q^Je+ Aol +E".J &ol BzIqE
    Mg(oH)z(s) ,tl-Ets sd6l +6119+.
    ol"l A9E utc+ rJ"l, tvtg(ou)29 +dlE= +Eq *szl +Tlelql u}+ rrll +7loJ+.
    rls_r+ eg "JElElE sdg + 9l+.
    "lq6J ^idg
    oJHI4 0 e 4ElEol BzlC 9018(= E^tel 9013)9 s*6l+ 4*, *q{9 +}s

    4 =" 4¤:oll ul4 goxszl 67I*+.


    PbFzE +611trtr +Eel *tzy ?ztoJ{l ,rl4 6zEI4. ol3 p- ol$ol ltSzlolq, E&
    oJ urel
    $fizlolzl ql+ol4. A!}4sE F- olgol .Jdzlslqq HFz| fl ogr,q r- olg
    E t:E7| A^Elql uI4 PbFrg +6llE ¤¤g eEE- e-s olE"*4. tr++^] olEl'* +6I rl
    8e q* g+g F Hls"eE ol6llg + 9l+.
    PbF2(s) p62+1aq) + TF-(aq) [17.18]
    --
    F-(aq) + H*(aq) .- HF(a4) ltT.rel
    900 175r +Eo_4 'J:del rl= gE

    EtjstEET|"J 3ol8g SttE ArgTloJ


    raEL! Oq. r5El,! o{. =0133
    pHE +A0ll Elat tsllETt pHel Eilollt6llETl BS= Erl g=
    =7i:ej

    .HF o
    H+ ts7l
    o 0 H* E)l
    _.oI-
    F_
    o o
    Op6r*
    +
    a+bQ +F-(aq)
    o Fa
    o o I
    I*
    e o
    +
    Ht.q olq oo
    Pb2+
    1i+ *, Pb2+ -'

    -HF(aq) 3 o aaooo
    lF-la+ I
    lPb2+l=7t I"I.I
    PbF2 PbF2 PbIz PbI2
    (a) (b)

    areJ 17.18e.|lg ts7loil rH-.J F 018 AI-Ef=el oJ8 (a)t= ETldlE pbF29 86il_E= (b) pbr2ol 86|lE= cel E7l0ll gBF=
    =--J
    raJql^l 8+Elfltl. =7|-drl.
    'J^l ?J=rl. E E^lelrJcsl=01E=

    dal 4cq qlt HI*4e qs-4 aq.


    PbF2(s) + 2H+(aq) p52+1aq) + zHE(aq) ll7.z}l
    -
    :aJ 17.18(a)E AIC +"-qql^J PbF2s] +"]iE ?zI rtCS trq +r 9lq.
    co:'-, po+3-, cN-, s2-el zJ$ ¤zld golg.g EEld +E gEE Elia1al 4Eod
    +. olq* qlE=g Q^s=r+ Ag +zlg tr|=trr. EzlC ol89 Ell+,J+C gE +ql
    .JHI
    E= [H*]e.l AAql u]4) 6ztt4. ¤.olgol B+ trJ $zlrJ$ffi $
    =o4"1'u]4(pH9
    6HE= pH9l rl g6J.9 E=+. a4 v.18o)q -H-ol:4rle cr-, Br , r , No:-el
    =
    ag +^lg 4s9 ¤zlcg ,*= *ol¤(zJ+I9 ¤.o199 soJ6l= ¤3 pH Hslql g.J
    g B4 g*=+.

    H
    lF
    qHl 17.14
    *,{Eql nlilt +P.lo"ff qB
    rlgEtr 6 ETld 8e4oil^lErl'{J¤ Es{0il^] q ts+ a= q! z,la7f?
    (a) Ni(oH)z(s) (b) CaCoe(s) (c) BaFz(s) (d)AgCl(s)

    rfit
    Eq Exllql^l ull zlzl t+d gg 9z16}r, t3 pH-B4ts ltq 4"]4q Ezlc ¤-o199 ^Jc6l-= olg aoJ FlElEol
    *9 pHoll,i] q! aol $ \$zl$ ac6}= +7llol4. +s4q^l ul p \|c[.
    ^ld
    501
    on-e] EzlC ullE"ll
    (a) Ni(oH)2(s)ts +"-qql^l Ni(OH)2(s) 3 5iz+144; +2OH-(aq)
    e +=+. H* olgg oH- olga} ^Ic
    HI86Iq +g 2 OH- (aq) + zH* (aq) 2HzO(l)
    -
    ^JC6J4.
    (b) +^1614l, CaCo:(s)ts Co32-zl $zl.! ol$olzl ull ;-
    CaCO3(s) Ca2*7aq1 + COrz-(aq)

    Eql tlc g +=+.


    +"-qql^l
    CO32- :
    (aq) + ZH+(aq) H2CO3(a4)
    H2CO3@Q : CO2(5) + H2O(/)
    coa2-4 H*9 HI+e +4l4eE +lqattsclj, d;.11, CaCO3(s) + zH+(aq) ; Q,aZ+(aq) + COr(g) + H2O(/)
    HCO3-= +d498 ^JC^lrJ4. H2CO3:: H* b
    E7I ++61 a+ql"J qL cE ^Jc¤4.
    =
    17.5 | $afl-Eoll E-BF= += ?]^l 801

    (c) BaFz9 +6llE= pnE *iE


    +7t6}=ql, ol= BaF2(s) . - Ba2* (aq) + zF-(aq)
    F-7t g7l^d -s-olgolTl qlEol4. 2F (aq) + 2H+(aq) : ZHF(aq)
    d;.11, BaF2(s) + 2H+(aq) ;- Baz+(aq) + z[F(aq)
    (d) egcl9 +6]]E= pu Eol9l ¤"JS tszl ?+=4.
    ell+6iB cr-= zJ+I9 *olg"e, ¤zldg F
    .rl$ {rolzl ull$oltrl.

    > !{= qF{l 1 > E= qlrll2


    trl^S++ + Eql^l AgBrel +6llE= +71^l7l| ae? trlS EIaJE + z}4l9 Hl¤.tl 4aJ $xt olg t]f,+l$ tule.
    (a) pH *tl (b) pH ,J^ (c) NaBr frz[ (d) NaNo: dz] (a) CuS (b) Cu(NJz
    (e) allB
    ^I6J
    S+

    +ilsl E+stjct olE


    +?] E-q^l 7lt +*.J EeoJ ^lo} ql+ge ie pl44ol Ee 4lE +4ql zl6}qg zltl4. ol= g+sfls+ olgol
    Caro(pOn)u(OH)r"J +t}+"Jq^l(hydroryapatite) BE.tr. tC +tI+ olgHtri !ts6J Bronsted-Lowry $zlolzl 4lEol4.
    qq 9lq. +zl= &ol zlol qqgg +"J q ^J44. olgg +zl ql%r-ql sn+zlolTl qlEql ".}e *
    Cals(POa)6(OH)2(s) + 8H+(aq)
    =+e{+
    ql^'l +# ^l t mg/L(t ppm)q r-oE-e, a7IE4. dz}9
    - + 6HPO4Z- (aq) + 2H2O(l) ^l+
    lO Ca2+ (aq) +qlEg NaF, Na2SiF6 SqlEJl, ol==$ rl-o=$ zJol Elt9
    =
    Hl¤¤ ol9¤
    ca2"el Hpoa2- ol3* ilo[ ql+gql^] ml4u]z] d 56]|
    =+efle+
    4EaE4.
    ^JCE - (aq)
    o-E 44 xll4¤+. ++Eleq4e +46i= 4I3 5A SiF f + 2 Hzo(t) o F- (aq) + 4 H+ (aq) + Sio2(s)
    ^l+ -
    ql g6u iloHl 4= 94:91 9l= BsolLt E++Ee+El flzll ul{oll,rl s,Hq= EE ^lEE E 80o/o: .H-E dill
    ^8C¤+. ?eJ9 o.r"z" CEq +E:+9 grlala 9lq. 7l
    zlE Fq olgg +&+"Jpl Eql^l Tftl g6J Eeg
    =+sflsi iE(NaF). "J=+a +
    ^l+Lf =41fl+ =+sAeI =+_sflEl
    4r+ HI+6Iq Ca,o(por)upr9 p+qL^lg zl-xl! $S9floloJ t4I rE(NazPo3F), ¤+efl4 f4 {srr,;o1 t1-.
    44(fluoroapatite)S {C^144. oH-z} F--a zl+}g ol *- +H ¤+t:41: l7.loo, u.u8

    +OIgE B¤
    ++ olgg Lewis $zl, dzHr izH 9¤¤ 6l+ E +xlq ql6}q Lewis 4I, + dzlt
    *{E zl+g + 9l= +4ol = ?lrl <rc (r0.rrE). E ole.lE Lewis $zli ++ ols-, -E-61
    dol #4 0184 ^Jn zleo EI + 91trI. ol7lq} {-g zt¤+ ++ge-l +qlEq t].}g
    =
    +. qlE E.9 K,p7I 1.8x 10-r0oJ Agclg oJEqo| +SEql +=+. oli:aJ 17.19q1 BoJ
    =
    AlH, As*tl Lewis $zlol NH:eltls 4+?'171 ull+.l4. ol 449 + HI+s] 6Je--tr
    E + el+.
    ;- Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
    Agcl(s) 17.211
    Ag*(aq) + 2NH3(a4) ;- Ag(NH)z*@q) u7.22)
    {zll: AgCI(s) + 2NH3(dq) : Ag(NH3)2+(aq) + Cl-(aq) 117.23)

    NH:E Ag*(aq)E i-E6}q ,ll+ e +"llq: ng(NsJr*E ^JC^le otr.;{ egcl* H{


    +¤¤ s=3_ e_E tl46tE+ ++.
    ++99 so 6l]EE +71^1v]|719611 NH3el ?9 Lewis EzlE Etr+= ++ olgrl q 'J
    6|rll tr-E ++B i ll"lol qr4. NH:E +rJ]atg E +^I ..,.r. (t3. t d. 16. t t ¤)= zl+l^l
    4 [eg(NnJr*= ^JC^lvJ+.
    Ag*(aq) + ZNH3@fl ;- Ag(NH3)r*(aq) lt7.24l
    802 175| +Eo-4 EEq rt= gtr

    Ag+e[ NH37[ EJ36G


    ffi
    ,r*
    =e-.1gfe]NH3E
    "-l.ti|-1-l"."."..ff'

    +
    EzlatE Agclol

    s+
    Ag(NH1)2+= 88^lZ
    gE6tE6ilE

    / \
    M: e%t ,-r' NH3= Ac+q 5EE Lf+.n
    AgCl9 EaHEE Ztlxlzl

    o ¤
    .a I
    oo
    +.+ +.+
    +'+ +"+
    t+ +.+
    AgCl
    Ag(NH3)2 + NHs

    AgCl(s) + 2 NH3(a4) Ag(NH3r2+( aql + Cl- (aq)

    a lB'l 7.1 I Tl-d tsE9 NHskq)E o l8-d Ascl(s)9 Eatl AsCl(sE E0ll^19 E6t|E7 f rt|+ 4tl.

    eg (NuJr*eI rJol, ?4 olgq Lewis Szlz| aE+¤ 4¤ S]t(complexion)olzp a3

    4. zlol¤3 Eq ,ll+ g +=q. ++olq^J zlols9 "Jacg +slg ++ olgoE"El


    rJzl= 4IE ¤de] ¤¤ ql= Eq 4 u.24,4 eg(NH),*
    ^J+9 a7le. ++g + 9l+.
    B¤ tl+= 1.7x 1o7ol+.

    xr: I44xH.)i] : 1.7 x to7 Lt7.zs)


    ' IAg*][NH3]"
    oleloJ a"
    F9 Hl*q qql ¤¤ ^J+= E¤ tlf(formation constant, K/){.I '*4. H ztzl
    +olgql ql6J Bd ^J+E E 17.1q1 946l$+.
    ++ol Ezlp* zl-59 ^Jd6I= a+48, NH3, cN-, oH-e+ rJg 4¤+ rewis HzlzI
    El] ++gE +6llEzt ?zlt4E aol oJ+4oJ +zloltrl. ++ olgol zlE-3
    ^JC
    =zllB
    6|+ t'qg +E 3r+El9 +Bql^l
    'Il*61 +s6I+.
    qHl 17.1s
    +ols_olst,JE g$elB?[

    s-eulolE 0.010 M AsNos Eqql E7i6l. E ril [NHg]9 EE tsE7l-0.20 A/0lflri. gE"J
    {.!-d nll E.-4011=r|16l'= As+oltsE
    E Zltdl^ls(.J, NtH.g ts7l6lflE ttll 871= +trl Esl-= +^l-.Jtt).

    6tlU
    EI eg*(a4;91 Ns:(aq)E tz.zzqlrle; zgol
    Azt6IE, 4 9 E"E5 falf $z.llolr|.
    eg(NHr)r*z[ 4Cgtr]. azl9 o.oto M AgNo3 +s4ql^l 4|q H4 AgNO3z| .sd6l dllclq{ o.oro M Ag+E
    ^Jc+
    NH3g ]FE= o.2o Me 4gg ql a6J6}zl ?*9 eg*1aq; 4l zl-d,*4. eg(NH)r* ^JCql 46J Ki= ,11+ r7l Ell+
    17.5 L S6tlEoll E-Bf= += oJ^l 803

    9l dzlle EE Ag*zl-eg(NHJr*-E H++-il 7lc6ln, ol.=


    eg(Nu,)r*$ ^JCB+= eg(NHJz*9 6l]r-lql +'tl E4lE **ffi:#:5'exlo-s
    d=qlr+. ol d+g+016}71 617l +l6iq 4 v.zz3aplq .x = 1.5 x 10-8M: [Ag*]
    .r.1 eg(NHJz*e+e] eg*e+ NHaE 4C6I= +9e +44
    44r] eg(NHr)r*zl-E ^JCol +Eql^] zI+ Ag+ ol.$:-or
    _n, ol= ¤¤ tl+qlE 4+6J+.
    E =Zl Ai^l7l= aol +BEI+.
    Ag(NH3)2+(a41 : tg+(aq) + 2NH3(a4)
    > E* qlrfl 1

    f : ----l-=: 5.9 x lo-8 e& zEE(III) ++.-qg +&cl a-$ +g-q oE zla6t
    Kf 7.7 x lot
    ,I. 44 oJS BzI'* +ql edE
    ^JCg +
    ^lEE "JC6J
    501 aTlql [Ag+]7[ 0.010 Mol+H, NurS a7t6Jos,R'l q
    $6}zl. Be.JE +4IEr ++"-qg d7t6|r, El^l
    [es(t.IHJr*]i 0.010 Mol g aol+. olxll ol ¤B Er{q ql ^E
    +Eol qE+ adE¤- +q Hzl. T a .Jol "Jq*iz|?
    6J s= ztC+trI. ol E^llql^J +q{
    "JEqo}el
    :-oEi a (a) ?dEe +Elql 4^l +g +&+ 4-E ol+.
    =cr3+(aq)zl
    zl f,E7l +qrl E¤ *.E"Jql+96t4. O) edEg dCqE+ 6J H q *e "Jq +
    Ag(NH3)r+ (aq): Ag*@q) + 2NH3(a4) 99 Eztat¤ +e +4IEI =E$o14.
    *71(M) 0.010 0 (c) ddES 7l-8rd EloJ¤ olgoJ cr(os)n-bdE Szl gl
    oil rl el*
    EEI(M) -x +x "JE +tlqE4 Hlg" 6l= f^JEI =.eE-ol+.
    E:d(M) (0.010 -.x) x o.20 (d) adEe 7l-*C s+.JE olgt Na(Noz)z-@dZ Pzl
    glal] cl Ele "J9 e&94 Hl*6I= d& a5014.
    As*E *ETI ull$ z|e,,E, x 419. +^lB + 9l+. trt4^l
    0.010-r:0.010 Moltrt. ol <lg eg(NHJr*9 > sa= qlr.il 2
    "]|r-lql 4aJ
    ¤¤ tl+^lql ql.J6Iq +q. 0.010 mol Cr(NoJrE pH l0.0el S+ +E I Lql +fl9
    Ell, Cr(oH)4-(as)e+ B¤ ^J4q fl= [Cr3*]= ah]6]^le.

    8 17.1 2s cE Eql^l El Tlxl *+ g{ ^J+


    ^tolgel
    --a
    E-
    ilol-q Kl ii{a
    oo- l
    -vlL

    Ag(NH3)2+ 1.7 x lo7 Ag*@q) +2NH3(a4) : Ag(NH3)2+(aq)


    Ag(CN), 1 x 102r Agt(oq) + zCN-(aq) .- Ag(CN)t(d4)
    Ag(S2O3)23- 2.9 x lo13 Ag*@q) + 2S2Ol-(aq) ;- Ag(S2O)rt-(aq)
    Al(oH)4 1.1 x 1033 Al3*(aq)+ OH-(aq) .- Al(OH)a (aq)
    CdBr|- 5x103 Cdz+(aq) + Bt-(aq) ;- CdBrf,-(aq)
    Cr(oH)4 8 x 102e Cr3'(aq) + 4OH (aq) : Cr(OH)a (aa)
    Co(SCN)a2 1x103 Co2*(aq) + 4SCN (aq) : Co(SCN)a2-(aq)
    Cu(NH3)a2* 5x 1012 Ctf*(aq) + 4NH1 (aq) : Cu(NHr)n2*(a4)

    Cu(CN)a2- 1x 102s Cuz*(aq) + 4CN-(a4) ;- Cu(CN)42+(aq)

    Ni(NH3)62+ 7.2 x 70e Ni2*(a4) + 6NH3 @d : Ni(NH3)u2*(a4)

    Fe(CN)64 1x 103s Fe2*(aq) + 6CN- (aq) : Fe(CN)64-(a4)

    Fe(CN)63 1x 1042 Fe3t(aq) + 6CN (aq) : Fe(CN)63-(a4)

    ZI(OH)a2- 4.6 x 1017 Znz*(aq) + 4OH-(aq) ;- Zn(OH)42-(aq)

    OJry8

    Eql A +zl *= #+ {I+E + ++ +4}3r+¤e ,J4lr+ tqTl +Eq^l +=+. ol= ol


    geol & E= ¤zle 4E"E f ?lzl trllE.Jq, ol# ,+4 W trglE(amphoteric
    =
    804 178 +E.-4 "J:dsl rtE EE

    >re 17.20 g+d e+||at Al(OH)3(s) + OH-(aq) .- AI(OH)+- (aq)


    Erl, Ar(oH)sel,JP +||6l
    =+ ol=
    dl'=r]|,
    "J+dolaf?
    =g
    2t^l;11 2tq-71
    o!+lOE.lO-!|vI|-L -e.oH
    EEoll -!E t-E7l u3 nflEoil

    rLL EA L
    Al(OH)j=,J-d ttd
    LIE

    (ffr
    ^vtLt. Es{oil=:trt.
    OH- ts7t

    fl +0t89 ad qEqt
    Al(oH)3: e:d
    Gll/q
    Eu lO
    -QoHdl
    o-vll
    -!-!rl
    -L-1.
    [j
    At3+ 1aq\ + 3 H2O(/) -- 3 H* (aq) + Al(OH)3(s)

    oxide), ?ffi8 aaEE(amphoteric hydroxide)*ol+r .J+. oJ+^.l &q¤4 +t+Eql=


    Al3*, cr3*, zn2+, sn2*9 t+En+ +tp+Eol gl+.
    EIE ++ t!ffio1r-1+4}+gr+ Aol, oJ+d tlcl¤rl +4I+Ee rEE *olgoJ o2
    4 ou-21 4Ir+ HI86I7] qlEql 4I^J +.-4ql +=E|. r+l+ .J+C t+Eq +&slEE
    5E.J d3 olEol zJt gzld +"_4ql +=+= 1o14. olBlpl 4Ee ++ olgql a6Jg
    q3l 4(Eils4 o E ql
    'l])E
    +{is} olgg E6J6l-= er¤-ol.gg "J=+(f.J '.t7.zo).
    :- AI(oH)f(aa)
    Al(oH)3(s) + oH-(aq) 117.26)

    E+C ++ +&+Eol tol+ ¤zlp] HI+6I= tii: +q+ 5C ++ olgE a"+ql


    q+ +s+. ca(oH)2, re(oH)r, re(ou):c| Ae ++ +tlr+Es &C +.4q1 Eg- + 9l
    zlEI, 4elE Szlef3 Hlso6tzl s=+. ol=el +&qEe "J+col olq+.
    9F"1ts ++3 ^8&6171 flafl .JFults l}49 {zllal-b $Aql "J4d ^d¤ol *"lE
    ,ll ¤+gtrt. ol"l ¤4t ut4 rJol, Ar(oH)3= "J+c"J ql H]6H, pe(oH)g:."J+col oI
    H4. .JFrlfi,$ u =.tlole(bauxite) r}^lgs Eil"* r ,JEg tsd4 "g +el
    =xl]6}r.,
    ¤ elrore,tl, Fe2o3E sgqq 914. -u-z.,.1olE= zJ'* EzlC +.-4ql Ezlol.ts At2o3=
    Al(oH)4 ?g "JF"lts etol¤.¤ ^Jc6I7l EllEql +r+. 6|21u3 Fezor E+ES "J+C
    ol olqq, ri] ¤Eils B=+. r +.lg qr+"Iq e E+E-g zJ46.J+. r q-e.ql flIsl
    $Fulfi.il tI$ Ezlol¤ ad^lrJ+. 4x]l¤ +4!sl+g q z]?-|6].q .JF"lts ++g E
    =E|.

    E*+E'J gg
    4l*t +++= E= 4e q+ee] 4}Bolg ill4lE ^I zl+ ¤! ot4E "l{o}olql4 .Jzl ^J"HE "Jezly 4o14.
    g=ol *tr6}4 q7l= dol4. +a.Br|E. zorsEgl B sl.JEs ,floll zl¤fl dzfzll, 4^, &++. +4 "t +E
    Michigan f Flint ++g ^l+ql^le.l B 6z19 9l"tl,tl + 5 +"&* +re.,.1-3-51*.zl"J, tszoH4ql C* zl*ol
    ^19
    i.lH, +t¤ol El^l7lql .Jd6}zl ?*9 g+ dfzl ll4. qlel rt=ol ¤461 ¤q=
    ^l-8¤ +^11617l ^lzl6}E^-l Bql
    Bg "Ji]el Y+e trlql oilEzl"J, qe+ ++ta4lE r B.+. +"JarJ B.Ja^|q qsE, ¤t ,l* 4fz}9 tr._!
    +61 "Je6lq. qql^1, pb2+ olgg olgg E*
    ca2* Lll B +E= rsz0EglE 150 ppb +=olflo+, zoozuJgli
    =7Hql
    6Iq
    ^ilE *AlrI ^dtg uJ6H6J+. ts ++9 7t* d46J + 16 ppb-E 219 roull4 Ai49+.

    *o}44l(amphoteric)o1g
    *r' .tldol+ g7l^d +"lql + + 9l: B*C ,1F19.14 flIq¤g ,l5ql 4+¤4= a
    g +E6l+. 4116.2¤ql^J tr?lEJ oJ+41 oj,$2ffi(amphiprotic)ol+ +^I +q= olCzl-= gZ+ Eg + "JE Bz|+
    olg
    ql 4+¤4.
    17.5 | $aflEoll BBF= += ?]^l 805

    trl+ ++AEEt(EPe;o1 *¤+ql -d+61+ Bq 4ql 6JE Pb3(POr2, PbHSO4, PbCO3eI a-e- +Eoq+g ¤c6l+ E
    ls ppbol4. EPA +4ql qsH, so,oooB .l^Jqlrll ++ +^d B 93 .Jgzle 1t+.J + gl= *.olg-g galalzl 4l
    =
    +E xlllo 6l^= ++ ^ldg E+ B +E= EqElB6I-,r, se Eql Eol 4}dclqE gE +6l]E7I +7tJ+.
    i=El zF9 t0yo oltol 15 ppb 6J4l= ar+-J A+, ^ld E += s-?lg +g bEq gq- ol$(cl )9
    =xHS.4.
    arl= +l6l]ot aJr[. Virginia Tech9 ts+SEol 201sLJ eg Detroirql^l xl46J Eg BpI ol3 +E7I E tl ppm9 ii
    ql +d+ q1xe6J ar+. Flint rlg 2524 +4 + ol99Lt, 2olsLJ 8991 Flint xl46J 5g gc} olg +
    ^le5 ^lzI
    lsoTotl25 ppbE a4al ts bE= Bga, -flxlol 100 ppbE rz| as ppmolfr,+. pbcl2= ^.1'J6l E+C(K,p :1.7x to-s)
    ar++ a+E tsaqfl+. oiel5^lq, zl$ lop] $.rlzl. olzluJ, +g r-"EE ¤p] ol83 pbcl3- 9 lUcto2-e1 z;-g
    +olE C"_q ?^t Ar+E.E46Lgqq, e+ Lil B +E7t + ++C Eeq ¤Cg +E6J4. 6zl¤ 9ah olES ++4e
    g ol+9 ul$ol 2013H z,ay"4lq,2OlsLJ 4.eo/oa2]c,ll +71 -tr FeCl:9 dzl. ullEolq, FeCl:t 4tr+ -eg +^ll= .J9.
    *+s safl+. 7l= gzl *E szlE¤ +il^l7la ?el4zl +l"ll
    ^hsq9.
    trI. Etl gE+ olgg 4l+3 +ol7l +l"l] 3zI9E bIolEoI
    'Jg ^lE *¤+
    ol +zll= 20141J 4H, Qll$ Flint
    ^l7l
    flos ^l-*6J
    ql+El
    ^lzlqfl4.
    : oldqlE Hint rlzl 4 ei&g olgql E"l] g6l-^l ?+= *zlEol t}slg trI ^JCq
    EEolEql^l +3 9fr.4, Efil^l q{ E3 rlint
    Huron zlr aj4. Agq ,J+?9 xllBolE Ell
    ^F&E ¤::].18
    oll

    ts]J+d}zl dql zlElqfl+. Bq i|fl3 runt zt zlt)lzl E.J +E gl+.


    ^ltr
    olL-lr]zlalf EEH"Jql B +olsE +4"lB.+. ell g¤+ql Szl]al-E 'J-ol oJd6lzl 9+e +=ql 9l+= +r)
    =4]6.l+
    E ++ol Hl-TlHg tril sqg i'lolEql^le-l B a=ol +461 zl fi9zL2olsLJ ro¤ rlnt Detroits+El g¤+E +
    ^l=
    azlfl&tt? E*3 ea5"l ++ilzl"J, 71ts4 oE +6llE x\ zl4eAl94. izllg9l ea 4¤6t41 i-lzlg EE ++I
    84tr flAq9q-. g rlols oJq +r="p}+g Erl+^la Xol4. r7l+ 4e+ Hl
    +9 4e6}rll il46lfl, +"Hqzl *= B gE ++i}f; ¤* 19 2a"J gBl= a4¤ X"-e qltlqq, olulE oJ&
    ol B i'lolEel Lll+ stsql ¤cg4(r=J fl.21). ol +g hI gss E-g ar-l6l+ ql E= tsl+"J srJ s0,000g3lql Hl6ll
    g &EI6lq Pb2+ olgoE Eql ¤-6l]^17l= +4g EoI g{ q r*9 1o14. trl +ss} 13. e-gg Eg "t4l rt*
    =
    4, oetroit9 e+ xl4 ^l¤g +4g grzlalzl +16l] Eql ql E, ofol$ol Eg q6I= Eola + s+= dol+.
    =61
    "l+q^l= re86LJ ol4E uH+q^lE B rF$ol +rlqfl
    ,tI ol9 pon3-E e7l6}zltrJ, Flint
    ^19 ¤+ ^.lel
    +4lzl-=
    g PO4'-E s9I+. Por3- olc-E +4g %r- xl"J, ,ll5g iu4"J
    "I.J9 B ![olE=
    qdd trl+g E^l
    ^l-s6}zl =zl]=
    zlali ESol q= iilolg .ll+ .J4ISE q^l +49+. Flint rlql^le} rJ* u)
    ^H-qr. il= aetr
    rll EEql E+^d
    ¤^.rg +{^la+. +ol qEolq= ag rJzl 9lag,r]5 C+ zl4 ^l¤r+ ¤+a
    ol Ez.llE fl"Jol g E += a += 20148 12$oll 8.0olg z]$ql el,* a^I7[ ¤ea14.
    -H_E

    E Eq pHTL 2orsLJ sgql= 7 3vl^l EqAq=


    ^Idol+. +H g+ +41: t7.e7,u.rot

    BE +5q6 84 Pb(s)

    (a) (b) -*.iq_!

    :O: I o2 ocl- ocl- ocl- cl- cl-


    .. | .:
    :o-P-o; ocl- cl- ocl- ocl EEElrl
    cl-
    il"
    :o: ocl-
    !lEsl
    Elols
    CI Elols
    cl* ocl* OCI- OCI
    o2
    Etlg 0t8
    o2

    e+tg +4 q4^11= trlolEE Lll+ +Eql


    aJE+Eal== +^l6t= rll ESol EJrl.

    La{17.21 rrEE -J trlolse| HEEI^I ?J= -J trlolE (a) +68 +$trt=E TfTl LJ trfoln, (b) oJ&E +^l qllllllsl ++_of oJ6H
    5rl-
    601 +lq EGI^1 Oz "! OCrq 233 .tJalxlloll !L=E g trlolE
    806 173 +Eo-4 B-de.l rt= gtr

    I7.6 I ol+q il'zJal +q


    ¤¤e slq49 qL.J+ql 9l= EAtr+El EgB + 9l+. qlE
    BaSOa(s), Baz*(aq), SOaz-(aq)
    ^146]]^J =q
    ¤¤(^l tz.ts)g BaSOa J.xllql^l 6.pal4{, Ba2*
    ^Iolel
    4 sor'-E EEI6}= +Eql^.t Eg6J + 9ttrI. Baclz ig'94 NazSo+ ++Eg
    =g61q
    g6J6]-E Basoaz| aAg 1o14. qE %IB9E trlo&* eaql^] eaE q+E ql+
    ^Jc
    tJ a"J7l?
    EJo}'g Ad6J trI rs.6ag HI* zl+ qE tzla}4. HI* zl
    "lH t}*ol ¤Bq EB6I=
    + oE ¤4e El¤- BB ^J+e+ zJzl"J, Ezl ¤¤ *.E qltq qB tE= ^l-s.g aoJzl
    rq6l]o} +4. qH HI+E ,J.Jg ee+ r(
    ^IolE +41q1 44 ¤¤ql
    E.p:olzl +16ll Tl4+
    ,I]+ *j1 HI¤¤ +E= gq 5s.q1 ulall {Ql{eE ,l]+
    ^JCE bE:
    r+. e < r(olH,
    +ot^J, HI¤+ ¤¤ql Eg-5171 +16ll a'J6J({^JE *6})o-e {eg 4,o14. Q > 1(olE,
    4dE EoEE,l]+ +:z tI¤¤ +E= ol]* *otrl, EI+e ¤eq E.p:olzl +16]] qH-6Je
    tr tlBg Q:KolE, HI+e ¤¤o14.
    4,o14.
    +6llE-^JdE B¤"tl ql6J Qe+ K,p ^Iol9 +Zl= 4+6}?tl += ¤¤4 7J4. K,p HI*ql
    {f, ^JCE$ ol{l zl=$C ol$oll, HI¤¤g 6Jd-ailloltrl.
    :f4 oe. +dlE ¤Be +++
    : "+.
    .e H, Al= +"1 ol Es+¤ ¤ B olr, e d H:. ¤-.-4 ol ,lt} kg t,Eol +.
    K,pol
    . e < K,polg, HI¤+ +61]g olg +.J AH-6Jo-E Tldg 4,ol4, AdEg SC9zl
    g*9 4o14.
    . Q > K,polE, HI*e n^ll +oJ EB;6Je-s {qg 1o14, adEol
    ^JCB 4o14.
    BaSO+ *99 q:[Ba2.l[so;-19 4]&*+ql ol at4saso.gl 4e]r,rE ul:L*4.
    =9,
    qFJl 17.16
    fl{ qR
    ^J^Jq

    8.Ox'l0-3 M pb(NO3)2 0.10 L= 5.0x10-3M Na2SOa 0.40 L0llE7l6l- n}l, dCol 8¤El=71?
    =
    Ttl'J
    E{ + g +.-qol sq+El9-g q adel ^Jc q+E E= E K,p= Elit6llo} 6J+. zfi.al rln il+| ^JcEg pbso4e+
    4lol+. NaNo:o14. nE¤(NaNor)S 4E6l g +gLL pbso4g
    4C +aq=¤ gq+61= +7J9 ,+ olgE t.EE "Jol"t 6r K,pE 6.3 r rO-'ol4(Y E D), Q7I K,pE irl¤ "J+ pb'*e+
    7, eel ..JCol Sltq= E+C ^JCEE +6llE+. ^J+ Soo' ol$e-l $rzf +eq rts, adol ^Ja X.ol4.
    s0l
    + +sqg s.Jg ql, dill +"1=
    0.10 L+0.40 L:0.50 L7t g+. 8.0 x t0-3 M pb(NO3)2 /8.0 x 10-3mol\
    o.lo L +9 Pb2*g E+-5 trhgrl a+.
    (0.102) (r/ : 8.0 x 10-a mol

    tr+4^l 0.s0 L goJE +9 pb2+E bE= Els-r+ A+. 8.0 x 10 4mol


    [Pb2+]: : 1.6 x 10-3M
    0.50 L

    5.0x r0-3M Na2SOa 0.40 L +E SOr2 9 E+ trls-4 e+ (0.40 L) (


    5.0 x 1o-3mol : 2.O x L0-3 mol
    L )
    17.6 olEol aI4 E4 807

    trt+^j o.so L gElE ?9 sol-g EoE


    "i o {}g :'o 1,13,-"'= 4.0 x 1o-3M
    r-}s.r+ AE+.
    tsof-l
    Q: [pb2*][so]-l: (1.6 x 10-3)(4.0 x 10-3) :6.4 x 10-6
    Q > K,polo + PbSO4TI adg+.
    > qld'l
    ^8dqzl S=+.
    .!d= (a) (b)
    ^JC¤4.
    E+C He MA= K,p: 1.0x 10-1601+. + +aqql MNo3 > H.E qlril2
    9{ NaAE V\* (aq) 1.0 x 10-8 M, A- (aq) 1.00 x 10-7 MoJ 2.oxto-2 M NaF 0.050 LE t.ox rc-2 M ca(No)r 0.010 L
    al+ +ES 9zl 9.ll ql, adol ^JCEEzI? el4fl9 q, adol ^Jc9iz|?
    =q}6}flg

    ol9_ol ,\lEH :,lz{


    lL-l l--r EE

    olgg r
    gE +6llEql E4g + glrt. As*el cu2*E E_+ E6J6l= ¤-
    sqg =46Iq ^J.+
    ezl. HClg +Eql EzlaJ4fl, Agct(K,r:1.8x,0-to;ol 3dgJ. cuclz
    ol
    ^J461|
    +e EE, Cu2*E +.lql qd61 *=El. t zlzl EE q zlzl(e;5 olH) olgr+ a
    =
    ag ^Jc6J + gl: ^lEg ^l_eoE-e_Er^l, ++"+ 4 ols# +46l+ ag cqc ea
    (selective precipitation) ol +-I' 6Jq.
    ++E g+q +d]E= "*H+l6ir, +"-qE pHglE aAl 9+6171 trIEql +E] olgol *
    4 olgg er_lq zI+ ol+g+. ql==q cur*el zn*E.n6J6l+4Ic +Eql H2s Tlxll
    Efl6J+ ?l+. cus(K*:ox ro-37)E zns(K*:zx ro-25)H4 E +ooe,
    =Eor+^14
    ait gqqbH - 1)gl^l cuSE ddgzl"J, Znsi adgzl sE+(f.EJ 17.22).
    Cuz*(aq) + H2S(aq) i- CuS(s) +2H+(aq) U7.271

    cuSb Zn2* gojotr+q Aezl= F"l Eqg + gltrl. r +qql cuSE 4l+ H*= ^l-.&
    6Iq t7.27ql +4u ¤¤g g+qE olt^14 +"J + 9l+.
    ^l
    q14117.17
    7f dq¤ il{
    1.Ox1O-2 M Ag+(aq)ef 2.Ox1O-2 M pb2+(aqE E:961.= E.+ol ?lrl.. Ct-(aq)E ol E.-4oll E7l-g nll Agct(K"o:1.8 x ro-10)ll
    Pbcl2(K"r:1.7x10-5)7[ trF tsEElflrl.2f2fel Eol tsdEl7l /.l4r-J rr]l -J9-d ct-(aq)e.l 5E= grl.oJTl-? Eol EE ad ql
    EIETI?

    6[l'J olgTll ,H+ 494;.ol4E Ct*(aq)zl rlolzlE,


    r-oE-E-+E

    E4 Ag*(aq)e] pb2*(aq) ol$$ Lolol-i +"19e+E a AgClol +aqsE+q ?dqzl pbcl2E Elid %I
    ^lzI6J+.
    dol ^lzlg ull9 cl-(aq) +Ee+ q- #+ $ffiol H4 a BoE4l&e+91+.
    dq=rl= q+q-= Ezllolr}. Krp : [Pb2+][Cl-12 : 1.7 I 1g-s

    fi|q F adEql 4dJ K+ <iol iqd4. *4 ol ++ ols 1z.o x ro-211c1-12: 1.7 Y 16-s
    E *E= ol+4q 4 ddol ^lzlB trlE ct-(aq) olg tE tct-12 :
    l'z x to-l :
    8.5 x 1o-a
    al+B + gltrt. *? ct- (aq) olg r-" EE gee ap g z.o x lo-z
    =
    ol Ezl adg aolE+. lct-l : Vsir-to= :2.e x 7o-2M
    Sol Agclgl 4oI{ K,p:[Ag+][cl ]:l.sx l0-tool+. trf+^l 2.e xto-2 M¤ ar+61+ Ct-(aq) bEq^l= pbctzTl
    [,tg*] = 1.0 x t0-2 MoIEe. AgCl¤ ad^l7lzl ?*-L 3443 adg aol+.
    + 9t= ct- (aq)A 44 L" EE r* 11eE1q A141aJ + 9l+. 4 gE adql Bs6J ct-(aq)4 *E<tg Hlr6tH ct-(aq)
    K,, = (1.0 x 10-2)[Cr] : 1.8 x 10-10 +"qql dzl* 4l Agclol H4 ad¤ aolq. ol= gt
    =
    q *g *E4 ct-(aq)7t gs-6}71 ollEol4. trI4^l tct-l7t
    r'e x to-tl: x
    ICr-l = 1.8 1o-8M 1.8 x l0-8 M+ 2.9xrO M rlolz[ r]E$ Cl-(aq)$ r.l,q
    2
    1.0 x 10-z
    808 173 +8"-4 Eeel rt= +E

    al lzlalS pb2*(a4)9lrl /rg*(aq)¤ +4B+ 9ltrL ft) e:K,pE 4l (c) e > K,pB tril (d) a < K,pE
    (a)
    "*t
    ull (e) El]+ *+sH rJC9zl S=tr}.
    +st AsclE ade q6l4E
    cr-(aq)$ E+7I +"-qq
    af; eg*(aq)E E+¤. =46171 44ttzl 414¤ dol4.=4 4 > .s= qlfl 2
    dql gsoJ tg*(aq)zl EF S.q4E, [ct-15 n+EAl +7[ tvtg2*(aq)* cu2*(aq)e ol+q{
    0.0s0 M *Eq +"1
    6Ia, + Pbct2E Adol ol 9l+. *9q ott-(as)= 47114_ ql qe ol$ol flzJ fl
    ^lz+¤+.
    d9Ezl-? 4 "JolgE edol Ell gs* oH (aq)
    > E6ql&1 ^l4g
    El.gel qtr aa6lql^] olg ai+ E+qlEol ,(dE olg *"-4 E tE= 9"ltzl? (t, ug(oH)r9 K,p:1.8x10-1r,
    .ilrl ?dqEz}? Cu(OH)29 K,, :4.8 x to-2ool4.)

    flnfl BilE HS-7lell H2s7l0fu7t?


    ^.l| ^lE3Joll^i ^lqr

    \irJ
    CUS= rilTldfr
    H2S ts71 pHE 67f^lz

    'n) rIlffirr+

    I h-rt

    PH=1 pH-1 pH=8


    Cu2+
    {e
    Zn2+
    *, .J
    o o 0 \J
    ar) HS

    ,O o'o \, o o o
    ooo
    ar)

    H J o
    o (D
    o o
    dt, " f' t'
    o CuS(s) ZnS(s)
    Cuz+(aq)Z pH 0.63 :trlolts
    Zn2+(aq)9! H2S= Eo-4011 CUS= IllZ-.J P pHE
    s_d_d Eo+ g7l6t$ Cuszf fllt e7l^l7lE znSzl EEE
    Laal17.22 dEld AE olqlo1l,(.1Cu2* ol8olzn2* olg-oe+El EalElflrl.

    17.7 l++flAe.l 8¤E4


    ol ufzllr ¤ql^J= +.-4 + 5C ++ olg9 A+g ¤¤4 zlolg ^JCol +16}l^l ¤:6llE
    q$ril ol+g f glEzl¤ ,J+61 guleEl. ¤qi$ ts4 zlzlsol /l$9zl oldq: 49
    64 448(*et chemical method)ol4= HlB-g.tr ^lE +9 ++ g.fl.E-g +49 ++ql
    Sfl+. ql= Eq q3l ++ g4= EEI6I+;4. ^l-EE Tl6J 4I +"lq +fl+. :a++ q
    el ++9 ++ olgE +^}] ol+= qoJ6lTl +16ll zlF4"J %r-Hes
    ^le6}s.+.
    6g g{(qualitative analysis)$ ++ ol89 Ez|] ++E} aA6].= ql Hl61], geJ E4
    (quantitativeanalysis)$ +C Eeol =d$rI"Jt ¤{6l+71-E-eA++. +4 A^J E4Bg
    E4 tsJBsE^l E 6s6[r]l qflq. r4+
    ol EJBg B¤S ¤86]r, 8"-qql^lE .J+zl
    .J ++ olg9 teg
    7le^lit_, dE zl¤9 6'JtI^l717l +1611 .JHlp+E ¤qjdql^l ++
    ^l
    17.7 I
    =+
    fl4"1 dd E4 809

    cu2+(aq)e[ zn2*(aq) olSol Ee{ol 9iE rttl, 0lal-et Eal n+8ol {14e. ol*olrlb
    =-stE!
    7l-? I flfllaflEe qL Ezlol+oil sgEE7t?

    nlTlol -A
    E-
    oFnlQg
    OvlL=
    "l"ll
    o t-=. -90fi

    6 M HCle= 4tya;

    ^lIl 7l3q rteTl

    rE1
    EEd E6IE: "Je gol3
    AgCl, PbCl2, Hg2Cl2

    H2Sef 0.2 MHCIZ E)taJ

    ^
    lIl 7lgq qeTl

    JE'
    -a,

    u-EEd =J6iE:
    "Je golt
    CuS, CdS, Bi2Sj, PbS, HgS,
    As2S3, Sb2S1. SnSr

    pH = 8oilrl (NH4),S= ts7f-Er

    7lgq qeTl
    I=" I
    JEIJ
    -=1
    E7l"E8d Etal-E4 ft6.l-3:
    HC go|t
    et(OH).r, Fe(OH)r, Cr(OH)s, ZnS,
    NiS, MnS, CoS

    (NH,).HPO,. NH,= E7l-d


    7lSq
    ^lxl r4e7l

    a=4 fE5
    E-Qll
    aoo otltG.
    uuo. gS4 a+ 0l8rf
    Caj(POa)2, S13(POa)2, Baj(POa)2,
    NH+*
    MgNHaPOa

    LaeA1t.Z3 Ed E4 0l E=E7l_Eq +: ?tg g0lg qoJoll^l.EElts "JEJ Zlqol+.

    +g+. 4g4t e4He ++9 ^ll +41tr Tl6Jgrt. (r) olgg +"1]E CAql zl
    olEloJ
    a6}ol r+E=E Bel.J+. (2) 4 rBql^J 7HE4oJ olgg dq4ee +q .ts4e4.
    (:) :d =ffi ol$$ 5c
    ^lB ',JH9E +ql6J+.
    ad E4q ^h&6[= .JH]zl?l zJol oJolgg r+d rEoE
    'JHql^l= fEt 17.23ql^J4
    +Y+. ol "JBql^J= rle}9 dz| +^l7I +s6[+. 7]f] dq4 +?j, + ,}d] +e +el
    olgg E+6tE Eq= +d d6J++. +"1 +q ts4l El= quloJ oJolgE +EE, ++
    +41 ,'J6I]7I 9zl s9 atr e i%iol ¤ rllzlzl Eq4zl E4^l4ot ++.
    ^leq
    ol +& rBq "Jols_g trq- q zl^116l ¤ElEi1, c^d E^lq] ol E4= ,J+
    ^l-.s61+
    6l oJoll!-^I.

    r.E 1. +&C Sffi(insoluble chloride): trF ++ olg 6ql^l Ag*(oq), Hgz2n(aq),


    pb2*(aq) olg+ ESC ¤apg BCaJ+. #g HClg "Jolg g6JEql ?zlalB eso,
    Hs2ctz, pbcl2trJ adqr, +E oJolgEg +"lql B*+. 44o1 rizlzl ?+sE +
    =B
    810 17IJ +E"-4 E:dq rl-= trE

    olgg Ee-6|zl ?3:= ag. +ElU4.


    o-49 eg*1aq), Hgzz"@q), Pb2"(aq)

    a= 2.4I E+C $ffi(acid-insoluble sulfide): E+^d gql+g A4U F ol"l 'lldoJ


    tsg +Eg Hrs-E zl4qI+. Hzs: HCIqI El6ll *.tlol=e ¤zl9ld ++EE Aelql El]
    aJ ol$$og ,]t[ E+c =4 +,q9.3 cuS, Bizs:, cds, pbs, Hgs, As2S3,
    1[s"oJrl.
    SbzSr, snSzEJ.l eA¤+(oli =]ffiel ol-+ +g K,p (}9 ++ Dql^J q"J6l+). 4+
    q + +E =+ E+slEoJ Znsel Nis= +sqql '-,'-=EI.
    rE 3. 9zl $*t rfffi(base-insoluble sulfide)nt f^J4E(hydroxide)t +Eg A4 &
    E+C +++g 1114619 .t"lzl +"_qe "_FaJ EzlCol ql., ¤zl.ll (NHJzsE ?zld
    4. EzlC +Eql^Jq s2-(aq) +E=,tlc +EtrtrI q d6lrl.. tr+4^J Hrt g += q*l
    zlzl $ffiel olg+g ^J+61: K,p (IE4 14 qr, adgq. ol +zlq^J adq=
    ++ olgg Al3*(aq), cr3*(aq), Fe3*(aq), znz*(aq), Ni2*(aq), coz*(aq), tvtn2*(aq)ol
    4(:H 17 .::ql -H..J a4 +ol, drllE rl3* (aq) , Fe3* (aq) , cr3* (aq) olgg E+^d +EI
    E-g B^d6l7l ?*r, ql4t E+c +rlE+Ee aag+) .

    ae 4. +&¤ oJ&g(insoluble phosphate): o1 1+4


    ^ldq^J= +"lol +7lgE^JE
    2+ ++ olg"J eEI++. ¤zlc ¤..-4"t1 (Nun)ruponE dzialE tvtgz*(aq), ca2*(aq).
    Sr2*(aq), Ba+(aq)! 2+ gi$ol ¤+d ql41gg
    ^J^dd1"l ed¤+.
    .rE s. "JrJq ;4 ole(akali metal ion)4 NH4+: g+C .Jtgg xllzlafr. tsg ol9
    2 7+7J ¤ets + A4. q= Eq K* @q)zl trUg g*e 54ol 9i= H4^49 +
    =46J
    q.Jql E* HI¤¤ ol-$oJQ(:fl t7.22).
    +4sE x*(aq)q
    =^l]

    A e, +ar7t +of oJ= +s-Eor HC,E E7r"6r-HE q EEor ddEJrtE, ortr orgor =
    Hr.E,

    I ^nt'ot z;E7l?
    Etsr qHl
    E"6l 7UL{
    o g'tlE

    21'C, 0.950 atm9 HCI )11111.25 L= 0.150 A/ NH3 Eq 0.500 Loll Eirl,\l7tl. E= HClol E6I|Elr, E"-4el +tr|= 0.500 LE
    r+tr +^l-dtl.r TlEg q, r Eo-4ol pH= Zl^idl^lg.

    6fl.J
    HCI 7lillg g+= ol^J zl;'ll Szlog+q 4l1l ,l
    PV (0.950atm)(1.2s L)
    : 0.0492 mol HCI
    6J+. RT (0.08211-atm/mol-K)(294K)

    +"-4 +E NH:9 EfE+Eq +ulelu"EE*


    "ll^l +g + 9l+.
    Nu:9 5f : (0.5001)(0.150molNH3/L) : 0.0750molNH:

    & sctri Ezl NHr9 HI¤* Hcte+El NH3-tr


    olczITI olEo6loi NHn*el cl- olgg {c^la
    HCI(g) + NH3(a4) .----- NHr*(a4) + Cl (aq)
    +.

    8'-!9 pHE 44617]1 9lufl, Hzl t}Sol 9¤9 HCI(g) + NH3(aq) -+ NH+*(a4) + Cl (aq)
    flg qlg 4 +*Er+ {dEE .}g 4lt}.J+. ol UB E(mol) 0.0492 0.07s0 0 0

    +e+ HI¤+ 7lb+ oJ dCE +Hql^J H %I6Je EaH-.Jzl U8E)


    +0.0492 +o.0492
    -o.0492 -o.0492
    -E {es}+r 7j-ag + 9lzl ullEll, olag +41
    (moI)
    UB F(mol) 0 0.0258 o.0492 o.0492
    Hl¤¤ Exllol+.
    gqf "; .e9 Eq 911

    El-+^l HI¤¤ NH3, NH4+, Cl I -g.J+g -troJ6}


    0.0258 mol NH,
    +"lg .Jgzl(ra=1.8x l0-5)o1 : o.o516M
    = "J=+, NHrts _NHsI

    tr. NH4+= r
    4&olq. Cl-= &E Bzlr o1qr4. 0.0492 mol NHa+
    tNH4*l : : 0.0984 M
    A44ee pH= INHJe+ [NHu*]ql E={}+. o.sooL+E

    NH:9 Ka E= NH4*el i1,5 olaoaf{ pHE -orooI-*qrr:


    NH3(a4) + H2O(/) : NHa+(a4) + OH-(aq)

    4l4I6J+ 914. raE ^l-s"61-E ++4 a+. 4)l(M) 0.0516 0.0984 0


    Eat(M) -x +x +x
    gE(M) (0.0516 - x) (0.098a +.x) x

    _ [NH4+lfoH-l (0.0984 + r)(r) (0.098a).r


    v_L"'aJL-")_\-'-_r9..rn-S
    '\D [NHr] (0.0516 - x) 0.0516

    : (0.0516)(1.8 x 10-s)
    x: ioHf ,i"*at:e.-1x 10-6M
    ut4^l poH : -log(9.4 x 10-6) : s.03olF +
    pH : 14.00 - pOH : 14.00 - 5.03 : 8.9701+.

    s"J "i 6e tq
    BE 018 4rK17.1tr) ol ttql^J ++.-qql^J "Jqt+= qBl
    ++ e6lEJ 6E+ H}+ql^l rJzlE49zl EE +9 g +.-49 pu"ll 6ll
    E +s6J ¤Bg golB9t4. zl* 6,s_+ de F ,I ol^Jel +e B*4. .14;J ol$e. lSrp E4l +g e}¤zlE _iE6J6J 4AE
    g s+6I= +._qql^Jg tI-¤zl B¤4 +.llE ¤BolE+. ._I,tl e t+dql^l9 pH91 zlzl& ^l^lEg dq6l+ 4ol 6sat4. 48
    E s+9219 6llr-lE ¤¤ql +F ol+g ^ll+61+ ,Jdqlee.l +dtlE qqQI dq^le.l pHE {x.l t}4 grlq ¤6}9 reJ6}-r.,
    ql E6ll 9xll¤4. olq{} E^}g BE olE E4(common-ion =zl]
    effect) r El-e- Be+e p}4tol+q6l+ ¤¤ggq 411.J+ 9l+.
    Eljl +tr}.
    E6llE EJe(17.4tr) +.-lql^l axll s+qlE4 rzil slqlEE ol r
    eJ= E4(17.2tr) +e+ BEIE &-9zl et+Ee "+{} 4 g B¤g E+"J BBE ql"l+. E6ils.El$(solubility_
    =Eol ^Iolg
    t-4971 trol4. olBl+ gBEg E* te4(buffered solution, E: 'J+61 t6llEEl(solubility product, K,o)$
    product constant)
    buffer)oE 4+{}+. ie"}E ,J& E= r}gzlE $e *"-!91 dz} plqlEol += cE= a*4e-E. s.¤.J ¤B tfol4. K,pi olg
    6IH ¤}+ +"_qol .tI eb ¤zle} HI+6f71 ullEgl puzl4+sI H a6J EletEg +61lEE Zl4I6lE E] ol+6J + ?1i1, +6llE= Ke
    ++eJ^l-rlg7l. rJ&-Eg7l, Et}-rlg7l HI+g zlE4 oE E +61+ Ell ^F&E + 9l+.
    seg+). s+ +Qq* .JHI4ee E^I+ r 4Ig g E: EgTl t6llE0ll g:dE +ts ?.!r}(17.5E) ge.g ga;t'j 9. zlzl ¤E t
    e|: Bzl9 g oE xllssLrl. ¤16 +qE + 7l^l Ecg $+ + olg a'J Ele.89 +6lEql g6J19 ar+. rl+c ol8
    *(buffer capacity)4 r9 pH ge(pH range)olr]. pHt-
    &4 ,Ka ^l+ Eql^l
    a'J cltlEe.l +61]E= *E ol89 4+= +e +aol +zI6fH
    E ^l-&6fq Zl&6J + 914. pu4 p&, 4}Il raE 4gzlq bE ,J}6J+(+¤r olg E+). ¤zld *ols¤ jL6J6I= SIdJEE +6ll
    Aq +41t. Henderson-Hasselbalch Al(Henderson-Hasselbalch
    Eb +o-lol tr+ tdsl+l++(pHz} zJiaJie-) +zf6J+. +^]ts
    equation)9-E +Et'J + 914. Henderson-Hasselbalch 49 i AEel gzld 9o199 g+eH}g golg)b pu Hal9l ¤6.t9
    E"Jg oJ^l6l+ =
    {ol fea}:r. Htrf tr-^]e 4tg BB +.EE + E^l e+E+.
    6171 9.16I +48 + 9l+.
    ++gE +6llE= ++ oleq EI+6Iq .Jc6J eoE(complex
    {!-E7l 48(17.3tr) t}(E= gzl)el pHE ?z}e! Ezl(s} t}) ion)$ uJgg tewis Ezl9 +xHql 96ll^]E g.Fg E=E+. ++
    el +ul ++E ++B rflg pH 4E+d(pHtitrationcurve)ol4 "_lq^l +olgg ^J^Jg ++
    olgql aqlg E EziTt NH3e+ cN-
    _n 6JE+. 44 +de t}-Bzl 4aql rI6J 4¤6J pH ^l^lEq d e+ rJg Lewis szl-E il+q= uJg"4 *dol gl+. r4dJ 4¤
    ^J
    qq ESg AL+. ?t+-,Jgzl 4C9 +l¤L zld +de *+d Hl Col "Jq+E AE= zlolg9 AC A#(formation constant)E,
    e 3 pu Hq¤ +4U+. ol 4aE Beld9lrJ9 pHE A*49e -*.^l¤tr}. HtC tEE(amphoteric oxide) 4 +tElf
    =i.lql^J (hydroxide)e EqE e +zl ?*zl"J, .tlol+ EzlE Szig 4*
    7olr}. ,J4I-"+g7l E= E&-rlg7l 449 "J=Jd
    =xlql^Jel
    pH Hsl+ rzl ?+r+. zll4zl. **891,<lel pHi E 4 zol otqq. +=trl-.
    812 176r +Eo-4 ECe-t rt= SE

    Eljr.+q +olg 4}-gzl ,15, +olgg ,l]+ +"J


    ^J^J6f= a6JC Fql ilq^l
    o|ee] flEat Eel(17.69 K,pel RI*
    ^l+(a)E
    dg ?dol dzJzl Eb k|+C
    ul gol qBl 7I^l aa+ql^l + ilols
    6IrI. ol7lsl ol+6}tr e!+gql^l ++ ol89 erllE A
    aoJzl= +5]g + gl4. a > K,poJ oll ddol {cgtr}. + gel E4el + 9itrt. E¤ E4(qualitative analysis)g
    =6E1 ^lEql^l
    +6llE zlolTl ++61 r+8. + olgE -Er+4"J E?.]B"J dq a s+ql+$ ¤^]] ++= e{6}{ 6lE HlH, 3g 5!*l(quantitative
    dg ^l=&6}q
    sl olg+ ad^l7ln, qE olgEg +a4ql B4 E 4 r]*6o1 $"I"J? ¤1116l.=^l= Ae{Lq. +E +
    analysis)$
    og;rl ,rl-? B?]6J + 9lr+. .=,+ olgql
    4+ a^J E4e ad Hl+ql olg# rE
    =zl6l-q
    olgg
    H.+ Eqtl +-S. 4 rEql s6Jg ++ 44 E4aJE+.
    ;+ flael E¤ E4(17.7tr) ++ g^5e rE gel +6115,

    EJt tal ot BE a+:d +ol qal# trt=¤ E + eloto! Eltrt.

    +E + ,l= al+Iqlq 02.+4).


    .g+ *gol qBril z++61-=xl {ga}-r., $+ +.lE pu¤ 4l +d ¤+ E4f : 17.49, t7.so,t7.s3,t7.s4
    tal4(rz.z¤). +¤ g+ +^l; tz.te,17.20 . +=i_ olgol +z11617l+ 4E pH *q^l E.eE E-$6I]EE 4c
    . ,J^l EE ?*871== $+ +"_qql Ezlol-S.¤ ql, $+ +"_l 4 o.g ql+6II, A%F4e.E 41gaJc|(rz.s¤).
    ^*9
    9 pHE 4ltlE}4(tz.z¤). +H gf #z{l;17.27,17.28 +A g+ +-4f : 17.55, 17.s6,17.63,17.64,17.67,17.68
    .+qll pHglrl9 S+ +'-lg "JEzl 9lall +qlEel 4'JaJ olg . *elol 499 ql dd.l
    ^Jd9Ezl Cd4"e
    q+6}r, ed
    ol ql g,s6J olg+EE A*4sE 4lt++(r7.6¤).
    ZllI'tlEI(r7.2¤). +B ¤+ E4ili 17.t1,17.32 ^JC9E
    .&-g7lE 4a +dq^19 qL,il zld9 pHE 414laJr](rz.: +A {6 ¤.xlf : 17.d9, 12.70,17.73,17.74
    . +olg B^"iol +diEql += g6}9 ¤gql+(u.69.
    ¤). +fl S6EAI: 17.45,17.46
    . 4A +de.tr'+q .J.Jd^Itl eE 4oJdzltlql 4.J pK"E 41 +¤ g+ +^\: tz.6s,tz,66
    . +6llE adJcql qE o}"lgE Er]. a=g q14qlQ(rz.z¤).
    +¤ ¤+ #^\: u.33,17.34
    41ajr|(rz.3¤).
    . Eeq 4;ll K,p, E+6]lE qg aeJ +6llE +ql^l 6Iq¤ +fi +fl g6 +^\: 17.7e,17.80

    -=.o HFe_ l
    OJJ- r- O i
    . pH : nX, + foSff Itz.gl Henderson-Hasselbalch zlg zl4i-4gzl tr9 t.s=e-PE S
    + +slE puE 4l&al,E EJI
    ^l-&9tr1.

    oJ+ +41
    tsoE.H.ts 7flLJ t o.r u o}^JlEtlol 9ttr1. g+ HlTlql= qlB s{l^1, 0.1

    t7.t t}4¤g E^l HAel : 4Hzl.J A-= eq}4+ f I


    trl¤- M o}^.llE&q- 0.1 y o|,rllEtl^Eol Eq gl+. [l7.le,
    rr rz-Il
    eqg+4u+. 5 ts^l-, dlolEEE olg, "Jol8e ++Lllzl ,t.L el

    **q. qe 89ol zI^J pHTI +g7I? :a ol+= ¤E6t^l (a) :H 16.89 +r6lq g ql, qe ¤-99 pszl A ?zl?
    e_. [17.]¤] (b) NaoHE dzlal*.g 41, pH9 {0}z} z}$ 4g
    ^*q
    qL +.-ltzl
    $r: He Q: e- ¤E6I^ls.

    'c g
    e (} 3;.t as ffir
    -"'rtfl
    ry t;""*
    17.2
    %
    El-¤- Hl4
    .$D
    ";;
    Celr
    + e-=4 El4ql ^l^lEe_tr qlB e_{lzl= E+
    T ffi
    Ee E^,ll 813

    17.3 E& HAe+ r 4+g7l-tr 'l+q4l S+ +Eol 9i4. E'tI t7.z ,Jg +Elg F zllg tI9 o.to M NaoH-E 446|Hqq +
    g p& *¤ 4.solr, g+ +"lq pH <ig 4.3o1tr|. zl& + rBg + 44 +des LIEIH'I. lrz.t4)
    g 6}.xl "J?, EI.g + *e 191=1, ol+E ¤B6l^le. (a) oll +Col ts+:-osz[ {oJ,ti+Eql 6l]B6h=71?
    Iv z4l (b) qL +dol & Ztol tlql 6llB6l+7|? ¤H6l^le.
    =
    (a) iHel:[e ] O) tHAl > [A-] (c) [He]< [e-]

    17.4 Elg rgg rJS soEg E& HAe+ -aEE7]| A--e EJ¤q 12

    10
    1i +QIg +Elu4. T]FE tsoli 96 +ol9 3C E
    s+
    49 r-"EE +ElU+. ltz.zA) A
    o.
    8

    (a) rH (r), (z), (3) +ql^l qL aol zJ't}g ?zlql F


    ^ll
    o

    I ¤}¤! +'-qg +4.]1=rl-? 4

    (b)
    ^'ll
    rB 6 qe z1o1 ztszl$ arlql +q $+ +slg 2

    +4lll=rt? 0
    0 10 20 30 40 50
    (c).{l rfl + qL aol &ol+ g7l= a7}'* ?92} o}H NaOH(mL)
    tr*9 444Lzl?
    17.8 El-g rB9 El4= cd(oH), esl +"19,+4u a
    7t+Ell
    olEl. ol +a4ql HCl *.-19 EzlalH, ca(oH)rE +6llE7l
    +7l6lq r.,ll7f +41 grl. A Hl4e+ B Hl4 +q^l BBql
    +"lg L+ElLilE 19 *q..JzI? (E e^Ie+ ct- ol$3
    ^-te_l
    rBql^l ^J+qfl+.) lrz.+4, rzj4)
    sEtAE
    HA A- HAA- HAA_ HA A_
    (1) (2) (3) Cdz+(aq)
    , c
    Or{-(aq)

    t7.s Etg

    9.161]
    rHg
    *"lg trq i;r
    ^Jqgfl+).
    E+I HAg NaoHB

    trl-g
    glci(Na+
    449
    olgq E gxlg $$of, s.'flg
    44el rflg 4c qigE ol: B9
    ol dllB-61+zt? (a) NaoHE 471617l d, 0) NaoHE A7l
    elel trI-}ql +Al9

    A HIZ
    xr? ,
    x HCl(aa\

    B HIl

    C
    *^l"J "Je*dql Eg6I7l d, (c) *=*d, (d) 'J=Jdg alB ,
    gqgrz.:dJ a
    O:He t:a- O:ou-
    oo o oo tz.s q-e-r4-s.= +E +a6lq^19 naco:9 ZE9 L|4.lln
    Cd(oH)2(s)

    oa !o , a 3O 9+. 444 r4sql^l r?3 Bacoa9 +ollEE +4qln,

    o' o ¤ oo x=.g 4=
    ^lEq *.E=
    (a) HNO:
    gg qL
    s.^l6JtrI. [rz.sd]
    ?z}9l ulE
    4"J71?
    BaCOE9 a"o1S. Hal¤ 444E:
    (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
    (b)Nazco: 3z}"ll rlE BaCOr9 +611E Hs+¤ +Elrll=
    17.6 trl-g ¤Bq 4* * qgElE 4a +dg ;r e,rle. lrz.tgl rHg qe A*l?
    (a) rlgzlql dzla}fl4.
    *tl$ (c) NaNO: dz}.ll alE BaCOr9 +6IE Eq¤ *448 r
    (b) zj$zl$ "J4I9l dzFl*,4. Bg q! aoJTl?
    (c) ,Jg7l= 234!oil flzla|flr|.
    (d) ,Jg7l= El'Jtzl&ql dzla}fl{. .? -e. -e
    6ll 6l|
    "=tl
    .E _E _E

    pH pH pH pH
    5-E 5-E 5E

    qaxrt(mt-) 17.10 Ca(oH)r9 r,p 7i3 o.s x to-6olrt.


    \tt.s41
    rsrrht-) eexrrht-) 4Exll(ml-)
    (iv)
    (a) EisI 0370 g ca(oH)zglE fizfafn, ol goJ
    s00 mLE
    (i) (ii) (iii)
    E"l ¤¤qlsBaI4 EtrIE ols-".Ioles]*9ol q=7I?
    814 173 +Eo-I "JEet Lt= rftr

    (b) (a)91.<J gq{ +"-qg +-gE Hl4q 50 mLA E}9t+8. EE olE A{17.191
    qL Elaql Sdol rJzlEzI? adEol
    ^JdEl= a+, r7.r3 trtg *¤ olg Er+ql +* dB + TI1I4B.J ag?
    ulzloll fxNqi AdEg *q..JzI? (a) ¤ ue9 +6llEb olul M* q= A-7| E.Jg +"qtlql
    A46JEI.
    ^J
    (b) +F ole+ Eql^l ol$.rJ rxllel HI¤.ql qlal E¤ dL+
    E g4^lal e.}Et.
    (c) EF olg Er+= Sor'-4 eg olgql 4+q^l
    g=+. =oldJ
    (d) g MAE +6llEE A-+ El+=r ol99 ?zl-91 *+6l.rll
    1..0 MHCI(aq) SO mL 1.0 M NaCl(aq) 50 mL S6&9 E=trI.
    (i) (ii)
    rz.r+ BB *4t
    i- HB+(aq) + oH-(aq)
    B(aq) + H2O(/)
    ql^l HB+(oq) 4*s(aq) *991 Bzlel+n 7IA6l tr^I.
    (a) Hl*"ll,rJ BB tt+* +71, +t, olqH +zlg AoJTl?
    (b) s(aq)9 E"Eb?zL +4, -r.ql-E *zl9l.JzI?
    (c) *99 pHE ?zl, ai, rql-e. #zl¤ lqlzl-?

    1..0 M mL 0.10 M CaCl2@ilS0 mt


    CaCl2@q) 50 ++ Del EB tI+¤. ^l-g-6lq q^g g"_49 pHE 41416I^l
    (iii) (i") 9.
    l7.ll tr}s r4s= pHg 6J+e^] g+q +EIEE +4u+. +
    -v.rs(a) 0.060 M E.tr.ule4} gffi(c2H5cooK.E= KC3Hso2)
    g dq + ol r4u9 Eo"Eg g ¤B.J ae? [17.s¤] r+ 0.08s M E.e.qgt(c2HscooH EE HCaHsoz)ol
    ^IoJ
    (a) S.S; ol AE *zl3 Ezl#af4. 4q flEsB+E
    (b) 7l-&c 93 ?dEol {c6}71 916fl 4}+ Hl-so6}n, +7} (b) 0.07s v eelolullpol"J((csr)rN)q- 0.10 M g+ E4
    ¤ 4le rF&d gg +ol7l 916ll ^JCE!+ +gotJtrI. ol'liE.JEts((Cur)rNrrCDol 4q ilE g6J +._l
    (c)71=&^J ee +41+Eql +zl ?*n, r +g izl¤ 9zl (c) 0.ls v o|,{lE& 50.0 mlq 0.2 v o},t'llE& AE so.o

    b 7l-*C gg +ol7l +l.ll {dE+ H}s"6J+. mLS 49 EtE+E


    (d) gel +61lEb 6s+ Hlso e.e .Jal pu4 EI
    ^JC¤ ¤e 17.16 5+ DE ¤B d-+= ^Fa-o6Iq +g ge4g pHE 4l&6f^l
    4l+716J qg-q1 zJa.*4. 9.
    (a) 0.2s0M +tl4E(HCooNa)4 o.roo M g+(HCooH)
    ol 4iq 9l= e'J +.-q
    .e.
    (b) 0.s10 M ElrlH(csHsN)q 0.4s0 M gs+ Elr-lqts
    fl= g,* +aI
    "=ll
    -E (crsrNncDol 4lq
    (c) 0.0s0 M s=+g-flq+^4} ss mr,e10.l0 M g+-efl+
    4E tzs mtE 4ol "J= +E
    pH
    rz.rz o10.007s M ++^I(&:r.sxro-s)9 olgpl EIEgg
    17.12 \l7I^l olole(Ni2*, cu2*, eg*)ol F zl]9 += ad ^lE 4l4}6}^le. (b) 0.0ss M ++4I4E¤ E6J6l+ +o-4 +
    g E"-lqH+. :aH u.z:ql zlaal{ E trll.
    ^l-+6'Iq ^FS o.oo7s M ++,t}e] olg+ EIEgg 4l4}6f^ls.
    EF zlzl ad ^lEg Ffl.JzI? ol ^ls+g ^l-s6}q qE u.r8 (a) o.t2s M qEt(&:1.4x l0-4)q olg+ E!E¤-g 4l4I
    *"lgol A, B, Cql 6lB6l+zl pol.r.l9.[17.7¤1 6t^ls. &) o.oo7s M +E4I s*61+ *9 6 o. rzs
    A,B,C Agolt B,C Bgolg
    olg+ ^#
    "Jol8sl=-JE rllz g0l3 rilz c $018 M +Etq EE+g alt}6l^le.
    g= EE(17.2tr)
    + flfl|
    I E4l Ed ,\lqr
    r7.re El-g + $+ +.-qg qe 4"J71?
    ET] 71e)l )1e71 (a) 0,10 M cH3cooHe+ o.ro M cH3cooNa
    ^l7l
    ^IE
    (b) o.10 M cH3cooH
    (c) (b) 0.10 M HClr+ 0.10 M Nacl
    (d) aei c
    (e) a, b, c -5tF
    AgotEe Bg0l8a cg0t80
    u* 815
    =xll
    u.zo q+ + S+ +.-qe qL 19],tl? (a) ol $? -&99 pHE gol-"Jz}?
    (a) 0.100 M cH3cooH 100 mlq 0.100 M NaoH 50 mL (b) 0.02 mol9 KoHE Ezlal g g+ +Eq pHb guloJ
    4lq "JE +aq 7l?
    =
    (b) 0.100 M cH3cooH 100 mlei 0.100 M NaoH 500 mL (c) 0.02 molel HNo3E dzlal P $+ +EE pHE gul"J
    E 4q "JE *.-4 712

    (c) 0.100 M cH3cooH 100 mlq 0.100 M HCI 50 mLE 17.28 qts $+ +q 1.20 L= 0.15 mol9 E+irlg(c2HscooH)
    4q "JE+"-4 + 0.10 mol9 sEqS^J Ee-6}-l1
    (d) 0.100 M cH3cooK 100 mLeI0.100 M KCI 50 mLE ^E(c2HscooNa)g
    9t+.
    4lq "JE +aq (a) o1 g5' *99 pui g"l-.Jz|?
    v.z*l o.t2 M +E^Ir+ o.rr M qEt 4E 9+ *"-!9 pn=. (b) 0.01 mol9 NaoHE TfsL + s+ +Eg pHE gut9l
    4l4l6f^le. (b) 0.13 M qE^l85 mL4 o.ts M qE4I i 7l?
    E es mLE 4Je $+ 899 pHE 4l&6}^le. (c) 0.01 mol9 HrE TI6J + $+ +._qel pHE gnloJzl?
    17.22 (a) 0.105 M NaHCOgq 0.12s M Na2CO3-tr ol+q{ S+ v.zs (^l patl t.4oJ c"-q + HCo3-e+ H2co39 Hl= gEloJ
    *99 puE 4l&6I^19-. (b) 0.20 M NaHCo3 6s mlel0.ls 7I? (b) zltl utzlE d+E B.l puzf z.roJ Ell HCo3-e+
    M Na2Co3 75 mLE 4lq^.1 "JEq{ *99 ps9 Zl&6}^I H2CO3el ul| $ulolzP
    9. +^JE $+ +aqg ^Julq}4 +illE
    17.30 H2PO4-4 HPOr2--e.
    ,ro o1,r1E& zo.o g¤ 0.1s0 M oI^]lE,lI pHE a¤al* qelg'J+. "*e *41*e.s olqa 95
    ^E(cH3cooNa)
    (cH3cooH) 500 mloll eT}dlq $+ +.-qg "JE9+. +'-q4lE
    ^l-&6J+.
    *9 :ss mLB e.s g9 t{aHzpore} s.o g
    (a) 9* 899 puE 4l.tl6l-^ls. E Na2HPo4zI BzI¤ EtI *-e.9 psE g"I"Jzt?
    (b) g^I H HJgg $+ +"-qq dzFt*.g "Jq+= HI*
    "I
    el Sa olg U*4g r
    ^ls. H:POr, HCOONa, CH3COONa, NaH2POa EdE O.tO AZ
    (c) i^Jc| 4E +"-q H *gg g+ +Eql dzt*I9 4l 9 -rz-rryu3.s09$+$Egeul6tl+6IL-ql,ucoou,cH3cooH,
    3 44 7lzlr. gl4. q¤ +.+g ^l-8-dl"t 6I=7I? qI r lg
    q+= HI*ei $d olg BJ+^lg r^^le. $++.lg"JEEIH, 4+Eol H mL4 gs-6J^l+6}^le.
    v.24 q* g-EE(NH4cl) ro.o gg 1.00 M oJEqoI(NH3) *o_q 17.32 pH s.00el g+ +"-qg 6l.e-ql, HCooH, HCooNa,
    2so ml9l a7I6Iq $+ +"-qg "J5flE+. =Hl6lloL
    CH3COOH. CH3COONa, HCN. NaCN EdE O.ro ug
    (a) 9* S"-49 pnE 4l&61-^le-.
    44 7l4a_ 9lq. qH 6I:7I? E I LE S
    $e!$.'.1-$o11o}
    O) a4I E *gg S++"-4ql e7}6l9g trI 'Jq+= Hl* + +"_qg "JEaJE 4 +"_qol H mL4 gs6Jzl +6f^le-.
    E $A olg HJ+^lg ^A^ls.
    t-E7148(17.3E)
    f^JcI E++ +e! q %lgg $+ +Eql dztalfr$ rll
    (c)
    t7J3 c+* f4sY + 7l^l "J.J^Jzltlel 4A +dg +4qln
    "Jq+= Hl+E SA olg HI+^19.4.<le.
    91trI.
    v.N r.oo pl EFefla:l+a&(HF) +E r.25 Ls+r}*el
    =+s (a) 9!
    +dol ,HIe.l 44 *d.JzI?
    flF] cE(NaF)oe pH::.oooJ $+ +.49 "J==it^I 6-JrI.
    G) 4 4aql^l *"*dE pub 44 gEloJTi?
    (a) NaFE 471617l dql HF *99 psi gEI"JTf?
    (b) o1 S+ *gg ".IEzl g.16ll^l= H r+E NaFE ?zt6ll
    @ 449'$ ao.o mLE 0.100 M HT1E 4C619+. E;g
    .tI6 EJ A+ ae?
    of 6l+zl? (8, Nar= ?zfa}*.g rI +el Hq+ S+
    (d) E&qP&E 2l&6}^19..
    n 7IA'*+.) 14
    17.26 0.0200 M Hla&(c6HscooH) +o-q l.so Lel4*E Hl=^I
    72
    dE:(c5HscooNa)o-tr pH=a.00oJ g+ +Eg uJSnz|
    6JE}. 10

    (a) coHscooNaE B7I6t7l Aql c6HscooH 8e49 pH 8


    y tsuloJzl-? pH
    6
    (b) ol $+ ¤:99 *Ezl glEl^J= H :-fl9 c6H5cooNa
    E Bzlollot 6l+7I? (EI, couscooNa= Ezta}*.¤. 4l 4

    +ul H+b fl4r zfct4.) 2


    rz.zz qq¤}6 +.-q l.0o Lb 0.10 mo19 ol^'llE4Fl- 0.13 molg
    0
    of.rllEt} AE¤ sq}6fir. 9+. 0 1020 30405060
    NaOH(mL)
    816 173 +Eo-4 E:dE rl=
    =lE

    r7s4 te71q.-I4I, .J"JCzltIg 44617]| +lofl zJ¤zle+ a+&, 0) B"Jeql^l Bb qE BEIIE +z116l+zl?
    g.Jd^lliel 4Ag Hlj/61^le. ilgql= rJ4Fl E& +"-q (c)
    "J*dql^.] pH z9zl,
    ol6IoJ^1, ol4-oJ^l El6l^le.
    ol AgL"EE 7*b4n z|{afr., u}-9 4*ol *tzl, zl4 (d) sltssgrll?l EY qlE qlE 6ql^l ol 4aql tr+ 4.J
    oJ^l 9^16}^19. t zlrlelS +9.oJ7I?
    zj{lol E4}84 B=}dq EB.6l+ ql EJ
    (a)
    '}+ Ezltlg- .-19.e1 4 +"-qg 0.08s0 M NaoH-P **grtlxl4C"J trl
    9-614. H mLzI $94f,2|!
    O) 44 aTlql pHb,J&EEI E&ol q *E|.
    -rz+r(a) 0.0900 M HNO3 40.0 mL
    (c) B+dql^l pHb 7014, 4lE ++e+= tr*ol S4. (b) 0.08s0 M CH3COOH 35.0 mL
    rHel e4}r+ ot^1lE& ^lE= 44 *9
    0.100 M (c) l.8s g/19 HCI so.o mr
    NaoH(a4) +'-4es 4C6IB.+. 17.42 L++4 4 +Qqg 0.10s M HCle. B=*dzlzl zla6J qq
    -tt.tsr+* mLTI g-s-q}7t?
    (a) 0.0950 M NaOH 45.0 mL
    (b) 0.118 M NH3 22.5 mL
    (c) 1.35 g/L9 NaOH 89 tzs.o mr
    tz.n O.zOO M HBr 20.0 mL
    ^l-AE-0.200
    M NaOH +'lg.f, 4
    aq}4. +g pqg gzlE ?zHI *g pHE 4l^latrls.
    (a) ls.0 mL O) 19.9 mL (c) 20.0 mL (d) 20.1 mL (e) 35.0 mL
    1.0 M HNO3(aq) 25.0 rnL 1.0 M CH3COOH(aq) 25.0 mL
    17.44 O.tsO M KOH 20.0 mL O.rZS M HCIO4 *99-e
    ^lEE
    ol 4Aql 44q E}g.tl+ol ^I+l.Jzl, TllloJ^lE aC6I 4aql+. +g +slE 4!9 dzloJ F9 puE 4l4l6i^le_.
    (a) 20.0 mL O) 23.0 mL (c) 2a.0 mL (d) 25.0 mL (e) 30.0 mL
    ^ls. El T*g
    (a) HNogE 4{q-q B'*dql EB6I7] fl6ll^l= rz+s qrso y of,r-lle{!(cH3cooH) 3s.0 mLE 0.1s0 M
    oJ9 Naou(aq)z|
    BsaI4. ^ltr.
    gg6tqg 4i9 pHi NaoHE 4AaJ+. q¤ +qq gTlE A7I6J $9 puE 4l
    (b) HNo3E 4A6iq B=Jdql
    t}6l^le_.
    cH3cooH 44 ^l!-4 *+. (a) 0mL (b) l7.s mL (c) 34.5 mL
    (c) {ltsgB4l'Je + 44 e+ql zlpf, zl,tlo-|o14. (d) 3s.0 mL (e) 3s.5 mL (0 s0.0 mL
    17.36 E4l l7.3sql^.le.l 4Cql +'J +g ,ll+ol ^Id"Jzl, Zll"J 17.46 0.0s0 M NH3 30.0 mLE 0.025 M HC1E 4AqL+. ++ +
    zlE AA4^]e. slE HCl9 EzfEI $t9 pHE 4l4}oirls.
    (a) F 43 aTlq^lE pub59aI4.
    (a) 0 mL (b) 20.0 mL (c) 5e.0 mL
    (b) + 4C +Ce B*dg 4t +q
    'Jot4 1014. (d) 60.0 mL (e) 61.0 mL (0 65.0 mL
    (c) 4lE qlE= + 4C q+ql 4eo'J zl^lEol+.
    tt.+t o.zooM HBrS 0.200 Mel 49 ¤zl
    "l+6|q +"lg 44
    tz.tz tl+el4 44E "Jeldol pH 7 ol.C-or^1, ola|$xl, 7$zl g EL pHE 4l&61^le.
    'J.JBql^19
    E El6l^l-e_. (a) TJsl^'E(NaoH)
    (a) NaHCO:E NaOHE zl4E trI
    (b) s'tol E+¤olql(NH2oH)
    (b) NH3E HCI-? 4Ag ql
    (c) olHfl(c6H5NHr)
    (c) KOHE HBr-e {643 q1
    0l+6}q 0.100 M9 EI-* 4I +.-qg 4A
    17.48 0.080 M NaOHS
    17.38 q+9 4 4AE 'J'6tdol pH z oltoJzl, olalolxl, 79zl tr1, r}r+eql.!el pHE 4l&61^ls.
    "J
    =
    El6l^l_e_. (a) HEqlEl+^ }(HBr)
    (a) ¤4!9 NaoHE 4C6J Ell (b) olga&(Hclor)
    (b) +.$cI A+g r+g^ lsE zl46J trll
    (c) Ua&(c6HscooH)
    (c) 4alB9 44I_e--E zlCB trl

    t4 r6.8ql +q{ zl^lE qE 5+E + z}zl 44 Bs}E t6|lE gB?t E6llE0ll g:el= +ts ?1r}(17.4tr, 17.5E)
    t7.4s E++ 4*ol *"Jzl, 4ll"J^l g,<laf.rl9.
    H.J+. qL 44 Hslzl "+&g 7tH7lE- 4a6J EI q 4e
    -rz.ts6ia=7h? (a) t*d eq +61lEE alq*g+e LIEI'J + 9l+.
    (b) t+d ggl +6IE*e+dlEE zll+ol+.
    17.40 6J 7llg oJ^Jzl= Eol-=ol= o.to M "JBzl s *9 ro.o mr
    (c) t*d EE +"llE= +F olgel ++elb EzllolQ.
    o.ro M oJo}^d^l. *4I nne. zl4.J4a alzt.
    E (d) t+C gE +6llE$e+F olgel ++e}= Ezllol4.
    "J+Aql^J A7t¤ HAg E+=
    (a) gEloJTf?
    E# E^11 817

    t7.so M2+ olgE + 7I^l t+C ¤.J Naec+ Mzre.l +El-E= e qr. olrll r4l Kr=+Eq dzEl4.
    ^J461^1.
    tr, 4 x l0-4 mol/Lolc1. (a) Hl4 Hlqql .r.4l pbrrE olol +7ltiE7l, ?^al*zt,
    (a)q:1o1 $aIeff {}+ <lol El Z7l? f4E 9lE7I?
    o) Eql^l 44E gel sEt+o-4q^l qL aolM2*e1:-os G) +alql^Jel pb2* olg +.gE ?zlol+71, +r6lE7l?
    7l L) (c) .¤-9"ilr]9 r- olg r-"E= 67161+71. +45lv_71?
    =71?
    (c\ MZz 8991 oI4zI Eslqzl 96ll MA +"lql E+E + tl-.-sl pHql^J Mn(oH[E sod]EE g/L +flE 4lt]6]^19-.
    .r-"EE
    "lel ag PulE dzt+4H, M2* "JolgE ¤B (a) pH:7.0 (b) pH=e.s (c) pH=11.8
    duloluL? -v"ort+*4
    17.62 pHql^l Ni(oH)29 g+6llEE g/r tr+le 4l&6i^l
    rf8.4 olg AEI c+.JEg +dlEE tl+^lg 4^ls. 9.
    AgI, SrSOa, Fe(OH)2, Hg2Br2 (a) pH:8.0 (b) pH=10.0 (c) pH:12.0
    -rzsr(a)
    17.s2 + +e 41: 7q1 pi'+Eql ql.t'+6llE'el'+6llE+ g + ++6J Etr+ 41C +"-qq^l rl g \g ae q
    ^J+'= Ag +o14. != 7-.9c7l?
    (b) trF$ 4 olg a'J p++89 +6llE+ t'-+4g .*,rle. -vst'+*
    (a) ZnCO3 @) ZnS (c) BiIr (d) AgCN (e) Ba:(POr)z
    MnCoe, Hg(OH)2, Cu:(PO+)e gal ol¤ tl*zl
    v.64 el+ 44q \++^J gol ,Jtlr+ HIeoBJ Ell
    tz.s*l3s'cql^l caF2el E+6l] E7l t-24x10-3 mol/Lolfl, ol g o
    ^Al.l
    gEql^] s.l K,ri gulQlzff (a) MnS (b) PbF2 (c) AuClr (d) Hg2CzOa (e) CuBr
    (b) 2s'Cq^l SrF2i ffie{ 100 mLB l.1x lo-2 C4 +E
    r7.6s s 17.lq1
    ^ll^lg
    Kf<k+
    ^l=s"+q,
    0.20 M NH:(aq) 100.0
    4. srrz9 +"llE+g Zlt}sl^le. mlql Nicl2 r.zs g* +.J + B¤q ¤xllalb Ni2+(aq)q
    (c)2s "c9lr.l Ba0oJzg K,p= 6.0x10 '0014. sa(IoJz9
    Ni(NH3)62+9 r-o EE 4l,t}6t^l 9.
    E-&611E= grf.Jz|?
    17.66 0.020 mol NiC2O4(K,r=4xt0-t0)E 1.00 L $e!ol| $olzl
    U.sa b) rcql^l PbBru9 5*6llE= l.0x mol/Lolr|. r,,
    9l6H^l NH3= q! cEE tEzlzl
    2s 10-2
    6lrE7I? (6J
    E +6|^le. ^I¤-6llot
    E: +Eol ^j$;l szlrjolzl ullEgl czon2 I7I+e6ll=
    (b) Agro:E ++.-q 1 L* 0.04e0 g4 $41 B Ell s" 6llE
    +^16ilE ¤+.)
    + tI+¤ 4l4}6f^le_.
    (c) P.+ Dq zlet K,p {19 ol+6}q s.s} ca(ouL *9
    .ez egtg r,re| E Ki itg ^l-S4q
    Ag(cN)z -
    (a) trfaJEq^lE AsrE E-86llEE 4l4l6l-^le.
    9 PUE Alt6l-^ls. -z (b) E+g +$ AgI(s) + zCN (aq) : Ag(CN)2 (a4) +
    2s'cql^l +-E+ Lql= 0.0061
    e-^J& ++(caCzo, *eq 1.00
    r-(aq)! *B tI+E ZI4l6I^le.
    cE +^JtI3+ol Eq fl4. zs'cql^] ol gE +6llE+ ^J
    -tz.ss Al4}6l^le. +'-lql^l Agle.l +&6llEE al,t}6l^19-.
    (c) 0.100 M NaCN
    +E
    r7.6s Ag2SE K,p, H2S9l K^4 K,r, Agclr-9 Ky:r.l xlos (lg
    17.s6 2s "cql^J snl ololetrsl B(rD +q 1.00 LqlE o.s+ 99
    Ehg EI+E EB tr-+= 4l4}6}^le.
    pbr27}=iq flq. 2s'cql^l ol ge.l +.llE+ r}+= 4ltI6I ^hS6Iq
    Ag2S(s) + 4 Cl- (aq) + ZH+(aq)
    ^lg. ;- 2AgCl2 @q) + H2S(aq)
    44 DE
    ^l-8-6].q
    +.9 4 +eqq^lg AgBrel +$dlE=
    41416I^l9..
    ot8et fl84 Eet(17.6tr)
    -17.57(a) t7.6e (a) 0.0s0 M CaCh 899 pH= 8.0 o -e. 4¤618, +sqql^]
    #f'* E
    (b) 3.0x ro 2 M AgNo: *eq ca(oH)r7I AdElETI?
    (b) 0.050 M AgNO3 100 mLE 5.9x10 2 M NazSOa *al
    (c) 0.10 M NaBr *9
    q¤ 4 +Eq^JE l0 mlq 4lg ql, Ag2SoazI ?dEEzI?
    l7.ss LaF:9 *dl-=.E s/L Bge 4lt6t^le.
    tf'tt *9 17.70 (a) 0.020 M co(NoJz 8"19 pHE 8.s-e.
    (a) E O) 0.010 M KF +q (c) 0.0s0 M Laclr =.¤6IE +alql
    r.l co(oH)rz| ?dq:z}?
    rrul ,1aq1 caF2 se] +"I4 +al ?*3 currlr;z} BB tr-qlql (b) 0.010 M AgIO3 20 mLE 0.01s M NaIO: 89 to mt
    9l4r. .U4alz}. f.d El-¤- .]r.ill cactzE ¤:9"11 dzl-+4. e+ dg oil agtorzl ?d9bzl-? (t}. egtorel K,p 7"IZ
    (a) ul4 Btqq r{l CaF2el o}ol +7l6lY7l, zJia}iz},
    3.1 x 10-801+.)
    rr.il-e 9l=7I?
    o) +elql^lel ca2* ol8 LoEi f;zlalg7l.. r}^16l+71?
    Mn'*1aq)= Mn(oH)ze ?drlzl r t ETI r p.glLll ppb
    (part per billion)l olafz| rlE.$ 6171 9.16ll p-e-a;! alA pH
    (c) ¤:991r]9 F- olg 5.E= 67f6I=7L ,J461.=7p
    -v.7tE 4l&61^le_.
    17.60 Hlzql Pbr2 s.p+ +eqr} +^l 9*3 rtrr1s;z1E¤ tqlql 9l
    818 173 +E'-4 "J:Bel tl= p3

    I- olgel A+g ilE6|9qq 44o1 .tjzlzl ?+9tEl. ol ¤Eq 6JAl qlq^l


    ^lE +.lql exl6k
    17.72 ro mL +1611 0.10 M
    Pb(No3)2 + Elg(0.2 ml)g A7|6194.z olx}. PbIz(s)E qdsl SE+n q4zlE ++ ol¤+ AI3+, Na+, Ag*, Mg'*
    ^JC^la r- olgg+61^le-.
    3li"J=g + qe 4"J71?
    rz-zl qU +eqol 2.0x to-a M Ag*(aq)* l.s x 10-3 Mpb2*(aq) 17.78 trlzlE -r.ill7l Eql Sd6l +"lqflq, Bg HClg e7t6l
    sE}oJ4. uarE Az}a}H AgI(K,r:8.3 x ro-'7)4 pbI, grlul adol ddqflq. ad+3 ,l= + pHE r-e 3d
    =
    (K,r:7.exro e) 6 6tr. H2sE Er+^laqq, aAol E 4^l ^JCqflr+. aA
    "lr= 4.ol H4 adqETI? adE ^l
    zlql gs+r- +EE E^l6l-^le. +9 Aq\X F psE 8e. 4¤6ljr. H2s=: +^l E!+^lAq
    ul. ddol
    17.74 Na2SOa 8.19 O.O1O M Ba2* (aq)* 0.010 M Sl* Gq)e A ^Jdqxl *9tEl. (NH4)2Hpo4E: flzp|flrlu.l
    ,rl,rlal flzlalfe. ?dEol ^J^Jq4 ?*914. BoI 9tb +"-4q E* ¤eg 6I
    ^JE +._qq
    (a) dd g!.q} son2-9 E"Ei goloJrt? (+:il H 9qq L+^lg +4,]1fi+(rH 7.22 *4). "lqt +eql
    ^lzlql Tlaqq E rll cas, Pb(No3)2, Hgo, ZnSoa, cd(No3)2,
    n+= +^l6JEl. BaSO+9 K,pt 1.1 x 16-roola, SrSOr9
    K,pY 3.2x tO-7o14.) NazSoa p+ElE + +'lq +{B 7lb^Jol 9l= a, q¤61

    O) qe ololgol trxl ?dqbz}? 3461+ a. e4l6l^l *= ae qe a.J7l?


    (c) F Hr4l oJoleol edg uig sor2-(aq)9 EEb got rz.ts q=l71^144 +4 E+, q+q s6J+9 e+H+.
    (a) zn2*4 cd2*, 0) cr(on):el Fe(oH)g, (c) ug2*4 r*,
    "J7l?
    tz.zs o.zo M croa2-,0.10 M cor2-, 0.010 M cl $ ,r'11 go1 (d) Ag"el Mn2* , 4 ge*+g qBrll EEI6J + il=7t?
    gg E*6J +'-4ol 9l+. 59 egNo, *99 ol +'-qql 17.80 trl.g gEJE +"lE *olgEg E4g + q= %LBg z{^l
    ^l
    zlge_E adq= F+qlEe Fl.Jzl? 6I^l_e_.
    ^l6l e7I6JE}E,
    Ag2CrOa(K,p : l.2x l0-r2), Ag2CO3(Kry : 8.1 x l0-"), (a) Na*91 cd2* (b) cu2*91 tvtg2*
    AgCl(K,p: t.8 x t0-ro) (c) Pb2*4 Al3* (d) eg*9+ Hg'z*

    17.76 t.O M *99 O.ZO M Ca2**


    NazSOr O.3O M Ag*E C.6J rz"er ("1 rE 4 ololg]H tt.zz)4 adq= gzlt "1|4ol I
    ++E lo.o mloll aaq Az}6lfl+. -e_afQ. o18 ¤E6t^le-.
    = ndB ++EE
    (a) 9L 5+6JEol Hzl adq=7l? G) rE 2ql^J adg ++84 rE 3ql^l
    CaSOr(fr:2.4x lg-s), Ag2SOa(K*:1.5 x l0-5) 7l* +ss} ilolE +loJ7|?
    6) aa"l ^l+q7l 9l6ll^lY Na2SO4 *9¤ 9"i4 Bzloll (c):E 3 *olgg ed^l{ + +^l +oli *Hg 4l^16'h
    of 6l+zl?
    ^ls.
    17.82 ¤,Bg B-7] ElilEr. E-^l pi{ol 94. olzlg a
    fl^et 8C E4(17.7E) ^l+-=.=
    =+ E*t E4 rE + fr$ ol$(24 sQl*4j1 ¤
    t7.77 A 7l^l ++ olgg +.-l¤ Eg HCL+ iJr-la|flrj C Ar+. tz.zz)3
    ,-l ddol Szlxl ?*914. puE "* l-+ ae6lr. HzSE E"4 gg 4HEt. nl4^l E^Jg fE r, z, :9 *4 olgql 4aJ
    q^l adol ..J7lzl ?*9lEI. ol{ql= 899 pn c+61n, EIE (NH4)2HpO4-tr ^lE a^F= +q619
    ^la^lE}, ^lElg
    E E 8e iA6ln +^l HrsE E"+^lAtrlq, "lHql= ad +. olEI adol ^Jai1, fE 4E ++ olg"l
    ;jxllE ¤xllt
    ol .lg (usn)rHpor.e 4a aEg.ll*.E1. olaol eI g*g aE.J^l ¤B6l^le_.
    "l ^Jcqfl4. +._qos+El aq4l

    ?f oJ# +41
    t7.83 S+ +'-qE poHE $+ +"-!E Ezl ^JE9 pKa4 flddl 17.8s +s4l(HCsH3O:)9 zs"Cql^J & l|ol a.za x 10-4014.
    ?E Henderson-Hasselbalch Ag +BE 49 +E 2s'cql^] +g +._!E pHE Zl&6}^ls.
    ^lr+
    5I^19_. (a) #e& 2s.0 g4 +tr& r0.0 g9 H9
    g-e- o.2so L7I qE+ ^E(NacsHro:)
    tr7.84l 9lE:g cork)tl Eql +ol E4}(srcor)ol ^J^Jq,s & "J= +"-!
    dol4. BlE"l Ll+ &^dol ,J6IE, 4sl.J "i 47lle+ HI* (b) 0.250 M HCsH:O: 30.0 mlgl 0.22 M NaC5H3O3 20.0
    6J 4ol4("lH aol +E E^Ia#(cacoJg EJEbTi?). + +El l2s mLzI
    mLE 4ol r]EB #6J +.1
    glEq^lE +t +1!+^ ol$(Hco:-), 9.11o1$(co:, ) M NaOH *9 SO.O mLE 0.0850 M HC5H3O3
    (c) l.6s
    g E.+ Bd soEzI l.0x l0-5 yol{ pHzi 5.6solefa z} 0.s00 Lql ez}a}q
    ^ll=6J
    +oq
    c6lj1, +tI, ts&+^ ol.$(HCo: )r+ *4I olg(col-)9 17.S6 4l-g7l zl^lE.J +./a4l¤ 1fl(bromocresol green)$
    u
    r-oEE al4I6I^19_. EAIol+. ^l^lEg a1 qrfl(u*^l)e| 9zl EEI(B)b
    +7l'Ea E^ll 919

    pH 4.6soJ trll +'l qlql^l Ag Eo s-e. ue q= 17.95 d,¤g 6IEjj1 +qr. 7Ia6l^I. ol ¤eql^l pH
    =,xguj4. ^J?,lpl
    q1g:fl9 p&= +6l-^le. 6.s0E $+ +"lol gsg aol+. zlB fol gzli.{z} oJ
    17.87 &(HA)rl 9zl(s)9 Lo.E'E. 44 0.010 M-e z;-211 x1a;|{ 4I Hre1f,, :2x10-2, &z:5.0x10 ?) E= raE iE
    gql qla4^l ?++g .J9tr+. qBlBg r.0 M 4I +Erl
    41fl4. g6J¤ *o-!9 pHz| e.2oltrl.
    (a) HAe+89 Hl¤¤++U Be ++44¤q 'gagzl.rle. 1.0 M NaoH +olg olsog + ?l+. NaoH $e{ $ulg

    (b) HAE K,7to18.0 x 10-soJ ql, HAe+ B H]*ql 1.0 LE 4}ql Hq igot pH 6,s0e.l g+ +slol El*7I?
    ^Iolel (+. +u19 HEI+ +^l+trI.)
    +{} BB {'-+ Ag g"loJzt?
    (c) B9 Kr Ztg +6i^le-. 17.96 0.1000 M qtr4}(cH3cH(ou)coou .E* HCaHso:) *

    17.88 ae g+q +&(HCooH)4 +414.Ei(HCooNa)¤ B9 I zs.oo mlql 1.000 M NaoH H mLE -Jolo} pH::.zs
    +El7I 1.00 L7I qEq + 7l^l g+ +"-49 x]aolfl+. A
    q ¤F +"lg "JE + 9l=7P
    17.97 +4I B(rr)(pbco:)9 B+ ql+g *E"46 CE + 6l-+
    r.. B s+ +slg 44 0.010 mol4 ol+.
    ^l-s6l.s.+.
    (a) F $6 *"-49 pHE Al4I6I^le. (a) pbco:9 K,p llol 7.4x 1s-tao3 ql, +41 B c.pl +.-4
    (b) q! + $+ +"19 $+ +"*ol trl *71-? ql^JE Pb2+el E-+= gEloJTf?
    (c) r.00 MHCI l.0mLE+++*9"11 Ezla}flgtrI H (b) E+ +"lql^lE pbz* oleE ppb+E= gsi.Jzl?
    sI9 pH ZI(E= pu9 Hri*)9 4l&6}^le. (c) pHzI*ole el. pbco3g +6llE= f;zlafiz|, olr-l
    (d) r.00 M}lcr l0 mLE + eF 8'-491 dzlol9g'I H E eld+7|?
    4¤ pH Z}(EE pu9 HsleDS Zl&6}^le-. (d) EPATI -d+6I= Eql^19 B ol89 e}4l *sE rs
    17.89 cE]qzl-zl pH a.s0el o}^llE^I-ol^llE& iE s+ ,nuo14. e4l B(rr) Ecl +"-qe EpAg +zl +EE
    +ol 7s0 mL¤ ^I*6IBlr +El. rill ol-^llEtl 4E- =r+61+7p
    (csrcooNa)4 Bat1cu3cooH)g ol$ol zl=5.alQ. 17.98 7+71r+E_ t}g alBS +q^l K,pE q +6llE
    ^l^*6lq =
    B=tlE +E= ee'l"(e* v")o14, 'JsE t.os g/ mlol4. r*= ag +s^l9-.
    e}=! +._qq^l cH3cooHE r-oE7I0.ls yol qe$ alel
    =
    (a) CdSeI CuS (b) PbCO3el BaCrOa
    H, cH,cooNaG q]+l)e+ Ba&(mL ++l)g 9uI"J*4 (c) Ni(oH)re+ Nico3 (d) Agrs+ Ag2So4
    al*zl? 17.99 ts& rJ6(caco3)E +dlE= puoll 966J4.
    ^l-.&6llot
    t7.90 ulzlg oloyJz[4] 0.2140 gS zs.o mr_9 E9] H¤ (a) Ef& olgE t-g7l 5cg -7;.laf,., caCor9 E*
    ^lE
    0.0es0 M NaoHE 4C6].fl4. tol "J*dql E$afi rll oIs.E al+Ialrlg(K,p:4.s x l0-e).
    E7]r 27.4 mlzl- g,s-6f+. O) co32- olgql ql6J Ka !9 qg H]+fl ¤B
    ^|.+6}q.
    (a)tl9 Ee"*e 9o}.Jzf? *+= aa6}^le_.
    O) 44 ^l g7l= 15.0 mL eTloJ +. pHTI6.s0ol Els CaCO3(s) + H2O(/) :
    g9t+. 4I9 K"lke B"IoJzI? Cazt(aq) + HCq @il + oH-(aq)
    17.9t ulzlef ojoyjz|$ 0.1687 g* zs.o mrg Egl 5¤ (c) ca2*, HCo3-, oH- olgol caco:9 +6Htr+El ^JA
    ^lE
    0.lls0 M NaoHE 4A6IH+. tl"l B=Jd9l EB6l= ql 4a z13o3r1H, G)q ¤¤^lg ^l-&6I= CaCo:9 E
    g71 ls.s mlz| Pgafr|. +6llEb gEloJTl?
    (a)'tl9 ge=*e 9"f?lzf? (d) pHzt 8.3t] qloJq^l g+qtr. caco:9 E+6llE=
    O) 44 ^l g7l= 7.25 mL Ezft +, pHtl2.8szl fl$ 9utoJzf?
    .JgttrI. 4Ig K, <Ie BuI.JzI? $+qH, CaCo:9 +&6llE= grloJz}?
    (e) pHz| 7.sq^J

    17.92 E4I-rlE7l zlAg g Ell 6rJdql^.1q puzl4I9 p&4 17.100 il of ql+gg +4}sleq4 Gydroxyapatite)ee ol+q 4
    a+g trol^le(+, +aae'J.+dql Eg6lTlz-^lql g 9lr, EI++ alol^lg cas(por3oHolq, :aql ^J+6i=
    s6J A7l¤ ¤zl9 ¤elol 9i zld"l4) . K,r:6.8x l0-27o14. 801+ql^] Eelt ailH, E+gfl
    17.93 'Joldald
    qI&g o.roo M NaoHE 4A"Jq. BP*dql clg E s.= ilEql^1g 5a_eil4 ole+ +4I+.Jcl4
    Eg6l-71 +16ll^l} NaoH *ol 50.0 mlz| gs6ltl. g rl qlg" 6Iq 5+9. fl pl.J sl 4 (fl uoroap atite, Cas (pO J : r) I
    tl zs.o mrE ?zl6J E+9, +EE pH= 3.52olEl. E4I9 ol19 K,p:1.0x10 600lEl.
    ^Jd6Lq,
    p&E 414}6}^19-. (a) i^JsloJEl^14 ql6J +611E
    =+eflp+tpl4q ^J+4
    g 4^ls.
    17.94 0.30 mol NaOH, 0.25 mol Na2HPO4, 0.20 mol H3PO4ql
    (b) ol5 +ql$ql ql-J 44E g+6|]E= AltI6I^le.
    E.g Hq 1.00 L-e sBE|. ol goJ*99 pHE go}"Jzt?
    820 173 +Eo-! oJ--Jel Ll-= gfE

    17.101 ts-+e.l P4g "-lzl +16ll "JtI


    olgol A7I9 gol
    ^J+Eql u.r06 -r.i-11 4A& ,l:ql+gl ¤B tlqlql^l 3.0 x l0-2 Mql
    dzI¤4. Mt'*q LoEE 9zl +1611^]b pHz| $ulq1 $e 8901 I
    (a) oJ4I9 pK,lI(pK^:7.5 x l0-3, pKoz:6.2 x l0-8, g6Jzp
    pIQz:4.2 x to-t3)S ol+6}q POr3- oleeq KaE 7aI l7.lo7 M*(Asor)29 K,p lt3 2.1x l0-20o1+. Ason3- olgg
    ^ls. eftoJ H:esO+(PKa--z.zz, pKo2=6.98, pK6 = 11.50)oll
    (b) I x l0-3 M NarPoa 899 pu= +6'I^19-(+, H2PO4-
    +S+.
    ^J
    e+ H3Po49
    ^JCg +^l6J+). (a) {$oll,tl ue:(esoJz9 gSdiEE 4l&6}^19-.

    r7.to2 o.so M NH4Oql^l ug(ou)29 +61lEE 41416}^19-. G) E+ql^J Ms3(Asor2 .E.-gl+qg pHE Zltatrls.
    17.103 r+I,}zfq={! uffiBa(Mno)r)9 Sdls$ 44s 2.s x t0-'0 17.108 zn(oH), 4CE9 +"llE= 3.0x10-'60l+. 6}0lE+t
    olQ. nill Ba(rvrnor)zE KMnoa +Eql^l BBol+j1 zf zlEoJ zn(oH)l-E Bd *fE a.ox 10 l7olEl. *9 r r
    C++. +"4ql^l Ba2* ol$ol 2.0x l0-8 ME \ug z1z1 B zn(oHL 0.015 molol +4El= ql gs.+ oH-g b.sa
    916ll gs+ KMnOael *:E$ sulolzlr E gulqlzl?
    r7.r04 caco:4 Fecorzl ad¤ ¤¤ tlelg E.J i+q^l u.109 Cd(oH)r9 K,p lkg z.sx t0-t4ol4.
    [ca'*]e+ [Fe'*]9 ul$ zll,lfof,<le(+, Eg o]S $zl.rJol (a) cd(ou)29 E-&qiE= goloJzl-?
    n, e^l oleE zl+ EqlE +^l¤+a 7iA{}q). (b) Cd(oH)rE +6llE= +olg cdBr42-(ry:sx1g)E B

    r7.r0s pbso4q srso.el ^JCEq +6llE+ *iY 44 e .t x cg ti6il *zH i gl4. rgl cd(oH)rE: NaBr *4
    to-7, 3.2 x r0-7o14. 4 EAol B¤ tlEIt +.lql^l 9l BzlafB cd(oH)rE 5+ElE= 1.0x10-3 mol/L-B
    [sorz-1, [pb2*], [sr2*]el t]* go].Jz[? +71^lvl7l +16ll gst NaBr9 i7l r-oE=. guI"JzI?

    5EJ OJ+ +4I


    l7.r r0 (a) E&(HCI) +"+ol +41 cE(NacHoz) +q+ g*¤ "I^{fl$ EE&g +6}^le.
    rll g{6].E t}39 ol9 H}s"49.!A^le. r7.r141.10 atm9 +E "Jqq^J co2-tr Eelg E 2s "cql^JE
    (b) ol +*q ¤B tL+E al&6l.^le. pHE Eulolzl? (*, zs "6oll.rl coz9 Henry Bzl tiE
    (c) 0.15 M HCl s0.0 mlq o.$ M NaCHO2 50.0 mlzf 3. 1 x 10-2 mol/L-atmolr.[.)
    gtlg EI Na*, Cl-, H*, CHo2 , HCHo2E BB t-
    l7.lls r+*9 ca(ou)zE s+ +".I9 "JE7l 96fl gr}'Etzl 4q
    E¤-4lt6l^ls.
    ++. +Ee eBl +n, HClg ^1.*6Lq 4cE so.oo mr
    t7.ttl (a) ulzlsrl .J"JCzI^Iel
    ^lE
    0.1044 gol f;${oll sp;} E ^lE= 6"JEq EB:ol* rll o.0es3 M HCI 11.23 mL
    M NaoH 22.10 mlzi pg-olQ. oj
    71 9.16ll^]= 0.0s00 zr gs-6IE+. ca(oH)29 K*E 4l&6}^le. 5+ De+ qrl
    old zf,t}9 S^tElg gEloJTI?
    Eq Ar|= Hll6ll E^le. qqBq Aol Y DE {}4
    (b) 446199 41. ¤zl u.05 mlz| dzlE P *.-49 ilolzl LI-= ol.$$ x,tl9. =
    ^ig
    pHE a.8eo14. t}g &E guloJzt?
    t7.tt6 2s "Cql^l +& r'EEE EF++q9 AlF"Jg 2l torrol4.
    (c) 5¤ DE ^l^*6}q q¤,$.J^l ++6}^le. 2s"cql^l ol gE +6llE+g g"IoJzI?
    t7.tt2 22'C,73s torrgl^l NH3 7l4l 7.s LE o.4o M HCI +ol
    t7.tt7 to-Loo ppb(?eloe.) EoE9 3 olg(A8")g +qt}g i
    0.s0 L oJql +E^la+. .E= NH37f +dlqr, r +EE
    Szlls ar}4olq. rEl+ t.Ez| o1 H9l= ar++48,
    +4710.s0 L tsot 9lr+i1B'll, +"lel pHE 4ltle},tle. As+tl 4zSol1"+96&g gea + fl4. Ag*9 4¤6.J +
    t7.tt3 o}^ulflq +i!g q-q-$ a+. EE +^l6t7l 96J 6J 7I^l ElBg +¤tlq \++d gg
    o a7l6}= aolq. Y D9 K,pE ^1.&6Iq, Elg +,*E-=
    ll = Ag*g ppb r-oE=
    4 B¤ tr-4ql +6}^le.
    -c-cH3 =46I=
    (a) AgCl (b) AgBr (c) AgI

    -oH l7.lls ¤=8+q g$e-fl¤ ?zlalB +a ql%lql E+ol ElEs


    o
    il
    y*g *ql^l gElzles g5e_fl9 +E= E
    ^l-sg+.EE
    illg(37 "C)ql!ot^{flE &i : x lg-solq. ?J?+q 4 1 ppme-E aAg+. tr-+EE a+oltrL + r5g
    *ol :zs mgoJ ot^4fl + oJol I Lq +:rle+ pHzA a,zJ El+ 4L¤¤ o.L8ll6l-= Ca'*e| ag q¤ "Jolgg E*oJtrI.
    ¤ zttl q & I +q^l +qlqflElH. +^J e^I Bqql^.] Ca'*9 -r-oE7I8 ppm"J 4i5 rjz-|oll Ez[. CaFz9 ?4]
    a= 821
    =n'=rll
    Eg ol (gs6l+H 4+ ql Eq 9l= 44}el bE.(mol/L)= Zl4I6I^le-
    =a4ql^l B^d9Ezi? =^tBg
    6I^le_.) 04:n6.6 mL:a844E).
    rz.rrs zllqllaEI(+4}+A 48, NaHCoJ= g4E +E 4Ii+ Hl (c) zll$4+ l/2q^+ol ,tlflElael 4tlql e.l.llSd6l +
    pl$+r ,IC6J ql, 3s0'F-E ¤Cg s$q^l r atrn SB
    86Iq tsAI(H,co,)S ^J{6fr, ^JCE ts4}g A+ E4
    ol{o} fliE E6}lg+. olt}El +^= 4lolr H}+ql^l z I "JE= ol^I+e^ TlllE +qE Al4l6}^ls_.
    +g "JEn 4lol?E +Eq ll=ril ++. 17.120 El+$d +qlql^l= HzF" 7lb
    ^Jd$ +16il HFE Hl*ol
    (a) xllB9 aeq E6iH,
    ^lls
    i+ l/2El^+e ^l+l"Jr 6lE+. trI+ + qH 4*ol *s!bz}?
    (sour milk) lA o.e. +slqq, +9 4^I (a) HFE El++c +,ilql^l zr+++.
    ^l9lgr '&IaH
    (lactic acid, cH3cH(oH)cooH)ol+. .l +E+
    ^lgHI+el (b) HF= Hl++C +,lq^l BzlzlH 4I+6JE}.
    e+EI Hls" 49 4 ^lg.
    o (c) HFE gq+4es E"JA6I+.
    (b) 4lBl itrIgI'JE= 2.t6 glcm3ol+.
    ^t+ll,Jz
    la (d) Hl+8 ts 4eq^JE 4I* Hr-u.4 trl A6J.tlol4.

    ltJ ¤41 +41


    +q ¤Edg daal4z} "6.00 M NaoH"4i 4B.l E3-,? I zl-bCs
    =4.J+.
    Hee+q t mL olol¤,<l.$a|{ NaoH
    EBg gaql4. H +E +EE .Je 5 mL CE-tr BH+. 6}zl 9 E.EE +61'= dElg ¤Al6l^le. +41+9 E, z.oo M HCI
    "J e{ tr+61-H7l qEq NaOHz} +r.l(Sior)e+ H}soilg +"_q, ge+ pH zl.r.lffi ;.fgaHe. EoJ Aq..* B4(mr) i
    ^l+
    7l-bdol fleq, Bel "Jsl rJ4zI ¤zl ?*oI elzJ9 Eol 6ts* Aql gs+ a-il= r46}^ls.
    I II I II
    i.,
    ,

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    *
    18.1 > ^l7ol
    EllTl zl+ 47lel gE "i "Jq
    el EEe+ +EI4 adg gqe+. ql
    7171 4oJ +^ldg ¤:+6ll^l .Jq+=
    HI+.J +olg+e+ +4?-lql ql6l gol
    Etr}.

    18.2 > ?lrJ gETt xlie.l tHTl oJtol "J=


    zlx,llz]. ${a[ H]*q 9;J 4zl? s
    #eEl or :l

    -t
    =E ^ErE
    _r.zJ4, 4tdEle+
    FE erJ $Fol 4zl.ll Elil: g6}ql
    ql"I golE+.
    BC

    18.3 p rl+el E zlsftr, 4


    7lE, r;ln^l6}+e+El
    zldr9-e. Eots=
    ^l+E
    E++]ql qldl "JofEE|. 4+, B+,
    0l 8el ll4 ,\l'C0llAl ll=01, rl?8elqga.sBi1r=+ 461+ql ql6J ++4 adg Hli++.
    al gdoll9a4?l tt|7l, Et|goll^1 g:0llL1^1, E+-.J=01 9l7l01l 7l5dltt. 0l
    53 g$i]loil -Js-d Tioe galTl trJ38el flqu 18.4 > elrJ gErl +E al+el E.ol qEal
    =dolrl-. ,l+e+ ¤4lqq 9lY^l¤ nq6ll
    ^,ll4l
    +Ag
    5-.l., o.J %LBql s"=
    =C6fb
    &^ +Eql ql6ll g.feE+. g++e+
    "JrJg zlfol $z$ap "Jfzi 6zi.J9l qq ++aq ^]]+r q
    r-trell^= zlt;l:L *+. q¤4e-e, "J7 ?zl* 7l-ts6[zl 6]= =
    Ht
    a4 ¤+qE ger+ +6u Eaol $,q
    ot.J+.
    E r zlfol +Ag oloJlalr. ols+ %Iolo.a 3e6l+ *Hol I
    +E 9l+. e+.+e s6l olfl E{l 6HAE qdql fl4. /]* E^J+ol 18.5 > +^q EtEt +4 E++e +xll4 4lq_s_E
    +.t}Eiol4 +4. p+ql t}*g zl4 zI
    + C{+E A!l4 ¤tlql= ^J+E ,l?-lql^l+El qlql ¤eel +¤ b6J ^tqe} +aq "*E+ 617l +lel
    ql ol== +orql EIE +aol ea4e g6&9 ulilr. *4. ol4aJ 4o14.
    +4ql^J E}=qzl= ^J1fE4 +4IE +q= +lAql alEs aE 9l
    El.
    qell 415+q, .JAfl gF
    *^J E]]g g4= 4+610l Q|?ol
    ol ++aql q¤Zl ¤+g ulzlizf$ /lpg + 9tg 4o14. *4zl
    gr 9l= ¤+Ag olaflap. -Eit6}7l +ldl^l= "JzJol "JE44 zI¤
    ql gl= slq| Saol qal, BttrIeI6l+ql^J qBr]l tlE zl¤.a}=z}
    -=. ol611611016J+. 6|.+61+ dulzlE^lE 45ol i¤ dEzI{ ¤F

    {Eel adql g6}.9 trlaq. 449= Lllzlzl 91a1,t'1= dqql qq=


    El+4 qlqg z]g{ofiot qlE+. EBJ6l4lg, *4zI 4fl ¤Col Et
    4gl olzli g6}9 trlEql 4*zl4 ? Eol4, tsB6l.rll E4+
    zlE 9*=+. =^l

    < !r*a[le| Okavango #4+= Kalahari /.l-Efl 5i3 E90ll Okavango 7J


    0l 'Jfl^l BdElfltL H*eiLl.E 71E0llb 0lAt4+el3717l-E^le]^il Htie 7.1
    3 gUi q'S.J EEg EOI=Ett :,' Dmussmanlshutterstock
    q

    823
    18.r I al+sl trIl7l
    +?.1= ql+E zl+ sEql^] r4 Er-l Bq4^l zlLllE {ol g{oug, *42} ¤r 9l=
    +Aql 4oll 4zlz} ¤6J.9 "lil= {4 zl.zl %}4g'JS6J ase ^J4.Jrl.. ol eql^j=
    zl+ 47lflel +soJ 5cg .J.l-E 4o14.
    421fl9 gE= nqql IrI+ HE+'J+(f.aJ 18.1). 421fl3 ol gE EEq q4 '-ll gqe
    tr +Eg+. zlEE Ht.E +l= r15tr1(troposphere)olrll, gE= ;t+zlg4z}tsrJ ¤+J4
    o-tr rJ46Iq qt ro r<m 4dql^J zrs 19
    =lz-ldql
    Eg.J4. +d-15 q++e d ^J.ll=
    ol 4+flql^l zlu+. *4zl HE'Bal'+r
    ^J46]-=
    E= 45, g+4= z3-5olrl $E
    fl+ Ht*, ,J+s+ s+++ 6l¤ Ag 4ol ol gqql^J .Jqt+. "Jq] aJ*zl} trE zl+ E
    10 km(33,000 ft) 9l= $olzlirll, ol LEt..ll+fl41B(tropopause)ol+r d+ 4+fl9
    +l+ a4ql 4'J.J+.
    q+flzlE flg gEE ntrql uI4 6zlat9, s0 km zldq^J 27s Kql EB6J+. l0 km
    91,<J so kmzlxlsl zldg ¤*fl(stratosphere)olall .Jtl. d+fl 9= +rJfl(mesophere)

    4 9fl(thermosphere)olr+. re 18.lqI^J ol*61+ gq ^FlE AAIE L}EI4: gE9


    E+Egdolg -4lHcpu,r'.)=Eq^l LtEld+. ol aAlEg 7)1)\71rEg516H Elr.4
    !el7l 4olzl qlEql +s6tr| ql= Eq 4+aq^J g^J* egg zlz)lzl El+flzlHg
    F46Iq C+fles Tlfl6l-b ge or+ LrlTtl "Jq++.
    4zl.J3 kolTl. g4Aq q4 A4dt=Ell(rH 18.1), Qlzlfl9 oJ+C(compressibility)

    qHTlflelgE= olE Itroil^l )w*?71?


    110 110

    100 100
    G3l
    =e
    90 90

    80
    =,Jil1IE 80

    70 =r.t3 70

    60 60
    .r. .r.
    iso
    E

    tr
    --- d=3zlE *so
    E

    J xE
    -no -no
    30 30
    ,/.IE+]

    20 20

    10 --rll+fli{E 10
    rll+ts
    0 0
    170 190 2t0 230 250 270 290 200 400 500 800
    3E(K) gzl(torr)

    a:1818.1 rtlTl3elSEq g'al= 6il+E ?l ntrql r4a[ Eil-drt.

    824
    18.1 tHTl 825
    ^l+ol

    ullEql 4zl"Jg *3 -zs.ql.<JB+ *g _LsqlrJ ,ll+ q uu|-e4l ,Ji*+. s _zollLlrl Efl"JB "J^loll E6fl
    =
    qg 6H+Eql^J 760 torr(lOr kpa)9 ¤+{Iq^l 100 kmql^J= 2.3x10 3 torr-B, Nrl o fl^[7[ EJ=olT]rt. olil ==
    3^t9 l^t7l
    200 kmql^J= +zl 1.0 x 10-6 torrtr zJA04. ollL1^l AtEfle =E
    EqE
    SE||oll,(l
    rrll
    '+3
    7[^l"Jd
    q+fl4 C+fle A%isE sE 421fl9 ee.e%o416l]"J6JtrI. r+ ql+flol ol 'J=olT.lrt.

    ilzl6Jr+. rHqlE E+6Ij1 slE{t zl*.Eg ^dBille.l cg


    75o/oE
    ^J++ 4zlE
    aaq q+61 +e-6J Egg *+.

    cflzlel a¤
    zl7 421fl9 Ell.Jse+El +^Id4 glHzl "Jzt9 +49 zl44 o-+ +r glq-.
    olerll +.olzlE qlLJzl:, +61 E 80 km ol^J9 4zlfl tI++ ¤Eql "+ql.J E
    E4, clE4 ¤+g ul{r}(:eJ t8.2). 4)4zl ^l+ +4 qlEql +r-le flz}p} E
    I
    zt= zl.49*zll qj1. nl+^l B+ 7Iq+ sz}q +zl^b 421fl9 +qlTlql Bot il
    zll ¤4(ol4,ol B* xl4+ tste+ aol, q+{ol 4zl d=}9 75o/o3 itzl6l+ ol+
    olr{). olelaJE=st ql$q 421fl9 aCg+g6tzl ?++.
    E 18.1e 6ll+E a3+ +719 EE¤ aCg +4U 4014. q4 Eee
    =i]
    ule*{ fxlla}zl"J, N2e} o27} 6I]+E 4zl9 ee%oE zt^l6t:il,, ElgC 7lz,ll(tsA fH 18.2 EizJ @sharpslshutterstock

    4 corzl4qzl9 4+Eg ^izl'*+.

    A rHTl 6ol gErlolE=el Hlgg rH+floil^1 rl ffl=7f,6?_180il^1 q aA=71?

    + EAq q6ll^J tEel E+l.J ppm(parts per million)$ +E EI"J:.fl91 ¤zll


    ++"-4
    q+ E¤E rfl+oltrl ".""', (13.4¤). :rel+ Tlillel {g I ppm$ +yl.E di{ IEIE} +ul
    ql^J oJ ++g "J*+. olt zlillal(py:nRr)91 9618, +q= TlillE g+ql ulfllalE
    E, +"1 +¤.4 s=Egg a+. r4Ee qlTl * "le"t ^dEE r ppmg fzl ruluJ motgl
    ilE :r ^Jts r motgl 6]]'J6JL].. 4 ppme-tr_ ++U +E= g+&q 1069 +6J 4+ rJr+.
    qlE Eq E ls.loll^l trE EllTlql^J coz9 EEgg 0.000400o18-t, olaq bEE ppm
    og
    ++t}]tr 0.000400 x 106 :400 ppmolu|.

    .E 18.1 t14o3 3ti eaoJ +L7lel +,88


    .l-E*
    o4 EI+AJ(EEE) EES(g/mol)
    7l
    E+ )- 0.78084 28.0 I 3
    ,(L2. 0.20948 3I .998
    oLE.I,
    l-L 0.00934 39.948
    ol,tlsl +a' 0.000400 44.0099

    LJIg 0.00001818 20.183


    gE 0.00000524 4.003

    0.000002 t6.043
    'llql"J
    rBE 0.000001 14 83.80

    -r! 0.0000005 2.0159


    ol&s+ Ai 0.000000s 44.0128

    Z.IIE 0.000000087 131.30


    -g=, ol4}cl ql, 4IeI e^, "JEqoL .J&sl +i= "JA6l7l ?+g
    oJ9e. ulg zlz]l-+ SzlloJ4
    826 183 +Ztrlqf

    x.18.2 E 7t^t4U clt7t


    ¤Eet*Afl .l tB40J tE
    1{E
    ciE -r-=r9J
    OHE dtr4e]5E
    ol{o} gt:(co) frzlE9 +6l], r]iolq^.] ,J=. pI4 ¤trE ¤^ q+Ag 56l] 400 ppm
    .J&p+ Ei(co) szlE9 +6]], 4lE +4. al-4 ¤E9 ¤^ sgq^l ?*3 *zl9lrJ 0.05 ppm,
    E^l i5:ql^l l-50 ppm
    ,llrll.J(cur) frzl$9 +611, +s= a¤71^, ql+Ag f;a]] r.82 ppm
    zl6e-trP49 ^q*6
    $tI::] ?A(uo) 4zl9 dzl ,Jd, 4e zl$, Szlgel fla s¤9xl ?*3 *zl9l! o.ol ppm,
    -<s.:9lr] 0.2 ppm
    s=(o3) 4zl9 dzl %'-d. d+astr+El ts+. s$Ezl ?*3 *zl9lrJ 0-0.01 ppm,
    *sls} ^g: %rplqr ^srqlr] 0.s ppm
    ol+I3rI +(so, slt! zll, tie ,Jsl-, 4+. egElzl g:g *7lql^l 0-0.01 ppm,
    cl4 ¤E9 S^, &E^llt +¤ 9gg E^l o.t-2 ppm
    ^lqql^J

    E9 'il+AE 4= ieJ CE==e E 18.2q1 LlEt'Hfr+.


    coz
    4zlfl"ilrl .Jqq= slq r+ag j1q6t7l dql, + Ttzl +c+.J NzeI oz9 alq4 c
    eg ++,611 _E_zL Nz EzI= 4i gzl ^Iolql ,!-+ ad.g r*j1 9l¤¤ 7lE6l.el.=--. (8.3
    ¤). N, Ezlzl e}Sdol S= ag A6Jol E}]+ rJ6I7l qlEol+(eEL qqzl e4l kllmot).
    oz9 ¤6J qlqzl= aes kt/mol9l g+6IE-e, ozi Nziil4 gd q E}*col =-+. q=
    Eq &^: Bg EAr+ Hi86Iq &El¤g "J=+.
    qHl 18.1
    F 4g oJaJ-e"-E$eJ S.E- 4lt
    galol 0.80 torrol-tr 371e.1drllgaj0l 735 torroJ nll,ti71 ,\l.eel+¤i7loltsEE ppmo+ LtE[Ll1E qE-s/l El=71'?
    =el+E
    ifl.J ppm Eo EE .rE=
    +gE to6tsll ol
    +.
    E4 ++714 ++.Jqr+ +r-71
    ^lEE dxtl "JHol +qflg 0.0011 x 106: 1t00ppm
    u\, iGzl r-"E= EI 91tr1. > E=qH1
    alq c+E +B.Jqg
    7l4l s6J¤ql^'l sElEel dnl .Jq _E 18.IE zte-e*r], 668 mmHg9 4zl.J"llrJ aa++
    q gggg #6IH Eg + 9ltrl * (10.6¤). ,l +E of=*9 ++.Jq* gutoJz}?
    4r,ro: XnqPt (a) 3.r2 mmHg (b) 7.09 mmHg (c) 6.2a mmHg
    (d) 9.34 mmHg (e) 39.9 mmHg
    Eol g'dJE + ++7lE EE9(xH,o)S *altr
    > -E= qlril2
    u --|n'o-:XH:
    ,,AzO o'0011 .J4ol
    pt .ELzl Co t,ETI 4.3 ppmolr|. d8l
    ^l.E.q *zl
    6e5 torroJ trI, coq ++ "Jqg g"Iqlz}?

    q7l+JqFl "JqLl: tsEls.,t tt$


    c+fl H"l9 4zlflg 471fl e%I_qe -HE zlg ++ql zlulzl glxlql, zl+E #"Js.ol
    q+qzl= +^Id$ rqlq4 9zl¤ "+I']]: tslt+,JqEg "J=q U4. #olzli 4
    714 slE4 Hp*, *44(photodissociation)ei +olg
    ^Idg Nr=".fl 4zlE Fr+6lfl^l ol+
    Fl{photoionization)E 'Jsaq. 4d$$ Sall al5-ge1 $r}Col q+flq s$a].zl d
    9l g*f9zl9l, +i.l= -LolluJzl +^IdoE+q EE+=+. olEl+ +slq 4col HH+
    18.1 | Ll]T| 827
    ^l+ol

    tr 6ll+8011^le.l EtlgiB .\4EaJg efl q7lts H+el Etl$B


    ^ElEHatEd6l
    gil6l"^l EET[?

    tllTld Ht'Soll,\lel E|]SUI r'.EflEar

    6H+E0ll^1el EflgfB
    ^EIEB
    I
    N
    (o
    x
    E

    zl,il# 4eld
    1400 1800 2200 2600
    rl8(nm,
    fH 18.3 tllTlE +rel EI1SB ,,'ullefl$ 6H+EE EHgzJ Hlr 6H+E0ll^l Etf +44
    .J Egg ^17 ?E ^EEE,
    trl.g= E+61= rl]7lflE 7l^ll rrt|Eolrl'. +^]+sl Egl?.l 'Ftux'ts E?l
    =ce";oilLl^lE
    ? 3?l E4.J =g-sr
    LIE[LJrf. ^lz

    H, f4z} .Jr 9i: 4E4 Ee + Sflg 4014.


    zl+^Jql
    yltlql glH4E =xll6J
    4olg 'JH+l+ aa +^l %[=++(f=J 18.3). +^]dE ir]t[r] +^[d
    9 flzI H BzI9l qq} g6J ^I"lE +Al= ol46IElE dz}Tl +^idg ""rxl9 6.EoE ts-
    + gl+= {$ zlQalot 6Jr+ ,i-,. G.24).4*r}E .llH4i E:hvE +qd+. 9zl"llrJ
    ftE planck ttfoll u= +^Icq {t+ol+. +^idol flz}4 Ez}c+ +Ha Ell e+q}4 H
    slrt "Jq+qE F zlzl aag "J+6llot ++. axl, +Eq= *zl^L. g^I+ ez}g srlq}
    a6Jg #ALl dxl¤ zllzlalzloll +++ "llHzlE 7lA"V.JrI. 84, +q.J flz}4 EzIts
    olfl ¤"^l¤ HIE^I E-#al]ot ,*4. olq.J ef a4o1 ++ElE, =JzI9 9lHxlE +d+
    p+Ei4 BElql +dg .Jg 6l-= ql ^F&g+.
    tsafial ts4ql Bz[z[ ++qq E]q] EEtol #qzl= 19 Elaflal(photodissociation)4-7
    *tt. "J6HEql el6}] + flxI zJ9 a6Jol #qd qlql= ot+fl olgs CCHzI ?+Eq. ql
    t, At-J dz}9 Hle + flz[9] Bot 9la, 4"]zl q]3 += g4q $o] ilzll ¤4. : ¤4
    dzlzl oe +C.J + Zl9 o]^l7l "JEq{+.
    E 120 k- +lE tl=. +ql^J .Jq+= 7l+ +s6J 449 4Id EzlE "J6Hr-lol+.
    ti):o: + h, --------> :6 + 6: t18.11

    olfl H++.ll ggoJ:a]7s ollulzl}. or9 A.J qlqzl(e} 44 {lHzl(aissociation


    "r,".gy),
    aes kllmol)9l slql AA¤EI.

    \__f
    qHl 18.2
    // euJg #b E{l rJsnJ +at ahf
    oz E^[E 6Hal=g ttl{ g^|.=J ollLl^l=,+= "]el .ltt| tr|-8= L[lrnlElE 76t/.l9.
    =E-d
    6tlff 4el 6J +zlE o:o ol+ Aqlg #= ql gs+ qlq4=
    Eq o2E o:o 016 Aqlg #= ql 'J"*Zl +++ qlqzl Al&6lloF 6lq. f-ffi ol oll'Jzl= 7t4l
    "*zI9 ulerg "Jol
    r*= +rz}9 :ilz}g folf $xllolr|. 4oi aJ4.
    =
    828 183 +3at+

    ¤01
    oz9 dl4 9lulzlts 4e5 kflmololtrt. ol tt+ Avogadro f (nnt,, ,.'*,X*r#rE4)
    E ^l-S6lq o, + +4q^l a.Jg #= rll $Afl olluJzl :8.22 x t'#
    10
    sl olg 4l4}g+ 914.
    ._ Edl olrJ*E qq
    49 u:i:E x 10-1eJ :
    planck $Al E:hv (r'r 6.2)q 8.22
    1.24 x lgts r-t
    ^l= *zlE dH vE 4l4IB + ?l+.
    714. 6.626 x 10-34J-s

    EeE, qE at+e+ sl+r+q +41 ¤eD (0.r¤)e.+4 H /3.OO x 108m/s\/t0enm\


    ,\:-:c I---------------- ll l:242nm
    E v}alg zl{+4. v \ 1.24 x l01s/s ,/\ lwl /

    +el trt+^J {z}zl xE=Hq^l ztEd ¤qql +61+ +t} pol Br-Br aqlg 6ll?.181+ Ell "J"*g +++ glulul= r*
    ol 242 nmoJ H3 o, Ez]-= *6llr-16l+ ql +Eel *zt* 9l r 9l=7r?
    qzl= ,*j1 ll4. 44 *xI9 qlqrl= +
    Elarol A^q+ql (a) 620 nm (b) 310 nm (c) 148 nm
    zlalEE. qH olzials. 242 nmil4 er.g ulelg ,*Y 42 (d) 6200 nm (e) 563 nm
    02= dlldl6]+ ql +++ qqxl= r*:4. >lr*qw2
    > E5 qlr.il 1 Nz9 ?6J qlq4= e41 k|/molol4. NzE 6llEd+ ql +
    Br-Br a.JE 6ll?-1 9lrlzlE le3 kflpslolcf. qH +r}9 ts6J qlq zl= r*= %I^tE 7l* 4 El+3?

    ozi 44^BrllE, +^tdol 4zlfl d-++ql EB6l-71 dq 4.J* rqlq


    zl, +i4.+g +^tdE F+e +Eg g+.J+. olfl a+ U1a gz(o)7}^EEHq j1E7l
    ^Jcg+.
    +g a+ql= o2el ollr.lz| ull-$ QltrE.E "Jqu+. qlE Eq 400 kmql^l= l7o9 Alap}
    oz9 B4s ululzl eeolo=. flzt tel]9 {}iol+. 130 kmql^l= ozel flzI t4
    =461q,
    Ell+ ag se-g 130 km o[qql^J= 4++E qoJ qlLJzlTl- Er+
    9 ^J
    =4oJtrt.
    ^}^zt ¤+qEE sz} t49 4}aerl orz| glol
    + EllTlql^l
    =4oJ+.
    Nzg 6114 qlHzl: eal kllmol-tr, ,l]+ aq. ql^ll ls.2E .E.3 ql^ll 2ql^l E Hlel aol,
    r27 nmHQ *e nlt}g TItl *-zl-Elol Nr= 6l]46t= rll +EoJ qlqzlE r*:+. 4*ol
    Nzi 6=S¤I "llHzl= r*i1 9lq+E ¤z]l *zl-E g+6}zl ?*=+. A44eE, ^J="+E
    4zlfl9ldE Nz9 *dl49l 96I] e^ 9zlz[ 49 ^Jdqzl ?+=+.
    tsot.gEl +ts"l] olEq] +E BE+E H]¤+ B+ ^J++ 4zlfl"ild .Jq\]+. ol+l+ H]+
    g +q+¤ Eql gAq94. tsotEgl, Ner{oundland9 St. lohngld Guglielmo Marconi
    E 2e00 km Bqtl ¤;t9 Land's End9l^] +4lg +qe tE= +41619+. B^lql=
    =
    +qsnITI 4dsE d+g+i1 "J9zl ullE9l, zl+ EEE +Hg ^J4g ul, H 44ql^J
    4qe Ftol Ezl*q.4-L ^J46rHtrI. Marconiel ^J+4 deeE zl+E 4zlz}qtr
    =
    HJE"SE dulEl= ql g6"19 trlA+r q9+. olfl ga oll
    +qsu}Tl *'J6J ^J46tZl
    +ql ^J6+ 4zl9l q.J d+4 ¤*zI +q!fl+. re24LJAq dezl S+e, t="p 4zl
    ql A7ITI "J+Elfl+.
    =zll*ol
    tz"* 4zl9l ?l= dz}= +E +zlE tsolEil(photoionization)ql e-l6H ^J^dg 1o14.
    xrol$rli ^J++ 4zl9 +^l7l E}loJE +^Idg E+6I-r. r ¤.+g qLlzl-s oJ6l] Ea[
    E+q 447l rJ=g trll "Jqt+. arl.+ gzt: oJd6l-= ts olgol ¤+. trl+^l JJolg
    plzi "J"l+zl +16ll^l= +^l7l HIE^I tlJ¤6}7lql
    'JzlE ¤.+6llot at4, "l *4-3 dzl-=
    ++'J qLlzl= zlzl:L:l"lol fltr|..:rtr (7.44). olag "Jol$:+el ,il+ += r+A.J aql
    f+6I4.
    4zlfl oJ so km +lq^l .Jqq= zlzlg _E_+ +_s_6J IJolgs+ 4dg r 18.3q1 +4
    uJl

    ,.11fl+. sql^l +q{ 4.ll q*Eq Se .l}t}g z}d r}zl+ 4tol$ffi "Je7l= Ell 6E
    18.1 L|]Tl 829
    ^l+ol

    x.19.3 Eil7tot Llt Ttxt{+q EHtJ %}ol8st t}*


    rlE 0l!E| 0ll{rl(kflmol) )r.*(nm) qL
    983 drlTl ?80il^1
    N2*hz .+ Nz++e- 1495 80.1 ,J6l.zl ^EEHe.l
    gE B+dtts7l?
    02*hu-Of+e- 1205 99.3 (a) 4eld (b) 7t^lgd (c) xfeld

    O+hv-O++e- l3l3 91.2

    NO+hz.+NO*+e 890 134.5

    + glHxlE *=trI. E 18.39 rt^l trE, E= olEloJ -l"ollulzlE


    "JxlE ^J++
    4zl9lrl gfs{ug 4+q EB6I= +^rdql^l= Sdfl A3l4l+.
    1

    -K
    lll
    N
    BorE+E goreor gdEr=7t, Boreor gdErtsTr? BorE+E Eq
    A =-Eror l,
    I ^='n Rr
    EJ
    d.l
    fio

    ^"i*+Jg e+
    ,Un

    Nz, oz, tA gxl+ 240 nm-H4 #g +tl9 *zl-5 ¤+6IzlEJ, s¤(os)9 d


    r.trlErrq^l zlEd gq9 240-310 nmoll ole= irltlg *zl-E g+6I=
    ^Izl 200
    qd Ee.l+(f.H 18.4). t=op 4zlg s=g olEl,* 4col Hg+E, zl+ s 250 300

    EgE #r q]4*9, +6ll6J -r.olluJzl *zle+q +p-lE !_g-.J+. 4zlfl tt+ ril8(run)

    +ql^l qBrll s+ol ^JCqq, olBzll *zl¤ g+61+zl¤ ¤9Bzl. a=B 18'4 44EaJ
    Ell.Jss+El9 +rlCol 6H+Eql^J e0 km ;'+oll olEE go1$ffi "Jea 'Eg =+
    + 9l= +rltlE grld"l ql+E g+¤+. rfl+ + 9l= +
    ol r.Eql^J= o,E dl4B
    30 kmE -nEql4zl ozg g6H4(4 rs.r;5 +s+ 4csE BoI gl
    ^Idol +E6l +6ll^1
    ,ll gtrI. 6Ial"J 30 kmql^l e0 kmztzl= o2E r-oEzl flz] t49 4]i tEH.+ +{d q
    +El. nt?+^J ol ¤qql^l or9 l}6114oll e-l"H BCg {li gz}.= 4E o, +zIeI ++ +=
    6rq e=g ¤c++.
    :O + Oz Os* t18'21

    ol EI¤+ H}g HISolzl


    -)
    ql+ql, o:91 E9 9l= gs= 4oJel qqzl= r*r ?l= S^JE
    g +4url.. ol HI+q^J %I=q= 10s kllmol9 "llHzlE 03. +zlE+El ot+ d.g
    ql 4lrlqqo} q-=ql, r+71 ?+eE EzlE 4^l ozel oE E6llg 1o14. ol E6|] EI¤+
    ^lt
    03.71^JCg $Ael 94Col4.
    9lHxlzl ++'J o:. EzlE += gz}+ Ez[e] +86[q 4oJ9 qlqzl= %]=61+ql, r
    + q! {r$ ofluJzl= +E flz}+ tsztE dgEttrt. o3.e} ;!E.6l.= gzt+ $zl$ 14 o
    E qE}ril7ltr 6Izt(-E-5 Mg qlTl 691 z[^J +++ Ez]ql Nz+ ozol4). o:*9 ^JC4 r+
    .Jg 9lHzlE rvrgl 4lB:"1-b {ol ffi ++^lql sEqq 9l+.
    o(s) + o2(s) .- of(s) [18.3]

    of(s) + M(c) .---- o3(s) + M.(s) [18.4]

    o(c) + oz(g) + M(s) .+ o3k) + M.(s) [18.s]


    18.34 1s.4ql Elg= o:9 cd +E= aETl koldql qq Hlq *6Jee, HEI6I=
    ^l
    ceg 714 + Ttzl _soJql +Hqq ilq. a4l, ^l 18.3E EI+e o gzlTl.
    =zl]6l.!+ql
    Be 9l+. *g rEql^]i orE o g4E 614g + 9lg AEtr. 9lHxlzl +g +^ldol
    ql+E ¤+g+. qeI^J o flz}= tr+ +g -nEql^J q ++5I+. E4l, 1s.3r} 1s.4
    ^l
    830 183 *eat+

    tr '/ Efr Ezi ?5gl el=++.*. (r4.5¤). *e aEql^1ts tszig *.E


    0l le|]i1oll^J EEoll 6l]."161.= 9= 5.EE alEl.J
    7l t+. Et4^l F HI+ +E= *3 J-s.ql.! rl 6zlaJ4. ol g-oJS f
    -zEql 44 HI4 EJ.6J9tr HE+61tr_-tr, o, BCol TltI mlE +Ee .Jq
    E+E ++6tl -E^19.
    += gqe C+fl418(rH ts.t; E s0 kmel 7trq^l trl= ol+
    70 =i]'J
    q +4+rll gEl. +6J6|8, zl? s+E Ql$ e0oloi C+flql
    60 e-=q rlB6li= s= ^JC Hl*q 9e}8ol4. EI4^l -q= ^J^dI+ =zll*+.
    E6l]
    50
    g ++ j+as +grl zJol sqF6J + 914.
    oz@)+hv+o(s)+o(g)
    ,40 I
    t o(c) + oz(g) + M(s) o3(5) + M.(3) (g HJ¤)
    .E
    ?so =
    3
    -
    Oa(s) +hv+o2k) +o(g)
    -ro
    J
    o(s) + o(s) + M(s) o2(s) + M.(g) (g %la
    -
    10
    a Haile+ ^ll H4l r+49 l}plql **p-e,q, qlo.E *{¤
    ols-oa[{ e}
    q {}¤-9 4l^loJ+. + H4ile]-ql H4l 4ae ts¤ Hi*.14. uil zl-zl {
    0
    1o1o 1011 10'.12 1013 c9 .Ja| A4= qo} +^I qlLl^l7\ gqlqzlE EI+l= f+l4col4.
    e= 5s.(mol/cm3) c+flq s= ++ qlEql :1H r8.lql^J troJ Hte+ eol, c+flalEql
    ols= gE .Jq*q.
    ^l 4rql
    arH 18.5 7tr011 n[= rl]7lfle] 9= tsE Eal- ^J+ol

    A Lewis 74-? E q, OzelOs 6 olE E^l7ltl ,J-d t4-t4

    e= ++I 4Cql^lE El¤+ _s#ql +oJ ^Idg d++ o|lrJrJE ++4s-+ ¤E


    =-stE
    7l^lz "^)A=71?

    6l] 4}i7t otu r+= Eeol +q6l= y+e p+q}HI*ol "Jq+q, E6J c+flg gE+
    6}s=+.t+e+ Hl-*el er]-$ r.Eolloty} ql+. er+zle.E. ,ll+ ¤*+ tolol Eqd+. s=
    zlla HI*ol 4zl9 t# 4 e.Jr+ "*84^l Polzl= a"6J4 Aalr f.al 18.s
    ^8dr+ 'lE
    ^.1++ 47lE s= EEI ¤elql^l
    ql H.J ule+ rJol, 314 s= *E7l ntr E zs kmgl,rJ
    +4+rll 94. ol4al ^Jql4eE +g s= E"Eg 4E',eff, E='s= %r-ql,qr .Jq.
    300 nm-H-4 Se v}f,l$ *{* ge ++E +.J EIE eqlg #g + 9l+. nt+^l +4
    71 4l+6ll^] B zl44E 's¤ Buil'zt g+4olr}. rel+ r1qlq4 +^|dq g+4

    "J *qzt
    q= s= +zl+ ^JCg + Z]+6]]^J tlrlqEE, d+flq +^l]6l+ &a
    fl4-E + ol+ ig Elg"Jg ilzl6J+.
    \
    E
    18.2 I oJTJ g+ul zl+E trll7l
    .J*4"J zl*g ul¤ + gltrI. t zlzl ¤.s_6J zl¤21
    ^IAol pI&94zlfl¤
    L-

    e*..,d ^|g4ola+ pinatubo g6olQ(=al 18.6). ol Erug d+fl-g.e E


    "J ^tag leelE 6¤,
    10 km3E Eeg E¤4q=ql, ¤4e ol$ zErJ zl-*Egl EB4= 4"JoJg "J
    ol 10% AiqS,+. olq+ qloJB.ol ,Ji6Jql rl4 zl* E.HE gETI "Jrl4 "-e
    il 0.s"c A^qH+. C+gql EB6J ++ E= "Jzl+ r*ql E 3LJ EoJ "iEel qg
    ffi m FR.G
    !t
    t E+6tr a 44 d+fl gE= q E+ t+^laq. d+a s= bEE +a* a
    a1-, ol auJ toJ s= E6]]7[ t]B6l +71fl 4ol *89fl4.
    o.7'i"Ioziol
    4L O-l +L O-l
    7l./\
    E+

    fg 18.6 1991LJ 69, Pinatubo el{t e=+e zlEd(uv) +^Hl elaj ulallE+El zl+ sBg tr-q.6]] trI4^l ^d
    =+.
    =EE 6fl s=el EoETI tI'J=J +^6IH, HtrI "*e. zlEd +^I7I zlf EBoll EB6I
    18.2 I oJ2J sJ5rf rHTl 931
    ^l+ol

    ,ll qr, ,l+%I++¤g EI¤-E=II Ag 96[zl *= ']3r]q] Ei¤¤ gs-2J4.


    rszs'JFEI
    ^l4l6ll^J
    e=+g e^l"ll e .J++l^Jg C+flql^J s=ol S.q
    zll 9loq. olag 561 ts+ ^J+ql^l d4+ 49 E}:dql*4. ol dt$ g
    ¤ 7B(ozone hole)olrp qI+e.H 18.7). ol ¤tlql qlEI a Hzll 444 EE
    g te8sLJql -H__,r.qfl-/, El+6J++++(Nnse)3'g+ +B zj,rl(ozone Hole
    watch)' g^IolEE ¤-¤6[r ilEql, leeeLJ+q fl{z}z]el zltrtl xll*F]q
    E|]oJ 4E7I BEJlol EqI. 9lt}.

    l99sE9 r.g Eto,L^Jg g= A^ql qle g+E, F. sherwood Rowland,


    paul Crutzenglzll Solz*t} 4¤ql
    Marino Molina "i 1970Hql CrutzenS

    ^J ^JCg
    tlp* 4iz}+,l] EI+e-a "J6ll s=g 44++= ag BHrI.
    Rowlandg} MolinaE: I 974 LJ ql urocarbon, CFC) 7I
    =E-e=+9EEJ4(chlorofl
    s=# +i^l7J + gl+b ag trgtrI. olBl'* E4g +_e, cFcl3e+ cF2cr2 f; 9f(Dobson trJ9)
    .Jql, z}¤4ql^l=
    "JEqzlzl g*q4, zJ9 ++lxlle, ts,l]zilc+ 9l"l
    110 220 330 440 550
    ffi-
    ^Eqlol
    gE4ltr,ll+ ts4 4olr 9lr+. 6l="+ 4zl9lrl=
    fl zlillE. E= rg 19.7 20061J eE 24gsl 'JHJ+oil
    olE EAg ,.19=+^eg
    o}+fl t}*^"rol $.4. rl*ol Eql Hli4 +zl ?+eq, q+ a6l'=e= 0l +lE Pl8oll^]+l+-Lf =il
    ?iol
    ,J+ql 96ll E: +6]]qq 4zl9lrl zllzlslzlE ?+=tt. E+4alE, rl. 0l 'JP
    ^lEts 7l+8o"e 718 -*3
    qEHT)l^le] d
    "HoJql
    q]*Col tt+= 43 ol5 Eeg ^JE49E f+6iZl "J57lE 6IzlIrJ, 4zl ^3ol g= 5_E= _EoJ LJolrl. 1'Dobson LJ
    ^J
    rHTl 1 cm2 tl$ LHoll ?t= 2.69x1O16zil
    ql^.] ?*e 4s C?Aee q&Elrll uJgzlE'*4. ¤xll +E"J EE 9l= sl 9= E^loll 6H-J-srtl.
    ^ll4qzl
    cFczl4zl 691 aeE_ +tqn 9l+.
    =rli6l-=
    CFCTI c+¤ss q4]qE, rqq4 +^]dql L¤qq *olep]z] "Jqg + 9l+.
    c-o a6Jg c-F eqlql HI4 ^J44sE .+6J 4Sq, EI*E AB4.J HI+^lql^J tr=
    ute+ ?ol, teo-z2s
    "m
    H9l9 "ltlg 7l4l Hg a^I6rE +49 ga g^I7r ^Jc¤rI.
    CF2CI2@) + hv CF2CI(g) + CI(g) [18.6]
    -
    Al4lql 96}tr, gi g4+ s+ol TrtI * tE.P 30 kmE -ZEq^l TItr-uBlE
    =4161+
    HI* +Es ^Jcg+'
    gi gz[= s=r+ uu]Ezll H]+6]q "J&s] gie+ &i Ez]z] ^JCg+.
    Cl(s) + os(s) --------+ Clo(g) + oz(g) [18'7]
    or +*eEI*+E
    glffi;il;JJ-;-T: lzesrerd) t1881

    aaql^J= 18.7q1 q+ ^Jdg croTl. Hlso6iq +49 cr gzl-= trt^l "JEq


    zl'J6.J
    ^l
    U4. ol HI*ol gqts+ 9l= 6J Tlzl %IHe cloE %r"44o14.
    Clo(s) + hv CI(s) + o(s) [18.e]
    -
    18.7q1 ul4 rl
    4 ts.o4 ls.eq^J SCg cl g4-= ^l "*9 ore+ Hlso6JEL Ar+tr EI¤.
    E trt+41 ,il4q+"il -Eql EIe+ pol, cl gxtT| +trll.E 4+6[q o37[ e6]lqq ozzl "JE
    qxl= "Jael HI+ol gqt+.
    2 Ct(g) + 2 q@) + /,Clo(s) + 2 o2@)
    2 CIO(8) + hv --------> Z Cl(g) + 2 O(8)
    o(s)+o(s) ------ oz(s)
    zcr(s)+ 2os(s) +zcto(s)+2o(s) zct(il + 2clo(s) + 3 o2k) + 2o(g)
    E"J+ Elq+g El+lE o}+ql^l
    -
    ^lE
    A46IE, "l 4g trl-g"+ ?ol zJEaI4l ¤4.
    lo{s) -!L soz(s) t18.1ol
    832 183 Ee+-+

    al ra.zg Hlg +E7| tcllql .Jzt4otr Hlql6ll^l +7I6|E-tr, s=ol Elrlsl:4s= cr


    flzl9 "Jol 6zl'*q rI4 +zlalZl g+. q+^l ^J+flql^JE cFC LoETI s#
    9 +q= g41+. q+flql^l C6fleefl q4i =++
    +E= LHqIE H6E1, B+ 919 s
    561 egrl tog SoJq tI'J6l S,o}7,l-r.91: aol +=Elflrl(rH rs.z).
    =+ol

    A
    | =,,,
    9=ol 4rl7l[cr]0il el=alEe, ct=
    ^l
    18.10oe LIE|LH= u3011^l +0l1tr 84--J + 91

    cFCe+ +fl¤ {t? Ezll ql$ql ol5 Eeel xllaei ql6J a7l7} f6flzlir, 9l+.
    ^l=f,-ql
    7l* +fl 671: rqazHgl s# rJi Eeql+q +7Vl cFC ^J4Ig ¤olb ull E
    ql6l]
    e]6l= Montreal EC^Jql lee2LJql= tr+ g4+ 4l+ol ¤Cqfl=ql, E
    ^lE'* 1o14.soEE
    r007H+el 4szl l.9seB4z|g+4"J xllc.lalli cFcel +z16}
    ^llee+ ^l-8¤
    7ltr t9+ 4o14. rq+El CFCE ^J+e zYyle4l +A6IH.+. ,ll'J +gg -r.B 18.7
    q tr"J Hle+ Ag gtr-ql lrlsH, e= +BE zJolq zzlzl *"lzlzl .tlzla|-r. il4. :
    HqlE E+6l.Z cFC= t}*col Hj1 ^.r+flql oI+ L44l q4}q'E, 4elxl-E=g c?
    Aq s= *E7l rssoLJ old +6e-tr 5ot7}= qlql= id Hol Ag aol+a +4}6I
    11 9lq.
    "lqe EeEol CFCE qi]l6}qgzt? ¤4EE +g qlilEe +iE+g+eEE
    c(hydroflurocarbon)oJ4l, ol= CFCgl C-O aQlg C-H A6Js-e il¤I6'J:*ElEol4.
    Bzll rl-*qE olfl slq+E-g t ztzlE CH2FCF3oJEJI, Hrc_r:aaE "JEl4 gl+. HFC:
    c-cl A*ol $.o Ir.e CFC-trtr}gC +s+. olEg rJqoJ g¤ TlilloJol geja+. gd
    zl^{q qldi^l= a+ Flql +$trt.
    agql^l "J5qzl= cFC= s,zl"J, a¤ql^lE + cFC-+.+El Bsdol ^Jcq= a4
    zJol 4zl9l g^el ue."J¤ 4+=El. ol7l+ zlEq^J tri gzlE s= +d
    ^JCg cl Br
    HISq +"iB + 9l+. 4Sq +¤ *+ge u-e"Jsi ,llgq ¤sl ,llB.Jrll, ol
    =46I=
    E e+tl5s ql"Jq^J %r-eg+. olqoJ Ezl¤ol 7lq6[= 49 421fl9 di]l clr] BrE
    r/:olls *"lzlE AeE ++g+. 'I"lzl 213+ oJTJ gEE ¤4o14.
    Ellie Hclel fl{ol+, "JE}4eE 'J=g HClg Eil+flq E+ H}+6}q ^}6 ql7lfle
    E= 0l*161zl *++.
    t¤Hl
    +f EfEJEzf
    +g ++61+ +tlEs agE eEqrl ?*g qlzlqlE qL dE olfl + 6J+
    =zl]*+.
    sI6JEg El4} zI^, SzlE9 ts611, rEr e ra.zg +E_qI +E *+gg-tr+q
    ^ll+ ^J
    CgE|. d¤ zlflqld d ^il414 e_E 4zle *=q= olq6J EI6JEe.l "Jg E z+xrou sl
    ule.ts, oJg_! sI aox ro'2
    e/'J(?E El4 ¤eq ¤^e+ +d)
    "JzJ SE"ll 96I] "J¤.qzl=
    x.'18.4 oJHJ E^l Efl7lql^1ol .url zl+.
    E|lT| LoJ EEsl rol+ +E + slB.Ee +E ol^Ie+ B(sor.Jr], olag 9H} _e_g 7141+ z|$ $fllap al]-es 4
    9g EE tsE(ppm)
    oltrI. E i8.4= gHl4.J(5861 r- q:agl E6]] ¤6Fg *zl *9
    E^l +Aql^l p zlxl e
    'J&e+ +r l0 ¤ zl8l9 tE= Bq +r gl4. ol zlEql E6lE, oltle+ +9 +E= +t 0.08 ppm E
    +i++^ 3 i : ol.r3-o1i1. ol fEE 4E s_g Ee, 561 .J&El BiE t.tri{+
    ^J'J6l *g aol
    ol^Is+ + 0.08
    q. rHqE E+6Ir so2= -H-oJ Ee +ql^1, -=61 EE-zl e+ol 9l= zI*
    ^IBql4lE
    4is} ei 0.0s c4.J azJg +l+t a +71g + 9l+.
    El+ql^l g+ %l¤q= soz9 eI 65voy 4e gd
    ^lql +s= 4olB, ^i+tr+El
    dzll tlslrll 0.02 E
    (e-=r} TIEI) 20o/o7l g^J*tr}. ol *E EI++e Aqe.l "J soyo= BB6l+ 4+ Elq tsd^ql^l g^J¤
    18.2 ) oJzJ EJS]I r|lTl 933
    ^l+ol

    rI. 4+ ¤^ E4l.J soz *¤9 CE= 4+el + 6J+=J4 g+qq fl4. so, s-g
    ^19
    q qlt +El trllEq s+ *+=Jol 49 4+g is_z} t*ol rl _r.7}oltrl. Mississippig ffi
    ql+¤+ a* ,*-,+*ol ^Jql4sE +e'll. ol= 4E 4*9 6y,=
    ^J4Iq= 4+q
    ql^J
    ^l
    zloJ+. trl+ +ql^J E= q++E aJ ts?=Jol *zl"J, ol 4eg ++l e=*'J g
    ^l+ ^ltsg
    e*ol *e_s.e, g^Jq= ++l g*B:*.J+"*9 ilol= Eal rJr-]="lE EI+ re4l
    =zlE S4.
    zoroEgl
    "l* s*3 !.Eae so, %I=ql q1a3^ll-tr¤ 7)+*
    ^ll*{+.
    olde_l 7l=e 24^l
    ?J 140 ppb(parts per billion)flbull, trlzJ E.J +A r.l zs ppb9 2l1fr9tr Ht+lB.
    =4 ^J
    4. :44 soz *¤9 a4E trl+ql"J +qlq= 19 olH4. ++e di{ qlqzl +e9
    4tsql^l $ss e, ,qlzllleE TrtI "*ol sorE %I=61+ +71E, szJ :s x r0,, gg
    70vo*
    4Bol4 4E fld o-e+q HJ¤6II il4. ol 44, ++ql^lE so, sgol fe gzllzl- el
    r fleq, EJ=g x]a|.tlzli.+sE
    ^ll+l
    qL dE C+6Ir. ilrt. *ilZlql^l ++ol 7l-tl
    Y*9 sor= %I=6I+, 4+g fe olluJzlilo-E
    ^l-eo6f=
    oJETI Euls4l 9l+. ++ il+r
    9 so, %}¤ol zoozHgl slrdg 4g +¤, .Js9 4zl 6 soz ootg zoos'J91.9 zor+H
    q*+. rJg gs6J
    ^Iolq + +7l **L 4^lzl +zll4 ETllE E7l +l"ll
    El]Tl. 4,o14.
    ol&s} +g .JrJE ,J*Ll rH&ql EF 6l]= vl{L+. rJ+ol 47lE sozE 94 zlzl(o2
    Ei o:4 *so 6[b Ee]) atr-tr. so3-E te]94. sorzl Eql +eH +tol "J=qTl+.
    SO3(g) + HzO(l) H2Soa@q)

    gg u+ql -
    *ss
    ¤4zl= +la4
    so2E ¤41tr.= HzSor qEql "Jq+= 1o14.
    g6}9
    4zl9l So2eI ols+q ql&g fl¤ul(acidrain)4-L +s= etlg a
    =zfl{+ ^JCEI=
    4,J+(e&g ^J¤6I= &+ Artr 4ICHIE BC6l+ i-g_ goJol+). sgq4 *e BIE
    e ql+ s.6 4Eel pHE tr?J4. zl$4 4IEq +g gae co, ull$olrll, cor= Er+ HI
    84q B&(H2co3)g "J=rI. &^JEl= "JHI49-g 44 pu 4 +=9 <tg zlH4. ol4qL
    tlE +71= ++H, 4ol, zH44e-l *e n+ql^J q+eJel ,J^ q s+e| +fl +E ^JEll
    z1 qlE+lrql ¤-Jg ulzlr, ?14.
    ^JHillTI Ar
    gl= qt+Ee.l ats+q pHE 6.sollrl 8.solzlEJ, f=J 18.8q1^J -H-Fol trl

    4 El+ g+flel pH7i,\jYHrt otl+'+ll Lfg= 0lS.= +qgl7l?


    -E+9
    u
    5a

    t" 1'
    5l
    ;.a
    's'
    5l at
    t.1 5¤ isr. "'' .

    Lab pH
    lr I = 5.3
    tl I 5.2-5.3
    5r
    Sr
    rg Iil 5.1-5.2
    5.0-5.1
    3.0
    4.9-5.0
    i i'-1 to
    4.&4.9
    5t0 4.74.8
    5a
    ao ae 4.64.7
    4.54.6
    $o "n'li
    u$ffi 4.44.5
    I
    r 4.34.4
    < 4.3

    AfH 18.8 2008LJ El+el 'J+e-l pH '2J *xlzlEGl ?,1= Ee Z,\l84E +l^l= LfEfLJtl.
    834 18E| +73Et-+

    > rH 18.9 tldHloll E:el +A


    o=a /\lifxl-Q. *lLvll fil-q 7]01
    +E- ^l=All -L L

    glf
    -L
    rll. 448s1 +Eol ;
    ^llg-d
    Lt HGtf=7l.= _Eq ++.

    '- {
    I
    I
    1 I

    li

    O TK_Taiwan/Shutterstock O Dan Breckwoldt/Shutterstock

    i9 <i3 "l=t 4E zl99 4++q^l 6.s-H.trt *+ *trI. pH f#ol 4.0-E-+ *e.tr,


    pH
    -sg 4+5E4 ql+Eq +4+#, r4a r*3 ,l^JEol +rlg+. Elqlql 7I+ +1"+"J
    n+= pu9 Hol¤ !ic}6J + 9l* g+^ll-E zt+6J + 9l= HCo3-e+ ?3 Ezld ol8
    ol *g E.EB ¤xH6l+ s+ol+. olqql s+ 6 H zHE pI4 ¤e Saql^l +9 Hll=ol
    ai6Jql u++ q+qr 94. ol4.g +Bzi_qE= 4zl e¤ grzls(clean Air Act) trilEol
    4. rsso-zor+'J 5"J "14 d99 soz9 ¤t 4zl eE +E= 80o/o +4619+.
    &g ++ol'+ +&gr} +¤-6Fr.-E &CHl= ++olLl4a a++g +^l*+. ql= Eq
    qrl^14 4q^je +ctsol caco3olrll, dal +49 *=tr}(f=J 18.e). so2 sg
    ql 96J +^le-e oH'J H dq gqE +¤ol g^J'J+.
    ^}cElg
    "J6ll
    ++u q 46J soz9 Hll¤%Ig 6J TIzl %LHe Slalz1 dql 4tol4 %I

    I xll4atE 4o14. qBa =ol:


    ul.$ol glol EzlE olzlu3,
    ^l+ql^l
    4+ol4 4+= sa6J ^8cElEll

    Tlillql^l so,E 41716}= 4. zlzl trBol 2lts9fl4. qlE E"J 4sl4(cacoJg


    =
    BdtE 3"3-e9l +E6IH, 4gl4e 44(cuo)c+ ol&s[ =q
    +^e Eqg+.
    CaCO3(s) ------- CaO(s) + CO2(8)

    rl-* cao= so2e1 Hlso6|¤ oI*& zJ6'ol ¤4.


    CaO(s) + SO2(g) .----- CaSOr(s)

    caSo:9 Lall oJzI "l ql+Eq Hlg"6|zl ?** sorS cao= Eql +?l ¤q'-4q Er+^l7l
    E g*E zlills+el ,ll4g + 9lq(re ¤.10). r4+ soz d+z| 4l4Flzl= ?*=r+. ^ll
    ,ll4sE ga$ "Jq 4+4 4#zI gag+= ag ^J46rtr, Sozoll elfl s¤g olulE
    "J+rJe E4lE B.I 9g Lol4.

    A Hroel HJ$-.J= q ql B= ezto |.ts ol E E^ l-7 t EJt= E ¤6|=7 I?

    q -l
    ^Jc.l t6cl B+El.l .r
    4lsl e^= E^l 4+z[+E E.+.]61 "Jr 9l= r-trrE ?CE"l4. ,.s-r(smog)4E
    +q= qts r.r1 +Aql^l sgol .Jqts zrJ* +46}.=ql, 7\+ 4rJol Bli4 4i]g +
    ,l Bq?-l= "JEq .J "|| "JqU4. Los Angelesollrl +H61t{ ,,-IllE ¤zlL += Bg
    jB.2 oJrJ LHTl 935
    =rE+ ^l+ol

    EaJeg TlillB+E1 So2= 11lz6|G Eol^|ts +EJ rfll SdEA +EE7l'?

    E"J 4elA(CaCO3) CaOTf S + 02 ----+ SO29 CaSO3el, BJ36t^l ge Elo


    a=
    ?rlll
    o,l, I

    rJ g7l7l EBe-e 8J30il^l golTl so2el HJ


    SOzts CaOE Eoll +E -dEf 56tl
    +gEE-t. SalG CaSOsE 8d-Lttl. ._4=
    sat^la rllTl-Lrrt. =+=
    BJ=EItrl.

    I'
    eJ --JPaJol I
    +
    I
    + SOr(g;--+CaSO3(sffi

    -Qr+a
    t
    ^lV1
    CaCO3zf CaO(Ae.1)et CaSO3z[ o^)=
    CO2e EaHEJcl. =)l7l
    adE+.
    =alale
    afH 18.10 EE= E461.= rl80ll^1 So2= HJE
    ^llZ6t=

    E^l xlEq^lE gq+r 9l=ql, ol ++E ^E:a: q aq6l "J6IzlH ts


    ilEt -\trr(photochemical smog)olr|. ol= "JsI+4 4dol ol ¤
    Cql +s6J qElg 617l trll+olq(r.H 18.11).
    ^t:9
    &qI e^ %I=E sgolo)g zl+zl+ ul^. :r4l +E ¤Ellg +
    'I++(E .J4IgI
    + ++ql^j Eltq= 1o14. e^(No)E ¤ie+ tliE zld g^ql
    E"ll r.llg 7l+el dflqE+El rts HI+ql elafl lg'o1 ^Jcgr}.
    Nz(g) + oz(s) .- 2No(s) AH: 180.8U [18.11]

    xllrs.z¤ ""J&+ A^ El]¤g e¤"ql^l EH ol HIA 4C9 ¤B


    ^J+= A.fB 18.11 Bil:qt .,rc-r ]ttrl+ -Erts 0l 6
    300 K(tlg 10 'soJEll, 2400 K(¤a +E Adq dflrJ 4P9 4 EllolSsl -E=01, T+ Hfl71714
    gE)q^l= =il)ql^J 140+ rgq^J q = ^lTl0ll^] ^lE^f
    + 0.0s-s ?zle}4. Hl*g +?.l6tzl 114 0ll EflSBol +86[q SdEJrr
    ¤4. dzlle lg ¤a ^lqlE 6JtI qL dEE NoTI ^Jcg+. ar+g d
    @desisnbvdx/Shutterstock

    4 Bdas. &sl e^ sgg +s+ TlqE 41 9l+.


    4-Fi}g +6l] a¤ 6IzlE ¤z1617l d ptl-E No,g ILI= +=g a g/miol4(xE I E=
    2ol+. Noe+ Norz| .E-+ SCq=rJl, Noz[ +^jl6[+). 2004LJ+E] No,E zl-Er
    ^14]dl^J
    iI "J= 7l7g 2sseLf,7/lzl0.07 slmiE- +4l4ss ++6171tr_ a6l9=ql, ol +s= gc
    qflq.
    +71 6q^J g&s} aA(No)= 4}p+qq ol&s} e^(No,)7I g+.
    uulEzl

    2No(s) + oz@) i- 2No2(s) AI{: -113.1kJ [18.12]


    ol HI+q q+ ¤B tI+:.300 Kql^l 10'2os+E] 2400 Kql^-l= 10-so e a^'6JE|.
    Noz9 o}dllElE+El "JElqI r'E-le+ g+g HISol 7H^l¤+. No2ql^l Noe+ o.? 6llEI
    q= ql= 304 kflmolol gstEll, olag 3e3 nm9 +rzl. 9lHzl9l 5l]'J*+. rq1E ql
    oJtrJql^J= Norz[ Noe+ o-tr 6l]8]¤+.

    o(g)
    Noz(s) + hv + No(s) + [18.13]

    scg Ala gzl+ 4. zlzl HI¤¤ 4^l4lqErll, :a+ 6r+* *^l ¤BoJ s=g dd6[
    936 18:f EJeEtqf

    HI+oltrI.
    =
    o(c) + ozk) + M(c) ------ or(s) + M.(s) [18.14]

    s=e 4zlfl tL++q^J +!-6J uv z|$uJolzl"J, q+flq^J= ElH.zl6|zl ?*3 e-g g


    dol4. e# qlB6l HI+Col +r +Col glErJl, e=g qL AE *++ +71= sg
    olB d^l *zI, gEalE
    ^IH-,
    LEzlq4 +dl 9lQl6I+. r4oE +4qlrll= s=r+ +
    dg Exllz} + 714 gl4. + "*3 s..,r1 +aq^J s=ol r+*J ^JcslH +6il6}q, ^d"aql
    ^lE
    s=9 +^= ^JBq S+g +so.J+rllol+.
    zl-Fi} slag &e+ a4 "t .J^}E} +Ae+ qBq tsdqzl sg sffi}(hydrocarbon)
    +6]] EAe EI]=6Jtr1. d4sE eAe+ iAtrtrJ ol+qd olfl r+zl 3rlElEs 7l+flq,
    =
    *4zl tsee. ^l^&dl+ Be slBE(qlE EE EEqloJ(c3H8)q +ql'J(caH,o))9 +C+
    .J E^lql ,,-Ill9 =.5golzlE 6[+. .CI.g4.J %[= aeol .Jq= ql{q^J= olA
    "JH]
    E|6J+g trI.JB qt ro,-rs s EJ¤'*+. d49 zlf;9-Ets Eq44 %l=g 0.07s g/miE4
    4goi 6J4. trEl+i= ¤ot gl= ^JEzllql^JE zl¤zl_qs g^J++(ol ¤E +EI+s] "+
    gd zlzll" ara).
    = -'- -r.E zllzlt;lzl +lEl^l= ,^-q:f g+4 ¤Bg zl-Fz} uflzlz|4oll^l
    =ol7l+ ^JcE
    ^ll46llot
    ++. +'l] EEtzlE /-ElE + 7l^l +cE"J No,e+ +s}+ie-l bsi= aA' *
    i^la+(14.7¤ "+EH H{}zl" *a).

    E
    gt
    tt6l tr4= E=er'-.J qrl-.J rJa[+ HJ$oll e]6t| rJa|--+ ,^.qrol 8d0l TH,\lEl=7t?

    Tlll: #71, ol^Jsl EJA, 7l+


    4zl* all-e8 B++9 +^Idg zI+61+ 14 rJBol, zlf EE9 gE= Hli4 +oJ6I
    r +s6l+. zl+= dill4_e-tr ++le| g4 +Bg ol+r gl
    ge+6rrll #zlal-b ql q]+
    4. ol43 zl+ql^l qLJ^lE ++s *=6}= +Ee+ qoJsE+q qlHzlE ¤-+6I= +
    E7l 'Jcty grlol4. lH 18.12= zl.E'ql^l ,"1=q4+ zlse 5qs= gluJzlg Bs=
    Hq +q, reJ 18.13e zls-e.Pq ',J¤q= 4Edol 421fl9 #zl9+ ol{}g} tsiql E
    ¤-+q= E¤-g Eq olBl+ +^|dg ¤i+61+ 4aql^l ol f zlzl rllzl zlill5,
    "l] =+.
    olEqlfl *4zl$ol4rt yvl+ 4eldg B+o[^J zlf EEgl gl4l +"J
    ^JHa]7[ ¤ +
    '* gE= +zl6IE+ Ee+++.
    zl+ gEql T** nro, co2, l4r q= q zlzl cllzl$ TlrllE g.Jg gd ErI
    (greenhouse effect)4l 6l+ql, zle.ldg 7ifr r+dql^J olq+ 711)l7l gdE +4+rl

    ee. 4+g 617l qlEol+. olq* Tlill= tfl ztfllGreenhousegas)4.2 oJ4.


    iazlY Ad a4ql 7l* a4l7lq'J+. 4zl ?9 iGzl4 +E "Jqe t}^e+ ^lrJ
    q tr};l r7il H+6lzl"J, .JHlzls.tr 7ls zlg =d, aETl g4zlE 4+ +6I
    =i.lql^l
    ,,ll +^.J+. i*zli 4e.lCg o||+,J6I4 E+6}:-e, s$ql^J ++s $rldol ,J¤q

    + 4o"isE+q qlLlzl= Ezl ?*E oPJql qlTl gEE +z16l+ EJI +g qBg ++. '11
    + a4+ .tlu-| zl$oll,tJ= ++7lE Eo E7t .=61 * s EE, * Ei.Jg +61 'lr, E].q= ql
    + ii+. 4Edg ¤+6I-z Ed zl+s +E4eE %l=6}111 6l+ ++71+ol gl o eg, s
    Hqld olel6J +^Idg ++E sqEl4r q]+ #46}1l g+.
    ^lrl
    ol,t}sl +^= 4f EE9 gEE *xlolE !l Pi4olxl"J, ,I]+ +soJ qgg .J+.
    ¤qlql oleel, d ^1144_q--E sl4 ¤e= gaE +Es ts^Elql "I4 4zl
    ^l+rl4+.J
    9 ol&s} Ea EszI +461-rll +7I6If.+. sl4 ¤e9 dEe +e++^s+ 4E tst gg
    1e.2 I oJ)J Er5zf L||Tl 937
    ^l+ol

    EEoll el6llE+El= ollLlxlel¤gg g0l?]71? 4qd E^le: qll-J^lEisl qu !E7lpl+o.tr g=El=71.?

    Eqg= Eils3J q/.ru


    (342Wlmz) L[71.=
    +^t
    u/.tEJ EllsEJ E_1t,5 Wm2)
    (107Wmz)

    "E,ollolE*,
    EllTloll E6tl tfl7l0ll o16ll
    *Ploll E6fl E+ElIl

    \
    lzTWlmz)
    f ,f;*fl|,
    E}lTloll e.l6llE+EJ
    67Wlm2

    t
    8d 7lill

    EE +^I
    rUEd
    Lllr= (390Wm2)
    .EEollel6ll Q4wlm2)
    Wm2)
    EUTAI
    (78 Wm2)

    arEJ 18.12 g EA E=ol.E E^lNsl g= ++e qoe "Jzl,Jrl


    ^l+sl ^lsEoll =^fEl:

    r|lTlol CO2e[ H2ooll^] < -Lal 18.13 rllzl E9 COze[


    -a^trl! f,l^l H2ooll sl6ll E+E rlqd eql
    HJ=EI= +E
    ^l ^lEEoil

    I Hzo
    +
    d
    ^[

    7l
    ^11

    rlsEoll,\l ,J=Elts
    4eld
    10,000 20,000 30,000
    nl8(nm)
    838 183 oJzal+

    849 gdtr ^8CEl= coz9


    oJq qloJ +7+g 9zl gal]. qlE 5q S4l"J(c+H,Jg ¤
    +6t= Ag C46l] s-z}. 1.00 99 c+H,oS tsla1g :.03 g9 corzl4^Jg+,....,'., (3.6?).
    sI4 Eeq ¤AE rll.3 E 2.2xtot6 sQ4oq E-)q Co27I qlTle *A9Erll, ol +g+
    +Eql 9el a.ol 7I+ ",t+.

    \\ qEl 18.3
    E +l"J+E tae+e1 "J*EH CO2 oJsl+t

    fl$f, 1.0eil01 EAEIfl= qq 8dElts ol{}al'EJ^9 traJe grP]Tl?(fl$+9 ++q?l "JEel'^d= 2+210.70 s/mlel
    c8H18olt|..)

    NtlU
    E4 l.0rJflE ceHraol ll^e+ Hlg"6Iq ol4}3I} *ie+ +g 4l+ .J+ fl"J.,? r.orJH oJ9 crH,rg 4*9 g +9E a
    ¤d*g q ^JCg coz9 4*9 al&61-= Exllol+. {ullo} {}4. r q-9, csHrs9 ¤iE +¤ +q ++^lg +
    tl, "]5 zfzla- co2! olE4oJ ^J4l=+g 4l&.JEl.
    #01
    a4itr, +ul= rJflql.r] ml.tr tr++.J+ t, or"u"o(ffiXrffi) : 3.7e x1o3ml

    olqc, +lg+E rrJE= 0l+61-"1 a=*g g Bfl-a +.JtrI (3.7s xro'*l(ff) = r.u, x 1o3g

    "ltls++49 olEzl ^Jtir6Fg 4lti6t7l 96l] caHrs(+Hl


    "J)e] SiE +¤ e+ql +*49
    r,lolEl6J+. 2C8H18(l) + 25Oz@) 16COz(g) + 18H2O(g)
    -
    +¤ e+ol HIA^lr| caHra9 eB¤ 0l+61{ corg o1-a4 (2.6sx'o'o-mr(ffi)(ffi)(ffi)
    +#+g+ el+.
    :8.2 x 1O3gCO2
    flBf. rrJflB s.z kg9 corT|.BCE¤ 'J + 9l+.

    F qlrlll
    .fie.E > .H.* qlr{|2
    Bg zLFil-=ol +lB+e+ ql+g(c2HsoH, rrJE:0.78e otq rBql
    ^F&q=
    s.-trqloJ(c3HJ zllE9 eEDll"J
    g/ml)9 s.J+g ¤E+ gB + 9l+. 9l*9 t.o,JHS lsr}+.= ee+*+. ol ¤l + ,lql Eq gl= EeqloJg
    g^^lag EI ^JCq= coz9 deJS g"IoJzt? Si^lag q ^Jdq= coz9 4*3 g"I"Jzt?
    (a) 2.e kg (b) s.7 kg (c) 6.0 kg (d) 8.6 kg (e) e.2 kg

    "*9 cor= 4'Jq ++q4+ 4E"l ^l-&qi+. rHqlE ¤+6[i1+4= g+qr]+ ^]


    +q= +Etr+ 94 uulezil co,E "JEr 914. B*ol4 rfl+sql^l ^ll+l.J g+ql E
    d¤ *zlE +46t8, zlu r60,000H E?ig 4zl9 co2 +EE +49 + 91trI. olfl +
    aql El'|B, coz fi* E "J "J doJ "Izl"_l }il4 ^lqE+El q+4eE qr:ooE doJ
    4IE qBol ^lzlg qzlzlE 4l gCdl4l #zl9"l *4. :24Lt ol olFPrJ coz ts.z[
    * tovo +7t6}q 'dzllE 400 ppmgl ol=-L ll4(=a 18.u). Qlzl{qrz13 3EI,J LJ-sEtrJ
    H d ol+s co2 ffiol ol {Etr +e 4e sfr.+r. "Jr glq.
    4pt4-E ^Iolq^J= 4zlollrl coz9 +E_ +7171^l+ zl+= r.*61-r. 9lsq, ¤J zl
    + Tlgol 0.3"c-0.6"ce zlt rllzl E"J tl."6J Is olfl +7171+9 ol+4= qEol E
    olxlJ fl4. 4elzl+ g6l olfl alg zl{a}zl gloll zl* ¤t4Globat warming)H4:
    zl9 HEt(climate change)+= AqE $EzI tlo6Jql tr14 ^J+q+
    ^F&6t=ql, ^179
    B.2l a)J rHTl g3g
    =5rf ^l+ol

    \ rlE +d ) l&7 v | .H0 I +r#611l l6lb a?!g +1oJ7 l.?


    ^l?Jee =7
    Hawaii9 MaunaLoa B+Aoll^igl ol{lEl EJA tsE

    400 -l- _J
    l

    380
    E
    &
    a l
    T
    E 1o
    360
    d

    u 340

    320

    t960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

    ArE 18.14 COz E-E e7l a+\)l ELI -dEHoJ ?iA EG CO2EE)| i+l4eE Zltroll 4al-Eol6Pl
    nllEolr[.

    479 gs.zl. EtEir-olLI ql.JE


    "H+ql ¤6.E9
    ,la qE zlEg 4E zl93 Ezll
    ^lg617,ll,
    trJE7l ullEol4.
    dxHq "l4el qtr-q= sl4 ¤-es-l
    ^l-S
    +Eql 4zl G co2 ffiol Ex|] ff;
    -H_rt 20s0LJql^l 2l00LJ
    ^IolE
    q! + =Z6I.1
    E aol4r q=6}r gl+. e+q
    ts]]7}
    ^ldql^J
    EB 4l&q 96IH, olfl f;zl-_tr zl+ s-EE ¤+ tl+ol 1"cql^J 3.c71C {olap af,r}.
    Zl+E ad6l+ Ejl= 'l]+ Bg soJol +q6}!-8, olEl,* g+e+tr cq;l qrlil EElz[
    .JiBzlE q¤6I41 q]+g + S+. rel{ Eq.J 49 corp+ +E gf;-+ zl^llg tETt
    "J+ gFql E6l] +7tEli1 9l+= aol+. ol5 Ep|g 7l+ql Efl.J g6}g olul zJzlr.ln
    il-g-q, ol5 HF+E¤ rq.e E+E z\A zl+==_ ¤zlalzll Hp+^lA + il= zl*C"l ?14.
    4zl9 cozql 9* zl+ EslE +lE] qlEql 4eJ st t}Aql^l ol zlzll$ E{o}ol zla}
    + dlzlql 4t[6[= E*z] t]'J6l +dg gal q9+. s[E4 geE cozE ^]sod]= ^l]e
    + %|Eg 7l]96}= aE +El= gr 9l+. 'l]E E 19 rsoo"J E9 corzl ^JlAl dal slq
    TlEql^l
    ^F*gtr|.
    rq+ srJ E z+09 E9 co27l HJ=EI: ag ^J46tE. ol= ol-+
    4g "Jq zl+zl ?+=4. cor= fleE ^F8-6I= 1g olulE 4zl 69 bE= zlLtlzlzl
    ql aa +E6Izl ?+g as.a Bql+.

    I 6s.z1g-' ell g 8ez;59 iHe P^lEl=^l= ¤861.^le.


    ^lqql^1= ^lzoil

    trlc 8.g 7lill

    corTl qlt EE +dg ¤.a glzlE}, oilql.J(cH,)r+ +ip+ E HFC9 dill bE=,l]H E 10%04 9lq^1, g¤
    =:z}6}jr
    c.49l zl¤alE ulzl /zltr- 9l+. 4el.Jg ol"l 8d sr-|
    F9 4E zl
    =+e-e+4(HFC), =-tr-tr=+e-+*d(cFc)
    zllE gd -agql zl{oJ+. ql ¤zl,EI zloJg ap 914. rfl+ge+ B+E g¤+q s
    HFC= cFC= tsrll4 glgd zl-
    -
    4 FE Etg .sEql^l qlitl6tB.+. HFC= s¤+9 +A= 4dql +fl 4zl zl4lE E^l+ 44. 4zl 69 qlql"J +E
    ojezlzlS ?tzl"J, ,Jq+ gd zli1lo1c1. 5t+E qlE, HFC E.tlBzl +'Jql ?7[61] S=ql, t]Hzl d9li 0.3-0.7 ppm
    s& ^lE +4]^E + 6ILIoJ HCF3= rgB CO2E 14,000HH E H+lolH 4ol, ,f,zllgl= oJ r.a ppmel Tlol qB.+r,*
    oltE zl+ euq affi goz3 + il+n +4Ig+. EiTl +. qlq]"Jg +g ="Egg bBrl s*4 ¤e9 ^l-sol+.
    840 183 qJSat-+

    qlql"Jg .Jq+= a^l7l= ag gd c.ffi 6.o1-' nr+zl"J *Bol E 4o14,


    ^ll}d slaql^l ^JE+4 n+cq^l ^J
    cg+. +4+ 4471 ,HBzl, qe.l +4 += HI +E S+E^ll: 18.6s,18.67
    + #9 ip}7l+ql uSol =^], ^+
    fxllali ET]C ^ll+ol ,llEll"Jg
    r3,t3ajr|(:H 18.14). E6J d¤z}^9 i=ol4 ++ +eql
    +tri. ,llH Lyoq +7161119l.b ¤zl]E
    ^l 471-tr +=El7lE oJTJ
    qlql.J %F=E 2l3y g5E ar+e +cg+.
    4zlglrl ,lEll.JE *zJzlE roH cEol4. tlEgl coz9
    gd q aq. gE HTlql: olag +g .Je ^J4
    HIrJTl=
    9zl"J zJdzl e4g oO-rot 6J+. ,llql"Je C+flql^J 4I
    s]g"l("ld q-4o1 g-qB c+flql 7lE 9*g) ot
    t
    + rlq+ 8d zl^ll.J iGz\Z ^JC*trI. =^116l-z1
    ql+flql^l 44.J
    I oH 44zJol4 &p]- 4ae} ae HI8C slE}+el t4g
    *ot ;q4sE o,c+ Ag 4= g¤ Tlill=
    ^JCtJ4. cu.
    I ,l+ gue+ s4g coz9l El6l] Bztr* "* zrullzp 9: a
    9.E +49+. ol+zl 7lq6l+ BITI ag nq6IE, 4el a .r.B I 8.15 ollElloJ Btl= 4+ g aP EJ+ EE= 4tr1 7 lg0ll^l oll
    = Ed6lq EJ+g
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    =ola+

    18.3 | zl+E E
    E-9zl+EEg 72vo3 'Jr 9leq, ^JB4lq 9f4ol4. +E.Jill=e*eE *esvozl
    EoltrI. E.g ot+ E+g +4 a,*sE "J6lt qlE4q+ +=d. #=dol $_L $$$ol z
    trI , 1.I :i ). Eg +g +^"i trlEql +of"J olgc 844 +^d ..o + aoJ Eeg 5E6l
    11

    g +qlq. Eql^J= H20 z[4]ol H]*Ee 4+61+ a+= Ee-6}l^l Bg q]801 gq+E].
    qE H2o= oJCzI +4q BzlE 4i+6}q &-¤zl +*ql +q6J+= zlq44 4*
    =q
    (1(, 3 'J r. olfl -E= c4ol +El= Eqt ++aq^l qgg 6|r gl+.

    al+el E+EJ
    zlft EE Ee zl+el E++sE gaqq 9lq(f-J 18.16). qTlql^J ¤E6l+ rlcg
    EI++e EE tl Hs+e+ ¤+!q 9+. ql$ 5E ql"Jel Eill"J Eg Eli"J qi$ql Ell+lrq
    ^l
    ++l\tr_ 4zle +gqr, faol ffiqq *4zl +Ee-E .E-= aI^llel E%|gs g+.
    +E +ql fl= E%lge AAEl6il^J g+ol qr, *utol+ EsE LIE]rll 94. zlt9lrl=
    *uiolq Eol +o}^l ._qi{g Eol qq tsg 4^lal gq. aaol "*trtH, zl^JE g¤+ +
    clqq 4zl9 ;?zle- Sola +E 9l+. -EHql^l "Jq+:4C(68, +sDe Sg HI+
    oli1, qlTlql^l .Jq+= rld(ffi, aas+)e gg rlcolEs, olE 4ae sEq E4 ¤-
    +g gg 4zle dg61+ E¤g 6l.zll gtl..

    A ral 11.280il EoJ Eer.BE-E= -r.a16fl H2o(s)7r.H2ob)e ¤iardtTr pr6fl^jts Eol


    ="^t
    I qE gal"tgE E+loil llctot6l.=7t?
    I

    A*E:zl+ol EHoot

    zl+el q+61 *g +Eg Hr 9l= He +e dAlE= rle ts¤99 9lr, "J


    ^+EE
    HI49E gA'J a{g +zl6tr. ?14. olflo.J ol+ql^J 6I"JqI4¤g zl44"1^l ts11g a
    4 ?ol +49 qloJol+-il "$Izle4E,<ll{l Qlo}(world ocean)olrp "J.J+.
    18.3 I 841
    ^l+slE

    olat| rB0ll^1 H2o(/)- Hzo(s)9 8E0l7l +EtElts rlEe?

    a+
    gEzl
    =0il^1 EIIl E1lTl0ll^i
    E r18
    E II8
    'ciT

    ?!7llHl =,J,'Jtl
    5Hl
    {" oa

    alaqt^l rls,0l1^l gAlLflB


    =
    +g
    =ot
    /
    =elLfleJ., =,J
    ! hir
    L =J#e r18
    ^lE0l
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    EVIEE

    E|l$oll^1
    E88
    rl6t+E r18

    a rH 1 8.1 6 E +EJ
    ^l?oll^lel

    ^-llal
    ql"Jg 4qlql^l +ul: 1.3s x 10e km3olr zl+^JE $! e7.zvoE s,¤r6l-r. gltrI.
    +81^l2.Bo/o *412.10lo7\ IrJE¤ol+ B6l.E ¤qls n++ z], tQa zl6F+E
    =^ll++.
    EE B+E 0.6%ogl zl+zl ?+=r+. 4"lzl 0.I%E ql+Eg Utahe.l Great Salt rakeoll 9lE
    44 rJ* Hlg+s
    =46JrI.
    ut*Eg s6l a+Es "Jq4 fl+. HI*89 gs(sarinity)i r ksE tst*Eql +4]6l+
    zJa 179 e=*etr LlEIdrI. 8l4l ql"Jql^Jel B+ gE= E 3sol4. El-+l trJoIH, Hl*
    Ee eej qlHl E 3.5vo9 +6119 gala|-z 9l+. tsl*Eq 5q fl= g^E +96]
    ^+g
    H ,ll+ ,J+. rEl+ q+89 gd= ,l]+ *e bE.e"3 +^H+rI. E 18.5= HI*Eq 7I

    x.18.5 ulli$qlo.o0t g/kg(l ppm) oltq ttr e +rlldits ol+ {E


    0188E EE(g/kg) tsE(M)
    gal olg(cl ) t9.35 0.55

    4E olg(Na+) 10.76 0.47

    +4I olg(sol ) 2.71 0.028


    Efrql+ o1g(Mg2+) 1.29 0.054
    zr.5 olg(Ca2+) 0.412 0.010
    gEH: olg(K+) 0.40 0.010
    ol4lp]. Bd. 0.106 2.3 x 103
    BE"Jg+ olg(Br-) 0.067 8.3 x 104

    +4I(H3B03) 0.027 4.3 x 10'


    olg(Sr2+) 0.0079 9.1 x 10s
    ^EEE olg(FJ 7.0 x t0'
    0.0013
    =+s_flEl
    .cor: ut*¤-ql,<l ucog-4 co:'-e. 3211"jr1
    842 183 S3trlqf

    8-ETl HEi6lE e0l7i 4Aql qel HftEg gEts 671", otLlE #+-Er ,tee qb]"-|ts7i?

    20

    15

    3E
    l1n
    -L

    0
    0 2s0 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750
    ,J0l(m)

    afg 18.17 ?0l0ll rq= 9.lE Ht.iEg rI|E'4 Eil 8E


    =z

    eL ++.J tlzllE "lg p+ql+g +gdJ 4o14.


    HI*EE gE: zJolgl tr14 H.J+. ujsltr u[{z}xlolQ(:e r.r). Eli"JoJg H}
    gsae+

    *4 zoo m4zlt,J +46Ir, 200 me* 1000 m9 ¤qg z|.rl$rjol ol+ qtrl6J'q;e zl4
    (twilight zone)'olr]. 1000 m olr]|ql^J qloJg 4++ 4+9 irlzle} z;ol z!Qt;l$, 4 "C C
    E-tr 8Ezt *+. EH"Jql^19 g, gE, :r-?-lr +E slq} EAq olEg uI*Eg Er-14 C
    e EElql g6}.9 +eq, g4 Eeol 01ti6}= %talol EEI6IH rl^l ql"J 6]]+e+ 71
    ^\+
    +ql g6&9 "lil41 94.
    E[+= ,]]* Hzl EilEql Eeol ut*Eql E Lg$ r x ro 6 g;go1
    ppb(part per bi[ion,
    ql.Jql= 1x 1012 kg9 ootol rHqlE E+6Ir, 4"Jg flE Ee
    =44E ^llal =zl]oJr+.
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    il=ql, gel dE, -E-Eql(u +u3p+ ge.e+El), :41 Elrql+(6lr*6l+ ¤e_e9q1o1r1.
    4'Jql 9eI co,E ++= xl7 zlS9l g6;9 tr144. ol&+ +i= Er+ Hls.61q e
    =
    ^8d6[qtr, 471 *9 corzl ^]14
    ql.Jql ¤+Eq q4 q"]E H2co3 LoET] +719&
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    ^Ig olq6J olg
    =^Hd+.
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    qq el+.

    .f+cl alol+
    B?(freshwater)$ $a11fl g4 jlillE +E7l *g(s00 ppm trl"J) A¤+= 7l4rJ ull
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    ol ++61q, +AEl= z-l+*g r.7x l0rs L(660a ,Jfl)olq, ,J+ql 96ll il]+l{+.
    ^l]E
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    ^FSElq,
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    ^IH-ol ^F$-6].= EE AEE
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    ^Hle+ ^r*B' ¤.^l
    18.3 843
    ^l+elE
    aele+ g++E 8 LE ai(q+, ^llq, doJ ai)ql 120 LE,rffia|-r., cltldql
    ^l-s6}q,
    s0 L=, +qq ** az\ 91611 80 LE
    ^l-&6J+.
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    =Eol
    tsl, E r7l_,1EIE ¤4e-l
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    rs.ia).
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    ca2*, Fe2*), *olg(fe cl-, son2-, HCo3-), f4r zl;ll(ftr oz, Nz, cor= +.J+.
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    .5a_+. zll{fl ?+E Hle" 4 ol+ 7l+cg +7}ql qE ,l]+ z *+. qE Eg ul+
    q^l ,llg ^lol7l
    ^l-S6l+
    B+E ,HeB 600 Lql +E6l+ ull uloll, tr-44se Pd =tzloJ sub-
    sahar Africa 4zl¤"llrJE +zl 30 Lql ra+. pt}z[te-e, Etg
    ^i+=ql4l Eg +a-g
    s"J oiLl+ "ll+ d6}7il egElq glq^J 4+49.E eBE goJol slz1r *4.

    Ogallala cfl4:$-$I4: ztfl


    T
    4++ol4nE E4E ogatlala 4i63
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    ,l+E qi¤g oH +q 9l= zl46J zlal4 gro14. WYOMING

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    ^{zlq^l =
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    Nebraska, Wyoming, Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma,
    New Mexico, TexasE EEI6I+ 87I] +ql ?4 ql4(:
    aJ 18.18). ql++9 7*E ogallala'J4+E aolb
    "J
    zll= I mq^l+q ,Jrll= 300 m olt}gl olE4. 4i COLOITADO NEIllt,,\sKA

    +ql ^.1+g Eq +rl= Huron Ei9 +ulB+ q


    F*+. KANSAS
    "JE ++= Great Plain 9= Blqdl E ?Elol :l
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    B¤'J_r 9l= "Jaql .-r+oJ
    4ol4.4l2r+ ^l4qld
    + zl]Eg pld g+
    tr"7l= Hg zlqq E-g *+61
    : Ag 7hb6t7ll E}5fltri. a 4a+, Great plaing ^Jl
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    ffrooo
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    Hl+ol Ll+ 444. "Jqh ql++g f9lzl xl44
    =9--e {o11c18, E^1, +q
    #
    0
    100 (mi)

    r4r tr-gql
    ^l-&E
    + 50 100 (km)

    ?l= Eq oJE ¤ Xol4. A rg 18.18 Ogallala(High Plain) rl45E HPI= LlEtLtE n+


    =qEal 4+=3 rlq ^lE ^lde]
    gt{=sl
    +a g+E4l: 18.44 ts Eel7l.=oll +gdlal 6|l=J
    ^E "Joll +l^l-sf
    ^lC=
    riaf 9l^l6H ?ltf.
    844 183 EJe+-+

    ^llrll9 EI+ + o] 20vo= zl6}ql zl6|f(groundwater)9 ¤ql-a zlolfi zlo|


    =4oJ+.
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    "J4ol EL+61
    q!
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    ^ll4l
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    ={dl+
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    4}az1=z}lg trll ^J+6llC Eeel +d, +i, ¤i, +, .Jg +tr. co2, HCo3-, Hzo,
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    =
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    aJ ¤.1e). rlEol
    +ql4B^l 02¤-tHl6}]1, E+ql ++6J *Lzl H"lzlH olrl
    6J E¤E rfl Eql^J= t + H+.

    E+q A^el t sl*EE zldr f-e-af, ++ge ziC 6I+("J E++


    =4161+
    ^llxllc+
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    arH18.1s +Bglzt ,*r gl= HIE), +&zlEql^l +s=+=+(4i=EElsIE¤ql7lE)ol+.
    =7lLt+trtl-sr^tEot
    uutEzl+4qE, +60il t^s ++
    6fzl Elr,
    Etl..
    +5
    -ol
    =aqE+4--Jzf
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    Eol rtl =J+sl +BgEi= goTl= 7|"8 Tg-d + 7l^l fl^= +90J7|.?
    18.4 | oJz g5rl'+tr 845

    E"ltEl: H+trl-
    HIREe E9 EoETt +zl trllEql tr[^lzq +g EI++E s"E9lE
    ^|Bol ^]-&61-b
    46}6}zl ?*4. "l={9l^J= Ba +d^J srl trie.9 ¤ Ctsol ee*el E 0.0s%=
    'Jzl *E+ xllaJo[_Z 94. ol "Jg E]REql +o] 9l= +E.J 3.s%,E+ gC
    *I, ^+E oJoJ o.syo CEB+
    qE zlEE z16l+ 4 E}¤f(brackish water)9] E4alE
    gd *e dol4. Et*Eol'+ Elg+ql^l gBg HI+ FI
    ^il46}q, ^hs"¤ + 9l= EE
    ag B*ii(desalination)rP aJr4.
    = Eg flgC E{olr, E3 ulflBColotr
    ="$(distillation)oll elaN Eq +6flqq +rt7l
    9l= gotr+E +9Eel6J+ 9+ ,, (r.3¤. '¤q+89 e4'). ++E fl48 ot
    + a+6}zl"J, 4+Ee +Ag +46}7lq= "*g ExllT| 9l+. q= Eq +g HIR
    Etr +El =o$dlfl, ge 4l+ q $fqq A+ql= 4JAg+. olel* +;; EoJ ql
    ulzl de+4 44o14.
    uI*Eg g#FH(reverse osmosis)g B+e+g + 914. dlfi HiFEg
    HlEOlOl
    E6ll +rl] tszl* Fr+6Izl"J ¤:¤ Ezl* Er+6tzl *61+ 4ol4 .", (13.5¤). d.F
    =!6ll^lE, HtElgg
    elx== -!.q
    EL
    on llo
    TO ET "Jq.g-e "Jcl
    q^l.} *,]lzl-#g +"lql^l H4 AEI +.-{etr olfoJtrl. :ael+ +E+ E+ .Jq 'Jol Er.t^lztl
    ol zlofiz]fl *Fzl H+1, Hr+ +g .Jqql^l= *6]0l *42[ 94. olBz]l qd:+
    Et++E E=
    7I "Jq+fl, +,ll= {fl +qql^l tr+ #e +"-4eE olt*r+. Hql qtF ¤Hlql +d7le
    ot+ 4g +Bol :li rdfzl HlF"+ee,rl-sg4(:al 18.20). s. a oo a OO
    ^l= ^JB=JE Eg o o3
    E+6I: ¤fzl "Jqalq^l d+tr gEl Eq7E1, gol 'll7lg Eol ol+gtrt.
    ,rll/l!e-a 7l* +Eq B+ir+ +tlg;.|$ulolalulolel lubairgl +lz16|r. 9lE
    = oa ooo o o to
    Ell, ol +tlg qAIFE E6ll Ella^lol
    "J9 ut*Eg B+tr ElEq ol ++¤++E
    g HTE O?
    EOH "JII"=
    50o/o* 4l+6tr ?l+. oltrtrI tl
    E/\t= To
    =
    +tl-g-e. 600 milion r/day(teo milion gallon)$ c+ +ee "JGl or lo=
    = -=cltlrl. Erug T l qrL
    +¤+= ^J^l'J + 9l= *E ^l+qo}4ulo}ql 20181J ¤|+g 2lgol4. ol=lq} + =wl= uLl

    ^J3 "l*"ilr] di} _H_¤clElr 9l+. 201s$ql California Carlsbad +=ql


    7ll+'J^l arH 18.20 qAtFE
    TlrJ +s7l AH a"tlg 6I+q 50 million gallon$ +¤+=
    ^J4lg + 91fl'I. 4'il
    7l=* bq oE +g6J ol 3"t}P 44 ea Mwq dzlE ^l-861+'EJl, ol= 3s,s00EE 7l
    ^1,
    Aql^l ^|8-6I= "J4 "*E= oJol+. Sf t gallong ^J4I6I7] +l6ll^J= 2 gallonel Hl*E
    ol 996}r}.

    E"ltEl:E l++¤9 ilal


    7lA,*E, +gql gsqlEgE+, zj, zlalf, zlfzl ="eE+q ++g+. E^l +E^l
    o-tr ++q= ql+Eg Eg '^|&g' EoJrll, ol= EI H ol^J aJf ,tl:-flolL} +tlg
    ^H
    z8g aol4= *ol+. tr++^J "Ifl Ee +E+^lq olazl doll i-lalE Tlao} +trI-.
    E^l +FE ,i?.1= BF +c +41= 4aq(fg ¤.21).
    r. qr+"Jg E* 'llrJ Aezl 44 +ql, Ee 4++ ad Brq^l .JE.J "l+=+. q
    zlr.l s.4e+ += 4e oJxlz} adqq a4d+. ,l]+ zlg "JzlE 4zE +11617l I
    6ll +C E9l caoE ?zlal{ "fal HzlCq+ trJE+.

    2. rle=9-tr Alr(SO4)3E EztalH ol r*41 .J+trlEol OH- ols-r+ Hl+6lq eg


    olfl ^irJzl
    a4 {l'}lg Al(oH)3 edE(K,p:1.3xr0-33)g "JErl. adEg aaq addl
    H^l ++6t= oJxl¤$ EAiol E+41 ad6l/l qr, r+rll Elssrl E4 +^ltl Ee
    q++E
    ^ll+9 49 zll49 + gtzl g't.
    =r+
    r. 4*9lE ol+al !49 5g E4=ql E"r+^lilEl.
    846 183 geE+*

    m Eel EEI'zl-doll^1EE ¤i716-0-= Liltgts rtdE +9. 71ts3 +ftoJ7l?

    l ^18
    EH=

    CaO, @el
    Al2(so4)3 =azt
    i{ 71

    u t
    @=zt=+
    ^IETI

    & ae'la
    flT
    I x
    q4?l
    Oe.l
    qal

    arB 18.21 +=E ^lelrl8elgHJ4 E4l

    4. qr} +q E-g +71 +etr_ LHsq^l +6119 en+ "J7Iq=9 *zl olgEg 4I
    sl¤ +{^l7lr, Bo} 9lg + ?lE Hzsq NH3, :a4_L tEE
    d ^Jl+E =olal
    94.
    F
    s. olEldJ 4aE 4+ +41= +g e+E E+eE zl46lq q¤61 xil461+
    ^ll+g
    1o14. s=ol HQ e$!ol7lnJ, gdTl cJ z-lflalQ. .-4EI g^= +4 Alzl*
    ¤L6l]^J z]1t $=tr$q zld ^J+EE Bg + 9lr+. gie+ Hl+61+
    ^F+rJg
    ,llao.rq= Hlolel.\$ bEql 4+ g+{+.
    n += EeE
    =4e+, ^ll#4
    g^E ¤+ z}¤e olulE $a zli{ trllEol o}qr., g^e+ Eol H}+6I]^J
    ^8dq
    -L 6}ol-trg4t} qlEql "JqLl= 1es-
    ^J494.
    cl2@fi + H2o(/) ------ HClo(aq) + H+(aq) + cL-(aq) [18.1s]

    d ^ll4l4eE 8q E aEE "J+7141*oJ Eg :zo+E4 *6lr glr+. uNql ule


    EJ47l ofolgEel
    LHrUOL TllH=g.
    E, rllzl9 E^l + es%ql^J otzlE zl4Elzl 9** a145 ^J+Eql ul4r gl+. Irl
    +^l Zlg Etr-+g s= 47t* +^]9 80%= HI+ld4.J E ro?4 ¤+g +eC
    +zlE+ + 9i+= ae 5+e "Jol olr-14.
    ^1171-drl.
    ololgEol +oJE
    eB-s-E
    '1+el q"J4.J
    ?=ol^118, Hfolal,\, + zlxl oll+ 43 rifestraw4r 6l+ *7]|71zlgg aolEl(ra 8.2).
    7186¤
    =oJtrl. Eq]= ¤16I E-g'$ol¤olB, Eg +d 100 pm 4E 77l9l :aE"Jg z\{l d+ g
    El= E" 46E, olq^J t5 pcm 4E_ a7l9 rE"Jg 7IA d+ gqE EqdIAl gE+.
    15-pm9 dP
    "Je.lz1. 9,^.317;5
    olfl gq: +^Bl7l+ rll# Bq4zlzls xll4olzll gtrl. Elges Eg ololpflol
    rllz-dr[.
    +"Jg 7-^=E il]e +rJg rao46[H^J ^Jl+, Hlolqa, aflffio] 4r1l g+. ¤eE
    100-pm9 CP
    "JEl7l TJ6fl=
    Ee rlB E*9 gC +d= F46I4 =lr., qz1.r1 ololeB9 Hr]] "l gElql^J A
    rllT{-d|r[.
    4zlzl t*ql4+ olole_Hql eldl +g zl,.J?ol xll4gEl. trZllE^J= Lifestrawz| xl
    t Zlg +7lq *H+l6}rll tr#qzlql= q+ Elt zllolt)u3, ol tlilg zl4"l 44
    61la + flE q"Jol ts-.J+.
    aA 18.22 E= E
    ^
    oJ LifeStrawTI E= =961.=
    !et-dtl.
    18.4 I EZ g5rl'+E 847

    Eg d+6tr]l g ag .J+ q^}1} 7l.t} +lql.J ++ tra et + 6}+0l+. olg e" aJl p
    ,ll++ q+^ ge +"J¤ g^Jg +4eE ,J|^!ALI. r3l+ olBl6J 4qql
    ^ll+ e+el
    Y EllTlTl nlEq. le74LJql +B!+ trl+el r++4-E=g EE g^p}4cql^l oldq= a=
    9zl Sqt'J qL ++9 f-4!$ol ^JCg+= 49 ga6[94. ol4d +^]Ee +^ gz] I
    a3etl gz} 37l|-E +CElq glzl rllEil EEolgsqrlloJ(trihalomethane, THM)ol
    4 61i1, CHCI3, CHCl2Br, CHClBr2, CHBr3 Eol "llBg+. Eql +g g4.= ,lE -5r= A
    ^g
    ¤f"ll ¤4lal* *zl Ed E.= oJrJ gEE +^JE"J Eer+ Hls"6lq, rHMg Hlt+ +
    or"J g^+ H-e,IrJg 6J+6I= -,?zl E49
    ^JCEI+.
    rl rs.rsoll +4\+ 44 rJol, gr=
    Eql +oI &slxJl.J HClo= ^JC++= 49 trzla}4.

    ueHrJ(frackins)at *!
    al= Eq f"J 44B0,yaraulic fracking)S *zll +s= = 4"ll sgrlzl ull+ol4. ^1;=oeEflrl EI=g 4EI.J4 +
    4Z(fracking)ol,
    ^l-8
    7l-e.sI 4+ -E-=eJg 4ge--+ 54
    =
    *El+i= E.J6J qBl t#9 zlzllEg 471 e-gql ¤5J
    zl 96]| +H4l E4rJg 6J Ell= dE4qE g zor}Jgl gsg g+ql qeH, utah +q^l +oJ
    ^F&qn 9l+. ,Jfl olt9 =trI.
    4"&ql dzlzllTl q= 2EqI 4=J9 E.l "J +4lB +Cql,<l 4zl +se +.g EilqloJ tsH7l7}4= q}=q
    4+ql +4qs ts9
    =q gl: +E ^l++9 56ll a$os +oJ 1l dill qlql.J .JE 4* a-nvo B+lql ol= aol4r B7r
    ¤qeH 18.23). ol+l+ Eg *Aq ^J&#. +71^l7lE+ g+. *ql^l 9i#qflF.l, trilEll"Jg +q.J gd TlAlol+.
    E= g, +, "J+ 7lt:e+ ?J+ Azlxlle+ E4, zllE E e4rJ dqg Eqt "*e +a Ex]59 dHi4"J ql6E
    ^ll4E
    g sed}jr 914. :ilS g4; zlp6'}]q 4e ++ +es geje}q+ ¤+¤ oFTl^l7ln 9lq. gqlrJg qlLJTl
    ^lHl+
    ag *.I dflztl= EH=^lAq. s4rJg el +scg +E6I= ol5rl, *tl4o e +4q= +aE a
    =qr} ^l+e+
    zl "*e *E 4+e+=q a¤7i^9 Hl+elg +71^laq.
    ^,ll
    ql tr+ +dg +: ol5 +E¤ +4Lll: E Elc ql
    ^folE
    EqdE, E4aoE+El oFTlq= *xll4"J +ia +l+e ol+.
    d4'J f3014. +Eg "JE
    71 96ll -s+q= .ll*9 E4
    ,J ¤+= zlgtr rl$olo.l-o[ a3
    +. ol ¤+: c:* 4c s.ol= nil^ o1-?

    += +Eql= "*zl ?*g ill B Eafle E+


    z4 4*9 g2 s4le d*;t eg EEO|++le
    uul^lLl?J
    ,ll 84. ++ olBl+ $lfb zl|
    EJg q+ zl^Jaql al+g+.
    zoostj qlqrl Czq BB4 trI olo r[ *
    EE qIre
    gEJ BEg +"J +4IH I Heit,\l i
    =
    I

    ag .Jd+ ¤¤+ HBq 5a


    a6JrI += +zllql^]
    ,Je ql¤
    ^llE^la
    4. olrl 5 ++g'JE6}l- 9l BJ=E 7t4el ol5 H.Ef,I.
    aT+ro I E
    o
    q 7l] zl99 xlFJ¤ E # ll 1l= oill=
    =
    g elq E q"+E 44* e+
    z ?*Al qfl+. : o1]9* oJ4
    +g 1141{+ 4.1 4-$4 ¤4 +g Et4ll
    zlalel +5 4e= +71^]r4)j
    4qE 4.J714 +Eol+
    =c
    ^J+EE,r'r.oli zlolfzt 4+, arB 18.23 EaHe= Et6l.= rlqq Al+-E -talal alAEts eg EEol +E EA oe tr]^l
    :14a :=E= ^l+
    +s+ +A += +^d E LfElLJrl.
    848 188 EJZ4+

    ++etr HCIoE szl Ed4 EI86lq rHMg H-trElg Hcloel +"llg H-E
    ^8c6J+.
    "JEl
    olg+9 Hl¤¤ E61] HI+ql +q6lr]l g+.
    Hclo(aq) + Bt-(aq) -+ HBrO(aq) + Cl-(aq) [18.16]

    rerll 9E ns.o(aq)e} HClo(aq)y +7) Eeg g.e4lEl6lq rHMg ^J^Jg + gltrI.


    4 zlzl rHMrI gstlg+ frzl E}'JES g.J Eee Edg4. += aE=g +1419 .ll
    tsHl4lE j/+^la+. a44eE, ul{ {}{-H_a+g ¤++ql^J
    ^ll4l_H_a7l+(wHo)e+
    rHME +"Jg 80pg/L(80 ppb)e tE 4ldg +flE|. +4 ilElq^l 6J^ll+E sgde
    +zl6[E^J +¤+ 49 ruu4 4E g+ +{lEq tEE Aa^l7l= aol +sol+. qtr
    a+q= ++61 g^E tEE *+= a.l ^Jcq= rHME +EE a^^l7lH^J 4¤'J
    ¤+ol .Jq+41 .J+. +E llslzlloJ s¤(or)rl ol.t}e+ ¤i(clor)= gE{ls+ Eeg zlrll
    4C6I7.l+, olaEE +=q +dg r*r 9l+. ql= 5q s="tl a+ql= ++C H-EEJcl
    olgg 4}3rl^la fz| 114.
    oz@d + Br-(aq) + H2o(I) + HBro(aq) + o2@fi + oH-(aq) [18.17]

    HBro(aq) + 2o3@fl Broi(aq) + 2o2@q) + H+(aq) [1s.18]


    -
    u etrJ4l olg(sro:-)g E¤
    ^lEq^l
    oJg
    "Je7l= astr .JEa+.
    ¤4ltr= gAs++ _s=-slql ql.J sd6l EI+^qe q.Je flE asE -E-olq, +"J el
    4ol* 9leol45 dqdlot 6J+. ol A+, +EEel rHMolq +fl s|6JEql E+.Jel +l
    ECe Eg i.146[zl ?+o]^l ^JrJ + 9l= q+4, aEfzl 4lF ¤Hql E}l+ +]Elc
    =ql4,
    4 Hlr6IH 'll+ *+. E ++gol _E_Q zll{a}Qtr g+417} E gs_6}r.. ¤+ 4aql^l
    sgol .Jq+= 9leg + 94. "J+ rHMol ^JCqH rHMol EB+s trl +lgCol
    ="J
    =pE +7lE E+^14 +EEg rHM +EE ¤.J + gltrI. trI= BHoe= g^"r +A+
    += E: }rilE ^l_oo 6[{ ,]l7lg +E gl+.

    qoJs{lf^JEl

    EIRE3 8.0-8.3E pH Alg r*= s+6J Szl,tJ $e{o1r1. o1


    pu HflE ¤.-qq^le+ +^I6J *4I ¤ffi:!l= Soll f,zl¤4 f olEfl+. .JrJg +}Eol olE6J +7}ql^l +s,* q6J
    (4 tz.r0 +a). HI*Eel pHTl- C"-49 plH(z.ts-z.qs)H4 g =qtLtrI. 4olzls=g qlrJE g.E'es oJ6H E]]=g corE +ql
    +rl qlEql, E4I9 + H4l dllE.l= +^l6J + s.eq cos2-
    +ssl ++"1 Eeol 94.
    =
    E4Ig olgE ol+ 7l+Cg 'J4ol "*3 {}E(rB 18.24)
    E.JBJ qq 6ll"J qpg ++.
    = ^JEe] de ¤Cql +s.6J
    4E E= 6H.J ^JflZle.l Eol ^l+.ql^l +s'J Egg 6ta a

    4oJ Cplzl(ctarifier)4n E4zls 6l= olEltI ^J5ill= +


    ull¤ ca'*e}Co32- ols-q1 9+6lq r=el dar+ E=49
    BC6J+. caco3z| +"llEt: *izl dlql49-s *n, El"J
    "t
    ol s+¤ Cu,*q Co:,-S ql+6ln ?l+=
    ^ldg, caco3
    7l g+ ¤CqE ,l]+ "JC6I+= 19 9"1{}4.
    CaCO3(s) : Caz+ @q) + COI- (aq) K,p : 4.5 x 10-s

    rJ+oE g q=4
    ^[d, +E"J Aq +g ^JEAIE +4]
    LJ I

    g El4 7l+ql^l 5E gol otqr+. A rB 18.24 6tlg 4El+ Ll3 Hltloll 8=^llE Atr+ eP=4oll
    cacosE r ql-+ Ne^t=,J4+. "J+ 4Ed
    6HoJql +6119 co29l t'E: 421 ¤ co2 t:E Hglql "J ^|EeJq.
    E. dzlel=7f^latel,J3 =rell + ?]rt. =aJr
    a6l+. 4118.2aql^l Egs a4 zJol, 4zl + "l^I+ +r O Damsea/Shutterstock =trlEE= =
    18.5 l+4 al+ 849

    +ol ,l+ g+g aqE +494. ol4al E:fzI g ols.r.lzln, caco:9 +6]lE= *zlxl4 +41 a+qe
    ^J "ll"Jq
    Coz9 Sd 7li.ll g6J¤- Ss+6I= Ell E¤.ol q7lts iflzlEi, g AAr+ E=4e-l +84 +611E g^J^la +E ?l+. RIE
    ql"Jqil4 g q+9 cozb ttl9 ^Jdolq pHE *=4. 4zl * ol&p+ +AE olol c7i] +E-s 4l+ +7f6IE, r+tr+
    cor2-E "*,tI"J uco,-! zl$zloltl ql+ql, B& olgS zL=g oJ+ souJ 5oJ 6ll+E pHTI 7.e_E Eqe 1ee- +
    dll+i ol+r+ A6J6J+. A++. ol4+ Hnl.= zlAly44^lE t_=zlEJ, 6l]oJ
    ^JEll
    CO?-(aq) + H+(aq);- HCo3 (a4) 4lql= +zl"J ¤6&3 z}4g + 914.
    olelql +4Ig olge.i caco:9 +6l] B¤g eE.a_ e
    +H fl+ E^ll: 18.7,18.10,18.71
    ^l-8-ol

    18.s | +4 Ei'J
    *4zl ¤r
    9l= zl+= qL. CE= Efl4l(closed system)olr|. +lan+= 9lHzl9 i+tol
    .Jg+zl"J EeE i+Ig
    "Jg4zl ?*zl 4lEol4. El4qlE {Fz} Ht6}qE, *42} i
    6J6I= EE 4{ol zl+E A¤ 4Col4 844 zig4E +Bg ol+qo} aJ4. ol +49
    ol+qE +laql afi-+g Eeg El]=.6izl "Jolo} 6Iq, +?.le-l is_z} 4l^Jg + 9l= zl.fl4
    +q+6l]or 6Ii1, 7l-bqi 6J 49 oJE qlLlzl= ++. elq| tBg "JzJ gF9 tzl
    ^F8:6Hot
    4Lg +Eolzl"J, ]I+u+ +¤e AE E= Hql^J dql ^Jgql +q6}r 9l+. r=lsE ElqI
    3 ol4t +49 ol$nz[ 6[= 1rqE ed"J 4.o14.
    $+{ El¤t(green chemistry)g .JrJ Ar}ql6ll7t 4.n, +ag B+61+ Eq xll+ "t *C
    e_l ¤4le++8¤{r{apz} al-E 4lgol4. +^l s+ote dd9 rzzi fl4ql E=6J+.

    r. EJrt glzlEol "J=qzl=


    ag El= 1ol, "JE"ltl *gl z\*olzl += aB+ *4.
    2. flrl e8E +6J+g "JEE HJHg E.E ¤g Eeol 4+
    ^JCEql 4ql'JeE Eq
    9lE+ -r.oJ6]]o} 6JEl.
    3. g 6llEg ElEt Et¤ de4sE 7|u" 6[48, 6JC %]Bg a.JE trilE gle "JzJ9 d
    ,F+ +IAq +Col 94+, 4qE 49 H= EAg ;.1-$al.-r., !:6J rEl6J E4¤ "J
    5q 4ot 6.J+= 4o14.
    4. Etrl EEEI iEt 3E p]q4 !+CEe +^dg a]AF+6]H^JE 96]= 7lH +zl
    =Eet
    6lE+ iLoJdllot *4.
    s. Etrl EEE! E{lletE:E= -H-a EA(elE Eq +ql, E4 7l-b'* +
    ^lE 5)el ^l-&g
    6J4H zl+'* 6J ++-C ol qrll .J+.
    614, "JE
    Hil8l6l]ot
    ^l-s"
    6. oilLlrlEEE r4E! flXt q+q} *49 qlqzl s+ 44ol ++A "t azll4"J ¤6Fg rEl
    6llot 6[q, a]iE]9qot,*4. zl-bo]E s]+ q]¤+ t]g . tr-.Jql.tl .<lt]rlolo] ++.

    7. rltg 7tE-Et EE flE$ r1g fl4E "t ++ gtr= zl¤4_q__+4 {zll{!.-e ¤+zl"J
    4+ql= t}=r'l z1'ga1ot'tI+.
    8. e.Ei{let z;4 gseal +EillEx+rJ +E}Eg .J^14.J
    ^Jc, Eq4/e}44 +dE
    +C)= 7l++ e 44s}5[4+ r]6l]0] aJ4. ol4* +41: +7t4.J ;.lqrol $ea[a,
    ^JCg f ?lzl
    qlzlEg ullEol4.
    e. +u[ qufl ,r.llt(zf="fl + dq4)e ul+,H 4aql El"]l +qal 43 glHzl
    ul$!tr ^la.Iql
    +-$g 6J^J^la+. EI+^J EI"J"J ul+,il %IEHr+ dsgtrI.
    ^J^J
    ro. EsltE zaffit ¤r{t s}EtzJ
    ^JCES 7l* r+6tE 6}17} s.= EallEe Eb]]slqot 6l.

    4, +}a +q zl+6H^l tsof glzl ?*olot ilr}.


    850 185| EJSat-+

    rr. 86fl Br|E fl^lt,J^l +6l]+ EAol rJCqzl dql d^lrJ +a q ,J^le.l a¤
    fl=e!
    g 6l.zl +lEl e4 'JBg 4*g 9sz} ?14.
    grl= 9lE! EE4o.E Etrl EdE! it=t 3I++ tcql^l
    ^l-sEl= ^lE4 +r1l:
    D. %r-
    ^la p++4 zl+dg;i^E+6lE+ {$apo1aju1..
    ¤, +9, slxlle+ ag ^Ii1el

    A +0H= ^l8drts aF+ HJBor +E,l g,or ee HJ- d^rdr.= aH+ orgzr tri '+e r!Er.4'
    I otq=xt¤E6t^te.
    I

    dxllE qBzl +4 EI4ol 489bzl-E s4 ?zl +l6li^l s& +dg i1q"ll


    Ez|. :-elolHle ga4 4B+ qlolzol* *4g s*6I= ql ^4o1fl g4^+olflq
    ^l-sq=
    Ae Be +.Jill= trJE= ql ,11+ +s-{ *C e+o14. ^ll4l4_s_-e +_s= g
    z] zso4 Eql g'JtrI. ^4olqlE
    e*E.J + +Al +Ase ^J{IElq *+. Hl{lr+ qlgfll
    ^Qolqle
    g HI*6Iq 9lE Hldl(ethyl benzene)g "JEr, olq^l qle fldg i1g9 +7)el4lq &
    s[ e +q]= E"4rlzlB g=+.
    ^4olHlg
    CEI E CH:CHz
    c=ofl +0fl
    + H2C:CH1 + ----------------

    -H2

    Eld 0ll=Jil! oll=J Elu relolal.l

    ol !+dql= a zlzl adol ?l+. r+ 6t+= aLt .Jpl¤+"J ^8c+3 El=71 916il
    ^I
    +q= Ee"J H141(A+E+E] eqd)I+ 9lBHl(t¤zt.E+q eqd)E fiol ula[
    q: =ts E6J
    aol4. Hl4l3 B.J Eeol+. olfl +dg q6|71 916I a]=ql= F t4lol'J *
    aol E+9lg $fal +r}]= ^l-8-6l.q ezs.cgl,rl ,il+grl HI+^l7l=.J +419 taee
    qlills.lS.E|.

    CHs :CHz
    g7l
    + CH3OH --------.-------
    =0ll
    -H2, -H2o

    E=Oll Dilg3 r.Elolfll


    =Tg

    olqf,.J +ce E+ql4 ql+gol Hl{]r+ "ilEele+ 7140]|*r, q 49 9lrlzlz}


    +41
    s+q= gg a3o1z1 ql+ql Hl¤¤ e"+g + 9l+. +7I4oJ dlq oE= qltrge ^JE
    z|fl(biomass)ql^l d^Ig + 9ltrl= a4, Hl{lol +Col 49 E+{loE qlilq$,q= a
    ol+¤ + 9l+. ol q: 4]E+ +dg g
    ^Jcq= +r= 9lHzl9 ++g-qtr +^l
    ol+.
    a6l= ql 9lq .J"*e +qlE 7l]ts61+ 4ol 9"I4 +s_+71-= Bq +r 9l+.
    H4 Elqtol +49 eg 6}t}^l7l= q Tlrl q= qlE ^J46ll Hz|.
    aoJzltE}l
    ElqI +aql^J +tr+++ +itsce #zl :4ElE9 *qle ^l-s6l= aolq. oJHI
    +716l.=
    zlse H}*ql^l +,1]= iHlqzl ?*zl"J, ofSr-l a{all^.i +dg a¤ollE Sollz} 4zlE
    tsil=q= ag rlg += SrI. rl9ol *,li* +Col 9i4+ HI* E+ql qL 4E +6IEI

    'P. T. Anastasg| I. C. Warner, Green Chemistry'. Theory and Practice. New Yorkl Oxford University Press 1998, p.304rl
    EJ+ll. ErJ Mike Lancaster, Green Chemistry'. An Introductory Texf. Cambridge, UK:RSC Publishing, 2010, 2*, tal'Jill.
    18.s +^4 alqf 851

    9rl ElzlEg,JEq E+91+.


    a.J4l "_4^ll= ^l-s"
    dti d¤'4etr +"]]= ^l-s6l+ ,JBg ql^ll6J + glq. a"J
    rLlBg
    4l +4lb Tlille+ "lill + 1l4E ceg r*= Ea tr-qlql llQ c.r-o (rr.a¤). EaI
    ol,$s+ e4= a"J4l .-q^ll
    +ofitr Tttl
    =ol+
    4ol= + 7l^l Eaol{. ql= Eq al=ql ,1]
    =61
    gg + 7I7l 4IB +4 ql^l= 94 q1 ffi$9e-9lB fl bolyt"trafluoroethylene, [cFrcFr],,
    e
    qlSE )E r+Aql^l +,l]= o_4ill E= a.J4l co2_e. 4^ll6}s.+.
    ^J&
    ulg CozE gd zlzllola=strg+s-e,ei
    6Izl"J, ag4l +ill= f.l6ll^l Co2= lle llag ge
    L ^l-eo6lzl
    E o]rl
    ui"'t.
    E EIE 4ls, u|4-zl"JHl(para-xylene)9 &4qq 4l4leB4}(terephthalic acid)¤ dd
    q+ql, olag +?-lqlBfl] qlqlsgqlolE(polyethylene terephthalate, pET) ¤
    =+^qr+
    ?-lql^El d+= "JE= ql ^F&gtr|.,,,,,:, (12.8E, g. l2.s).

    .r,@cH3 Et#e
    qal-^l.gE!
    +, o,
    ".JO[ -oH + 2 H2O

    flells=J^t

    olfl d'84 "Jqq Hlr4 tsg ¤e.21 ,q+g+. &lz1


    *de ot^llE&
    ^Ip+rilolq,
    (cH,cooH)ol f-ullolu|. 4illg + 9= += EI* atr= a.Jal Etg +,llE .r.l-$olr.,
    4&sI +A= tElzlle ^l-s6l+ 4o14. olfl ql^ll +ae 4. zlzl *4l4ql tldg ,*r
    llbuJl, zltl .=44"J ag ot^-1lE4Ig +,l]E ?+=+= 4o14.
    ^l¤-6}zl
    EJrC rlsf4oJ
    ^lE+ +t
    flzff .tl-$s]r, 9l= +4 slq+el + 7l^lqE rl ¤ul-u_zle aiz1.
    alolc e7=(hydroquinone, Ho-C6H*-oH)3 +oJill= EJE= tll
    ^l=&q= "JEI4.J
    olBlr.J 6}0lEe+lEel s= +94 oJCEe 4)=vl4E fl=ql, ql
    =!rJi,llol+. ^FSqr
    TlEe_ fl+q= Y+!- +d¤ol "J$oldrl.
    o

    2 + 4 MnO2 + 5 H2SO4 ----------> ) + (NH4)2SO1 * 4MnSOa + 4H2O


    \,1/
    o
    tril7lE

    o OH

    2 + Fe + 2HCl --------> 2 * FeCl2

    o OH
    6i0lE++lE

    +4 slEg g?-l= zj+dl^J ol 449 7Hc^la+. al-olctr7lE ^J&g +l+


    fl+zl-==g
    4]Ee +cql^J= ^llE+ Eeg ^Fs"d4. ^Is+ H}+ql^l "JEqzl= F zlzl 5-41
    =g
    E(+49.e +4ts)e E4g + 9lr, 4.++ EAg EIE= ql ^F.$¤ + 9l+.
    =g
    852 183 +eal+

    EE= EJ=71 ?l.-tl


    ='J +ttE
    ^fl8E1=
    CH.
    I
    4Dl]
    HO C OH ---------------- HO + OH
    I

    CH:

    CH,
    /
    C + HzOz -------+ HO OH+ o-
    CHe

    olEi+ 4lEe +dql^l=


    =g
    Eeg +^J6r= flz}9 t*3 ? Eol ^Jc5.il
    =qrlal
    I
    ag 9"lal-b'-fl2[ {x]l(atom economy)'E * qlol+.
    =
    +^4.=.E LtEtu .+ JE(trilts, o l^lE)o l ilEJfE-EE l.r 7l.gg n,l, o-l.o E ++lEp. gtr6l.7 l ?l
    A -.J atEoll^l*-t|.= flxl-= 6 614- EEl|E-stErl gr= 3rE +le?t?
    l

    L ^IleE

    flzl 3zll9 E trls ql= tlgq^l +zl(r) +,}]7t #zl olzlolc(azide)el9zl ull
    =zl]ts
    {(alkyne)ol E}*6}q ^JdEe 6J 7}zl Ez|= "JE= +¤-es, +s-4 e+.
    R2

    N.
    tc-ts
    R( =ru\ + HC:C-Rz Cu(I)
    HCN
    l\
    N \,/N
    olfLol
    0 f^tOlE a,tt
    I

    R1

    ol HI¤+ ulfill{
    o-eE EH H}*(click reaction)ol4lg. t4. olE4ql +gol ofH ¤
    e4.J f¤ol zlel 1007ogl Tlvl+4, P..JCEol uJ$olzlzl S=+. ole+eol ,ll+ trg
    zj"J HI¤+ olzlolEs-|.JzI.J9 BEllqI 44 EotExl f++ ^JCE Ezl¤ ElEq
    =q
    B + el+.

    HJ8 Ezl-+oil + 7fl g7l,oJ c B^lE +EoJ7l-?


    =4 =r|]6l.= =daF=

    EEI.qHI
    // -a.El ?llL{
    O H -IIE

    (a) tdul= gt40l 6Et^l= + 9t= 4ElA(EJt ed)ee oFolTl 849 a+ql^1= ExllTl'Elrl g=tl. ralLl g40l ale
    ^!g
    gt?l 3+0ll= 0lal-.J gqL[^l gr=tl'. olgZl 4algtol {tE Eral^l7l=71'? (b) EP pHE e7\l717l ?16l|^1, Hl+ g
    =it7f
    gTld 6+{v=4x10e ^ldel
    L)el pH= 5.00fl^l 6.5E 4Edl7l 9l6H gs-d AEl
    ll4oJ 6ll=140lz 5[^l'J, EeE
    ^lalg
    + ?1tr1.. 1t3
    (Cao)ol a|A EaJ= Zllt6l^19. !tr17f tl gg-.J 0l?= +1?l7l?
    eq ? ee 8q 853

    6tl*
    E4 +El t}Sol Fg.Jzl zl9tr ge-7} glr., fqd pu9 (3 x 10 TmollL)(4.o x 10eZ) :1x 103mol

    Hffi g o 71E ql gs-6J Eeel olg 41416l= ETllol+. u14,,l1 u*1aq)91 .Jq Hal-= + x toa mol- I x 103 mol-
    fl6ll^J=,1}ol qBril B{} *+'4 H}so6J
    z{lEl (a).ll B-6}71 4x tOa molol4.
    + il:4= ^J46J gsTI gl4. ol4.J Hl+e &r+ ElrJ"J "JE E+E E= &ol
    gd6l olgclgElr 7Ia4E,
    .Jq+zl ?*=trI. (b)E E7l +16|^l= 4F* cao pHql 7lq6l+ f4E u*1aq)"J ++qE gq. a+ql
    ^Iolql*]=
    qtr HI*ol .J"lBzl ^J46I g BszI 91"4, pi oltr+ "*g 4iol glg +E glzl+, 4qE ol aEe.l
    ^IolqlE =
    Eele4.J 4ltg 6l]ot +4. xilq]g pH Hoitr*Ei +a ol &g +cl6J 9ez1 94.
    g bEE $ffi 414a3 + fleq, HI¤¤ 9ozl7l gltil^l CaO9 {lc} ol93 u]]* g7l¤o14,.^:., (16.5¤). 6
    * caoz1E"t4 9g'*zl='Jol-g + 9lg 4o14. 3t+ HI+ql^], I molg Caob 2 mol9 H*eI Hl+6Iq
    E0l HzOeI Cu'*E
    ^Jd.J+. "I4rJ +r104 molel n*z} I
    (a) qI&9 +olg"J +11 olgg 9zlcol4 (16.2¤, 9-tr 6I= Cao9 o"Lg +g+ e+.
    ",r,o
    16.74). tr[4^J +4] olg(co:'z-)3 H*(oq)q q]+ei m+eact\ / 56'1 s CaO \ :
    ( 4 x tO4 m.,++f,( tz*rH{"-J(ffi I x 1o68cao
    4. H*(oq)9 bETt 4eE, +ddEe B&4e o1s- \ )
    (Hcor-;o] g+. :aell+ H*(oq)9:-"e.2l. $-9S, H2Co3 oldg cao IEE+ ErJ q gg "Jol+. otzl"J cao
    7I {Cqn, ol= coze} H2oB E6]]g+ * (+.:3). ql"d= +,}l ErJ 100831 olale z.lflo[4 +.J
    = ^lqlE
    (b) H+(aq)9 a7l.r-oEe+4*EoEEpH <i"il^l gg+ g + 9l7l qlEql oL+ y*g Hl+ol 5^l= *=4. rBl
    9lEI.
    + E+q= B qi&ol rl 1ol,e, ol
    [H*],"4 : 10-so : 1 x 10-sM =!E|99ot =4]g
    cao9 oJ$ ilAEIg gs+ oJol{.
    [H*]a+ : 10-6s : 3x lO*7 M
    4El4 %lBe qts zle ]L+E pH= q+7I ¤
    olel.J
    c.+9 +ElE ol+6tH, + pH ,Biql 46J H*(aq)9 5i + 9l= H+l.e a36l= EJI ^l¤-qr 9l+. gg qls
    E 4lrlg + el+. E+= 4+ ?olcl *ol o.sEtoJ CEola, ¤+ ,Jol= =
    (1 x to-smol lll)(4.0 x lOeL) : 4 x 10amol 20 ftol+.

    sE "J 6s tq
    rl+sl ol dql^l= ol4. ell+6tE e=+g +E 471 dEql E.ll^l=
    ^l+el 4rlq +.J Eel4 5C 'llrlg + HE
    EllTl(18.1tr)
    r+ p+q}4 ECg AE6Ifl4. 4zl9 +d* gE H+= 44E 5 +5]]+ zfEdel 5A ++g q46}q EIEoltrL. 4+fl
    ^l!617l
    aol ?lts ql ^lqg rJzlztl t4. ol ^lq + 7I* Pg *g rflFfl qllE l"l=J9 r]rl 4aJ Elolol ,ll+ +s6I+. ol+l6,J
    ^deq
    (troposphere)98.
    ^l+
    EEql^i+El *+ ntr 12 kmql Aa 9l + d+ + "*e aSol eg E.eol+. oltpi.+g -H.r| f.rJol ^ z3-

    q. ql+fl ^J+ql= a-E7l +716]F_ +^.le C=flGtratosphere), 6In, e "JeJ4l a + 6I+014. olae ¤L71 +ql^J 4tt}
    +rJfl. gflol 4zl9 /J.+ zlqql^l= Tftl rJEt6J cl sl +g B^d6I=q, +4IEl +3 Eq += +^l +4!g e^J6J+. ^ls+qq
    =46.J4. qlel 4I+Eg +!¤ul(acid rain)el ie TlqzlolE}. &g +Aql^l
    c}++ol ilqqzl oJzl.e+ ql"J +^Idg +4eE+El ¤"Itsg
    + 9lr+. +e 7trql^l 4zlg ¤t ezl*g xlf -EHg 4zl ¤ g^J6l+ soz9 ir¤g %I^16I:6I+E *Hg sozE caogl U*
    + B^IelE+ *4. r o1p zl-1t TIqg gzle+ tsal-=E ^J+ ^14
    o}+^i zJf,(casoJg
    "JEE aol4.
    g'F"J +tF+, Hg g+6t.1 Ezl 49 aaJg #b -46llzt ElB g5;s1,t cr(photochemical smog)E A4 &+Eq g+ol +g
    (photodissociation) rllgo1rl. +^idE ¤+= EoJ Etole-El EiE 6J q'Jg B'J6l= +*'J C+q g6JEolE|. /.Er C¤+ +e.
    (photoionization)$ 5oj "lgE ^JCg i4qlr+. zl+xl Ql{ql^J g^J6}q. ^.5r:1 zllqb +e uHzlE 3¤
    ^l-Er,.}
    ?lz g5rt xl+ol E1|Tl(18.2tr) s=g szld +ldc+ oz t9 Hl
    d+ aolq.
    qoeE*El q7l t+ql^J ol^lp+ +iel f6zlE
    4e_ldg ¤:+61+ +.e. qlTl r"rBol4.
    ^Jc¤r+. s=g
    ]J^IE B+L+ clr+ e
    ^l+E 9s5 9x1415 "ll+ 6,s6I+. 4
    r+4^l corel HroE ql
    g gC slEI+rlE EI*ql E6ll r-r--tr E6ll¤tr1.
    =eEE+9EEJA 7l +e) CorE bEeI }.9l e+J 7li{lGreenhouse gas)t 7l
    (chlorofluorocarbon)E. C+flql^l "J"Hfl HI¤¤ gs4^l +"ll ^l+E
    4 oe e=g ulq6J + 9l: g^l^J g4= ^JC+E+. 4zl t+91
    += aa6l+ ql +s{} qgg +tr].. s}^l ¤E(^1ts, zlE, A¤z}
    ,¤^l+ g= +=9 A^= d46IZl 6llEg a4¤ "JH9l+
    g^ qlEql 4zl 6 oltlsl ts^E *ETI e4lzl o
    A ^)9
    ^JE =46J
    854 183 g3at-+

    E 67161.r. ?lr, olE


    ^l+el ¤+
    .g-=.8 tt*.rlzli !l zl{a}=. ql 4*E &^ s+ ql7lEg +ol. 9l: +
    =^16l+ =^llb
    el4. B6l r.a^I4 Er7lE +oll, slAE g^J^lrJtrl. 4E ^l^=
    go}tsg

    xl+e] E(18.3p) zl+E Eg ql++ ql"J+ EI+q tr| +g trI 4I^ s+ qlTlEol q= 54 C+g +11^l?-e-s
    ^lEe-l
    +^J zlg ? E"Jol Bfol4. Bl*Eg =x||*trI.
    es}lrs :.s"za9 99
    qr 4 +4lE g^J^lrJE+. .J*Et(desatination)t.H}RE E= Sgql
    Ee-61-r. 9194, Es(satinrty, E I kg'j a=6'J gE 3rj) rsE
    +oI glE 953 tzJol ,rl-$ z]9.6|E+ ^1146l+ dol4. Bfs*
    Tl4clir_7l+g+. HI*EE Hl+r+ gE=,Jolq q+ H6J+. : ++ EE 98FE(reverseosmosis)ql e-]611 zl?-l¤EI.
    ^ll
    4le-1 4+BE Eg ql"Jql 9l7l Eligql, "JrJg e+ql= B+E HI
    B+e+q E= Ee TIAql^.] ^l^8-6t71 dql ^lr]E Ese 6t
    rl. .JHi4 E^l ^J+E E aJqBql^l tlzl t4l=
    ^l-s"6}i 4.
    Ell
    Rge+q ElfB $ez| gl4. zl79 E +:*e S+4"J EE tL ztz)Etl. er}. q4 4E.,*71Fr+, t+ol+.
    H4¤ eElttr|.
    ?lrJ gEiat +tr(18.4tr) g-; gr.zl q qE +^J cBilql g +^4 AF(18.59 +^{ tl¤l(green chemistry) 4lqg "JrJE arJ
    zl{oir. +}ag tr+g + 9i= s}s+ Ee4 +Ag ¤416}r -&
    oll
    ,s-6J ¤+ tag +a;-a1q *g +"lE Eeg Eei6in 9lEI. ^ll+
    ql 96ll +dlq: EAg gE6fl¤(biodegradable)olzp.6J+. ¤¤ +{61+ a.l+. +aq {$ zfl{a}s$ 4E" g + 9l= +^q
    ^JE
    6ld c.zl{ ,r13q1 9611 4}+ElE +ol 9l:4}4.8 4E6}
    +qq ?lq=+qlH]*ql gs++,l]e+Hl¤¤el dq, ql"J+C
    =idol
    Alqtl qlEql, olq{} Eee 4}^ ef $lzl$olr}I6JE}. E+
    9 zHB. 7l= ^l ^H.!+ *+'9 zl]dg E.J6J4.

    t++ tal ot Bs B+EJ +01 qq5e E1gE


    :d
    + erotor :dtrt

    . 7trql EI+ gETI gtrIl+ ts61+7le zl+ 4zl9 H?15 zl¤ +H g+ ETil: 18.29, 18.30, 18.33, 18.34
    ++(18.1¤). +d ¤+ ¤.41: r8.ll, 18.12 . 4zl 69l.rl Er+ ol4lg+ Btz1qgr11 e¤ Ell¤ FaI¤ 4zl
    .dl+Eql^lE ,14Jo7lE +s g gEq g6J¤ +=7f= zl¤ql4(rs.z¤).
    ^Jeos 4zl9 7c9 ¤B6JtrI
    (rs.r¤). +{ ¤+ +.41: 18.14, 18.16 +H ¤+ ¤i4l: 18.35, 18.36
    . E"J +g "J(ppm) B9le. z1^11E
    L"EE 4l4l6J4(ra.rg;. . E +Elg 7l¤+Ef(18.3¤). +H ¤+ +.41 : r8.3e, 18.40
    ^l+el
    +H g+¤i4l: r8.r3,r8.rs . EE gETI #9.9 9"lalEzl ¤E6In, B+El %FH
    "-e
    q+
    . *"lle.ld *"lgql HJ+ nlan+ 471 ^Jeq^.1 ra=gl Egg *Ag 7l¤6Jtrt(18.4¤). +¤ t+ ¤!41: r8.4s, 18.46
    .FH
    ¤EEL4(18.te). +d 9+ E^ll: l8.le, 18.20 .agE E.q +^16I: +s6J oJolg, ¤.ol¤, Tlill# g46f
    .
    "JBll/l "i *olSE] +¤¤ "Je7l=
    rll peoJ 41154 sy n, +6llg t^e|+A rJel +alE zl¤d4(rs.+¤).
    414 r++g ?e} qluJzls} ol$E} olluJzl$ Al4}++ +¤ ¤+ E4l: 18.43, 18.48-l8.so
    ^1.&6}q
    1ts.t¤). +A g+ E4l: 18.17, 18.18, 18.21 il?]6lE ++al- ¤zlt4(rs.a
    ^FSq= Eg
    . z|{$-e_E
    . tr.? 47lql^l s¤ol qB4 +irltlE E]l"J +^Idg qr+6lq A). +d S+E4: l8.sl-18.s4
    4la6}.=^l= ¤B6ln. qErll 3eE¤+e-eei.(cFc)71 9- .+^4 Elqr"el +s q4g 7l¤+EI(18.s¤). +d gf E4l:
    ileql ¤6Jg+=71¤ ¤B+trI(r8.re, r8.2¤). 18.55, 18.56
    ="E
    +H S+ E4l: 18.22, t&.2s,t8.27,tB.2B . HI¤¤¤ Eli6}n, qB +Aol q +a tlslzl.JzlE ac*+
    . +71 sg5E^lel + 4IEl¤nI e^ tq¤g ,J^J4 zE¤ 4l (te.sd). +d 9++4: 18.s8-r8.60
    d Hl I d^JnI oj+E+^Er= sEr4q ¤EdJtrI(l 8. 2¤).

    oJ+ +4!
    tse.e.H.ts 7llLJ s0 kn ntrql^1tr4 ss km r.trql^J q 4tg PulE zI
    18.1 298 K, 1 atmq^J ol$ zlx.ll l mol9 +q:. 22.4 LolE|. dr+: ag elulapzf! ¤B6l^le.
    1ro.+¤) (c) q71fl9 qL ++ql^J zlAltl zl* ol.^J-4ss 7lEo6J
    (a):B 18.19 trr, I mol9 ol$ zlillz[ c6flql^JY aol4n qhlq=7p (-5rE +qI4 HI¤--a- +^l6}^le.)
    22.4Ltsr+ +r'18 714 A"J7l. zfg +q= 714 A ;ra.r¤1
    =
    ql+oJ
    "Jzl-.= + 9l=7I? r8.2 Al+ qlTlql flE Ezl+ +'J eQ}ol olu ol+ e+4 c.?
    (b) rH ls.19 .H-H, 65 1qn ;tq ur| s0 km rrtrql^lE g a6Jg E6J6Iqb Aolol ?14. olE ¤B6I^le. [rs. r d]
    E7t *g ag "J + 9l+. ol4¤ r mo19 0l1r- 7lill7t
    E+ E^ll 855

    r8.3 trlg:1Hg xl+ 47lE 7I^J *g 49 zlEg Eq er+. 18.6 rl*g


    gETi 3sol+. Hl-*Eql +oI 9l= b
    ^ll ^l+9 ^=:9
    [ra.r?] -!ri.ppmo_? +Ei,jlH guloJTI? E}+(+dls:r+ < s00
    (a) 4 zl99 ol+g "5Ii1. ?4lz| 444= ql+el rE= pp-)e I4El7l el4^l= Hf*EE+El 91 rldlEg i;iol
    E^l6I^19_. 41 7.1 qqol 6I=71? [rs. r31
    (b) e3o1 eg Eeol 9E zl93 9Q.JzI? q! zlqql 18.7 +g rBr+ ,Jol 4zl +E ol4}sl E1r21,,.141e.1 rl"Jr+ ^J
    Ell"J +^Id 6 uvE q+6}q x]l46t=7}? s ++6IE "lE Eolzl. "J"l+Ezl zlfa[.r]9-. [rs.E¤]
    ^l
    (c) 49d¤ zlf s.Bee+q ,I+ r}dlal HI^I6I+ zlq
    3 ol4tz}? cozk)
    (d) s.Eql^l {}=oee ss-es km q= 4rlq^]E g
    ^l+
    zle+ Ez}s] t$q q'J S**(aurora borealis)ol $r]
    +q. rBE "l- zl9ol ++"J g^Jrl salz} llEzf?
    (e) ol ,r11
    ^lqql^lgl
    ntr ¤!7lql qE ++rle+ ol&s+ +i
    el t}4zl t.E H5+5 Eljr'6t^le.
    II
    V
    C
    COT(r,ql rltltet
    rfl$

    B
    18.8 California ? Carlsbad9l fl= q+F"J =otl9l^19 a H4
    +l.cg r+r+ zJol E9 Hl+], E4, ^laql Eor+^lz gq+
    A aol4. ol r+aol 5c+ E4g ^ll4.J + ?l4l=z}? ol
    =
    r+aol +4qq g.= i?¤ 4146J + "^)Ayzl? [rs.a3]

    r8.4 BCol "14 5+E E^lE +ldJ xll49 EqEe


    = =4.=
    9l¤zl4 Aol oJ6J+r.6IzI. r ql¤7f= 44Eql 9H zll I
    EE ¤ a"Jal d4 +o14. 9lrt-.l.E 9l¤zti El+ ++9
    4I^dEl7I s{ 44 i'iqB aol4= olotTl
    ^l.Jql ^48+
    Efl7l EjlEol+. EIrJ"J, 44^1, a+ "l +E xfl-eS9
    =
    rle$ 4af4 4lsr.1q1,t'1 ¤elql e*E"J %r-il6}9+. r4
    HI'IE
    -a {zl! og qBg aE6Er.. ¤+9 +c"}H+.
    ^lEg +EEJ
    [rs.z¤]
    (a)ojE ++ol 6l'+ E=:1 ol$$ xNEzf 44+ql 4'J+ a
    zlE AEAA]a}flbzl? e4
    O) q¤ Elq4 I}a(qJol +eg 4Eq Hslql 7l* :La
    L.
    F6,J goJol qkTf?
    r8.s olLJ qlo&g rluli {9-tr +aq= 42s,ooo k*rE Bg + ^PJ
    .+
    tsrlzlE qqzl= qqtr+El ^E7l}-7l? [rs.:¤]
    qTle g7l^l= l8.e :LH 1s.239-tr+El g4rJ +Bol oJ e rJ + 9= E1"J6J +l
    rl+el =
    EtlTIE a sgg 7l+61^ls.
    f-- 18.10 :+aE+qel olr-f$ ul;-!|r.lL'"ltlsl +4 qltl'g ¤+B
    ol+. .4qxl= Ezl oJtE g-*rEJ jrBl6iq ,$g +qsl
    tr(^lEe co,E ,JAg 4E q+ql q "*e
    ^l-8-61+q,
    cozE tsrJED, EllH l6E EIEIEE corTl- qlTlql +7Ig
    4r +C6l-fiE+. E+4 SEE g^EJse.r,tl uN$ ssq E
    rilg
    ^.fl4tel
    4 corzy Eil7lql trlsi{q. q +46l-H(+^l "JrJ g+'J
    nq6}q), qlTlE dzlle. otl'J ::9 E9 co,= ¤+6J+.
    856 183 EZ6t-+

    HlHql ql"Jol ,llE zo9 Eg ¤:+6J+. trI4^l ,llrJ ¤E 49q zl+H Br\ q= Eil4q=¤ ¤E6}^le-.(fl
    o].4lql
    g + SE ta9 E9 corTl Bt.+. rllTl +ql^J co27}4l E: E+4 ¤EE ".?gg F{.Jz}?) [rs.r-re.:dl

    3.3+0.2 2.0+ 0.8: *El{+


    + biffin fif.s birion

    8aJ gitlB +! **f,u* =&*


    HTAH
    =o
    YZ 'V
    t.\

    aal

    rG ":\ \

    rl+el cflzl(18.1tr) r8.17 +4_uEEJ a6JE 6llzl qlq^l= dB4eE 276k|/mol


    l8.l I (a) 4zlE 4E ¤9Ee e6J6l+ aql ++ "Jil4.J g oltrt.
    alE +t.J7l? (a) c-Br aqlg 5lr]^la + flE "Jztg slql sl+g g
    (b) 47lE ¤qEg 44ql +6iq nEE +4¤- s^l6f ofoJzI?
    r, r ¤qE olS-$.arle. (b) z}eld, 7|^l*d, 4qd 6 qH ++q {z}z} $.<}rj
    (a) qlTlE ¤9 rlol9 aalE qBal calgEzl? ol (a)q^l al4l+ ultlq ail..r9Ezl?
    18.12

    O) qlq 3s km FT1E C+flol 44 tz km F4lE ql+A 18.18 cF3clq^l C-cl e6J 4El qlLJzl= 33e kllm6lolrf.
    trtrI d8l dzlol zl* olrg¤ ¤¤6}^le. ccLql^J c-cl aqlE 6l?-l qlq^lb 2e3 kl/molol+. 6J
    18.t3 El^l? Er.l zl$ei t7l egg alslol4. e^Iq^l= c-cl ¤*g #^1"J. EIE ts4ql^lE #g +
    ^lq
    E^l? ^lEl9 9¤ L"Eb
    ^.ll4lql^J
    441 ppb(0.441 ppm).+ +Aq flb J*zlE slt H9lb EutoJzI?
    9.4. E^l?,tlrl$ l=.3 7400u1ee,1'1. rt$ rllzlojol 18.19 (a) *44 HI*4+olgqHI¤¤ +E6t^le.
    0.67 atmE*9l .J gr+E 1¤ 90laJ4. (b) olEl+ F r+aq $eal ollLJzl;i rqzf oj
    ^l-s6lq
    (a) QlzloJol 0.67 atm9 419 ++t ppb *EE zlzli 9.$ e0 km EIEJoJ ul. &ag
    "J6ll?] HI*ol 4I4E *olg
    E ++ oJqg al4}6l^l9.. EI Hls" trtr} +-B-6J ol ff ¤B6I^le_.
    e$ =
    o) E^la ^lqg +i71 r.0 L ?ql $zle.l zll
    r8.20 4zl ?9 Nz9 *6114 uJ+ol orel o}6llBl +s"84'J +
    =46f=
    ih 9rl'Jz}? T:25"c8 7lA4^ls. s6J olr?+ Fl.Jzf?
    18.14 _E zleePel. di.il TloJol 1.05 baroJ 4l ol+Ipl E
    18.19 18.21 02 +^l7l7lr* rti;lAl g:+61+ Hq :+*g 44 tas nm
    4.e| olezel +g $qg 4l4l6l^le. olEI.
    ol!++9 d^I7l r-'ilEElol ol "l9lull*9=z}?
    ^lg *71 + "Jtlc} e4E B+ +E=
    18.15 2006LJql Ohio (a)
    3.s ppmolfl4. 75e torr9 "J4, zz 'CE gEql^l ol +71 (b) EI+ol 145 nmoJ %'-zF= aq+ 9lHzlzt ae5 kllmolgl
    1.0 Lq +xl6lE co EzfE Zl+=- 4lt}6}^le. ozE *Edl6ITlql +ts6J qlq^lE 7l^ljt_ olzTl? 02
    18.16 (a) s. 18.19 xle.EP4, 4zl t qlgg *E= H pp-t E g-olgEl6l7lq= +Ee qLl^l= zlzl:L flizl2
    7l? (b) 730 torr,2e6 K= 7Ia6Iq, q7l + qlgg bE= 18.22 z}9d ^u.lEHg !++ql q+ El-e--r+ zJg t4l4 ¤9 "-+
    ?]ElB B^I B9le gEloJzp Ll-ts+ 9l+.
    E6 Erll 857

    - i
    Uv-A(3ls-400 nm), UV-B(2s0-3ls nm). UV-C Bd6IE, &tElel ¤6Jg ",)*r4? ¤B6I^le.
    (too-zso nm) 18.32 +71 6ql d9 uerlzlH +^lel a *4lE pe2*Eq tlsl
    (a) qL +Eel *^f7I 7|t +g qlulzlE zlzll goq, **o14.
    ols oJ6ll gol9b azlql 7l* 6llegzr? (a)tE *+ s+q Hl+^lg 4j1, er+ &^e+ &¤ElE+
    ^JB^llel
    (b) efol fl= a+, ol gq + ql7l7l ++qE ae Elg .Jd^lelE HI+g Eol^le.
    ^ll
    "l¤ l"Jzl? O) eg s.Eql^.lE ee ++9 t}*ol g"lB aol+n
    (c) 4d"JsoEE s+ol d+?q EE zlqdg qtlqbTl? ¤B6f^le_.
    =4]6IE, r+zl
    zlf s.Egl Eg6I7) dql ++qb7}? *+8, zl5i1g gag TIHI ¤eE d17l71^ql^l *.oJql61olE
    9E ¤9ol ¤4xlzl ?*Ayzl? (cHro)= g^J^lA+. -EoJqldlolE=
    "*6il?-i HI¤¤ 44
    oJa gErt rl?E -rs-l3 ,\E r gdql
    Efl7l(18.2E)
    ^l
    *slq 7lq6J4.
    rs.23 e-= raq +fl¤ HI*ol &t gz}9 &sI 1IEIE Eq¤ CH2O+hv+CHO+H
    -Ee-q+7I2 dB6I^le. ol HI+g
    "J97lb qgl alql u}1t9 ass nmolE|.
    18.24 E+g + qB Hl-&ol d+fl .llel gE ^J+g to vlYTY? (a) d^I+ q! +Bql^] ol E++g 7I^lE q
    (a) o(S) + oz@)
    ^EEHe]
    g ga6J f il:z}?
    os*(g)
    (t) os*(S) + M(S)- O:(g) + M.(g) (b) 33s nm H9 *zl-= *+6lrq #g + 9lE a*E ai4
    (c) oz(S) + hv - 2o(g) ktlmol tfle gulqlzlr
    - + No(g) + N(s) ^llzlE
    (d) o(s) + Nz(g) (c) (b)ql^lE 6llBg .E. 8.3q1^Jel<Fl Elj/sll .tr^ls. +
    (e) 919 qld+ oJqlololEel c-H A* qlLl^lql +6J aE¤ +t9l
    18.25 (a) EtrtrsFeE+^e+ 6lolE.e.*+es+Cq ilol= 7l?

    +L"J7p (d) +.gql6}olEE BrllE *¤¤ Lewis d +44otr +


    (b) 6}0lEE=.+e_E+i7i cFC-H-El s#ql^l s44e EIq^ls.
    EJ 6llE+ ol++?
    -e. rs.34 *+EI4 ^s: ^dCql^1g
    =!s+
    HI¤+ Noz9 *6114
    18.26 E-e-e.E+g+.+i cFC-Il, cFcl3ql *t Lewis 7=4 +gol+.
    g r;l^le_. ol .gAq olE slq4 5C"l C+Aq s+ NO2+ft2.+NO(g)+O(C)
    9 sg4 "-e aztxlzllzl? olElei Hl¤¤ .Jea + flE H9 aq y+tlg azo nmol4.

    t8.27 c-Fe+ c-cr aqlg B+ a+ q]gqb 44 48s kt/mot


    (a) d^Ir+.EEH9 ol: ffioll,tl ol riltlg T}zlb H
    r+ 328 kl/molol+.
    g BaE+ + 9.lE7P
    (b) 420 nrn 49 Bzl¤¤+6lq #g+ il= A'Jq 4Eil
    (a) $xlzp 714. + 9l-".. c-Fe| c-cl ¤qlg #g + 9l
    kllmol *91=. guloJzlr
    +B6J qq zlE zlzl= alql a+*Z 44 *9..JzI? ^JlzlE
    (b)
    = qTlql ¤46I: oz, Nz, o= ++ol 240 nmE4 (c) ol
    *6Irl HI*g re*i' e +=4otr +4ql^ls.
    ^J+
    4e qg ql++ ++61+Ell, reqE c-F aqlE %I :g 18.l2ql +E+u zl+el qlqzl +¤g nq6}^le-.
    s6ll7l-*g r.il7lql^J "tol g^J¤ 4otr qltEl=7f? (a) E zlzls-l +E ++el =gol rllzlE qlq^lE ag6[
    -rs;s y7l? 7l* gi.}.3 Elil= ag F{.Jz}? 471.e. d
    18.28 (a) ¤4 flilzl r)lzl6E s-¤4 Hl+El trL E]* ^J^JES
    olqb qq^19=
    +EoJ7I? +*(w/mr)g gEloJTl?
    (b) Bt
    a6J elgulql zlae ql. c-cl a6Jg 6llqg + (b) tBg ++L} ^l+ sEos q
    +z16l-71 9oll, 4zli
    qlqzlE gq qEot
    9l= *^l-7f c-Br 4E.9 6llal6l+ ql ++6-J qq^lE ^I,$g {.=6}sE4 ¤++ "Jg
    tJ4. zl7 EHos= %L=qb +^ide] Elgg gEI
    tl$ A"e {ltrlbzl?
    oJTl?
    (c)CFBrizlsff,el a?J.g7l+^17) asE qtl-E.lb7l?
    18.36 pldE Atl}. sey"zl corolq, s.EE "Jqg "J 6x r0-3
    18.29 Noz4 Noe+ ag e^. tI+Eg &dHlq +sL g.Jol+.
    ol E^l¤ 44ol E49 BJ¤¤ F6li qgal 4lg atmol4. _eq +a EqqB rqlolrj(REMs)ql el6ll+tr
    ^JC6l+ ,J +Ag A4q qeE, REMSTI 9lzl6J cldE B+ +
    Bq += HI+4g ^(.^le.
    ^l
    gjirll, 9!$ol z|$zJ + gE= -s.7"C(22"F)oJ HlE, ¤+ olzJ $Ei -7e.C
    18.30 sozq rJS e-9 zlxllzl
    =4l6}al5. (-roe"r;o14. olelal $E HPIE g4zl zl+ql^l AE6t
    s.tr.,tld'J ol+E?
    b aB4 ¤t =.+. q¤ eoJol ole| Aol 'Jg gE Hcl
    18.31 (a) tl^JHlql E6J 4q4(cacoJ *49 ¤Bril += e+El ql TI\I qgg 6l^=7I? r)l7lg 4,BoJ7L otqB 4zlg
    HI*^l¤..r,-,r19. =
    El E ol 7Lo
    a! r-ll I I

    (b) "Jg 4sl"J 44E.¤. iltsl4q +& a+E _EH+3


    858 183 EJ3-t+

    rt+etE{18.3¤) Hl+ ++9 ql+B(7s%)g oJ+6Iq .*7lql


    ^F8,6lr.lq},
    t8.37 gETl s.6olI *99 gE.zf 1.03 I
    g/mlolH, ol NaCl ol zlq +"Jg g¤+g 82"/o= ++6J+. szll i]]i=Jg ull
    ojql.<l Na+g E]tsE= golqlzl? g E l8oq ,JflolE,t.
    18.38 6H+ql qlE .Jg a"*s-e 0.07 ppm CEoltrf. (a) ol 600,000 tm2 xlggl rllEl= ,J+ 7 zyozl ql#g
    oJ ol ol
    =z]]6l+
    +jls+oJ^I g (Hrpo4-) s _tr 7Ia 6In, ill+s oJ6ll Sq{ Sg il+E ql B3-
    ^l+A+qE.
    4l+ql H2po4-9 gr-o EE Alt}6l-^l 9_
    =4.J+I .J EB+ rJ+elg gul-¤oi 6l+7I?
    G) qq6J 44ol ++E + Hl^ +4lE goJol qyzl?
    ^J
    Eg +g qlgrl= 40.67 kl/mololtr|. ^l+ s.Hql +q^l
    ql.J*g zll+ulEB 168 wE EE;J4(I w:1 watt: erJ gEal +e(18.4E)
    -rajs =I I/r. r8.4s q¤ d8l 4+ EET! o.z2 MoJ g+E, ,(fgol u|
    ^IBol
    (a) E9 ="Bol ezl 4.JsE+Elg qlqzl +Eql 9.J+ d + 9l= 0.0r M.r-oEtr 4+ 6J4¤ 914 qsFH
    g =ol7l
    n 7IA6}J, * rzt1z1E9l4.JE l.00xllEitrlEl y E ^l¤:6}nz}
    6Jqn zlAdl H^1. 2eB Kq^l 4E6J+n
    ql^l P r+el Eol ="BalLzl Zl4I6I^le. 7lC6J trll, olBl6J +49 B^J6t7l 9l6il F+zl(fH rs.zo)
    0) "lalE9 ulgg 4.rB4tls.Col{. EJoJ qlolE 1.00zll 9l zlalo;61+ 4i s¤¤ 9ot"Jz|? (rJe: l3.sa +4)
    +Elq ++E Z7l eETl26 "ColE, 12^l+ 5oJ qi 18.46ut*89 C+ olge_l }E= *. l8.sq +gqq flq. ol
    "JH +ql flg +ql al+
    gEE BotoJzI? (olEll tlH Ef*Eql +.il+ E+lF Alilzt z}¤.61q +++g Eol qtr
    slT| S,4r 7fA6In, {ol{ol +.J6|rll 10.0 cm zJol 0.02 M4 +E E.bE= r*Eqa 7146ll BzI. 2e7 Kql^l
    zlzl f$a;]Qa rt{qlq.) E++Sol g^J6IE+ + geeE Tt6llot 6|= 4^ "Jq
    tl8.40lEE ¤+ qlBul= 6.01 kJ/molol4. ^l+ .*.Bql +qil 3 guf'Jz}? (fle: t:.s¤ *a)
    4"Jxlg 4l+ol4B 168 wE #.6J+(1 w: I watt: r&4? 84, +^, tI^, +, e^q +l^E sF+61+,?zl E4ol
    =
    I r/r. El-s aa6}ql^l E6Ig q grl6f
    ^Jcq= +F ^Jd+g
    (a) g+ol +zl 4oJ_s_EP49 qlHzl +Eql eldl +=+
    ^19.
    L 7la6}n. * ntlzJ +qI 1.0041+ulrl$ xl$oll,tJ (a) s.7l^J aa G) e7l4 v4
    H r+9 ggol E$ aoJ^l Zl4}6l^ls.
    g+q ul99 z.o:z I/C'Coltri. EJoJ 1.0011+trlE]
    18.48 Bf"ll +oI 9lb t^E bETl +eq +s6J ^ls.7}
    (a)
    (b) q= ol+E ¤B6I^le.
    ^l
    qE ggE z7l *E7l -s.0'c+H. l2^lA E.I"JH
    (b) 4el 4+ +, gEq qE 7l,,ll +6llE E+= +4l{:
    g 4oJ +9 4l+ gsE 9"I.J7l? (oltr]l ArEs}zl S
    rBg +iz, 30 "cE Eql^Jel oz *4EE 20'cg E:
    r+n 7146II., 4olHol +.J6}rll 1.00 cm Aolvl^\+ ,'I Eljl6lq #a iz} + zlq+vl^l4=oll -u-rlg. ol
    r+tEln rIC+E+.)
    Ae A¤+9+erl qBal g+g + 9lYtl?
    Elfe+El Elrql+g q+6I= a H4 E4lE ug(oH), ra4e .++g -.,?zl 901¤3 ql++E ^ll4lql^l E + 914.
    E caoq EI8^14 {{,rlz15 4o14.
    -rsrrM**(oq) + CaO(s) + H2O(l) .----- Mg(oH)
    r(s) + Caz+(aq)
    H3C-(CH2)e SOr-
    1000 lbE ad^l7l: q] ge+ cao9 ¤=*9
    ^ag(oH)2
    rC --, ellolTL9

    18.42 +g 6ll+q^l e*e-+ oJ o.os ppb9 ul]s qg i6s-e golgol +¤-r+ ag oJ^leE Ezl{ $aN +¤¤ zlrl+
    ga¤+. +g +4'J qI t:oopel4a 7tA6lE, p"I"JE r.7IA4 B^1.
    g 6I+(L ++l)E i.l7l6lq r.000.000931 TIilE g 2Cl8HzeSOt(aq) + 5lO2@Q '------->

    I f 9lEzf? (6ll+el =¤
    r.o: g/ml4r 6Ir, + sl+
    "JEb
    36Co2@fi + 28 H2O(,) + 2[+(aq) + 25C42 (aq)
    *AE Egg so%+r 7fC6Jtrt.)
    10.0 gel ol Eeg Ell ge+ orE d4 a"6tg
    o1U=ql= Flg olgol !|zlg, +EllE oJolgr+ golg ^JB6ll6l+
    9"toJzl-?
    E dAl dal+ +Cg +xl6llo} {}E}. s r8.sq +g¤ 6ll
    -*n, ++71* *pd.Ozl] olg(Ct, Na+, SOr2-, Mg2+, Ca2*. 18.50 oll9
    "l*ollrl '{q^l= d-+ql E6I ^qq= or9 ¤t 4
    e*¤ t'JB se golul. e ppm 02 ++oJ E q elEiTI oJ+
    K*)"Jg nel4q oflf r.o Lq s{}g oJolg + d6l¤ E
    r20.0008q1 E6lq 6l+ql &J:E som jLrJ^171i71?
    E ++l.E al,$6}^le. 6ll+ r.0 rql EBB golgel + d
    6l-= EE ++1tr 4l4l6}^ls. q 7lE +a ;^l7l + *^l 18.51 uf:ullf, olgg i4q(ca(oH),)E e7}6lq Eql^l zllz
    ql F"J6Irll +416t=7t? B + 914. ol 4Ag +48 + 9lE +¤ *= s++ HI+
    g¤ 7l4l'ql^J s.t|'$ ogallala 4# r ,(lg.
    t8.M x1lts.3¤9 'E}E ^ls
    +7f fl# E^]l 859

    18.52 *Ell E^lql H:qb Egl 4+=J g+ +detr ^lSqfl oltrl. olql ql"J qlq]g tcg 4,tlg+ +de+. r.r,ll zlzli]l
    'J 4q ^u|(lime ¤plB8 4sle+ eAI AE-e--tr ^J
    soda) +lq 6+"J +^leE ol+qd +EliE aol+. ol
    ^l^.s6le
    cg +4}s+ ?i¤ Bztal{ ca2*E cacor(s)E, Ms',*b +Eu= Hl+ sqlEE+q dal q+g+.
    Ms(oH)z(s)-+ ad^la+. (a) 44}cl +^_+ 4Eg qEee &sl6l+ *+ql^J EIE

    Caz*(aq) + COr2-(aq) -+ CaCOs(s) +41¤--n +t.l +Eqe 9lbzl?i


    (b) zllrlE +aql^l +^l slqq 9E fl4z} t?9Ezl?
    Mg'*@q) + 2 OH-(aq) Mg(OH)z(aq)
    4 -
    [Ca2*]:5.0 x IO M, [Md*]:7.0 x l0-4 MoJ 1200 Le]
    18.58 4g HI+g olflE +{E 4941 cozGccor)e| g4F+
    5e fl+Et6tHE, ca(oH)zei Nazcor H Eg flzloloF ¤ +,l] cH2cl2e} q+4 ^l-S6Iq +Eg+. 4 +'ll qlql^l
    6l+zI? E Hl+ql +aJ Hl+ +.5aE4 xtE= r4EE E^l6fflE|.
    4l sccoz= aol +^q sl4 HI+q +g qrl9b
    18.53 (a) E 4olEE.qlq oJ(rHM)g 59.q1zp ^1.&61+
    7l?
    (b) THMg] + 7l^l qlE 5q Lewis 7449 ^A^lg.
    r8.54 (a) E^l ^J+E +d a^Hl^i ue"J& olg(Bro3-)ol a H:c. ,Ph scCO, H'C\.'*H
    FN - prl\rupn
    7lc6l^f. ol olg9 g+ 9l Ph
    TfolaJ Ir +oll

    =qflEta =zlb "l4zl H


    Y7l?
    (b) H +El& olgg olqH $flz1lolz[! 100
    ^IaI4loJ7t,
    +^4 al:q(18.5tr) 80
    r8.ss +4 ql+g g"-l 6 6I+= 4lee pI+ Eeg ^J4I6J trI
    E + 9l= 6J, 4e +41= ^l-s6l+ 401 4 ++: aol 860
    q. olq6J g?-l= qB4 qlqzl ngrl Sdol 9EzI? g
    %so
    18.s6 qg4l +,llr} *ag q E.¤4 oe uJ=|zl¤ E96I^l
    9.
    20
    4* EI*r+ rJol Bayer-villiger HI*S 4lEg qEsE
    Ir 4oll
    H+t6l+ nd4.J #zl &El HI¤.ol+. 0
    -r*., o 0123456789 23 24
    il ,\lr.(h)
    ,C \cH.
    l8.se +g + q- EIE+ +col trJ $4 tlEi4.JzI? ¤B6I^le.
    H,C
    -l
    HzC
    t' +
    CI
    --------t
    (a) $ulle,tlg HI4l EEE
    (b) HI¤- gETl soo K E+ looo K
    4lE 3-Eee-zfE^5 (c) +tE.tr. gE| s.E
    ^E =-e-eg,(cHcl3)
    18.60 trl-g + q- +E| +aol q *4 {s}4.J2}? ¤86}^le.
    (a) 3s0 Kollrl l2^lA EoJ +Ell S.ol +Eg + 9lE HI*

    + EL eoo Kql^l l^lrJ EoJ 4^l-8:ol 7l+6J +E|6lql^l


    +qg + 9lE HI¤-
    (b) +++ aeE+El Eg + 9lE HI+ .rlo+ sE Af.E
    aJE 3_=e_trE!^t
    +q Eg + 9l+ HI* ^lE
    ol EI¤+ ¤4^qni qE+g zlla6li rJl .rl-.*¤4. 3-3
    ^JC6t^l *= +A
    (c) *^}89 dq eE P^JES 4E
    e e+Hl44}(3-chloroperbenzoic acid)3 +4ql ErJ "JA +4q al++6lE +A
    6ln, +g6t: a.-}ol glEl. E6J 3-=eeHl4tg qlTlE

    +7l oJ+ E4l


    18.61 B^lel a+ 6 '{L
    Eol 4lE 7l^}ql^J El^¤- 6}=¤ H rr d Egg 6J Zl EE f zl] {e^le.
    Eg g619+. 18.62 qE- 4Cq^l 4zlzl rr L7o/o. CHr 38o/o, oz 45%o-e. +^JEl
    (a) 4lcEl o) gd zlxll (c) *si4 ^q: (d) e-.= rrJ q 9i+r TICal] B^1. .s.Eql^lel Ei. Ee"*g 9"ioJzl?
    4 6}+ql +aH ,Jt6IZl ¤B6Ia, 44ql +flE cI4 EE ozzl +6llelq= -]1Eq^le.l ¤+ e%Fg g"I.Jzf?
    860 183 gZ++

    18.63 "JoJ B+ 03-+^I7I C+flql^J oll49zl dq +^l ?4. co,E 4E zl4l54 olEl+ +dql^l tsli6}al
    100-2004 F"J"J'^d+'"J+H, qgzl o37I xlE.Soe+ BE"ol-Yzl?
    El trnql a+9)i7l? (b) ol :1gg 7l+ Hp+ Ezllql 9lq qB Ag oJ^l6l+7t?
    18.64 lj rA.Zr+ rS.SE ElzlE l8.10ol E-a- .H-ol^19. 4
    ^l
    18.6s crcg q¤ Stol +oJ'+ *84 ¤+ql flg ol*4.J E 3.5

    e-e. UJE= HlE, C+AqlrlE ^Jzl4.J E4l= oJeTlal fi3


    E
    z'5 -co,
    oli.tl? ?o
    x
    18.66 EE(halon)g cBrF3e| Aol He"Jg s6J6I= g+gtr u2
    ]
    tsioltr|. olae +zlg l*"ll zl+:zllE Eq
    r.s
    iR
    ^I+gtrI.
    cFCset u|{z}xlE, E}Eg EJ+Col ,ll+ Seq, e+ql
    51
    E C+flse +t6}q Eqa + q+. 0.5

    (a) E s.391 B 4, Br ¤zl9 HI+ol C+ 0


    =46lq e ql+qE7t? "JBoll 0102030405060
    flql^l "JqB ao SEfc)
    =q
    O) C+flql +{6|b gEql E6il C+AE e+ol raq zl+ql Eg6l+ 4oJ qlqzl= m2* 168 w4r +q.
    18.72
    4zqAg xlloJa|.ile. ^l
    + EBql^l 9416l+ "llHzl9 Hlg¤ m,* 3e0 woltrI.
    =
    18.67 (a) CFC9I HFC$ ilol=' *{qlz}? oleloJ fzl$ Hli.JtrIH Er] B4qqot 6l^1"J,
    ^l+=
    O) ^J+Aql^]9 urc9 ^JE zlzJS 2_7]E.eE +A6Ia dxll= fBzl *trl. el r+zl gl37l-?
    gtr|. ell ol zlzJol ?S"J
    "J+zI? 18.73 ,H"J EE6I} 4.J qlqzl= m2B 168 w+j1 6J
    cFC= 4416171 9lall upczl
    (c) ell fl=7p ^l+q
    ^l^+qn +. 2013H Tgql 7l+g New York ^l aq dq ^h*=Jg
    (d) cFCq ql4lEetr^l HFC9I +-s- Fldg +i.Jrl? 13,200 MwoltrI. ¤41 4oJ glulxl dS zl*9 Egol 4
    18.68 Le Chatelier gr.lE NrpI o, El*ql^l ^JtEl
    ^l-S6I¤, + r0%4= eg rq6IE, 44 dqg tE'6I7l +16fl^l=
    E Noe-l ¤B tL+:9=z[;'z1a;q1 u]4 ?z]a]E e]H, H -rg qlzlT} q"J+g fd"ll"F 6l-b7t? (New york rl
    NOe+ 02 Hl+ql^.i NO2z| rj.!!- Hi¤'gl B¤ ^J+= g I d4l H43 s:o rm20l4.)
    E7l+7t+ql q4 a^6l.bxl r ol+= ¤E6I^le_. E+* Hl*! 44ql +6Iq +¤ *+ ** **u]9.*;.le-.
    18.74
    rs.os tflz].^E +.+ qlqlRl(cHak))o + ol+q{E+. (a) 94IpI e^ tsz}7} te 4zl9lrJ *6]]4 HI¤¤ .Js
    (a) 4lBl9_lol sd ¤^qq +^E Ed-d.I=
    ^JcEe co, ,J+.
    "Jg dCd-= +B "*+ +4 HI*4g r,,..<le.
    (b) oJ^l+ ?4 Eulz} t}? r.llTlql^l
    "Jolg+ HI+g "J
    G) 4qltol ¤.sd ¤^qq ts^= sd.61+ ^J^JEEE ea4.
    CotrJg ^JC6l-= t¤ *= ++ HI*^19 .rr.rle. (c) .J Isl dazl C?fl"il^l s+ql el.ll 4I+¤4.
    (c)25"C, r atmql^l 1.0 Lg c}j.4(e)7|Sddl gA6Iq (d) ol4}+ adTI Eql r--.t e4Fl .J&r+ e^E
    ^Jd6JEl.
    cor(8)-e. E++61-= rll $gal 44 *714 314"+g g
    18.75 (u) Mg'* ol$$ E$alf *ol9l cor'z- olgg A7}6lflg
    rrl-"J7I?
    ug(oH;rzP e d6IE olrq¤ ¤B6}^le.
    ull
    18.70 Pinatubo *&ol *Ba}flg 2q Eg So27I qlTl +o
    EI (b) l2s ppmel Mg2*E s.6.J6l= 1.00 Le.l *991 NazCo:
    tr E^IqH9 aotr ++E]r 9l+. ql++E Sozb Sor a.o gS e7I6fE Ms(oH)r7| A4Ht4?
    s.$Eiqn 4rl 4zl + Er+ Hls"6lq qqtr+g BdtL+. olg r-"Eql Eilt
    (a) qlole¤ol BCqb 4Cg +Et Hl¤+l_e_-e. a^le.
    18.76 (a) E9l^l E+q: * EpAzlf;$ 15
    ppu olatol4. 15 ppb L6E$ ++e4el Es"Ei g"toJ
    G) ol qlqe¤ol +BJ+E zls sEE 0.s_0.6.c BqE 7l?
    *,4. ol4aJ.Jol B^Jq= ql4q+g Fi"JzI?
    (c) B&H qlqe¤ol+ Efl= olq6J EAES C+flql
    G) e+E B +Eb 6t pslar Effle +r1gr1. 2008LJ
    El"l + BE ¤t EoEE d4 ¤tetr t.6 p"gldLtr
    s+g Ad^lrJ+. "lBzil ol4al "Jol ts^JE + 9l
    ^lo,lo +Aqflq. ol +EE ppb-e. -E¤6lrle.
    !
    ='/f
    18.77 ol 49 41 9iE ¤xll rpe E+e E^lql^l qlTlE s=
    18.71 gt+e. Al} + 6I+= q"Jq E gezi 66
    .J6J
    ^l+
    aF= a"l+. .ll"Jg r*g oJ9 corS +oJ oE,*l co2E
    f?9 sa ppbtr zllrJap 9l+. "J"J 9+ol olTl6Jr-oE+
    E, Los Angeles County("i 400¤*trtg 844 zl*9lr.l
    'dr(4l7lx})'E^J E q gg 6J+.
    l0 m +ol)
    ^ltE
    qlTl +ql fl= e+el E+= gulqlzt?
    (a) 49rHggEq I+EEql^Jel corq +dlEE-E-q
    5--J EA E^lt 861

    EEF
    oJ+ +41
    re.zs zoooHql + Noz9 i^J B+ r-oEt il-," E,^iltg sgcg 4lg ttt=J, pH, 3E "t *g 4
    "lt9 +71 0.016

    PPmol4. E .J4-ql 3++94.


    "ttr 4+ Eql^l !]?egqe1 gq1
    (a) QlzloJol zss torr(99.1 kPa)oJ ull, ol ;:zl ^lE oJq +4b E]* +s' *itl zx 10-6 s-lol != +EE
    .JzI
    70 o/oa ei6}b Lj] qa
    ^I{AEI. +sI+47I !g Ziel
    Noz9 *E oJqg 4&61^le-.
    O) ol aA6Iql^J 20.C. lsx14xs ft tz1o1d4q ol + oslg{gz}!
    o}} Ez63 =4
    NOz 9l 4ioJ7f?', 18.84 Cloe+ Clo2el -E= ¤^J flgul 1k+?+4101. 102 kl/mol
    ll8.79ll986EE Georgia f Taylorsville 4^ll9 dq tsd^E r ol+. oltsl6J xlEe+ ++ cel gqqi4 zlEE ol+6}q.
    *xl azl4 zll"Jt,tza,z26EE ^leg 4*tEt. +g +,ll ++t EI*ql^Jel 4 +4ql +.J d4l {gEl H
    (a) 4Et9 Et qq
    s:v"q * zsvos ileq, Sd 946I Et= 4lt}6}^le.
    fl+r.7146II., r qlql gd^qj E6l {^Jg ol,t}c} CIO(g) + os(g) -.---- Clo21g) + oz(s)
    E^el oltlsl +q E+E 4l&6}^le. Clo2(s) +o(s) -+Clo(c) +oz(S)
    (b) "J.J e"J tI4E caoe| H}$;.14 caso3E BC6}q
    ol F +4tr+q Hl+^lql++ dBq Hq+
    sso/oE so27l z]l4q9+H, caSo: H E.l
    ^J7lE d4l
    ^Jdqfl= ¤oloJzl?
    7l?
    18.8s t+6171 +l6lt+g ="F^l7lL uStSol lul$t +ol]?+
    18.80 + +^l+ E^lq ^J+EqlE ZA Eell, ul,r.ll oJzL et ol
    e-, E+ol6Jeqlel.J, .J&g BEIe +6ilqq fl= ql, *
    E¤ 7}g6tn +g^l7l= Ell +e qlLlzlTl-9e_a121 q1g
    ol+.
    {!e-e 4E+ ^ll+, +4qq flE +71 EaEr+ ee (a) 9E Bql^l Eel "JE, Hlg, +ggg rF&o}q, r.oozJ
    EiE"l e.J!{ 9l+. +g +A Eb +*E 6 qL a aE E¤. 20.cql^l ^lzldlq +ts^l7l= Ell gs+ ql
    ol olel+ E+EES ,+?:414t;E cll afrolelE a.${
    LJ^lel oolg Al4i6I^19.
    "J7l? (b) 4z]|zlo.o8sgEl/kwhel tsl+q qlq4s t+q= a
    zl+l e.4 qqH, g^d +^ q4H, 871ts, s¤sl Hl+,
    +, f- El¤¤ 4lt6}^le_.
    f4IaI "JF,lb4e.l edB (c) rlE.E. Tlalql^-l =oFfE zjfluj r.z6B4ql gE, +q]
    18.81 E+q qq6J E+-gq 9"J 4lfz| al.ll g+ ullt zso TIel q 4d-=zl olltJzl ul$ol 2 4"J71?
    nm{l^l 3.45x 103 M-' cm-tol4. 50 ppb trltrJql^l ol 'E lrs.s6ltaaql^i 9.+ r.aql zlqd+ 6}+9l HI¤¤ tia gz}
    +Eg.J+el arlqlEzllz| q^l 9*b+. 4*89 E*rzl 7f zld s=+ HI+61+ 4ol+.
    710.0001 EIEJ9 ¤4-EE A¤B + StrI: dg nBl6I o(c)+o:(g)-2oz@)
    E, so ppb 6JAI7I oldlel E+E tEE A¤6171 9l4q 2e8 Kql^J ol Hl-&el HI* +E C* +.4 x ros M-t s-'o14.
    280 nmoll.tl Eq ¤:BEE +A6I= a3 EoP oJH"l4 6J (a) HI* +E *+E teiql +rl6fq, ol HlSql 'J*e Hl
    -r 6luzlO
    I! + +E Bzlg ir^ls.
    ^A=,
    18.82 ^d+Aql^1g H2oE .r-oEt * s ppmol4. Hro= rl-94 (b) ol EI+g tr {} zll9 t"J +41 4ag z4^l .Jqt+
    zJol
    "JuI4 HI¤¤ "JerJ+. n qld'B + "SY7n olrq¤- ¤E6I^le.
    Hzo(s).-H(s)+oH(s) (c)P* c.e+q LHi <I* ol HI+ql ++ flg
    ^FS6Iq,
    (a) 4 ^JdE4 HI¤¤ql $a|{ A +4!g rA^ls.
    Lewis El HEI <ig +a6l^le. ol El¤+ c+aE gE= r-
    (b) -E 8.39 ol;l6J *6llq HI*ol gq+= qi "J 4.q_lzL *e 4"J71?
    ^l-S6Iq,
    ge* ultg zl&61^le. 18.87 +*g,1]+ *g }'Eql^l Hql E+ o3E ulr.l(o3+H
    (c) alolg${ 443(ou)3 e+r} H}s"6}q q-g H}¤¤ -+ oz*oH)ql ++ xI_E= +d6J aolq.
    oJ o
    atrl.
    de [o,](u) [n](,ry) =71 HJ8 +s(M/s)
    oH(3) +o:(8) +OzG)
    -Hozk) | 5.17 xlo " 3.22xtO-26 l.8g x l0-14
    Hoz(s) + o(s) -+ oH(g) + oz(s)
    2 2.59xl0 " 3.25xlO 26
    9.44x l0 rs

    olBl6J + zle.l ++ t}*4ge+rl "lwlt d^il oJ+^lol 3 5.19x 10-33 6.46xlO 26


    3.77 x l}-t4
    EJEqzl=7|? dill H}+ql^l +4= +9..J7I? ¤B6I^l (a) ol RI*ql +qI Hl¤: +E H49 ;<,rle.
    9.
    +E 1}+¤ ,ll4}6f^le-.
    (b) Hl-&
    18.83 ^JE4 :*a 4q+, eE EE 4+ +=ql r]+61
    ^.il+ol 18.88 ql+flql^] CF3CH2F(HFC + ;f+)7t oH 4qrJql e.l6ll
    q r*ag El+^l7l= r+ari ae 1o14. Eslfr='Eq
    E6l]E.]= HI¤+ 4 HI¤¤ql "Jil HI+ iF+olq, HI+ +
    862 188 E36t-af

    E tr'+= 4'Cql^l k:r.6x10 8 M-rs-tol4. ,J'J 4+ o


    Aql^l oHe+ CF3CH2F9 *stl 44 8.1 x l0s, 6.3 x 108 +c +
    (ii) RNH2 R_N:C:O 2 HCI
    szl/cm3elE, ol $r:oll.!el BJ+ +E ,!-fE u/s Egs CI CI
    gulzf rliz|? H
    R_N:C:O+R,OH+(_ N _C_OR'
    I

    18.89 2s "Cql^l Eql +6J CO2el Henry Bzl ttfz} 3.1x l0-2
    il
    M atm-rol4. o
    "J"J ¤:"1.1 C^J4.J 4zl.Jq^-l *zle+ d+6I8,
    (a) ol
    (il4 (iil +A + qL 4ol
    gEql^l 5ql 4.J corq +611E.= g"loJz}?
    (a)
    'l *? aF+4t71-? ¤H6l-

    (b) E= co27l co2e+ H2o tq HI*q Eql c^Jq= ^ls.


    (b) 4 EI*ql^], +^E -E6J6l= 4 slElEql^l ts+ gz1
    H2co3 ¤ql-e. 7IC6fzI.
    el gcEe+ 716}o+4 +4.= +E.J7P
    =41++a
    co2@fi + H2o(l) + H2co3@q)
    (c) 4 Hl*9lrl ofol^^IolotqlolE +Ai]lel Bdg +tl
    ol
    +Ee] pHE EuloJzl? 6tr dqB, Le Chdtelier gqE qB4 6llot
    ^l*L"6Iq
    ls.eo qls= Al(oH):9 ?d(r,p: l.3x l0-33)g ol+6li +g A 6l+zl?
    +6'I7lE 6J+. r8.e2 qB EC gl%LgE puz| s.ool4.
    (a)20004fl9 Eql s.o rbe.] Alr(sor3= e7i6l9g EL (a) ol 9lHlgE +g +El+ol Hrco3@q), HCoz-@q),
    Al(ou),2| ad47l pH {lg;{a}^le.
    ^1461+ cQz-(aq)t] z|{a}1, 9l%}g +q olEl+ s}E+g
    (b) ol pH <i9l s.E-.fzl 9l4q .ll+ H ulSg9 caoE
    t.EE 4l4}6t^le(44 +&gE r-oEt, l.0x to s M
    BztolloF 61.=7I? ol4r zl{dJ4. s r6.3ql 4¤+& {tol+q4 914.
    I l8.el ] ?-s-6J +6Jill E 4 + etl Etl
    "J
    g o] ol l: ol of t-ll ol E (b) ol HITI *.t 7lq6l+ +g .E6Jo.J E]4f¤ zhzl
    pHoll
    ^]
    (isocyanate, RNCo)7lE E*61-= +*ErI oJn'g(RoH)
    r 9l+E TIag ^lEl6}7l +l6ll^lb qE deg el +
    +q El+q e.l6ll 'Jdg4. +rllEil"J +*81= ^JCg + ilYzl? (dB6l+ ql +S.J ul .rl_EE zlxlL lluln
    9lE + 7|zl +¤+ +q-rl a+. 7ldEJtrI.)
    (i) RNH2 + CO2 --------) R-N:C:O + zHzO
    H
    R-N:C:O+R,OH+f{-
    I

    N C
    il
    -oR'
    o

    TTJ ¤ZI +ZII


    4= 5q tlB"*E 4f/zl!l* +59 96J E4Z(18.4¤ "u s'*¤ loe, qtq= ++ Eeq: e^l, gs} qlBfll
    4rJ4 +e" +a)ol EA ^l=. E*ol flEI. + +tlg4 +oI aGuar cum), +g^I, ^E,
    ,ilBg Fi+ a
    "JEg 7tA ¤+E
    , ol!. A? ^lEql^J ^168q-r.
    214 +EEol s4rJ +An+ +
    =+olg,
    e ++c e+ Eg5, rqr qlqqlr+ ololaEe+ga} ag
    A flb +oI EeEql E6l sgqflqr. EE6hr. 9l+. 4+/ gzg Fol fl4. Btol A+ +BE +q ole+ ae Ee
    ^le
    ,l4l+ +E.E *4zlE EEJoI qr q= +qI Ee==g Eg t.E= + ?lE zl¤9 -H.+6Iir. 9iQa 213o1x1. a
    +C6J
    gEE Ar}i^ls4
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    ^l+
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    4? zl9 +E eg 5e5ol g4rJ +A qlEt^l, f.;.Ir. 7p ++E 49 olzl'J EAE d4 E= H 7}|9 bE= B+al
    r+qE qL AEoJzl= AA6|b EJI E.sg +71 +1611 4+ ^) +A6l+ lol ol 46.J E+g dla6lzl 9l +Eal-4EzI?
    q +Egql+¤g+ 9= delg ¤?16ll tr^le. Eell'/J +Aql
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    Eb r+^l *+.

    19.2 > E=eulelEq-+r{2H=l slEErl=


    gB 4Col ,+g49lzl, r+^l g:g^l
    E aC4E +s+ gE+4 tlEI 'J

    EI+ EE+ fol4. gqq 42B4ql el6IH. EE


    483 +Aql^J
    qlEtrq= 67IoJ+.
    ++ d4l(41++91)e.l

    19.3 > Ertrl trEoilAJel $lesslq gq-*


    Ill3g.l tszI +=ql^], 49 ele-+sl
    hEal l9g nuc Ii{ aJ +EI="l ErlillEE+ El,q+, aa1,
    eoso m e) Y :a 4171 714 + 9lL uli tEll +el
    rall ^lEal559 zt|xlloll oleTWl^|,4 ggrllzl-Eq f +dqq 9lgg "JolE+. 419 tlee
    8a slb r 219 +z}gE7l +7}+ql q
    = =gE=
    -d 4^lxll= 0l= E+6lE r[+^l=0llZl Tlgrl ZoleE¤ +E tH.Soltl. olaJ
    + 5qts+. gqq 4l3Bzl3 o rql
    Zl^^.lalEJ Zl=01 U=ol^lr +^lEl7l +ldt|,\1= 01E g4e.e= ollLjxlTlrJ rdlE flEEq7IooJ
    ^l Sd AC^J
    s6lEt. raJql: ollHxlEol ol.gzlgEElGl:aJ "JE 6t=.TloJDl? +¤ fl^l ¤ 9ol.J4.
    e.ol,! '-JHlq gr qlLlxl= )lz;l7lgl -dqn 6H^l +=alle+pe ral A
    - .JEol^lE ae olLlrt.
    19.4 > Elqr HJ30il^1g1=e{ EAt sql+q
    1l .tr+ EqlEenlE ol-e"6}{ p}E E}
    =ol
    *ql +Hlq= s= flEEq H+= zl
    DNA +z,ll. *qlc, E= *ol +1= r+44 ?9 zlE ¤,.J9 ololl tlg + 9+.
    6IelE s+q +¤g zlullalf "JHI4?] EzlEg or= aol E+ol
    > I[9 ollLJrl c. += gqq4
    94. ql4zlEol HI+$ ¤+g ull 'Jzl* zlB4.J {Eol=F z]| 9l 19.5 Gibbs
    .J+e zffi o{l{zl(cibbs z}g ofl
    4. "HI$ol $ul* E?-l .Jq+=71?"e+ "HI+ol qL AE+ dqg
    ^JEl
    Hzl): 4l7l ¤B *rllefrl 9uI4
    vl?" 4 H4l eEe l4tlq^J Hl]g slqr- HI+ +EEql e_l"ll ++q Hq+ 9l=zlql qlEL 4Eol+. ^l+
    olluJzl {oli q¤ +Ag B6l slqE
    zl7, + Hal eEe lsaE izll.J B¤ *+e+ +Eol 9lrf.
    eg + 9lE ++6J.J49 "J9 azl
    Elq HI*el +E= :a HI+g gd3r} 9lHzl9l $all a{$r} .==- E +Eqq, e.ql +q ++ol qB ,jJ
    (r4.s¤). +qd Hlgo4 r qq]*ol ge +EE "Jqg plql ¤ 6Jotr 1lg4oe.JqgllE "J4 +
    "I tr|.
    ¤qi EBe+ i:7;rtr (1s.1¤). HI+ 4u-zl g^dsl.llHxl9l trt4 trIs
    .E.s, B¤ E.qI qE *alo.E= 9lHzl.ll e]+.J aol4r ^J461+ 19.6 > qlqrlet 8E zI+ 9lulzl Hs+,
    afr-lzJolr}. ^t3
    dgq H+, Qlee.q Hol ^IolE +
    {ol
    ol zlE F6I 4C9 zltsCol 3laq1 E6il
    tlq^J= HI*E r14 4Ee+ ollrJzl .r.1o1E +ACq 46ll ¤q qgal ¤6Jg ts:^lE ql='J + 9l
    E 4o14. ol$ f.loll.! qqzl +Zl= ++=::IeI Eot.J clE+ gq 4.
    *(chemical thermodynamics)9| qloJ rgol gg6[t]. rllst]ql^J
    gqEg i]g Hll.g tst 9leq, qqzlE gqql zllrEzl, :-4 19.7 > rtB CIlLlrlet =JE ¤+ olq Hl+ql
    ql+ s= zI+ qlqzl HE+= ol+5[q
    =C,
    n qlBul ,H"Jg EE'J HI 9ltrL ol tlq^l= gEq| xjlzHzl4, r: HI+ql ql+ BE t+E 4l4I'J + fl
    tlql^l *A tr9i'J gqtrI4 'J?1 {=eu1(entropy)el 4H"il Eilsll trI.

    t+eq l-.--. (13.1¤).

    < *E*llg* gol'?: -"-{


    +0ll^l DNA(Hlp+9 0l= Lld=d alE)=
    87Hol EHH^rE^}(rl"gEl
    ^1lEel LlCe a|E=)E Eaju|'I ?,lrL h=allg*o1
    E!
    al"r 61.= 0 l DNA/EEdsl^48 g^q^18 0 l ?=
    dill4?.] ?6El7 l ?al
    7tE Lr9l0lrL 0l ?^83 8861 8iz6lL[ 8d^lgdol ^llsq{sl
    goll_Pl 9l6H^lb E
    a1oltrJ Eltli hEall9*9 DNATI.LfEgoll eJ6il Eeirloll tl^lE4b rlEe
    .gF 4lSl ql qx I HEI¤ +H}-eltL Li) $rurriorvorekuu r/srruuersrock
    865
    1e.1 lzl"J4 +E
    0l al8 5$.Jgel 9l^l qE¤ +ql^l +eE ge.e Eolzl7ll g+. qelBol oi+r,l e4 7l+elE :r.
    Llxl= H6[ts7[?
    0ll
    5r gl'J
    HEol +l"l -g4 +^l +sE Eols= ge aa .Jol+zl *=4. E6J HI *g *e H
    ,ll ¤r|. .J+ ++41 9B ollzl ull .r1zjo1 oI+E gelE g4el ,tll fte-ts pa u1gx1 g
    ol + q= Hslql *olcol gltrl= ag trq i=
    r =+. ^Hlol+. HEol Eqzla *ol +
    a= a ag 445¤ zl-$!9-E gqt+r "J++. rlEl4 lt¤l(spontaneous process)ol
    ^
    4 Ele q+g ol¤ s¤- solE ^.-^.8 gqg + il: r+cg *e+.
    zlg4 r+ce ql+ *6J"EEI .JqLlq, -EE zlg4 r+cel Er+ae 6J^J- Elz}ts4
    (nonspontaneous)o14. ql= Eq EE{ s{ql B'ZJg EqE4H Hfqql B= +rJ B'zJ
    ol t44 t+l{4(=A 1e.r). olx1, t\ggz}o14rl 4fl91, E}qql^J 91tr g4e} +etr tr|.
    Hlqs tlEg 5-j1 gl+r" 6ll trz}. rfl .Jol gqg + s+g g "J-r glTl
    ^l =qs=
    qlEql q4Ee a ulrlez| qz]]sqr gl4r
    ^J4tr aol+. Baol Bqzl^.1 v\^)i 4
    g ztg4.J +8, +^l +gqq ?le 94ztE r+ae Hlzlgzlol+.
    T LH l^l
    /\t=i f,,^*r*
    + *6Je-E9 zlg4ql +ce r Hlq B-6Je-E= Hlzlg4ol+.
    qH 4d"l zlg4"Jzl otuzlE aag ql gE, sq ae ¤c aag s
    =+ =!s6J
    A7I g+. ql= 5q g+9 +E ¤tr-g ^J4611 E_zl. qlTloJq^l +919 gETI 0 "c-H-+
    H trI g+e z|$!e-e, +b+. rq+ ++lE gETr 0 "c-E+ *eE. "4zll Eol zlg
    4ee t+. r ql=:z qrld, += 4aol ulz[${o]r}(:14 19.2).
    =
    r+Aq z|${(spontaneity)$ 4E-(speed)e} 9.56}zl "Jot"}'*4. z}ts4o]+: aol +
    + 7|bq} +tr e "JqBg 9"lalE 13 ot!4. 9tr z|ts4 rlAe &-g7l +s| HI+^l
    I H ml¤ +E 9r1, eol +^: a4e Lg +E 9l+. gqolg E6ll^] HI+E HJ.J4 r
    EI*ol qL cE "J"lBzli "J i ?lzlr}, HI¤:E +Eql ql6ll^J= de "J + s+.
    ulzlp4ol EzlbeLS slulalzl ?*=E+= L9 otE aE. +s-61+. q= 5q 4+
    aral 19.1 al8
    (Nact;o1 AEr+ gA+ EdllF]= L3 s-59 aaql^l: ulz|$zlolzl"J, el+ql^J qqzl
    ^1.HJ4

    E z\"l] +E ¤+¤ Nacl9 E6l]7I7l-ts6t+. ztg4 r+Ce relql el+E zJd Sols "J
    qr+.

    tlg 5 qL "JBtol
    gE ai8oJ7l.?

    .r-a #

    t T>O"C"J4IIg4 1
    1

    l|,- \
    #g I
    T < 0'cg Efl
    ^t"J4
    \

    arB 19.2 8-E0ll qal Hl'+l= r > 0'coll^]= EBol xf"J4o+ EOl E0l EJ+. r < 0'coll^l
    Er BJq rl8, E0l gcl ^tgd
    gB0l El= I.160l r : 0 "Coll^l= F ,8Ell7l E:dE 0l=n ?l+.
    = ^fEJ40l+.

    866
    1e.1
    ^lg!
    rltr 867

    qH 1e.1
    zlrJ4 al."i
    "Jti6Fl
    +3 rfE=01 r HJq r|.80] !E= EEE ol+n 9l=xl EJE6l"^le.
    ^l'HJ4?]^1, ^lg4?]^1,
    (a) 150'Ce 7lE-d 44= 40'C9 Eoll tttl, E0l EcTl9lTltl. 0) d89 Eol Hzk)el-ozk)e E6[|EJTI
    =+ ==
    (c) 1 atm9 ElIlTlil(c6Hok))zl E8E=trE 80.1 'Coll^l e4illH!I!o+
    -Erl".
    6tlff
    E{ 4 4Col xl^l,* H-6}e-E z}$!g.-e +lflBzl, : t} (c) 4t #=Ag 1 atmoll,tJ $;lle| f;zlz| ¤¤g oli= g
    q1 trtaoe-e d4tszl, E= qE BF.-JetrE zlgzi dBoI e.$ elulaJc|. tri+^l ol a+= ¤E tr4"l4. gETt
    9q4zl ?l:gr,l oJottr= Ezllol4. 80.1'c-H.+ *eE, Hl4l?zl9 q4El44ol 7tg4ol+.
    xB qal+g aer+ gil6[= aol x]l^lg r}ctzl, f H] > 5a= qlrJll
    ql r+aoJ4
    ^J44 e+. *{ol +}E}9"1 4}E} e(rr)(r-Jol q= ae ^}g4ol+. ol

    E0l 44ql trl+ ¤B + *3 ae?


    'lirt
    (a) ol 4c3ztts4ol4. gETl4= + TIzl EillT} d+61 (a) ee ¤}flq= 4r z1g-4o1r4.
    ?(III;o1
    E gg E4g Eillql^J & Ei.lls dgEtrI,,",, (s.l d). zlg4 4coloe a9 4}cl+ mlszl .JqB aolr+.
    (b) ^IE]
    tr|4^J gg ,,4+ ++s_e+q 471+ EE dBgtrI. (c) E9 4IEl+ gg 44o14.

    a+ ++r+ Eg F'J6J 8rz1 qq1g4 ¤¤), r 4+ (d) B6J Zlql^l aE t}s} +Ee+ 3(rDg ¤+g +E
    gE= ++9 a7l gEe+ E9 zzl9s. ,t1o1E qB 71 7l?Jg g$q EB*+. ^IE+
    "ll
    (e) 3ol +e--E tlgl¤
    "ll ++E 9lHzl= a46J+.
    ol ¤trI.

    O) AEq E6IE, ol rI83 z|$!olzl S+. +Ae+ &4 > H.5 qlx{|2
    7l^ll7} E+ql^l zleE gqeeb ag E 4ol s.g a 1atm9 "Jqql^], Coz(s)E -78'Cq^l
    ^"sloJ+. -100'C
    ofQ. ealel r qn+C.J Hz+ ozzl qI¤.6Iq H2oE
    ^J
    9 9rq 1 atm9 .Jq6}ql^'l ol 4Ag zIts4"JzI?
    caFts H}*ol ziB4ol+.

    zPJ^Jql rflt'J zlf +oPl


    a^iE +lE Eq 44zI= SolLt +q^l EqzlE qEe +lil qlLJrlE g=rt. qH ¤el
    g 9lHzl= $= ae qE4 4lql^l "Jq+= zl.ts4 r+49 +84 5dol4. 187084q1.
    Marcellin Bertholet(1827-1e07)e El+21 4q^lE zlg4 Ep}el Bl.lg qluJzl ¤¤"tl 9

    "li acgElr 4loJ6t9EI.


    r= E= rlgzl.J el+zl, 844 EsI= gg r+aol4r zlloJ
    "IflEI.
    rq+ ol +dtql qlfl qel$ Ll+ d4 *g + fl+. ql= 5H dgq^l g+ol
    += ag zlg4?1s¤ r+¤o14. ols"J otq4 l3.laq^l ="sd ulp] ?ol, NH4NO39
    *6|] r+49 Hl*6J *3 xtts4 *u]l 4¤ol g:g $ColtrI. ql++g z}g HI+ol gg HI
    *olxltrJ, gg HI* +ql^lE ztg4 t}Sol 9l+. EE6l qLlzl +d elq qtr 4= s-i
    zI He+ r+de.l oJ;JCg 446I= q6Jg 6}1 9l¤¤ g + 914.
    aJ 44ol 9l z[ts4.JzF= q + o]olla[el{, 419 tr4z} Hd+ EJ^]E.g + q H"J6}

    zl rElB gszl il4. ¤s, q+ qlqzl, qlg'l Fe 5a 1IEI]E aq6[= defl tEI
    *f(state function)oll. r ^J4q qBr]1 E-96I9=zlq tI+S¤¤ s.2eql^'l u]]+ HI
    9lt}. 4le+ r +fl ^Iol= olEoC ¤(q)4, Zlzt {aJ E= Zlq q"llll "J(rry)¤ tr4 aJfz}
    otqq^-I, t4 Bslz} "Jq+= HJ4q r[4: atol 84d4.1q9+ wA trk? + tr-qe
    +El +E ,(}4e H.J trll 9H 4E(path)E rlsEzlql E=.J+. zlgCg olollalzl flt
    g4l + 6I+E z|${(reverslble) 4-tre} ulz}$zl(irreversible) A-Eq rllall oloflap Tlol
    trI.
    868 193 El-af
    =q-+

    71.1 ul¤rl Hl7l"J rlt


    9E 4d.lE,4+E Eflg trtt 4le+ r ++l E trI 4+61 r59 g4 tlE.ilE EolTI4l q
    zI^Jg oltl4.J AEE
    ^J4g + 9rI. + r rlAE
    qn+Ag TlilE 4lcl ?+lqlE oI
    =
    F Hslz} flZl q= 4o14. :fl oltr4 r+Ag 7}E4ol+r 6Jq.
    . zl$ zlE!(reversible process)$ ++lql ol+fl Hsl S.ol al$ fl?li ^JEIE q$g + 9l
    4aolq.
    .=
    ulTFt lftl(irreversible process)g +9.il Bzl HalE 'Jg4ot"J 4lE g4 q
    ^JEile
    Eg + 9lE 4Col4.
    g+g tl6l7l 9-16|] qe: gqc+4 z[$(thermodynamically reversibte) E.= gqq4 Hl

    z|$ (thermodynamically irreversible) o


    1 4.I. alzl E. t4.

    A ++-J Ea'r == 'Jr qlts E7r= zr+ 6r"?, r EE aE ++rzr.? 6trr-. r Eol E+0,
    I =s-d + rl.^l Betl E7t +ee E+Elts al-E= dr-l6ll -Ert. ot F Ezt r.ftr= 7tq4?.!7t?
    I

    Eq gdB.il ++ r+ag ^J46I E^I. gETI += + Ei{7} d+6J trll, ge E4


    qlE
    g Ei{ql^J Eals z}g{-g-_e E=tr}. H}EI %}.}.J i}zt* +ql^J E4e +oE g
    ^l7l+
    g serll 6I= ag Ezl-b6}7l ullEql, ol r+Ag Hlzlq 44ol+. olHqE E+6tr, g
    d$ol zI94eE .JqB + 9l= zI^J4oJ rap$ ^J46J i 1le=-tt? B3':84'o14.
    t, 9s itolTr +qlq 4Lg a+ql"J rB+.
    ¤a4eE ,J3 8s4 + 9lg "J+9 +6J^ Cs9 9s z[o](57)u3 9l: 4le+:a +
    6J

    9lE ^J46]] sz|(:H tg.3). ++l &rz1 roljl 4l gETI ++^"J? rJ +e r+6r4H,
    +oJ^ "J+E Eol 4l"lld ++lE EsTll g+. AIE gE= r-6rE *7lr] 9s ilol=
    HI{E 6IH g sEE "J6Jg HlEllzI qq +fle+El ,llE gol 6ez|l gu1. ol${l! !-
    Fol, gdB 4col z|$!olzl +l6}]^J= gE olol +6.Ji"J+ zl"lot 6EL gg dge +
    *61 Lelrll "J94.t aJ4.
    4q r+Cg 41el qtr Ceg ++^"E- Hirl^la q %I6Jg tsl+-L 44o14.

    zle gelE=01 7lq40l7l +l6ll^1E 617l olrrllot 6l=71?


    =961ts
    r-.1 l4-q qE ztoll^1+Ple EHE|= r.l Ltq 9E ++loll^l 4lE x-JEl=
    (r+5I)E 1l riq otol o(
    0-6r)e1 zl 4C get g

    xt

    xot
    Tfl xot
    Tfl

    ++lel-eET ++tqEE T
    (a) G)
    a.l.H 19.3 7[$4 E E= Zlel-+fl 'Jel g EE¤ r=el c-E 6r oJEg nflu 7lq4g
    ^l0l7l+Et{
    g0lE=tL
    + 9lt[. Zl9 3E.=artrJ=E0lE
    (a) .l.89 Zloll,rl ++le (b) Zlel .gE=67nJ=.J
    +E r3el+910il^1^l8q zle g0l 6=tl. ^]3E
    1s.1
    ^lg4
    rl8 869

    il,fol= gloflE Tlill= g= 6Iq 4^EB


    +917t Zloll
    T]=E ill8rl'. +Eq Tlill= g+-.JEl..
    ^["J40e

    ul^E ,JEOI

    ol +
    =

    x12 7 l^11

    7li{lE HlTtq ts8 ot=


    E-
    Zlzl -.J "J : 0 4l0ilElg>0
    a.LB 19.4 Hl7[q ?]t! 0ld 7lill7ldalt]sl eE+ HJoll -H.flrl ?,[rf. ,JEOl= gloHE. 7l^]l=
    0l "JB E"J ZlTl d "Jg fl{ qreg "J+6U Tlill= flat] ArEHe
    ^]30i1 ^l-g
    4-s.e "JaloG E^ll !alt]= ^ll8tf.
    El=al7l 9]6||^l=, +9l7lZl0ll g= 6H +010t -srtl'.

    += qlE^J, .Ja+ ¤.Eql^l .Jq+=(5e(isothermal) r+eol4j1 61t-) ol^J Tlillel *


    +ql .tl6tt Aq!-zt. r.rJ 1e.4ql ++U ¤flq-j4^E 1}ilql^j, zJ"-iolE Sq]E 7l4l=
    xl.${eE sa6}q d+ ++g iH+zl 84. ol Eos44ol 7iq4oJzl, ulz}${qlzl $
    +6J + il¤tt? ol zlilli e_l+ .J4 g{ol {l}etr 'd+68__+ +flq E]|6]] p-y "Jg 6}zl
    *:+ :::-:: (!.lt). l4o-e. ol rNoJl w:0ol+. {4Eg
    "J+ql "J+6tH 7l^ll= gql r
    t}4tr qEB + 9l9.+, r*AI 4zl +16l]^l= ++)7l4ql "Jg 6llolEl6Iq olag .J+
    4¤ol w > o"Jg 9,1'*4. + 4lE g?]l ^J4s F]Eq= aEql^J= 4l7l A* ER trlel
    aEql^Je+ 4z w a(rqrl eqql 4llHzlql q4, 4= q <I)* g-g-s 6Jrl. 4lE g4
    ^Jqle
    qEEE^l ae a.+= ag + fl+b
    ^idg
    r r}4ol Hl7Iq4.Jg +Etu+.
    ol{t zlrll$ 4qzl Fg sr}e qBrll 99Bzt? :1,(? 7]|4]71¤flr19 E}g il]+i/ 9l
    g ql ul^Eql zla|E 9B "J4ol :a 711)l7l irl^Eql 716I= .Jq4 4q6l Ag ul"J zI
    +aI4. E+ .Jqg +qi6l ^l^16l *+H q^E+ ulp$e-E +4.J 4ol-Z e6J Tli]lel
    .Jqol E6]l *q +Bol 4rl #zls4. ej+ "Jg4 zl;ll$ oJ{ol 6}tr-¤Bg ol+H^J
    .Jq+= +6J61 Lfl 4dol 7l.q4ol+. qI+49
    ^J4"l]^l Ag',J^lsE +6J61 L?-lAl
    r Tlal=.J+++H fl4 +!1tr 7li]= q5e + 9lr}. olfl zltl.4 rld-g--e. 1lB6|E
    ++19 ^Jqql "lulal EslE oJ o zlzl ?*_r. zl;JE S+r+ ¤ +S+ 449 +a6IAl g+.
    ol^Jg qlEr+ qE qlE_g F6l] +4: + 7l^l +s,tl gril g+.
    ^r¤g
    . dzll 4CE9 ,lq r+¤r+ *Eg +6J^"J+E EE+¤ +zl e_tr+ql g + fiq
    E= d4l r+ce HlTIq4ol+. =^tzl
    ^l
    . ztg4 r+ae ¤z]l 4¤"lg^l E= z}gzl 44Ee HlTtq4ol+.

    trf+^l E= ztg4 He+ql ql6}]^1, 4l= fl4 ^Jqle El547l +l61]^J= +flq "Jal Hslzl-
    .Jq+ot"J 6J+. rflEJl f* Hslz}
    "Jq+= 4"Jt4?
    gqql zllrHzlg qlLizlT]-B+Eg zlfaln gl+g 7lq6IE. olE +E4 o-E se6l.
    E, ar: q+ wol4. Al9 4S "llH zl Hsl+ 4lzl E+(EJ¤)+ 94 4lql(e.= ZlTl) .J
    = 2E). 4lE grli tlqls qE44l 9H .ll"lzl.lli
    .JE 6Jol flr|.:o (s
    "Jzl Eslzl. Hzl
    "J,
    qlqzl 5ce H++. 4lE g4 ^J4e qE471 916ll^l= Aql .Jg 6H+qot ++. .J
    g 6|71 916ll^l= dEg *4E 9lH4=
    ^l-8-6llot.JE|.
    dE¤ "lluJzlE r r+aol "Jq+
    E"J + q E&g ¤ql-+ E++g+. r4o_+. ++lql^lE EelE qlHxl SdEql^-l gq
    =
    +=Ell, qlqzlTl + q E+Iqi1 +e^'l6ll4^J e+ gg g + 9l: bqol E"lzlzll ¤4.
    870 1e3 at-+ Eqq

    9l'lzl Hsl9l +6J +4E 4E zlzl9 {lH4= ulzl= 46}9 z}tl4E aol+. Ez+
    uI4 .llHzl} *&9 4le ++etrPel ?919 rl fi
    ^J4"ll E^1. ^l7l lgq
    zI el Tlg
    ++ee qzlril(E&) 84. tszt +=ql^l ¤B6IE, .Jzl-59 +4+l4olI +A^J.J +E
    ol Ext a +Eg E6l] _r,g(B+ &F
    "ilHxlzl +e 9q^l
    zlg(¤+ 35 qlqzlzl-{3
    *)sg qlLJzl= dg6rq, A+ i|e++9lE gETt z;oytlzll gEl. 6 t:J dEg Bqlql^l
    E dEg ¤Elle qlLizlTI9zl4* ole+ ag z[gz] a6]e-s "Jql qlqzl9 .J+= .Jql

    1e.2 | q!E + trlel oJojql4l2flzl


    Hl7Lq4 4Aql 4oll u]]e ag qE 4CE zltsC q+= ql+61= rJl !$alzl 916ll^l=
    $EErl4= gEqL4 ootg ¤Ego}"t .J+
    ¤). .,-,,, ( 13. I

    ?!!Eel7!(entr"py)E qlLlzlTI ulzl44 e{Iq=, tr+{^l "Jg g +qol Aaq= a


    6}.9 HI¤61+ grol4. .JH]4ss EE6[8, a1e qlqzl= E]r gl= "Jzl¤g +4+l
    (randomness) E= +a^l(disorder) AEE El¤tI+.
    ol ¤ql^J= $ee.u1 Hsl-e+ gdg 4 9E rJE +4lql 46l] =ot6J4. ol=E6l], gq
    qL rI2Bz]ee .J4tl {leeu1 He+e+ ztgd.tl +'J ds't} AEql EE6J 4o14.

    q1e e ulef oJE t4l


    419 {eesl(s)= rll+ qlq4(E)e+ el$rl(H)rlH 1lEI E}+el "J+ol+. ol54H s9 A}
    g ale] ^Jql +c"lE| -..-- (5.28_). r4o-e, 49 de-+q Hs*(ls)= Al4 zzl tlEile+ 4
    + ^JEHql
    eloN,<.1u3 eaqr, :z Hplz} "Jq+= AEe+= tr-+S+.
    AS : S45, _ Sazt [ts. t]
    r+aq ql6J As= r r+col 7lq4ol9+E
    r=og dBq*g ¤(q*J¤:r_ r+col .Jqg
    qel eql gEE +b arl a+.
    or: ? (oJc g-E r) rre.zl

    4lel rJ,B4E+q +E gzl"J, f+ 6}+el a-EEJol 4q 4


    ^}4E H6l+ a.P= r*ol
    c4 *¤ol gl4. rBlsE 4le.l + ^JEilq 4.J q,.u atg oltrl aaElq 914. sz1t4 +
    folzl rllEql, zl9 4CS"J olqq qrJ'* t+ 4Cql EllBll^JE 4 rs.z# ol+6lq As
    4l&g + 9lr|.
    =

    A aSTlAiEH
    :d+71'0lU qOl
    9=aEql, S= q-gjllSEt| Er'+g + ?1ts71?

    fJriHl 4Eas
    E{ol +=dql^l +r #=dql^J 7ls+61+ ag Eg 4Col4 u=-, (1t.+d). 9$ol E
    ql= I atm9 "Jq"ll^l gs-rl
    _H-4. .-!Al9
    Eg 0'Cql^l ¤¤ ^Jqiql fl4. o'C, I atmoll
    =
    .r.l r mol99*ol zJg adql ?lE 1 mol9 E_+ 5y 4Ag {4611 Bzt. ++l-++El 4l
    E gol +;iqqo} olfl Hs+7I .JqB + gltrI. 4 q:AH+s(AHseg \$$)olu|. olxll,
    ++lE gEE 0'cE+ ++^"J+"J gri^l 4qr{ ,|l+ aad ce-o -r--o$r}-tr ^J46ll H
    zt. rfl ,J^le-tr. H+= "Jezlzll slH :r rldg zt94ol g+, ell+6l.E ++lE gEE
    0'c-H-+ +6JitrJ=f *+E ?g "JE g(aa*+)S 4le+El q]+ aA6l
    ^lla6}q *E 4
    1s.2 ?lE_+trlel gq:+ 87'l
    ^ll2E^l

    Ag 4+E slEg i ilzl ullEol4. tr|+^J 7:0 oc:273 K9l^l g+E += $Aql .il
    * 4."u:AHg+o1EI.
    Hzo9 +& tlB4= AH¤+:6.01 k|/mololtl(+= r+Ag gg r+Colse "Jiol4).
    :lulu-tr 273 Kql^l 9¤. r mol9 H-ql 4t as*+E rl rs.z= ol+6}q 4l1I.J + 9lr}.
    ory:" (1mo1X6'91I103J/uaol)
    :
    as¤¤.: ry:
    T T - 273K
    zz.o,lK
    (r) al rs.zql= ¤Ell gEE qloJol]ot 6ir., (2) 1e.2= Edi a4g + gl=ol, AsE tgl
    ^l
    (I/rc)= ¤4 gr-a *b ++l"Jg 7-qa}:]..
    "llHzl9

    qFll 1e.2

    ^J11qq
    q$ ds 4l^JoPl

    +3 fl^= 880il^l 3^l o4x1l0lEI. r 88 q=tr8 -38.e "C0lr EE EE!=Jnl= aHss:2.2e kJlmot)lrl.. H8{)50.0 gol !$
    ol=Eoil^1 g n||, Ile]?lE+tr1 Etrf= Erl?.171?

    Btlff
    841 "-qi]l7tge ale+El +9lE ol56}=(q < o) ts
    g trl file! -AH+se+ Hsel ol+6}oi, Hg 50.0 g"l 4l
    fl4elg I
    g 44g.$ *d $olot 6Jq. q= ae + X9 94C.1 qE 4l4}E + 9l+. ol+rll 4l4ltl q1I9= 4 ts.z9 q.",91 4
    7l ql+ql, Hg 1 molol g trl EHlq= SlBq Hs++ "J6Iq Al9 AS= Al4I++.
    -AH*3 : -2.29 kl I molo]1Q,

    t lmolHs \/ I\
    4: (so.osusl('ror**,c/(, -2.29kl\/i000
    rr.;/\1i ): -s7tl
    qE Bzl ?l;ll,

    4 rs.z¤ ol$alzl dq dal gE= ¤4 gre u1g


    oF.J4. -38.9.C : (-38.9 + 273.75)K : 234.3K

    AS45 Ac -4'"' - 57lJ


    rJ".- -2.44)lK
    . -T 234.3K

    aE ol r+cg Bg 4aolq^1, gol alql^] $el {zl-:_e (c) olqe_, qlEerl H3rl= zlq E: alB+q dBg g
    q*,Y *+71 99 tle.-eEl Eo|= 94o14. E ga{ q+ B+zls-g
    (d) otqe., zltr dgg gg.J9 PEE ztzlvE
    +q e{4lE #:dq^l 7lE+= HlEd 4= 5e d-Hg}ql q]
    .J ASE Al&g EllE olel ag 4tg g+6J + ?l+. (e) ?l BH + + 7i ol,tj.ol *g-
    > jil* qlr{t1 > E¤ fflr1l2
    ggg q+g(c2HsoH)E C^J #=dg 78.3'colq 7lE+ E
    FHI6I+ E= a"+E tlH+ql^l 4E fltrEq H
    E+= ¤+oJ7I? elBq= 3s.56 kllmolol4. I atmalql 9l= 68.3 ge-l
    (a) 91, zls+q dgE ¤ol ¤i9 +EE 7l.zlE._e. c2HsoH(g)7}AtI #:dql^l EElg EI AIE $e-eq g
    (b) ql. tldol EoJgETI*olzlo.e flf gulolzlz

    &* "t1FaH 7li.ilslflEeq HEI


    "JEI49.E AlTf E+g++ Ey + q +4t914.J++ 4lE 7l!19 S+ rleg ^J46}] E^L ul.Eql 7f"ll4l .Jqg +
    qlEsq= 44tr1. r4oE zlillz| zl.$!9-e ${-g q1 q1 .Ji"J+ Ac^14^l _t-71^ll7l zlqzl s"g Sats}4r. afz}.
    EEE= +7fB aol+. ol qlEEq +7F= qBzl 4lt}6[= ,l^Eg "J"14 zI94 "J+g 6l-E^l 4l7l-+9lq + .Jg
    zl oio|trzl 9611. re le.4q^Je} gol qaEd ,JBJ old-
    ^l(r +E 4Ae ^Jq)etr +
    trl-g. Al&6J 9l+.
    872 1e3 +-+ gqqf

    wr., : -nnf hft I 5+= altlB + 9ltrI


    pV (1.00 atm)(l.00
    ol ,?g 7l8lel E+, Rg olt 714l $f ar (10.4d), n:;:ffi:4.46 L)
    x1o-zmol
    ^lql^-l
    T= ¤Ell 8s, v,g a7l +rl, vzE al* +slolE}. 7l4l7t
    ^J+ Rg 8.314llmol-K(.tr r0.2)etr +49 + 9=
    7l4l
    uJ+6trrE vz > vfJ aolq, u}4,<l w*, < OolEl. s+ rl 1e.39 ol+tr q= ol <Ig,t!o} 6J+. 44alH tle
    cll,
    6l+ zl^ll= ++lq "Jg 6[4 g+. =
    trqq trEE -Hf; L-atm *+itr+ I +9lE 44421 ullEol
    7l4lel 5¤ + 6I+= r]l+ qlulzlz[ gEq 96ll^]"J
    "l/J- 4. :4e e ol* 7l^ll7l 1.00 Lql^] 2.00 L-tr S+.J q, al
    acElq, .Jqr+: ++61+E dol4. r4oe. olc-7l4l7l 9 Se-eq gil+
    gA+ gEql^l S+g ql AE:0014. AE: ere,*,Alrev:0
    oloe, Qr*:-wrev:nRTln(v2lv')g E4 g+. ol4l, 4l AS, : (4.46, ro-' *oD(e rr,
    #Xt?,o!t)
    1e.2= 0l+618, Al9 qlE +vl Hq¤ 4+c + 9l+. : o.26J/K
    v2
    4 zJol gq41+. ol qlEeirl +7}= .J6ll
    as*:?:ry:nnnfi r1e.3l Exl-E=9 +4flE= Hlg* aol4= d9
    'J+!LE
    rs.a¤ql^]=qt
    ETll
    ¤ 4o14.
    1.00 0.cql fl: 1.00 Lel ol* 7lal7|2.00 L.E s+6J
    atm,
    4l $le-eu1 H+E al4I6I .H-zt. 8ll0+ql^l 6I*.'J 4s, ol
    +{ ¤+ +4:1e.27,1e.28

    1l zl;llal$ ol+6}q 1.00 atm, 0.Cql il= ol.$ zlxll r.00 L

    oJojBj 4l2rJ+l

    gqq xllrBzl9 f.s zIH9 qqe} 4Aql^lE 9lHzlE tr=g+= 4o14,."o, (s.2¤).
    9lHzlzl -H-+q* 4aH,
    ^lg4 4col gq+= E"J tleeqE- H+Hvl?
    +gE 4ltlg ¤:6fl gol}.zl. I mol9 g+(Eil+ 99 6J z7+ =r-71)oJ AlTl a ++19 "J
    +"J qq+q +ql^l + ql, 4le+ r +gel qlE +vl H+= 4l{i6ll -H-z}. o1 r+ae 4le}
    ++)71+E gEq ?lzl 4lE{l 7}q4"1 otq+. r+zl"J as= ^Jq E}f"lzl qlEql al
    9 fle_eq H3r++ 44"1 7Iq4oJzl, ulz|${olzle+ ^}*$ol a+. q4 1e.2 H}s *ql
    ^l
    ol +cql^.i +Eiq= 4el qlE+fl H]Il¤ 4l&.J Et 9l+.
    qw
    ASal: - omor)(6'o-!-:]o3Jlmot) : zz.o,lK
    ggr+ "*BoI fl= qelBE +ol ++lE "J*zi qq, r gE= 4lg(37 oc:310 K)r+ rJ
    Q-r. z[3o121. qq+E +ol gg gE.Jg 99ol 93 gE.]n+ aTlY zJzl"J+E=
    el4z} 99 -e.ot x 103 I/molol g+. trI4^l +99 qlE er4 HEI= El-q-r+ ,J4.
    (1mo1x-6'-011103J/mo1)
    AS+g: {w - : -D.4llK
    ++ d4lE 4le} r ++lE +CqH+r B + 9+. El4^l AS++:ASa1+AS+sol4.
    r4oe ++ dillE sE+vl H4++49 qlql^J o}+ol+.
    AS++: ASal + AS+s : (22.oJ lK) + (-7e.41 lK) : 2.61 lK
    orq-/ 2n Ktsr+ ot+ a+ +g gEB+H, +* !+4.g HI7]
    "Jg ++l eETI 310 K7[
    94ol otul4 7Iq4oJ 4o14. rfl+ a+ql= ifl te-+q Hslzl -22.0 tlKTl 4q
    ASeaE 0ol slflg 1o14.
    .JHlzJeE EE ElTIq 4Col ++E SlEEulE <,1^lv1+ HlE, qtr 7lq rlaE +
    ?9 flc-+ul= E6[r]l 6[z1 9*=+.
    zt9 4C: AS++:ASa1+ASas :o
    ulzl9 4C: As++:ASa1+AS;e1 >0 lle.4l
    19.3 E^l^] gE0il^lol ?l=etrlelgq+ 973
    ^ll3ts4l

    ol Eq+4PHe(secondlawof thermodynamics)9'J+g¤dtrll trq +i1 ?l


    ^]Eol \
    rt. zlts4 4Ae ulz|glolstr, gEqI ^il2Hzlg E+*r+ eol Eeg +E 9l+.
    B A Eel^=-Eq r7l
    erl= EE =al4=.7f r+rl7t gal
    ++9 SE
    ^lgzl 44q^l +4*+. 7l
    ^lrl-8.
    trt= + al
    5 gqg 0.5 atmHtl eill,';Z
    +^= ,re
    A t=eUEorEalE r rr-Eoil^1 z(Ear td9 t!E-Eq= a^-?trt. +prg zi, olLlE 4=71lI?
    ^[g4orq,
    oinldllol6E7l? 'JA etB +^l
    I
    gEqI xllzHzlS EE ztg4 Eslql^] qql "5Ir 9lq -
    '14+= Ee4 +cq
    r4+ H3tI=.J^J ++q Slee.ul +71= FqI'*+. 7l=oE^J ol H4g g+6IE 1 atmel 7lill 0 atmol Tl3
    9E 4Col zlg4"Jzl, rezl 9*9zl= ql+e + 9l+. rflEJl gqql zllz$4$ .<i Ef L
    =

    +6lq zlg^dg ql=6}71 dql +xI4 +dql^l qjEtriilE 9olE + trJ gEltr= aol Il- rrl"L 04llEH
    ++g 4o14. 7l^1l7f gd6G
    4l+ tl6J6}zl dql ETlHql +6J E_+"lq: ol ,JE tse ql+Eql^l +Ee.l +d gr+ i|l8rl.
    ^19 =at43=
    g ++1tr+ 4lql +e d6g 4.o14. rql^J s7l= tEl6l 6171 9.16l] 419 elq-aul H
    pl= ASatE EB6l ]^71tr4 AS-e zJ*ol 1o14.
    'I4E
    atm
    1e.3 | +al4 sJaql^1sl tlEEitlef oJo-tt1 413'Jzl
    0.5 0.5 atm
    '':=*
    Elqlg ++6I= +4qlrll EzI* tsDll+g +: H+. tsz}el:a5 ,J9 H+l"ll sle ol !+tt= rFJ4olEl.

    tr"]= 9ts *flto1 9)*4? ExlE qts qlEtr'lql *¤Bzt? Ludwig


    =d=ol
    Boltzmann(laaa-tsoo)3 Ql-eeqg 9ol9l .tll-e.+ TI]HS +q6}9trI. rE E4g
    7lill E^lEol eF
    qEof8rf
    A
    olalialzl +16l]^l= $z[ ffio]l,tJ Qle-+u121¤Eq= rJ^l# Eq+B ¤szl 914. =al^=.-e

    +al ++ql^1 7lzlle.l trdtr


    f.eJ 19.sq rEa 17lH da"etr S+6I= 7l^ll= o1 ST.l 9"14=
    ^J4"11 -H-z|. atm 0 atm
    E.J ++ d;]9 Qlqe.q= +7l6JtrI= ^ldg olxll ofzl$, r 4aE zltscg EzI
    1

    +=ql^l= qBzl ¤E6llot Bzt? F9,ol ol srlg zlg4ol41 6[=zl oJo]rllzl flall, ol rtE= HlrtuJ4oltrt.
    Tlill$ geEJ +"f,$ 611 9l= oJ!¤g ddJ^ll4r. -H-= zlill EzI *EE4 +Ag arB 19.5 I!80e TlillTtEJE
    q^117lH^J EEE :ze rs.sollr-l *+ +zlE ¤8, zlx,ll Ezl-=E + 6|i ?jg rtg4 r[Eolt[. r qal
    ^lz16}z}(10.7¤_).
    4+l4e +Eol trJ He +tes qqg a4E, zlxllel $1tol ++t+. I ^l=oll
    f Sa;-r=q| 756|.zll
    EEoILJ 7l^ll E^F=01 EF -d+
    + Tlill Ezlzl +E6tr 9l= E+3 ^J4"ll _u_Erl + trJ zI^]161 gqBzl. ++ + o l5afts-3 Hl^lg4
    zlzl gQzl dql + +^l7l:H 1e.6(a)oll tr.J az]H g+ e-d 914. ++ =al^3_+
    0lrL
    +^l7l g4E =4^fql
    r Ezl-=g all +aql aa +41+l4sE +zl"J+. Exl-Eol +
    :.=.91 E.F EqA + glal q$.o oE, rH le.6(b)q tr'J HIe+ gol ull zlzl$ ull$ol =+ zl.

    < rH 19.6 F
    9l= + ErtE zl-lgt utl$!=ol
    =a1.430il (a)
    q^l7l-Eal7l doil E^l
    Al.E
    g+ =
    9,lrt. (b)
    o = =a[^rol
    g= q^l7l gall'J=cl+. + E^l-
    e )l7lE+ ?t= st|goil= Lll 7f^l
    7l. 9,LtL
    (a) (b)
    F E^l= +E6l7l ?1"-ll a'e +^l7l gall u + 7l-=Et
    5e^q4 TE^Ioe E,'.liltrt L1l 7t^l ullE(o14 8E|l)
    874 1e3 Et-+ Eq+

    b6l+. +rI +Ee +41+l4olE-e., r Lll 7144 E]]gg Ag q¤E .Jqg 4o14. ol {,
    + + Ellg"J, F +z|7f E+ g+ E+^rql Eq *=, ++ +^)7l94zl d9l 6il'J'J
    +.
    rB 1e.6(b)= HH, "J+ 541=-71 E+ Ez[9] 6l+g trI, +94 Ez]7] g+
    zq 5qa qEe u] zti =44
    * 5 z11o1l(919 e.ga_4 ol.4e_l g+ Ellg), +E4 Ez[7] g
    + Eqa g¤E :1ei ,J+(+19 g+4 ot49 94 ull¤). 4 Ezlzl g+ql 9l
    =+^rql
    g qEg n:tlro\s e, F gzITI g+ql ilg qE3 (lr)': %o14. ole+ ag ,J4es
    2f

    ,Hel Ezl.J ullE


    ^J4"ll ts-E, ^ll +^l7l .E+ E^lq
    g+ Er+^rql 9lg +Ee
    ^ll =q
    ('lr)': '/r99'J + 9l+.
    olxlf zl;ll I mol$
    ^J4"]] !-^I. !-E
    tlill lzlzl E^lql g+ flg q¤
    =e+^rq
    9 (,/JNol EctW:6.02x ro23;. o1 +Eg 49 ool4 u|$zlzlol ltg izlol4. relq =q
    s E= zlt:ll gzlzl F^lql g+ ¤4^eq EqA qEe dxlltr OoJ Col+. ol4 zJg zl
    ol^lzloJ 45¤ E6l] rSq 4^lzl.J ,lE¤ ol"li6J + gl+. Tlal= zlg
    ^ll e4¤E
    4ss S+6I.1 oJ+ q iH+rll 9zl"J, +^l g+ =
    sl5olzlE 93
    =+4r=
    zi$lg-tr "Jq+zl ?+=+. =+^rE
    ,lill S+ql 4qL EzI4 +dg ¤q+eE,'Al, Ezls=g rEol +l6J + 9lE ¤4 zlxl
    tsHgEql 44,i '!]zlY a.J¤ol gl+g"J+ gltrI. +e+^\71¤4zl d"llE6JTIzl tsl]
    gujol zl]bafrl. E= EzITi g+ g+^rql E4 gl= tsIlgol+. *+ +^)71 gulH,
    7ls"6J tsllgg +== ga+ril g+ ¤E+^uq g4 flE: tsllgg a+g 4+ql
    =q+r,
    +E +zlE zil+lrl Hl]g"l q= 4,o14. 7l4l7l Eld trL 4 EzlE g+ qlCq
    =q^rql
    I ?lzltr4 "J+ql + 9lg + 9l+. zlxll $zffiol g+ ¤?+^rql edl 9lg *llH+ +E
    +^)71gfl + Tlzll +zl-=9 HIge trl +4I+14 E= +4^16l.+,r "J++.
    ole+ Aol +4+lEE GzlZ ++6I: 13 Ezl-+=ql^J $le-ei45 olailap EJI E+ol
    g+.

    Boltzmann trlA tl'EH


    ^.lrl
    gqul Eot= EeE ul.tl! fe$ relalxl ?+g i]{ ,l^l4ql EaE ¤EalE zll
    Hge.i.J gB6ll StrI.
    =^dg
    gqEe flzl* Erlql ql6J ¤ql4.J T}lEol qBqTl dql ol
    ^ld
    ul zlqlol ,*+q4 Eolol4. el= Eq EE gqql4 Cee z}|E uzo Ez}el $Cg qI
    g6lzl g:j1E EeE^l Eel +Cg ++U+.
    EeE ¤Hq ilq^J El^14 +dr+ 4^14 +dE tsag 9ldl, 444¤3 E4l+ +E
    g olao6Iq ul,r.l ,rllzlle| a^l ¤a6l-= E4l gqElGtatistical thermodynamics)
    ^ll4l ^IolE
    EotE ga^la+. olxJl zl.r.l{ Eaq ce"J de-eqz1 g^l.+ e4¤g 4E"4 qtr g
    SCg zlzlizl *+g 1,o14. FZI gqqlql E*g fqlol +d-6il^1, q7l^J= rllH4.J
    Eq"J alzl_+ *4.
    rH le.6e-l + +ql fl= Tlill +7I F z1]9 a+ql ql'J E9ql^1, TlzJlTI ell 'J
    +4=zlql ql6-J =+^r
    oldl= alE ull Ellgg +71-E-g¤ ag Egttrt.
    =E|:
    olzll zlzll gE(r)e+ +ill(Dql el6il Celg qH gqqi4 d-EHql flE olt zlxll r molg
    ilEl6ll H4. rrl^14 ++q^l ol ol,Ll. Tlxllql qH "Jol "Jq+i1 gleq, f .Jqqn g=
    oJol : TlillE fleeulq gl&t*?
    "lH ssdol
    qH +rJql Ez[ ax]E +Ee] gzlql Eil+'+rJ ¤t]'g 4g+rl 6]l Bzi. r +rJ g
    ^Jql^J 6.02x ro23zle1 E= Ezlql 4* +lzl A4 eF glHzl z,I9 detol : ¤qql4 41
    1s.3 I E^14 Stroil^]el glE-+trlel Eq+ 875
    ^1138^]

    ql d]B6I.= 6t+9l ula rlQlz| g+. 5I+E ota c]Elt


    (microstate)i :1 714lz154 gqo+4 tlqql 9lg tr11

    714 + 9l= 7l^ll ts4-=E +lrle} ¤+ qlLJzlE9 U]lE


    + 6IL|= 9rle}4. 4E zl*al trli t{E *zl ?l;]]
    4l+"ll^l +rJ gtlg 49.4:7 oil ez}.
    7l!o6J !14 tlqg += gaq-r]l "*o}^l zl-|.al ula
    tlqg +a gd-E-g + 4= {ol gzl-}oll BoJq. r I

    +l+ r+r)l Be +E "Jzl-= 4*zl trltEql, gq -1


    q4 tletql dl$6t= "l^ tl-Ellg += 446171=A +16ll q
    E+ E4lE "l+g f li4(.l4ol E4l 99al.l4E E
    of olEql *4l7lsqzl= ol+ol+). 4 gqqlzl flql
    rql di'&61-= "14 ^JEllE izl ,.lo1l4 ileq, r +
    = 7ls wtr +4u4.
    =
    4lel {t{e+ re+ +d¤ El^ tlqls$ +E6I= ql +
    7lfr qeJ¤¤ !=4L+.
    ^JEol
    .+ tq= Tlalel "Jqol+ gEe+ rJol, 419 a^lzl
    +Ee 7l++r}.
    .pI ult tlEfl= Al9 +q+l
    ^JEIql
    ql+q= 4lE g
    zl+ +zl¤.ol ztzl= 5C "lrl4 ull$(microscopic
    arrangement)S 9"laJ4. ^1 ffi
    +lql t++ 4 izJ Btlol 6}+el ula {tQlz} q= a alH 1g.7 Ludwis Bottzmanng eul Viennaotl ?lE Bottzmanng
    olr+. 4 TlAl ezlel +lrle+ *F 9lHzl} +A ¤tl- E .n.Hl0ll= GIE AfEHsl ?lE+trlsl7l5zr Dl^ dEHE +
    ^l0le.lZrzl^l0l^H
    'los'E
    E E+ q¤ aol^ItrJ, 7+ +7J ¤tlg 6l+9 a|qoil Eil Z^1 9ltl(Boltzmann ^ltHoll= ^lEPr= LtElLllTl Pl6H ^lE:'-{
    flq)'
    *q= ez1 d6JxltE 6J E11goJ aotq. ,14 , ;;; +
    e a^lzl 4lql ilq^l 4 ^Jelq qi*q= trl^ tlqlEe "JHl4g-tr ga+ril FJ4. 4 w
    gHlzJe-+ ql+61 ixtol4.
    = qts 4el = Boltzmannql el6l] aoJqJ., r
    "l^ ^Jql +(w)e+ flE_Eq(s) ^lolE +41=
    g EHlq 4lz4 gl= oI+ ,Ja'J ffi
    alos ed¤4(=a rc.2).
    S:klnW [19.5]
    q7l^l ft= Boltzmann rli(t.:e ol
    ^tdgoJ + 9l+.
    x 10-23 l/r;"1q. E61l trI-g
    ^lg
    {e=,s1E qB ,l^l c.Eil"il 9ut"E9 ul^ drrll$ol 489Ezl9 4.5ao14.

    A t ap-19 El^ SEHoJE 7[^l= Zlel 91=+nl! gEtET[?

    rl ts.s-++El, qE 4Aql +*q= fl-eeq Hsl+ tl-Sr+ rJol ?94¤ g + 914.

    AS: ktn Ia/45- kln wz,t: rr"ffi t19.61

    4lg ,l^ ^J'il += e-7\^lv]|i E.E H:*(wa+ > w=,r)E .J+el As <ig +tr}.
    {EFyl= 419 "la t}EX +q u}4 6zt*4.
    +q{ ol{ zlilloll + 7l^\ Hs+E 7ti$.9 ql 4 a+ql flE eulT} olBZl B4zl=71 g
    876 1e5| at+ Eq+

    qB4. d4l, ="8 "J+{+ TlAlql^Je+ +^16rrll, 419+q= rtzl\flQa- 6]] trz}. +tl
    71}qt 49 zlzll fl^l7l + 9i= +lilEel izl4 Bol{4= ag, q-{^l trl^
    =^]]B
    rJ4 fzl El 4dg 9"1t4. r4^l rs.z¤9lrJ tr?l*ol, zlallE $lseol= *-4zl *zl
    Elql tt}+
    =q+q.
    E4l, +r1= trB^l7ll1 gE= +oJElr 6ll trzl. o] Hs]= 419 slq-eulq qBrll ¤
    r3g ul{z}! rH ro.l3(a)oll.! +E}u Ez} +E9 tsE= 7lq"l] H.z}. .&ETl-94ztH
    q +EE E4¤ol +471714Y +EE EEtr trl Hqdq. rrll^J +^l7l
    = =q+r,
    714+ gl=¤+qlLlzl alol q qo}6lxlr., oli^JEI +E_G7lt+Al g+. tqE-e4lg
    QlEtrEl= gE t}+ql u}4 ?z}{4.

    +zl ¤+"al qlLlzl


    Eeg 7Ig6lE r Ezl¤E 8Eg gg6lld+. zllro.z¤9lrl ol{t zlzll Ezl-=E ¤+ s
    5. qLlzlTI TlillE ¤Ell gEql aHIql++E 49 u]lfl.4. ol|-, $Ez| ^Jog++ Ezl¤
    g EE ¤-zloll rEq ¤E 9lulzl= ?ziaJ4E d¤ 9ulaJ4. rlqol :.H ro.lz(a)9l
    ^J
    B + 9lFol, AlTl e4H4++ r 4l= +C6l+ +zl¤q +E +s= q -Jqd+.
    ol{r zlzllel oJ4-E=g +q+ 3r}E a6JE s,ol *zJg 5ol.r+q= E¤s}E +++ aEql
    E46I+. du{l Ezl-==g + trl qd-6J ++E gE¤ 6tr gl4. r+ 6}+= aJ Ezt d
    ^-11
    illTl E"J+ BJ"6'Js_e ¤-4olE g¤.ee, ol,rj zlxllel Ezlr+'J1l ot++r} eg 4^14 E
    illq^J B + 91trI. olfl g5¤ EIE E(translationalmotion)olrJa 6J+. zlill Ez]5=3
    .-441
    E45B4 H ztfr$rll H1] e# 6Ir., qiil +4¤g r.ill +zl¤-H-r1 11 zlSEg
    Bd e#.JtrL
    ¤rll Ezl-L Ezl 49 gzlEol ?zl4o s.qe zJgl Eg#.42I Tlvl+)^ly r!= rE
    (vibrationalmotion)4, EzlEol qE + ++]tr Eil 9lE EIE #(rotationalmotion)E
    oJq. rH rs.ag E +zl7[ g + 9l= llF ¤#4 qa e+9 6[+= Eq ole]
    Ag Ll"JdJ ¤EllE ++¤ 56ll +zl+ qlLlzl= ^lelg + 91tr|.
    =q.

    tr ofe= fl^l= IIE E- -g + 9l=71.?

    {xll gzfpol z}zl} aE "t sld +Eetr oJ6ll gzi al.4tr= 714. + s.E ull¤Sol
    4le 9old4. :aelo.e' drll Ezl¤tr ol+qd Edg eg +9 ol{t zlillz} zfzli ulc
    tr-4tr+ q *e trli tr-qlE 7l4Ll. .JHlzlsE qtr 4lz| 44. + 9E ul^ dlEI += +
    ul9 6zl, gEE G,!, aqa. EXF+E +4ql 4+tsq++. eX+6lH olH HalL 4lg
    +4¤ol 714 + 9= +lil H ++ qlulxlE +71^1vl7l qEol4. sal $zlz| 4e++
    415 efq EJ^IE Eq+71 ql$ql -r, trla {l4 iz| g + 9l+.
    =qhlg
    E^lE a Eql. 0lE^i7f 7lE + ?1= EIC EEel tiE BEtlE 7l+6t^le.

    r1\
    otafl

    .=l:
    Y

    't
    if
    ''-
    ,, .f
    "'ld
    a
    "..-a---
    IIE r_ qd _J
    af"B 19.8 E E^lsl d5 eEa[ slE EE
    19.3 E^I.4 aJE0ll,\]sl ?l=Etrlcl=qqr 877
    ^113ts41

    AlTl714. + 9l= "l^ ^Jql i4 ?zl, + 4lE slee:4 +71= s¤61+ %I^lql= q*l
    zlzlzl ?14. olE$ +¤zletr, 844 ^JEol4 3tl4 ABql 9t xllelol oll, +
    clzlzll 6t=. gEq zl.*s9 +71= +s++.
    ^}{flg
    ^l-=ol
    $e_+:4E ?zE s¤olzl 96]] 7It[ '"J4
    ^F*q= %l-^]g 4E +4+lE(randomness)
    q +edE(disorder)9 +7lolL+. E. trlE HJ^lg, Ezl¤g flile+ qqzlTI +s6J + 9l
    %lBE +71 +71617l trIEql, qlE +!l +71= gluJzl ${!(dispersion of energy)9 *zl
    =
    e s¤elq. ol+loJ ,J4(+ I+]E+ qlLJrl +4I)5e xllqls 4+qE, ffia;] ef zlluJ
    ol4.

    Asslt^J4 qE
    ,J++ 4A E.J 419 SleeulT} qBrll E6l+zl 4dzleE ql+61+ 19 9Bzl 9*4.
    "Jql^l ts aile, alel gE+ *ul 6zI* "la ^.Iq +, q+^J 8leeu15 f;zlr.lzlr|. ul
    ^Jql +e+ +d ilE
    e.6t+E oJxl-b +84str S4olr 9l= Ezl¤9 iol4.
    ^ olfl saEql adg ql+6J + 9l+. qlE Eq
    "*Ae-EAl Qleeul Hsl¤ C¤4sE
    Eol 7l3rlg rll, tszl* +rle u,lzlzll g+. 7li]l7l. trl +rJg iizl6|71 clEql ts4¤
    ol Q xffiial szl"J += 9lr, 4l7l7l4 + 9l= ul^ {trllz}= q y+o}4^l
    slEEqE +7t
    ++.
    ol4l EE g+q^J= +4 AqI_e_E oJ6ll r=J le.eql
    ^JE¤ ¤4BzI.
    HIel eol,
    '+4U
    rcg +z7l Eq4lr|. gg 4ql^l Ezl¤g ^I+Ezl dE"¤ + 9s+, Ed grE"4 sl
    d +s*g eqill tlqltrq ¤tl zlaJ¤4. o-lillql^lE +^ eetg 6tzl"J, tszl¤g q dr|
    olt'6}r.(Htl), Fldqd+(qd. r4oE ggol \$oll zl-L"t ,ll49 += +
    "14 "l^
    zlap tE-svlE +7I'{}+. ffizloll.<l Exls=g
    ^lE aE qB4olr Ba, 4lt, qa
    +Fe-l H+lzI alqzt g+. rqss a6zl3 q g:e "la ^Jql= zl4 i 9lr, :r- a4
    Eiil Eol+ g+trE} H 3 QIs-eqE ztrl4.

    m E E^f=S oitr doil^l qlI S¤¤ 7t8 *6t?7t?


    ?lE+tr|
    I =7|.

    otq o-4ill E T6tl

    $, a
    o
    5 a
    qy o
    9 D
    U
    5
    zEE 4xl'74 Et! EEg ,'.jBz9 qd Erl-=
    =olu ^l-PE =g4oe
    IIE
    qo QEtrT
    [ou zto
    "IE t!5+ FlEol 7|.5 EE6l^l8et Bd, tlE, EIE
    al^el Ela cfEll + ol4 AtEtl + 4lEtlel ol^ SEtl +
    =7tE
    AfH 19.I glEe4elEe.l.s rl^dEH +7I=q'J+= r1;9 E1e+rl-s67|'-sttL
    878 193 trl-+ gq-+

    aillzlEq +d]q= ag, KClq 46l] ral 1e.10oll tr.J az]H, ++


    olg.r.J

    ? (
    e L
    !r
    o
    6J rxlle+ +++ Eol E4 ol8Eq g6JEE Et+l: 4dol4. Eill +E olg

    Eg ]lill 42}.il 9lg tril gzl"J + 9l= +qtr+ q +rl +q^l +4g +
    gl-1, :4.<1 trJ ¤+¤ g + gltrl. ol+al Eqt=olg59 ¤.FoE oJ6l]
    tis a D
    633
    FN "*e
    419 qlegEzl rtzlflQa- ^J41Rg + 9l+. rflEll qtr E +zl-E=e +s+ 4

    L {s-e, qlEegl ++* ++6I= Ell+9lql


    :;::: (13.11'l)e-tr .Joll ol¤E +=q4l Elq gEE z}+E= g4l El
    (.
    ) Ie
    J I +E6lol'*+. ol E Ezl-==g ol$$$ ule
    gql B=EJ gleEe dB+ r,l zl-,9¤zl *dt}4zl. slq gl4. :rflsg o1s-
    rJ rz1z1 += r+Ae +e^lql rtc(olgEol trJ e^lsl4a
    ^I+.E+.14^J)J+
    (qts E Ezl¤ol eFql ,]Iq}g *o}^J)g 5LF E6Jd+. ol${ rill
    'il++el
    7t Eql + q, B5+ +e^l3r}4Col +^ll6H^l dill4_e_-+ 4lE +zl+lE=
    a-fB 19.10 018¤ _zi1l7[Eoll rfi fl]E
    eq E+ olE=3 8l!qe rl=E:r trl^lr f;zlrlzlll $r[.
    +E^l6H^l^lE. 0le= +sf6f: E E^l=
    =
    olxll ol t|9
    ^lz}
    rHg h=qle+q pol, r.EE e4+g ^Jslq}4 4l=
    +c6l-71 +16l] ^J4l Ezl-5ol HHg6l+ ag ^J46]l _H_z|. ol$41 a4e+g +r
    +E^ldHaltf.

    ag 419 qleerl +i= +g6J 1eE- ^J4g 4,o14. rBILI r ^J


    = "JE= g+3
    4ol *zl {*zt grl. 4++ + ^Jill tszlz} ^Je ol=4$^l +slg E
    0l H.t30l golg rr1| E=e{ ,JAE +g EzI54 gltr olg=ol + .EzI 4lEql^J gelLl-e
    ^Cill tsz}ll Eq ^Ji] ^l-ol9
    dl"= f9 oJxlE +I?l7t? al qH^J, 219 Qle-+u]= d4lE 6z19 + 914(Er+ olg# 4le-l g+E ,J
    +6IE).
    zJg zHHol slq HI*alqlE 4+¤rl. tE+ eA Tlale+ *4 7lAl7l oll}3r}
    o e^ TlillE EIE= EI¤¤ ¤qEzI.
    o
    a.
    o
    + t 2No(5) + oz(g) .----- 2No2(s)
    ol a+ql EI¤+ EzlE += a^^la4(zl;]t9 EI*E E^I7l71,]^JE
    [Le.7)

    a a C r ^il ^J

    )t rC CE F E4.tr. u1flr{(=eJ 1e.1r. ^llE ¤dg N-o eE}e-E "J6l] flzl-S9 I


    59 zJa,*4. ^IE+ A6J9 BCe ?)zlzl7l4 + gl= 4-+E(+e ¤+ ¤
    C
    o
    D
    t ,
    T 4)9 f(number of degrees of freedom)E +}AvJq.4' ,tl-e¤ pa;ce oJaH
    2 No(g) + oz(g) 2 No2(g) Azlzl +++14etr SzlolTl 6JEqdE+. Ezli9 AieI a4a+ +Fel ,JA
    arB 19.11 NO(s)7tOr(s)oll el6H tilEl ?714 + ?l: "li ^Jql +E q ¤olr 419 fle_+qE rJa.<1u.1r1.
    q Nor(s)7|-E q glEEq=,J4:dq. 7l^ll 4rl6tE, qlxllE +gr+ ag r+4ql^l 219 Qlq-sul zl |zlt;li A6Jol 9lr}.
    F^l+sl ?JL= Alo) ?J=<r15 44^lZ
    rf. r. -ir^ll+ E^llE+q z)z)lzl ^Jcg ql
    2. -r.ill-e+El "-q4L[ ¤'.-4ol trl]
    ^JCB
    :. slql H}*ql^l zl;ll $z|$ ]zl TzyxE u4

    l\tt qHl 1e.3


    I ds+s ¤46t71
    tlE 4 aE!01 "J8-d eEql^j gq'J Ul, 4s7l g!+?.!^1, S+E^l trJE6l.^le.
    (a) H20(/) --+ HzO(g)
    (b) Ag+(aq)+ Cl-(aq) -+ AgCl(s)
    (c) 4Fe(s) + 302(9 + lFe2O3(s)
    (d)N2(g) +oz@)
    -2No(c)
    OHY]
    rts

    341 ql ,l]9 HI+ol +qAi1. 4 E+EI El+^lq] 46J /s9 +sE q+6I= Elllol+
    1e.3 I E^t4 rJEoll^lel ?lEetrlsl=E-qr 879
    ^113E^]

    filEl gETl tl+6}4+, Pulzl Eq*44, z\zll Ezlg + 4CE"J +Ee-e E*4o-e, 4s= ++o14.
    FezO:9
    zI tsolt}4E ds= oJ+7I g aolE+. f.flEll +zilql,tJ 9s (d) HI* TlrllE E+:,.JC zlill9 5+e+ e+. r4^] tlE
    pg Fulc+ExH"Jg aElE]+. E4 H0+= 4¤. 4o14. zl:t-zlzl! bEr* 7}zli1=^s
    = "J46I+j1o[flo
    EUI E +E= ql+61+ {ol zl-u" a}zl ?}zlI]J, asTl \ql7vl
    (a) q4illzt zls+ts Eilqlts +rl7t r mot(18 g aol+r qltr-g + 9l+.
    =.4 =qt4. E
    d3 .-4^,l9lrl 18 mlEl9l q}qzl"J, srpql 7lillg *= > H= qlrlll
    4*zz.+ 14 84. Ezp5ol zlzl {r-4ql^i gd +q trl-* 4 r+aql^l alg qlEeqzl fzp)zl. zf,raJzl gg
    =
    491 Eealzl ,llEql TlEl r+aq^l Ezt ¤¤r9 zI+E 6I^19_.
    +7I.J+. l4 o e. "J+oltrI. (a) Coz(s) Cozk)
    = ^s= -
    (b) CaO(s) + CO2(g) CaCog(s)
    (b) +"_4 +ql^l zt+Eril +zlolB olgEe. rillTl qH^J - NHaCI(s)
    (c) HCI(g) + NH3(j:) ------
    *ulzl +otalr., +lilE +61 zllaJzleE g+. rBlE-q. (d) zsoz(g) + oz(g) + 2So3(s)
    4s= g+o14.
    > H6 qlril2
    (c) -nr-ll ?zl-E9 *rJ4 +lzl= SCQI *e-+. ^ll6J E:1, 7l zlg4 rI¤ E"J ++E tE +rl= +7if,+. r+48 Hl
    ill +zl¤ts_trI gEg zl+E7I ¤{ 44. oz 7l^ll7l a^ll zlg4 r+a E.J ++9 flE +q= ai*4= *"J71?

    3 ql4l 1e.4
    5
    oll E etrl

    rl8sl 4 urollll ?lE+tr171 rl EEE nelr, r 0l+= ¤E6l./.l9.


    =
    (a) 25 "Coll,\l 1 molel NaCl(s)4 1 molel HCI(g)
    (b)25'Coll^l 2 mol9 HCI(s)al 1 molel HCI(g)
    (c) 298 Koll,t.l 1 mol9 HCI(g)z[1 mololArG)

    AtlH t6J + gle IrE(Ezt= plA+ + 9le+, g d# 6J

    e^I 4 Sqld Sleeulz} 4 a+= r=+. zl+ *6J+), HCI(g) $]e + ul zl erk) ql E -Etl-E-+ r+.
    =
    4q ol= 961 419 t4e+ r +ql fl= el¤q +tcql > s¤qlll1
    q6l] +g + 44 qle_eulE zlzlE 41ts *i.JzI?
    ^J46I ts+.
    E0l
    (a) STP9l,tJ I mol H2(g)

    (a) zli-1+\71r.^ll +4!-tr1uJ ${,tlo'}a q +"J"J +E (b) 100'C, 0.5 atmoll,tj I mol H2@)
    g 617l qlEql, HCr(s)7I q flE-erlE TItl+. (c) 0'Cql^'l I mol H2O(s)
    =
    (b) F 4lzi eg *q6}ql flg tril, 2 mol HCI ,tlB| 1 mol (d) 2s'Cql^l I mol HzO(l)

    1161 .llEH4 + H]|E Ezl4g 7l4r+. _r4d z mot9 > .H.E qtfl 2
    rlezl rl B3 uli tI4 +E zlzll q1e erl= + Ellzl Els-E 4 4*q fleeulzl c] EAg a=,rle.
    =
    94. 9lE 1 mol Hr(g)cl1 mol So2@)
    (a) STPoll
    (c) HCI Ezl+ Ar gztBtrI q +"J"J EJ4SE oll9zl= zl G) STPqI 9iE I mol N2o4k)e+ 2 mol No2@)

    oJ"jql4l3Ezl
    gE= *+q Al9 gqlLlzl= ¤olH BA, d5, r4r itld eF BqE 4tlg qlqzl
    7l q 4e qLJzlTt ,]tlq$ 714 + 9lE "l^ t4z} 4q4E_tr 419 Qle-+
    =q=+.
    !l= ,J^6lal gEl. El.J g5a= 4l+ *+H, E= ¤+ol azlq.Z + 6l+E "li ^Jql+I
    9l z*zl *g rfl t}flql E$z;)nll ol e$g g!q+{BHEI(thirdlawof thermodynamics)
    4 *¤ol 94.
    880 198 trl-+ gq-+

    Sd ACC +Eeq {E eEl= eql SEoil^l 0ol+. ? s(o r; :6


    +++ sd a4c rill= d46I E^1. eql gEql^J 4zl 4g EE flzlLl tszlE 4
    ^l 4flB aolr,
    r5q flil= g ¤Eqq flg 4o14. r5g q¤ g+rE"E 6}z1 9+g
    4.olo e, + 6l.L+9 "14 ^JqlEl 7l4Ll. : ?4, al re.sE s: k ln w:k ln 1 :001 ¤
    4. Sszl ¤q gE_?+El t}++ql rI4 4zI 49 flz}4 ezF= 4,.l4+=;.4 " e al*
    6IH^J .llHxlE Erll g+. olE: Eeel 4+Ee+ Qle-+u1z16zt*9 9olaJ4. :zflull
    414 z}¤at7ll 9E : EeE Qie-+u1E 4441gtt? +¤. Aq^J ol fet 4+ql q6l]
    ^J46]]
    tr^L

    s!E enF.l "Jt ^lq


    E= ^JBxll= ol *9
    ^lzlq^l E +=qle+4
    zJol, Ezl ol ,rl-$sl:1 gl+. r r+aql^l +?.1= gqq rll2Bzlql 'ql.*
    ++.ql^lazl aEs +ql4olr, a44olq, a^J7I a *.J 617l'fl6l] eAkI qlqrlE
    4lol4. f ^JBAlTl zlxli q1e erl= raol Sd6l B6116I *4zl-,'J&al-b E= e^l= gt q Bg +e^lel ^J^Ig
    ^El¤L+.

    { ol,t}p} tsi, E, -r.r.lr. r+q += ,J++ q-435-e E 86il "J¤qd4. v+e.3zl3rlg +3E# "J59 4zl 9l
    1{g trllel QlE+t]tr+ Bt z++. ol= ^}Bol zllzHzl9I 6ll gse qLl^l= 4+, 4+, AETI^ f,$ Ell+l^l e=+.
    ulla}-a gl4= *gvl? olqq. q+6IH
    ^JBg +¤6Et + rBEJI ol=3 ¤4618^l cozk), Hzo(8), r4n ¤g B^J
    xlalf cll gs-6J +"*3 slqi Hi¤e +q4 ++E fltreq Elge*J *i9 qlE-eElE +71^lTlrll ¤+. fqEE +4
    E gaLl4 ftzltlzltl qlEol4. r4oE gqq 4lzB4 7l + q ts43 zllg9 atzl* cl e^l 4g+ aE¤
    ^Jtl6l
    ol efoli ql-e. oJag El*6J qE gol- ?l= *l qa 6}tr g++ gqq z{2Bzlq "++1, ++9 QIEE'IE
    ^8Bill7}
    .J dxll slEerl {{g o3;o14. q +e +oE ¤.nla fl= aolq.
    ¤9eL x]zH4e +4 qlrJol *4 ++l= zltsl]6}= %'-^l +E "Ja-==e. e^lE +a6tr. zl¤¤ Bdrlzlzl flotl 9l
    qlE 4+g+. +El zlrllTl +6J4"J ^JBillg +"J otq+, qzlTt ++tL 4E5q -E_.a= dd6}J 9l+.
    ^Iselq^l fl
    +dl= +4 +HE ^lzlqlE a^l= "JSq qr *E ¤xllol #6J Etel zJol, 4"J glHzl4 eg ^llEg glHzlsg s*
    4. zr,qz1q1 tsel ^FSqn fl= 4e+ dz} zlzlE¤,84I 6J ag ZIB-"1¤ zHrJ Ezllo* 9lHzl9l ql+ E¤E= *+l
    617l .?1611^-1
    4u"lr.l E4#
    =zl-e. =6'J6lL
    aB'J+. a oF 6J+.
    E-e azln+g 4E# ^J.tI6I7l +14
    ga,J oJ9 dEztfl

    1s.4 | EltI t!E +ul ,JEl-


    "J¤oll^j
    zlls.sp9lrl g*41= ols-"o[{ Eq} H}*E AH= +a6t: rJHg "Jo}E H} 91tr}. +^}d
    *Be EI+g as= +46l+ 49 Bzlba|4. rq+ zll3B4ql uI4 Qlq-eq9 zlA4
    ol {oll4lo p-e, dE4 +Cg F6l] SE-eEle] eqdt s= +B + 9l+. qBrll +6}=zl
    oJolETl 916}], gE"tl q= EeE fleeu1 tr4¤ + trJ zt^ll6l ++6ll trzl.

    q1 e e ulel +E sl#$
    o rglrl sd acci1^llel qlee.u1 aol 0014= :r. r.xllel gETI koldq q
    ^I¤r+,
    4 gl= eulzl67[6J+= ^[¤g "Jr gl+. reJ 1e.12: lxil9 +=aql EBg trl]4zl g
    E7I ^J+*ql q4 zzll9 slE-+irl: +=61 +7IElg trq g
    _r.;llzl-+¤.q q4,
    =q.
    zl+ Ezl-= l.tltr7l BzJ 8zl9 dill +rJg 4+sol Solqqal ¤+. 4+E=
    =q+
    : E49 +zlflEE +71^14^l fleeu]E +t+. rqoe. +=dql^J +4+ Qleeq
    9 t}*ol .Jq++. -1^]71 d+ +e +ql gE= +^l ^J+61ril qn, rql 44 qje-e.E
    E +7}ql+.
    19.4 I eltrt BJ30ll^1 ?]=eq E+ 881

    oEt| raJol t:871.#=80il^l +4 86¤ Hq += olf,L! +1?171"?

    nill e4ill 7 lill

    1
    t!E EL
    aEdI{
    e
    trl
    I
    -r-!-.xl

    0
    0
    8E(K)---
    a rg 1 9.1 2 ElE eq= 3e.21 55:.ql qal
    =7t-drl.

    .-!illE #Edql^J QlEtrE= trI^l +H +4qi +78 6lrll gtrI. olH 6ztE flx}* S
    zl¤ol zl;ll rlrilE llEElql qE rEol d+.J + gl= +aol tsq4zl qlEql q+k} a
    ol4r ol"lig + 9t+. TlillE 414 z}¤alE, Tlill gzf+ tszl¤el E4l +E 4ee 11 g
    I "llHzlz}
    zlttlzl {l$q fleeq5
    414 ?zlolzll ¤4.
    rgql^J 'Jq+= E 6}+el Esl= tszl¤9 4E Eszl l9 4ee "Jn-lll EIE Aol
    4(zH r0. r3(a)). +EE Hgzt H9zl3 ae .gE 9lr-Jzl4 +a^JE7I ?zta}ts aolr, x.19.1 2e8 Kql^1 s+ E?l
    tr|+^J qlc-sulz}6ztalE 4014. rH ro.r:9 ¤q+ee4 Eg A+ *ql^J fl+qR E etrl

    'J ar} "Jil*+. =qk} +Ed qHzl= q "te "la ^Jql= 7k6l7ll 617l qlEql ql gxl
    e eulE $sz} to= 6Joll 44 .JHI4ee +7IEI+.
    s'(l/mol-K)

    re 1e.t2s] z;2 9E-{eg4 rqs= EeE g+E&.au, (5.5{)ol gEql q+ q Hzk) I 30.6

    Brll H6l+zl= +AqE Eg + 9lq. r4r -r r4E z[-EE gso6[q 8le-eu19 4


    Nzk) 191.5

    ozk) 20s.0
    qag qo&l gEql^l +g + ?14(ol4al +Ar+ 4l4}q olEr}
    "JHe ol ixllel
    ^l-Sg Hzo(g) l 88.8
    H+l= Hq*q). 9l=.eq3 BF Ee 1 mol%I9 {tsg E^lqq, I/mol-K9 ++]tr + NHrk) 192.5
    q{+.
    CH3OH(g) 237.6

    E+ ¤-qJErtrl CeHrk) 269.2


    HzO(/) 69.9
    E.= tlqlql fl= Ed 1 molB9 Slee:4E E= EfllEEEI(standard molar entropy)4l
    cH3oH(/) 126.8
    6[q, s.e-E .E^l6tr+. E4q g.= tl-ql= I atmg .Jq4ql ilE: E4q +++
    ^J4+ ceHr(l) t72.8
    i1 AE¤+.- E. le.1ql 2e8 Kql 9l= q TIzl EeE s" {tg LtEl.Ll]flr, trJ E*g EAql ql
    Li(s) 29.t
    * {Iol ++ c9l +q4 9l+. Na(s) 51.4
    s rs. r q +q a s' zlEtr+El a zlzl +54 ?l ^I¤g *ol-B + gl+. K(s) 64.7

    r. rJc flgi4e+ q_4,2es KE 7l= gEq^J gi=el s= gqlEErl= 0ol ofq+. Fe(s) 27.23

    2.7]|1)14 .tr= EqlE+q: rH rs.rzql +Et,J u}q ?ol, Eill+ -l^llel r l}EB+ FeCI:(s) t42.3
    trl r+. NaCl(s) 7)7

    .E=.Jqol rl ol^J I atmol olul4 $49 sr Elqgl 4^rJ(pa)ql 7l=4q l bars c99 r0'paol4. I bar-10s
    pa:0.987 atm. I barq 1 atmg 1.370!iql
    '.[ol7[ +z]
    ?*rl qlcql ol 4ql^l= {E^J s= ga..o 1 616ole}-r, 6J a"l+.
    882 19Ar al-sf Eq+

    \- seil?](caHr o)sl s",J3 go igrl?

    oilqte(CH+) oileil?l(CzHo) E_etriloJ(c3H8)


    S' = 186.3|lmol-K S' :229.6 J/mol-K S" :270.31lmol-f
    a rB 1 9.1 3 glE eq= Ed:d E1x1.g4q
    =.1.

    3. E= Efleeq= "JEl4es EzI=Jol +7I6Jql q-+ 441+.


    4. E= SQle-+u]E EeE ElqI^lE flzlfz}
    "I+ 411t1- =q*ql
    4H ¤Be le.3¤ql^l EE'tl EzlE +E"r+ +Eqq flq. gHlzle-+ flzl.9 fz| ts"i
    B++ 7l+q} ,la ^Jql +E +71*+. f.a 1e.13e TliI ^Jqlql gl: ^ll Ttzl +El+^ El-
    .JEg .E= gtlEtrq= HlrL6l.J il4. Ezl9 flztizl Gzl6J 41, Qle-eulzl qBr]l H
    6l+zl ++6fe}.
    ,Jtoll cflal s.E tlE e ill ,Jsf 4lt
    Elq H}¤:ql^l sseq HsI= ^JdEE QlE+El Elql^l *+89 $Eeq 'Jg u ar+
    ,JL+.

    a5.: )n,f(^J^.iE) - )zr(q1s-e) [1e.8]

    s.3rql^le+ *ol, Al+ nll m* ++ HI+^IE Zl+o14.


    ^l

    \\ qEl 1e.5
    tn q!E etrl-S,E ol¤-ttol AS" 4ltl'oPl

    2e8 K0il^l Nzk)elH2k)E+El "Je.r;01-g -Erddlts 8J30il rH-d zlelE= ElE+tr| Etr(as")= zltbt,\lg..
    Nz(g) + 3 Hz(g)'-------+ lNHa(g)

    6HU

    841*EqolE C+ g4Ee+q NH3k)9 tlc !+Aq ql xlel rs.sg ol*alq Zl&,J + ilsq. g,q,* s= 581
    ^l,*gs.
    + s= sE +El Esl¤ 4l&de Ezllol+. trsq le.lr+++cq^'l *=+.

    Evl
    .rl rr.ag as= El-s-r+ a+. A.f : 2,f(NH:) - [Y(Nz) + 3s'(Hr)]
    ^l-&6tH.
    s le.rql fl= at# qlE6ttr EI-gg e=+ Af, : (2 mol) (rez.s I / mdt-K) - t(1 mol) ( 1e l.s J/B*oI-K)
    + (3 mdx130.6JlmoI-K)l
    : -1e8.3JlK

    #.¤ As= ¤+e eqe+. olag HI*ql 9611 zlzll EzlE > H* qtr1l1

    fz[ zJ^a[{ q]E +El7t ,Jd6J aol4= ql+4 .J^l6J+. ++ cq +qd E= E$leeulg ol+6}q 2e8 Kql^l oJ
    1e.4 trl+ BJSoll^] ?lEetrl Etrf 883

    q+='E +61]' HI*ql 4t s= {EEq Hpxas9= 4l > .85 qlrll2


    tI6I^19_. 5+ cql+q{ E+591e-eqg ol+6}q 2e8 Kql^] oJ
    2H2o(l)-2Hz@)+Oz(S) q+ts q+ HI+q ql.J.E= qltrsE H+(As9= 21416l-
    (a) 326.3 llK (b) 26s.7 llK (c) 163.2llK ^ls.
    (d) 88.s l/K (e) -3263llK Al2O3(s) + 3H2(j:) -+ 2Al(s) + 3HrO(g)

    ++lel q!E Ptrl HJef


    s+ol Elq.r+ ae alE s= tlE+El H+= *q^l ¤HqL qtr, qlEs4 E= gl+6lq
    4l&g + 91trI. r4LI ++19 qlE esl Hq+ qBrll .*zl? afl 81e-+q H4¤ re.24
    ql^l a:4 +E HI glzlql, s+ol Hi¤¤ -7.rl6}J glE zl# +^l oJB
    ^J46J
    gsz| ?14.
    qtr 419 ++l= ee4eE "Jc6J gEg ,ltrl+ gg(E= gol alql^.i ++lB gqrJ
    trlH g¤]+iil)E Eeg 611 9l+= dg "Joto} *+. +9lE qlEssl Hq+ 4l.e
    e= E= 4lE+El 4zlE gq .Jql 94 ACg+. =q
    Ee4Cql ql+++19 9lee-u] E:fl+q-q-4?ol ?914.
    AS+el : ?:+
    "JC.J "Jq6lql^1, qai H]* elBvl A}{e+ ae-EE q-s4 zJol ¤ + gl+.
    -AH
    :+
    AS++r (.JA* Pq^J) tle.el
    ql^ll le.sq +qd "JEqoI.JC HISql q6]]^.1, q4E s6 t}qql^l HI+ flgq(AH9el
    ,Jj1, sl=erl Hq+ E= qlEEnl EE}(Asg.J 4o14. :14u-e s.7¤ql ¤Eg qltr 6}
    E, trI-gE 49 E=q.
    Ar{:m : 2 AHr"[NH3(g)] - - Aai[Nr(s)]
    3 AI{r"[HzG))

    : 2ta6.7ekl) - 3(0kJ) - (0kJ) : -e2.38kJ


    g+ {Ie 2e8 Kql^l Hr(g)rl Nzk)trPEl oJEqoh= ^Jc6l+ 401 B¤ +col+= ag
    "Je+. 4l7I EJ=t gg ++l7I g+5|q ?fl eieeul= +7I.J+.
    As?g : ry#:0.310 kJ/K:310J/K

    ++)71?9 slq-evle.l oJg, qlzll re.sollrl -1e8.3 I/KE 4l&9, 4lz| s3 $leeulE
    "JEEI trl *4.
    HI+ql qlEL dill Ql-ee.u] Hs++
    asl+: as; + as?a : -1e8.3 JIK + 3loJlK:1'tzJlK
    olEl. Asl+= 5L= zlg4 4Cql ql6l]^l oJfolo-a, +l 4l&ql q6lB NH3k), H2k),
    Nzk)7[ 4r+4 -E= t]4ql^J Qf z)t:)lzl r atm6tgl ilg c]) 2e8 Kql llsE NH3(g)z[
    z]es ^JCq"loI ErS 9"lAI4.
    ^i.l
    gqqlzle 4l&g.JEqolE rdcol ztg4gg 44421"J, dc 1E7l9ut4 ml¤ r
    ,lql qldl^J= g + s+E 4g zlgolot +EL El++ ailH, 4'J.J
    ^llls.7¤ql^l ^lrJ
    qlql ol 4l7l ¤Bg olfzl $loll.<lE +qlz} gs6}trl.

    rt¤ot gE zt¤ota'*, +*g ElE+,= (") -dd


    A o,t,= ot*
    (c) rt¤0il rq-at=7t--J +E ?t_r ,JA--J =7t6tErt,
    (b) Bta a46E^t,
    +E ?tts^l 8,-f1E^le.
    i
    884 1e8 6t-+ gq-+

    re.s I Gibbs xm qFlal


    e& oJEtsol Eql +6l]El= azle re (r3.r¤), qE +g r+ce z[gz]eE gqtq.
    +6l] r+dql ql.J +gql^J, ¤-E 4dol zlB4_qE g"l4zl +161]^l= 419 9le_+u1216
    zla1lolu.1 ++lL EHS.+. rflrll z[${e_tr .Jq+E^J Zl9 $e_+u]z} z}Aolf A+E
    :
    e zlol 94. i;J 7l^1{lz} cE giEtr+q gE} rEol ¤dq= gg r+dolEl *
    (8.2e). 419 eleeulTi,J46rE^l x}$!e--+ 'JqLI= 4Ae 631I tsg 4Col4. :4
    E.-E Hl*el zlgdg F 7}zl9 gqol4 .J(slB'le+ ele-+u114 +ag 47lH tr.J+.
    .Jd gEe+ .JA $q 6Iql^J "Jq+= H}f,_ol zlg4tzl ot{zl= ql+6|71 fl"|] ur
    el AsE q$fl g+B i
    9)e=t4? rfloJ rJBg lgsE itoJo.J trl+E +E^] I.
    ^[*g
    willard Gibbs(1s39-1903)olr|. GibbsE, zl+g Gibbs rl* ollLlrl(cibbs free energy) E
    ,J+61 rlfi ollt-Jxl(free energy)e-|-L +s=, +*r+ zJol ¤9¤ ^IEg ^Jq *+ c=
    =
    .J6[9+. ^ll

    G:H-TS [19.10]
    qzl^l r= ell gEolr}. Fe q{q qql, llE zffi olluJzl Ep{lc)=
    - TAs
    A,G : AH [19.11]
    ol ql., s= tI4q^J ol 49 rf.Sr+ ?ol ¤ + 9l+.
    a|E EB.g.e olE^171ts at¤Ee xt AG' : A1{'- TAS' U9.12)
    g4g!7t, Hlxtr+4?.!7t?
    qH *flol iltszl= oJolETl +16l] eE
    ^Jq ++ G7I HI+E ^lgC4 "Jd
    e+ .JA "Jq6lq^J "JqLla 9l= HI¤:ql 4o1l oI4 alol cBEIS trzldl l{zl
    I As*: As4r + As+e.r : ASa . (+)
    ?t
    ^l {zld AS+flE E+t6}71 96il le.e= ol+6}9+. oJHql _r= +6}8,
    oil ^l
    Lj
    xl
    4t+el
    -TAS++ : AHa - TAS4, [19.13]
    EE +l^l
    ol g+.
    al rs.rrr+ le.t3g ulla|{, gC gEe+ gC .Jq4q^l .Jqq= r+4el A

    +lil
    + zr+ "lLJzl EsxaG)z| -rAsaae+ a+g "J + gltrt. zlg4 4dE a+
    ASa;z[.]tr-.]+.Jg ull+ H] ilo Ir-tr, -TASe;E 6].!-¤+z[ 9"]o] oJ+. r
    qEE aGE +a: 9C AE-s+ 'JC E.q6rq^l "Jq+= r+4sl xlB^dql ql*
    ull+ +3-6J +^JE 4l+*El. r* pzl gC6l+H, acE +Ee+ HlAq zlgd
    El 6l
    1 q-e- +4lz\ CB*+.
    ^Iolq=
    o
    ^l
    T lH119 . AG < gol$, CHI+ol x|$!olr}.
    otl
    Ll . AG:0018, Hl¤+ ¤B gl+.
    ^Jqtql
    ^l . ac > 0olE, 4HI¤.g Hlzlg-4olzl"J, qHI¤+ zl-ts4ol4(Ce}¤-ol g"l
    +4 6171 9l6ll^J= "Jg dl+qot ++).
    u8E rt¤
    aG= 41"J9 Caolr, ++l= l4ollol tJ $S$ol S,+. EI+^J ASttHr{-=.
    aGE zlgcE 3Es r*= aol g{ ¤r-16}r}.
    af.H 19.14 9{^l ollLlxlelxl* ollLl
    E.l= L||ale= 6alql
    ^l =al EaE|
    sl-st 9l^l ollt-l^l =gHJ8oll^l zlgzl HISql ql6J zl+ qlLJzl HE+= flq.g Eq LllEls= Eq +lil qlqzl
    HElql ++ HI+q= 6J+(raJ 19.14). +qql q* +lil qlq^l= Eg EEI qlei
    ollLl^l E+ ^PJ4
    +^tdol ?t
    ^f+gralrtS.rz; ^toloil=
    g8:-t nfl, IIEJ4 rf
    +.
    Eoll^i= ollLl^l7f -BfA AA"Jtl.
    r +lil qlq4zl 4As+¤ tlEIql Eg^Iil+. +^I6frll, Elo+ HI+E zI+ qlq
    ^f? zlE 6qEq al+{Hl Egttr}. ol !+1} sB:.].99 trL fl= ¤Bql
    ^J4q
    19.5 I Gibbs ollLl^l 885
    ^f+

    EB:.tzll g+. gC gEel "J4 .Jq6}ql^'l zlg4 e-s .Jq+= +4q^l xl* ollHzlE
    6JtL AA6J4.
    r qltr 91o11 rsltglrl Hll*, eae+ +^e+El o$.rlo1z1 Btq= Haber *49 ¤8
    *HZ}t.

    Nz(c) + 3Hz@);- 2 NHs(s)


    gA 8Ee+ "Jqg +zl6J + 9lE eI* Szl9l Ei¤¤ 4"Jq +A^l,J + 9l: +oll7}
    Hlqgr+ll 7la6l] trz}. "Jgel E-+E Nzq z El]E HzE:+zl"tl BeE olH "Jol =
    ^ll
    g"lBzt? rH 1s.4q^l E ailB, Nrq HrE z|$zl.qe El+6tol ¤¤ql spaf ullzlzl
    NH:E BC6J+. +^1614l, :.H ts.+ollrJ E + 9l*ol, ++6J NHEE tI+ 8zl"ll BsH
    z[$!e_+ E6l]6]q Nre] H,5 ¤Cg 4,o14 E+ ¤¤q EgE 1o14. + a+ E+ ¤
    ¤g o}611 1]6J6IE^J 4lg zl# qqzlb rJidirll HtrI. ol rldg f.zJ 1e.15ql +El,IHtrI.

    A ^lg¤0ll
    ttl -sI 7 l=e (a) 9l E-+tr| gEoll^1, (b)
    ^
    |.3 011 L1 x | Eltr011^l +X oJ7
    l'?

    ¤¤91 llzl ?+e zlE Hl* zl+(a)q ql+ +scg ^J46H B + 9t= =69 ^ldol+
    ,= (15.6p). Q < r(oJ trll ulall $ffiol 4%tole+= ag, r4:z:.8 rs.lsql^l
    ^BcEql
    E ailH, HI¤+ AHIA EJF6Je_e z|g{e--e AB6}q g¤q Eg6Jq= ag 7lq6}q.
    Q > i(oJ trll Hls"g EHiS
    oJ.Jes xl.$fletr dq.J+. Beql^J= Q:Kol+.

    Nz(g) + 3 Hz(g) ;- 2NHs(g)

    I
    I TLH}F
    /\t=i

    # rtg4
    qt
    Ll

    ^l

    Q<K Q>K

    c o
    .J
    o ,dJ
    1$ &, F
    *
    ao, -/* o * -J
    o J
    o
    a
    o oo *,
    * * r
    O a, 0
    ,, o
    o J t} f,
    ++-d gE ++er
    N2+H2 EeE NHg
    (Q: K,AG: o)
    Arg 19.15 xlP qqrlel gEoll E=6t71 Nz(e) + 3H2@): 2 NH3(s)si U8oll^l UB N2sl H27f Nft0ll Hl6H Etl trbrtf

    E(grEJ, Q < K0lr, Nft7[IlEjloe 8dEtt. UB NH37[ N2e[ H2oll H16|l Liol =-'J= =oil Q > K0l.I., NH3zl-xp34oe
    Neel.HzEEdllEtf =ErEoll =^t|6lE(9--).
    886 1e3 at-+ gq-+

    qBl 1e.6
    \H', 7,.\5"8 olt6lol xh+ qlL'ixl UJE 4ll'E[71

    2e8 K0il^1 Nzk)q Ork)E+El NO(s)7t 85ElE rt|et s.G oilL1^l= Zlt6[^19(trJ, L,H":180.7 kJola- LS =24.7 J/
    "tuloil ^|.8
    K0lEl).
    Nz(g)+ozG)-2No(g)
    ol HJ33 +olTl 6,J6l0ll^l
    ^lg4?.17t?

    r,llu
    E4 Ar{', As', Tz} +qag ql H}+q qt AG'= 4+6} +el rAseE tfl= tle ag qxl gotot 6J4. r4
    Hl-+.=
    a_. ze9 K E= t}4ql^l f HI+ol zttszlql4, f-+4 ?+e o| kI $flE iq{ alr" a|4 rlB + 914.
    4 q+d+ E4lol+. > 5E qlr{ll
    filE! AG'E 4l&6171 916I -TAS'E1e.12, AG":AFf ol ++ + +.J ag?
    ^l zlg4oJ^l (a) EE zlg4 Hl+g elBq Hq+ g+ol+.
    +il+. s= tr-qql^l q}*ol s+6t71 9loll lc.
    E +E= ol+++. (b) E.= z}ts4 HI+E tltrell HE+b o}+oltrl.
    (c) EE zlg4 HI+g xI-Pr qlqzl {a}5 o3,;o14.
    Eol AG": AH'- ?as"
    (d) s= ztg4 Hl+el zF+ qlq4 HE+ts¤+ol+.
    : 180.7 kJ - QeER)(24.rJl0(;+) (e) E.E ztBzl HI*e-l qltrerl Hplb ¤.fol4.

    : 180.7kJ - 7.4kJ > .H.= qF{ 2


    : 173.3 kJ 2e8 Kql^j qE +s"el Arf :24.6 klolt As.:r32llK
    olr+. AG.= al4}6}^le_. HI+e +qTl aaql^l zlB4
    AG'9 *Ezt ololEe, HI$g zss K E= tqlq^l Hlztg
    4o14. "J7l?

    x.+ ^Jt zl+ qlLlzl


    819.2 .*.+ qL1^lE e E= ^Jqlql 9l= g^s+q q¤ E4ol ^Jce qg $gq H+= r EeE E= ^d^d
    {Bvl(standardenthalpyof formation, AHi)+r 496}94 .,,, (-5.741). gg HJ4i9E
    ^lg
    t6lts 7l+
    q¤ Eeol s= tlEllq il: gde+El ^JCg trllE zl+ 9lHzl HplE E= 8¤ r]3 ollLl
    EEel gEI s.= gEH
    dgtr + fl+. E 19.2q1 gEg HIe+ e
    rl(standard free energy of formation, AG794r
    ax.ll #inl -L^1
    ^Jql= 1 atm$ +++ Tlill$ $ulalI, ll^lle+ "-{^ll.J Eeg s= tl-4=
    ol, zl;llel E=
    ++6J._Iitl
    '-4zll
    7l4l I atm9 oJH
    r EAE +++ r.Alel sqil ^JqlE 44 9ulaJ4. +E +ql +oI 9l= Eeel s= tlq
    HE 1 ME r-o.E= E"l++(g"J* 9"lglrl ol aE= ErJ +ag gszl gleLl r c
    _Q-oD
    o- l MtE =
    g4 s= tr-Ellql 9l= E$ zlo13 +^lqlq).
    +liq 46il gHI4eE eq fl= atEe 2s.cql^l eg aolxl"J, += gEqlr]9 lcs. ,ll&g a
    olQ. Ei u}4lz}zlE, s= gAE s= ollHxl* og
    ^}EIq il=
    AG/": o
    ^Jc slBulql,<Js{ ^l.+
    E d'*+. ole+ aol 7l= 4*.Jgtr dq6]]E *4zl Brzt 6l= oJ, + Ei*84 ^J^JE
    I s= zI+ qlqzlE i|(difference)= H6I^l *:+.
    ++ cql qel EeE s= ^Jd zI+ qLlzl zlol il4.

    A gq+ g?l aH', as', AG'0ll l +lE^l'"= +q=

    qlqzl= F+qI Ei*E s.+ zl-+


    LEILHET[?

    -E= ^JC zI-Pr


    "ll9zl EE}(standard free energy change)
    4l^}g trll ++6I+. 41tI r+ae AH"(^l s.31)e+ As"(^l re.8)= 4l&g ullq ul*a14.
    =
    46': )rAGf(^JCE) -)mAcr'q1-o--e-) t1e.14l
    19.5 Gibbs ollLl^l 887
    ^f+

    qEl 1e.7
    x+ ^Jf xl+ ollllxlg+El x+ a|+ qqxl Eilet 4lt
    (a) +E Col 2e8 Ko]l^l "Joll-l= tl'8 HJ8oll tH-d E= 0]lt-1^l EataJ= Zl{ldf,\l9
    ^|.E= =E6[q + ^[+
    P+(g) + 6Cl2G) a, PCl3(g)
    (b) +l oJSel qHJ8oil rH6J aG"= gEl-oJ7l-?

    6tlt"
    "Jqq q y*3 pcr,E $cB x"]4. rBl+ aG'{ls-E
    Bq +qa HI+ql 4* s= zI+ qlLJzl HE+g zl+6t ol HI*ol 4lBEl= +E=.J + strI.
    r, f qH}*ql qq} E= zI+ 9lHzl EEI*9 +61+ Exil (b) EHi+q^l= c+*ql^lE Hl¤¤r+ ^JcEg q6Jol ^l
    ol+. e BIA+. qH}+ql^l AG9 *EzI Ht+l= ar} eol
    ^l
    le.l4ql^.1 AG +s7I HI4g HIfl4 ::re (5.4!). nlel-.rl
    4El ^JCE]+ HI¤¤ql 4ql s= ^JC zlf,- "ilHzl <t¤ *
    (a)91^J ge A4E 0l+618,
    e EI-g, 4 rs.ra= ol-006J+. HI+4q +4u 4l+E EB
    E= ^JC zl+ qlqzl it"il #tL + ddE dalg E= zl+ 4PCl3(g) Pa(8) + 6cl2@) aG': +1102.8kJ
    -
    qlqzl *ql^l HI+B dzllg .s= zt+
    "iluJzl l}S W4. ......
    g0l .l-4E sI+ ++4g ag pl+ El+g ++\UtrI. ol F +
    (a) clzk)E s= d-qlql 9lo o-tr ol HI*EE AG/E ool -+ ++49 Ef qlLlzl ,,ig Elj/6lH qtrl6J7l-?
    ^l,or
    4. pak)b s= t'-qlq 9zl ?*zl trlEql, ol Hi+Eq (t) 2HzO(t) ZHzG) + ozf)
    - + llzoz?)
    AGI'E 0ol otq+. +¤ "*= qI¤41+ ++ cE atg ol*
    (2)H2o(t) Hz(g)
    (a) AGi : -
    AGi O) aci : 2 LGi (c) 2 aci : 551
    6IE, (d)Er-ol $.+.
    AGi*. : a AG1'[PCl3(s)] - AGf[Pa(g)] - e acffctr(s)]
    : (4mal)(-269.6k|lmat) - (lmor)(24.4k|/Eal) - o
    "l+a}¤ ,llql.Jg ¤4 +*q1
    ++ c9 z,l9 4aJ zss K
    : -1102.8kJ
    ql^lE AG.= +61-^ls-.
    AG.z| $f.oloe zs.Cql^l i E .J{ol 44 1 atmoJ
    cHa(8) + 2OzG) CO2(g) + 2H2O(s)
    P4k), cl2k), PCl3k)E g*Eg C**ol zlg4 os d
    -

    qH 1e.B
    aG" ql+!.} 4lt
    golLl= s+ull?.! 7lill9 E4 HJ8oll tH-.J AH'E Hess E4= 0lE6lq Z|talHrl
    298 Koll,\l
    csHe(g) + Soz(s) + JCoz(e) + 4H2o(t) aH" : -222okJ
    ^lls.7tr0l,\j

    (a) +C Col rle= 0|E6l'rl "JL, o1 HJ8oll tH-d AG' ,Jol AH'EtI t] Bel ,J= 71tr^1, tl 4'g 39 ,JE 7lE^l qE6|.,\19-
    =
    (b)+E csl^l-E= sJ86G 2e8 Koll^j 0l uS9 AG"= zlco|.^le. (a)oil.rl qEE]
    =rl,cl.g^161ts71.?

    6tlU 4. r= 2e8 K-E oltl oJ+o14. Hl+^leE+rl as"E +a


    Erl (a)E+q HI*^I"J -E-tr AG" {l4lr <}9 =zlE ul
    =
    ql+g + 91tr1.
    j/6H _H_=ETllol+. (b)ts lc" #g .JE cczle
    41416l]^l E"Ui
    q+ {}4 ul:zofl -H.i Ezllol+. (a) 6zllsl tlz)\flzltl HI*Eoli1, 34E 71^l\ E4e+ 4zlel
    4q zI+ qluJzl {i}i ++ Stgul H+e+ H}+ qlEEsl o_qx]l
    EztTl ^JcEol+. ul4d Hl*"I Tl"8q= E.?I7l
    aAl ¤q=+. x1lrs.:¤ollrl El]+ Lil+q
    H+= Eql+4(a] ts.tt). E= {-Elql^l ^l Eztg +71
    trIeH. Tlal Ezl+E ai= alE flEE'l +4= gs
    AG": AH'_ TAS'
    ol4. ,JtrI(^JCEE ulc,gQl(microstate)9 izl HI*89
    AG'7r ari"-E-+ trJ <kg r*Y7]|, trJ 49 +e.l
    +9 "l
    ftg ,*:rl= =
    44a17) +j611^]= ?AS.E BEg gopl a
    i dlql +ql El6ll zi+). rrls-tr as.e+ 7 s.= g+oJ
    888 1e3 ++ gq+

    ao-E ql^Jtr + glrl. ¤.fql ms"= uuN i:_tr AG.ts > H.= qu{ 1

    Arrql Hl6ll q zle *9 <tol g aolq. q¤ 3r++ el*ol SE E}*oli1 Qleeul HEIzI *9 zlol
    (b)
    ^l
    1e.14e+ ++ c= ^l-+6lq
    lc" {l9 4*4 ?ol zl 4r B trll, olEll +t + +g ag qg X.JzI?
    4Ig + 9l+. (a) ol *¤¤ E= gEql^.] zlgzl"J HI+ol+.
    AG" : 3 AGf[Cor(s)] + 4 AGr'[Hzo(l)] (b) ol HI¤+ E= gEql^] El'+g4oJ HI+olEI.
    - (c) ol Hl¤¤ q +g gEql^]EJ zlgzl.J Hi+olEL
    - AG1'[c3H6(s)] sacf[or(s)]
    (d) ol Hl¤+ q *3gEql^lEJzttszl.J q}*o14.
    : 3mo1(-39a.4kJlmol) + 4mal(-237.13kJ/EoI) -
    > .H.= qH 2
    t mal(-23.47 kI I mal) - s mol(O kJ/mo1) : -2108 kJ
    2e8 Kql^l +Ell"Jol ¤a6I= ++ql 'l]6fl 446l] BzI.
    Hro(i)ql qal Ac'Alg +g oll f9dl.t d4. la <lg Al 2CaH16@) + 13O2(J:) + 8CO2(g) + 10H2O(g)
    tg qlAB, HI¤¤r+ ^8CEE tr(phase)9l +96l]oh ++. ol ++E AG. Alg Aff At-H-tr} q gel <l* zl4z1,
    **ol tl¤g= F"J glsEulzl- ,J44.7]|qlEql aG. {lg =
    olqH q 4Ig+9 <k&zl4zl ql+6f^le-.
    AH"-H-+ trl 4Ig gq <Ig r*=+.

    rl+ o{lLJxloll^l 'al+'7I e.lnllrf.:. ?i¤.?

    Gibbs zlr? 9lHzlEql+ +s:+ gqol "Jol+. "*3 slqt zl9 4C, A,G: L,Ho,- rAS, : 0

    Hl+ol .Jq4 sETl zE "Jc+ 3aq^l "J"l4zl uIEq, uJz|$ ${: AG: AI{4- 7As4r < 0 lr9.r7)
    ElqLrI+ {c}qz} r4ir. .6lq}zl-=-ol s}q} "t ^Js}q E}+g (.J¤+ T, P)
    ;t.JB trll AGel +Ee+ r7l= El]+61 f-3-o6J E+o14. ol 4 zl ro.rz3 9E q}*ol zlB4"Jzl, ulz|$!olzl, olqH B
    I q++ql^.1 ++cg Bq ++ ql# d6J aol+. e t'-Elql il=zl-= AGel +Ee ++g + il+g Eol
    ^GEEll =+.
    AG < ooJ trI, E+ r+Ag ElTfq4olq, 44^] zlg4ol+.
    AGE zl¤- tsl]¤. 4g + ¤=ol z[+ 56]+tr]. ell
    =61
    AG9 *sz} tl*9 zlgCg AA6I= .JzttTf? zI rql AG:ooJ rL EcI443 zt94olq, q4^l B¤ {-4ql 9l
    + qlqzlql^l 'zl+'+ +Eg eltrl6l+71? +. qB Hp] 44ol AG > oolB, r q+43 AG < ooJ a
    zllrr.z{ollrl gEq} al2Bzlol E= HEi r}del ztg^"rg olr[. rz]l.tl +q{ Ec} r+Cg Elz}g4olzl"J, r qr+C
    AC.J+= XS ul]*{4. :44 x]zHzl(zl rs.+)g 4+6}zl g HlTlE4olL, z[${o]u}.
    +l6ll8E 4141o1 $$,* AS55 oJolot"J oJ+. rflgl rc+ A,G!
    =zl E+ +e-6fEI. AGE
    610l =7 ¤+ql HI3-E
    p7l gAB 4li AS+s9l 4+ le.e= 1e.4ql qloJ6lq a+(qE 7l+fl9 fll Hls")z} AG$ fiol 4L:t g+
    ^l ^l
    4lql 4oJ elgqel qlEEq H4%+e-e".i As++S 448 e EI*ej =H
    a+(el= EE ggol tr-gq^l + Hl+)tr+ +
    + el+. +lql g{ trJ gg 'Jg ts + 9l+. dzll-E gqq} olEql E
    -AHa 6IH, qtr H+ rl4ql 4t xl-.ft .ilqxl tr+(ac)= 'Jd g
    AS*: + AS+e : ASa + ( (ga,*
    Ee+ "*q6lql^l :a r+4ol xlB4 o-e 'Jqts q 4zl ?flql
    AS4 T, P)
    T )
    [1e.1s] B + 9= 4ql "JE .F+ aq.
    olsL| zJol .J¤.J gEe+
    "Jqql^] gqq alzHzlg oi4e} : -w^u*
    AG [19.18]

    eot ++E + 9l+. (s s.rqlrl aqg +Egl elul$ zl$alq. 4l7t * "Je g
    :o +ol+.) +^l rrJ6ll^1, q¤ HEI r+ceE+q eg + gl=
    zl94C' AS*:or, -f olE4.J 4lql "JE "J3lc {tg *6l] g + gltr}.
    ulz|$${: As++:or, -fro le.18e AG7I el] z|$(free) qlqzl+n E4izl ¤H
    [1e.16j ^l
    3ll + qB zlg4 H}+ql^j g^J6J 9lHzl 69lrl **
    (oJ4+ r,P) =+.
    ^l-s¤ + ?lE *89 9"1
    .J ¤qlE "Jg 6l+ ql 4++r,il
    olE+q= AGa(*oEi r* lce. +4ts)e} gqq ++. r 4"lzl 9lHzl= gq ¤EllE +9e %r-=¤+. q=
    xllz$zl ,Jel +Zl= g + 914. zl tr.ttqr'1 AG:AHa 7l+ag ¤^6Iq eg + 9l= "JE al4'.+3 zl¤fl
    - rAs4o1r1. ^l re.r6ql -rE +oJ + 49 AE4E ++ =q
    ¤^ HI+q EH.J AGE #ql E6]l AA¤+. BEq qlg 7l
    s e4 ¤+. +e gE¤.ol *4. zl¤fl9 sI4 .llHzlE zffizfg $zlol
    1e.6 ollLl^lef gE 889
    ^l+

    7l +l"J 9*4 ¤^ HI*ee+El eg


    9lHzl.E E+]6lH^1. =* +E ls%o AEI]J {xll xffizf$ ¤.zlolE ql 6l.
    ^l-89+.
    + 9l: "Jg alErt + ¤+ 607o oltg (ie ¤e/i; 93 olH4E 7l+, sg +e qd $d, a4g 5* izll zll9
    +. += +d e"J(*Elx, uzllol=.E ol$oJ {xl, *7\ 4 5 xl-Fzt xlla zlfel dtrE E6ll zl¤fl ¤aE+El gg
    6J Eo)E l.ej6|8, zl$fl $AE+q ?g + 9l= "Jg 4lEil + ?l= f-s.oJ 'JE Elgol + 9lg 4o14.
    =qg

    1 e.6 I al+ qlLlT'le.l' *E


    BE cpi ag Aciel EE zs"c E= gEql^] "Jqq: HI*ql ql6ll AG"E drll zl&g
    + glrll 6ll +rt. rq+ ulltrlis += gEql^l .Jq+= EI+ql 46ll "Jr dS ullzl ?14.
    +-ETl Elgq ul4 Aczl qBzl E4xlEzl oJolHTl +16ll rs.r19 rl.^l gqtrz}.
    ^l
    -- - r s :rtf,J
    ^G ^H t=irJ
    aG SlBq qlEsrl 6J -TASq a']eE +qa+. -rAS {,[o] ¤4 9e r
    6J AHe+
    ^lg
    ql 4dzletr E=6I71 tril+ql ac 7lg gs.9l trl+ Hql4. AH ag oJ+"J +E 9lr,
    ++'J +E 9l+. r= ¤ql ¤s ol99 EE gEql^l .J^J "J+oltrl. tleeq 6} -7AS
    E oJ+oJ +E 91j1, *+g +E 9l+. ASzi o3;g "ll(31+ 84zI a7l tr-E]]!-EI q +a
    ull, 4 rJ *3 trla 7I4 trll) -ras 6Jg ++olr+. ASzl- f,49 trll -r^s 6J
    ^l6J ^JqlE
    s oJ+ol+.
    qtr HsI r+4E ztgC q+= ++61-b acel +E= aHeI -rasE +ae+ rTlql trl
    + acg+. aHe+ -Tas +EE 9el zlzl a6Jol E1e.3q zJl^lqq gl+.
    e rs.:ollr.l B + 9l= BIe+ Aol, AHe+ -rAs9 pEz| rje Hl4"J ql, AGel +E=
    ol + 6Jg 77lql q4 94a4. ol a+ql ge.z16s+ E6Jg.J4. gEI4e-tr aHe+
    As= gEql ulE EElzt,ll+ 4L+. rq+ r lle -rAsg aTlq) 4d4g g.&g +rt.
    9rzl tl+.Jq tr}4 -ras aS4 zt)zl4214, ol 6}0l aGE +s ") a7l a4ql trl +
    s6J Egg 614l g+.
    ql= Eq t atmololl^J 9*ol Ee += 4Cg tf^l 5.JH ¤ElEzl.
    HzO(/) AH > 0, AS > 0
    H2O(s)
    ol rlcg E-g 4a9.E aHL -
    oJ+ol+. E6J sle-eu]z1 +71617) qlEq ASE_ oJfoll,
    q+^J -ras= g+. 0'c o|4el gEql^J aHE r7l= -Tastr+ r7l EllEql,
    *izl
    .Jel flgul 6}ol lc {Ig
    "Jstr "J=+. o}+oJ AG ,,tg T< 0"cql^l ggol $} 4ag
    zlg4ol olq+:49 9"laJ4. *4zI Aqlg E6|] e oJ_z 9lFol, ol r+4e.] qHI+,
    tI49 gol gq $f-ol 9E 4Col ol $Eoll,<l| z|$!ee gq\]+.
    ._4ill =
    0'c-H-r+ +g gEql^J= q¤4 Ht4? &szl lr-^"6Jql uI4 8l=etl aJt -msel -zzl
    E 44lE|. r>0'Cg trll, -TAs= AH-H-+ rl 24. tr++^l olq+ tg gEql^J= g+"J

    E 19.3 HJEet xt'J{g 'Jtttts AHe} ASe.t +}.


    AH AS -TAS AG: AII- TAS EJ8 EC qt

    + EE:gEql^i zlB4 zoz$) 3 oz(s)

    + + + _Er= gEql^l Hlzlg4


    -
    3Ozk) ..--..- zOzG)
    *g gEql^l gEql^l Hlzl,g4 H2o(/) ----- H2O(s)
    ^184, +g
    + rIfL-

    + + +E=- +e gEql^l x1ts4, *e gEql^l Hlzlts4 H2O(s) ------ H2O(/)


    890 ::ti,l ol+
    =q+

    Qleeul 6}0l aGE {Ig++-+ "J=+. ++.J aG Ag 9*ol 5b44ol r>o."cglrl


    zlg4ol4= 49 9"1fl4.
    Eel d^J +=d r:0"cgl^lE + ^Jol ¤Bg olE4. ¤e tr-4ql^l AG:0ol+.
    7:0.c91^J AHe[ -TASi zzlzl
    ^]-tr.
    ?r. Psz] H]qolo.tr. ^JE ^J4qq AG:0ol=
    grI.

    A Er*rer trd #=Eg 80 "corr[. 100'c, 1 atm,r^r E]{!or 7rtrr-6rE HJBoil^r AHet

    -IAs 6 ol! aSsl c) Pnll


    |
    gE g=cq 4+ s= zI+ qlrjzl HstqlE 4+B + 9l'l-. ++ cql 91
    5 ^Gel
    z|trE ol+6}q =9=
    2e8 Kq^JE AH"e+ As'= d4 Al{}g + 9lrt. ol #Eol gEql lrl+
    E6tzl ?+=+_r.7la6IE, ,rl rs.rz= oleo6t¤ 2e8 K olelel gEq^J AG ltg 4l4}g +
    91tr1.

    qHl 1e.s
    LftE alg^Jql rt|BJ.3.s. ""{6J
    ql+
    oJeLlolE 8tla15 Harber 8de q¤ EE ,J- olEEltl.
    Nz(g) +3Hz@);-2NHs(g)
    0l U30ll tt|Pi AH":-92.38 kJolL AS':-198.3 J/Koltl. AH'e[AS'FEz135o11 i+al" E6l^l ?Jtscla 7|"8-dtr|,.
    (a) Ssz[ 8+-er'oll qal 0l EtSe] AGTI olEZl H-g^l ql=61.^le. (b) 25"Cel'500"Coll^l 0l UBE AG zJE 44 ?6l.^le.

    cH!i

    E{ II}4lcz}H6l+ "Jtl-g ql+6t


    (a)b -o--rtl t}4"+ql T:500'C: ZZ3 Kqd
    E^llol+. o)= += + gEq^l Hl*9 lc Ztg aa6t
    = ETilol+. : -sz.38kJ - (773 K)(-1s8.3 r rK,(#)
    ^c
    = :
    filei (a)E q}+ql .ll'J AsE +s= ea6J +9, zl rr.rz= -92.38kJ + 153kJ:61kJ
    olso+4. G)=+qd aH'e[As" ulJ] 4 te.r2= ol+6]q +l + 4&ql^l -r s"9 +91= kls H+l6l]ot kt +91= 7I
    Zl4I++. zl= AH'e+ trJe+ qq.
    ^G=
    &01 +sl gE= 2e8 Koll^l 773 Ktr- gflg trl AG. 7,[o1 -33.3 kl
    (a) Ac9 gE g=Cg rg.tz, AG:AH- rAS$ Slee ql^l +61 kt-E H6lq+. EE zzz Kql^lE 44E la.
    ^l
    tl .Jql^-l g+. +l +*ql^.] zl;ll $xlel +:
    ^8^.rEql^.1
    el As"zl gEq r+4 H6tzl ?+=EI= zl.{oll zlaa}z !}
    q 4}e-rrE, .l HI+ql ql6J aS= g+.J aol+. IIi4^l 4. gzfl_eE ol <lEol gEql r++ Etg H6IzlrlJ 7n K
    -rAS= "J+o17, gETI tr-^"oJql 4E+ da 44r+. :1 q^le-l Ar+= +^l-4e..tr e}86t+.
    44, tc Ag gETi tl^" 6IH EJ "Jq ile-e grj rzl rt.zyi;o11rl4 lc {tol oJel lls-tr +7}61+ 43, (a)
    =
    4. z4I,e NH:9 S4I4g gETl-tl+*ql q4 +i ql^l q=+ Hte+ oJ^l6J+. 4l4l a+= EE, zse Kql^l 4
    rI+. zjol I atm9 +E
    "JqgE flg rL Nzk), Hzk), NHrk)
    0) AH'#41s" Ttol gEql q+ H6tzl ?*i4_r. ztuSat e-l g6JE3 2e8 Kql^l zlp!e_e. Hl+6Iq q E+g NH:(8)
    E, 1e.125 ols-"6l.$ E_=¤.Eql^-l AG. {Ig
    ^JC++. 773 Kq^l AG fio1 "Joi4= 4* 9t1*ol
    ^l 414}6J zt
    + 91r}. T:25.C:2e8 Kql^l =
    B4"Jg 9"lrJ4. r4o + 7n Kq\\ gql$q t_= Tlill
    717+7+ I atm9 ++ oJq oE glg trI, NH:(g)9 "J*E zt
    AG": -e2.3BkJ - (2e8K)(-198.311
    : ",(*&) g4s.tr. Nzk)e| Hr(dE E6ilg+.
    -92.38kJ + s9.1kJ: -33.3kJ
    1e.7
    ^l+
    ollLl^lef g-d a+ 891

    > !r* qF{|1 ol+6iq 2es Kql^l +g qI-sE aH'e+ as'= 4l&6t^le-.
    Harber *Col Elztg4ol 9E gE= q EoJTI? 2So2G) + oz(g) + 2So3ig)
    (a) 25"C (b) 47 "C (c) 61 'C (d) 193'C (e) 500 "C (b) (a)gl.r.l ++ &g ols-"ol.{ 400 Kql^lE AG= al&61-

    > H.6 qFll2 ^lg.


    (a) tE c9 s= ^JC $gqe}
    E= ^JC SIE-ETI atg

    1e.7 | zl+ ollL17'le.l BE ^J+


    ^Flq 5E+ +Al7l9l¤¤ "J9tr+. ¤¤q il= 4lql^l ac:0
    xllrs.sa9lrl acpi ¤B
    olQ. Eel Eql fl= gEqI zlE= E= zt+ 9lHzl Hs}.J(lcag qBril al4}
    ^l-&4q
    6J + 9I=zlE. ¤tlHgtE+. ol ulzluJ ¤ql^J= zt# 9lHzlE ElqL qI¤¤ E46I
    ^l-S6lq
    + TIzl %IBg 4 ull¤ 4o14. ;. ul-E# tr-El]ql^1g AG {Ig 4l&6}71 fl4q AG" ;ig
    = rLlH4, qts r
    HI+q AG. Atg HI+el r(rJq +d^l7l=,JHg ts}]g aol+.
    ^l-.*61=
    HIE+ tEHqhl 7,f+ qlL17,l

    AG" tl4 +{g -trf; a{pol E 1e.2ql 4l^lr4q 9lq. ,il+Be-l +E H}¤+ ul*.¤ t4
    ql^l "Jqt+. l-= s+q]. 4Cql^J s= tlqlql^J9 ztf. qlqzl Hs+eJ(aG.)4 qH +=
    d-4q^lel xFft qlqzl He+r6i(ac)
    ^I"lql= +.sn+
    zJg *4lzlol cB,*rI.
    AG : AG" + RTInQ [19.19]
    ol Rg ol^J zlxll tlf(s.:l4 J/mol-K)olr., 7= d4 9s, O= H}* zlfolr} ,.,.,
    ^lq^l
    a= HI¤¤r+ ^J^JEe-l *ETI Hl*g q- ^ldq^Jq tE4= ag xllel6lr=
    (1s.6¤,).
    ¤B ^J+el eg ,J^letr 4l4}gr+= 4* zlq6}4. e:KolE, HI¤+ ¤B ^Jqlql 9l+.

    ln e:0oltrE, ll re.re= .g.+ tl-qlql^l AG:AG.zI94.

    qHl 1e.10
    BB SEl.loilAl ^JqlElei A6el*l41

    (d.4nPl EJul(cCll/))sl 88 E96t= Et+ HJ8^l= r (b) (a)9 a[-st HJ30l 8B0ll E=J61fl= ttll AG. zJe
    ^lEEl ==Eg ^|9.
    EEloJTl? (c) ffi Cq Eq-E xlEel.^.1 1s.12=
    ^|86|.q
    ccl4(/)ol ¤At g=EE +¤6[^le.

    8H'J q flE gqq4 zlEE ols-o 6I¤ ccrnE 4^J #=dg +d


    s4 (a) c{-#=dq^l .-4^]ltr-r+
    ^}olql
    Tlrllt}E cc14 E 6l-= +zlloltrL
    E4"J ¤e t4= +4111= plq HI*4g ztC6l+ E4lol xl¤ (a) sI+ ++^le "jolql^l 7l4EE t}Hal¤ +4u
    4. 6) CtI #=dql^l ccln f;zle| ¤B tlEilql *E ccrn +. (b) BB {r-qlq^l(Ac":0) te.le= +4E} gsz} 9l
    q q+ AG" 71g aCd+ Exlloltrl. (c) BE ce+ 1e.12 ^l
    ^l 4. (c) lc=o"J tril, ^l re.t2= ^l-s6}q 7= zlttltrI.
    Evl
    (a) C,:l.#=Ag 1 atmoll,tl ++BJ .l4le+:r. +71 ^Iolql
    ¤¤ol 9= gEol+. CCl4(/) ;- CClak) P : Latm

    0) Beql^J AG:0014. e^J #=dql^l Exlle} :1+71


    E+ I atmgl^l ++6J.-qille+ ++tL zlxllt si ^J
    =
    892 193 Et-st Eq+

    il+(g. le.2). tri+^l Q: I, ln Q = s,


    Ellql
    AG=AG.ol4. -tr=.-qzllE 4/J #=dq^] AG.
    :ool+(a^J +dn+ 4/J- ++dql^jE ac"
    :001+). AG': 0

    (c)
    ^J
    le.l2e+ (b)E arl¤ A!+6iH cc14(D Ets +
    =
    ++d .qi{E ctr'#=d(rb)q^l ffi alol
    cB+4. AG': AH" - 4A.f:0
    ol 4¤. 7r"ll 46}ol trl¤.r+ e+. u-- Lr/" lLf
    =E
    g"J6l "J6IE, ol 4ltlg 6tqE C^J #=Aq^l
    ccl4(l)e+ cct/s)zl ¤B tlEllq 9l¤.
    "llel aH"e+
    AS" fto1 BS-a1c1. :flcl| 5-5- ce} s.3l Irl
    ^l
    1e.3$ xftr_E+El gg + ?l= 2e8 Kql^lE AH' AH': (l moI)(-106.7 kJ/mol) - (1rnol)(-139.3 kJ/mo1) : +32.6kJ
    el ls' 619 Af; : (l mol)(3os.4llmol-K) - (7mo1)(2t4.4llnral-K): +gs.OJlK
    ^l-&4q #=dg +cB
    + 9l+.
    qltl+ BIe+ zJol. ol r|49 ¤:g 4t(aa > o;o1
    a, 7l8l ti49 Ezl-= ^JC6}E_E 8lee.u1z16
    7}6J+(AS > 0). ol {}# cct (DE ro
    :
    =
    +c6J+.
    ^l-&6I¤ 4: # : (;:{#)(iH) : 343 K 70.c

    aH'eI as' +97[ eE+ Ie+ kt aql +]& tzl¤


    4q1a-$alQ.
    ^l-$.6I*.+=
    Ee gg og ?c¤ cctr(l)g dt'- #=ag
    76.s'col+. illT} #= 4dq 'll* s= Eqlgq EE+= ZltI6I^ls.
    ¤E{t4 +4{t ^tolE z}g i}ol= Arre} as'E gEql 4 (a) +6700 l (b) -6700 | (c) +3a,000 l (d) -34,000 I
    4 H6tzl ?+=+a zl$t;lf,z\ ql+q g^J++. > H= qlrlt2
    > H= qlrlll ++ c9 zlEE-0l+6}¤ Brz(t)9 A^J #=dg d'I g
    qH EillE c^J #=dol 67.cola, ol E4l7I #= rld E(K) +98 +6t^le_(dEilg rB ll.sql flg).
    ql ql6J.s.= EsltrE4 Hclzl +100l/K+n,*4. ol I

    EI¤¤4 +E7l s= d-47I olB Ell= AG Alg +t;l7l +1.11 a {tg 4l&6llot
    ^J^dEe.l
    aJ4. ol Al^} rlag q4l re.uql^l ¤BE dol4. re.le= ol+4q A= Al&6J trll
    ^l ^I
    +61-= +glql *gollot 6Jr+. s= ^JEil= 4EB rll .rffi-a1qr3 ++l# ol+6l.q a= zl
    4l6Jrt. a= Al4!E utl, zl^ll9 *E=.Jtr zl$ ++lE ++ oJq oe g.tlap, +ee E
    +E.* E^l.J+.

    qFll 1e.11
    Hl.E.*.liEfloll^1 ollLJT,l Hst 4ltal.?l
    '(t+
    Harber B8oll,\l ,\l.EEl= 1.0 atm N2. 3.0 atm H2, 0.5 atm NH3-e +¤E HJB t}|-d 298 K0ll,\lel AG= Zltlol.,\l9.
    =-cr'Eoll
    Nz(g) +3Hz@);-2NHs(g)

    6[lt*F ++ "Jq ¤4¤. ol+6[q 7li]lel 54


    1s.24(¤¤ tr-+^l)E
    94 uls6 ^Jqlq^] AG= al4l6l+ +4lol4. +E "Jqq rll6J qI* zl+ zlg 4l&++. rd q-¤-, sq
    d|q AGE 4l^1617l fl6}q le.le= + gl4. ^l 9l= s= dC zlf qlql al9 ol+6}q AG'= Zlt}+4.
    ^l ^l-&B
    1s.7 I oilll^lel "J-d a+ 893
    ^l+

    E0l P,.,n,2
    "'t (0.50)2
    xn:- P*,Pr,3 :9.3x10-3
    I ts.z+z "l+6lq HI+ 4+¤ ahidttr trl-o-!+ a+ (l.o)(3.0)r

    qlrl p.rollrl ol HISE AG":-33.3 kte 4$qfl4.


    ^l
    le.re= glaH ol rtg *+l= Hl-+qot 6J+. AG"g
    ^l-8:6171
    B9-+ kl/mol(EJ kl)g r.f$rJ {olQ. {zlrl 'Etol+=
    ag'+q H}*^lql 4oJ r4Eel g"J'g 9ole14. + aG' AG : AG'+ RTlnQ
    :-33.3 kflmololz|5 19 N, I mol*, Hz 3 mol*, NHr : (-33.3 kJ/mo1)
    2 mol%I (tol+= 1.g 9ol{i4. + (8.314 I I F,'at-K) (2e8 KX 1 ldl 1000J) 1n(e.3 x 10-3)
    olTll le. le= ul.trf ,*4 glrl E AG ltg z14l.J+. : (-33.3kJ/mol) + (-11.6k1lmol) : -44.eU/mol
    ^l ^l-&6}q
    +el N2, H2, NH3E oJgol 1.0 atm(-tr# tEll, Ac)ql^J 44 (a) Qzt EtE ac"s-
    =ri.
    1.0 atm, 3.0 atm, 0.50 atmo ? H6IE AGT} q gE <tg (b) Q:oolB, 4l= BB tqiql ilq.
    7[41+= ae .Jlt+. LGT| q +E <t9 z]214ts 13 mr,
    = (c) 9B HI¤-ol -s.= zlg4olE, E= aaq^l
    ^Jqlql^]
    =g ,*=+= zlg4oltrI.
    HISolrJ 4¤ 9,1e14.
    = ^JC6l= gEq ='+dq
    Le chatelier eg fl4$ t3 i 914 * (d) E= HI+E zt+ qLJzl HEl"d,e-.SEq E+4 H6Ixl
    =46}q 6LLrL
    LA=i,

    S^.rE(NHJel "Jqg Aa^]d,4. r" ChAtelier 94i ol (e) Q>lolfl AG>AG'ol+.


    q6J Ee+ E+7t HI¤¤^355 grale-e olE^14 trl E*g > .H.= qH 2
    NHrE d^d6}rll g+r.Jel Harber +{qlll 0.5 atm N2, 0.75 atm H2, 2.0 atm NH3
    =+.
    > H= qlrill tr +dg HI* gql-5q 4t zsr Kq^lel 66$ fo|,rle.
    rl^g + *g ae?

    AG"sl Kel +41


    rl ts.pE ac"e] ¤¤ t]+(K) ,Jel +41^lg +Eg + 9t+. ¤¤ t]4ql^J
    ^l-S6[q
    45:QolJ. Q:r(olEl. trI4^J ¤B tlqq^l ^l le.le= ++r+ zJol E¤¤4.
    AG : AG" + RTIn Q
    0:AG"+RTlnK
    AG" : -RTInK U9.2O)
    .l 1e.20e e+qlqll| *H+l+ +s-Cg 714tr+. K {Ir+ AG. +4lE+El r( <}g qE H}+
    9 Qleeq E= flgq Es+e+ ¤+^lrJ +E 91trI.
    AG" 7tg.JH re.20g Kql qldl ¤q^J i( alg arug + 9l= 49 Eg + gltrL
    ^l
    hK:4S
    : e_^c"lRr
    K ll9.Zl)
    oltrll 4 E4*el ++l= q6l+ ql +qg ¤sz} 9l+. re.20i+ te.2lq^l= AG.=
    ^.1
    kI/mol B+le e¤++. ¤¤ t+^lq^l Tlill Sqe atm Egl, +E bE= E+E-s -tr

    ^ldr]..
    rElr Jill, Eill, +rltE Eo EE Bzl g+=tr[ ".*, (rs.+¤). tr]4^l Tlill^J H]
    ^lql

    rs.zoo-tr+El "J"J LG"7l ¤.olE ln Kzl "Jolqot d+. + K> loldl= a¤ 9ol*
    ^lrrI4^J
    +. LG"7l trl +E Alol 9E K* rJ 44L1. qgtr, "JoJ lC'21 oJolH ln Kts
    =
    9ol 99 K< 19 9"laJ4. ulzluJg-tr L,G'zl0olH r(:1ol+.

    tr r(=09 +ilE71?
    894 1e3 ++ Eq-+

    qHl 1e.12
    ) a6'-e+q ¤B tt+ 4',IJ8t71

    Haber 889 25'C0ll,\1 E= 01lL1rl EElts ql^Jl 19.901111 Zltt6lfitl'. Harber HJ- tl34 eq.
    ^l?
    Nz(g) + 3 Hz(g) ;- 2 NHs(g) AG" : -33.3 kJlmol : -33,300 J/mol
    AG' '2J= 25'C0ll,\l 0l HJB9 EE 8+ K= ZIL|61'119.
    ^lE6q
    6llt"F 7tq:g E gqqe HI+E %}.Fl dq aEq q4^l= "J6I
    E^l +qd AG"-E+q q¤ HI+E K= 2I+61-= +^llol4. +zl"J, qlg $E9l qlol^l= oI+4E "J"ll fzl 9+=+. d
    gql^l nEI= +E-e H)¤¤ dq^la +E1l7t gaElfltrIE, ¤
    4tst K= zl{}d}Tl +16]] re2tg
    ^l-s+4.
    ^l E9 NH, Sd %I6Je-s zl+zl7ll 6171 9lEl r"Jg ^l.s*
    Eol le.2lql^-l 6}r $alzl-
    rE eql ¤.EE
    ^l .Jxl6l+ ^l^!:o
    r ^l-$ali 9s-zt S,fl$ aol+.
    E4r*E +91='r+ R ttg E trl-g 4¤- e=+.
    > E= qlrlll
    K - e-Ac/RT: s-(-33,30oJ/mol)/(8.314Jlmol-K)(298K) : ,t3.t :7 y 1gs

    +el ol ilg
    B¤ ^J+olq, ^JcE NH37I2s"c ¤Bq^l oltrI. ol gol Eql +dlq= 4Aq ql6J ac"i guloJz}?
    =
    ,l+ e ^J{g+= 4g g"lt4. s ls.2ql iqd :oo.c (a) -26s kl/mol (b) -11s kllmol (c) -2.61kflmol
    q^l 600'c HgE gEq^l ¤B tl.+E zs'cql^lE ilB (d) +11s kllmol (e) +26s kllmol
    4 gd zl+. qdd *g gEql^lE ¤¤e ke gEql^J > H= filril2
    ^J&q +q6I+. rflqlE $f6}a.
    e-l ¤eB+ oJer-.lo}
    ++ c9 zlE= g+6}q 2e8 Kql^l 4+ HI*ql 46J
    Harber *Cg dgql^J ,ll+ Lflril tlqqzl {lEoil a99l
    AG.e+ K= 4l&6}^le-,
    ^i
    Hi¤¤ +q6J4. Hz(s) + Br2(/) ;- 2HBr(g)

    Hl7,f!|,q HJBeI Ffl H: Ealg ttA

    +dol q= EJ:e ElqL HI¤,E-g.IL6J6J, 'il++q


    ^Jill4lE
    Hlzlg4 HI¤¤ +q6}7l fl6}q 494 +¤¤ ^l-.8.61+
    f+"J Eq HI+g Hlzlg4ol4. ql= EE cuzSE E+6I ol g4= ..8E.+zl Alql^lE r.z}flzl os ul]gg
    ^FSg+.
    %IE'J F]H(chalcocite)oll.r-l +4 ++g +=61+ ag ql g+4.J "*g
    = ^JEEI4 +a= ¤d6[n +z16l+ ^Jp]qt
    +qBzI. cu2S7| r flAEtr E6l]q= HI¤+ Hlzlg4ol4, 4 Hl¤-E=3 x|$zlolzl ?++. ol g+zJ.J HI+E=e qlq^l
    Cu2S(s) -+ S(s) AG" : +86.2 kJ
    2 Cu(s) + %L=61= zfg4$zlol{eE.r{ H}+ol +148tr}.
    Hls"r+
    =
    *!9 $Ae ^JEZIE +z16}= .Jg 6I= rll $eaJ
    ql^I
    AG"zf u1l9- oJE z,l$ zlzlzl qlEql ol H}+ee+q zl
    = zI+ qlqzl= =o#aI4. qE EE 'Jol
    d cu195 eg + H+. ql4lql *4zI Sal-Y HI¤¤ rJxll-tr =+7/-.(c6H,zoo)
    co2e+ H2o-s sd6l 4I+q= Hl+g,.JB* zL? oll'lzl=.
    "Jq+rll 6171 9j6ll '.Jg 6fl6 + 9l=' qH *Bg *ot"t 6J oJ="J+.
    +. ol BEg +l +¤¤ 4= Hls"4 alzlgeEal di] HI*
    ol z].$!ol qE+ 6l+ dol4. q= E.tr s(s)7J-or(g)e+ HI C6H12O6(s) +6OzG) 6CO2@) +6H2O(/) AG': -2880kJ
    g"
    at{ Sozk)= ¤d6l+ ag tltr-6J + 9l+.
    -
    ol qlqzl= .Jgl .lle_l HlzlB4 Hl¤¤ rlzllB "Jq+al 6t
    S(s) + O2(3) ------ : -300.4kJ
    SOz(8) AG" b ql ^hso6J + gl+. rq+ ql^I r+aql^l %}=
    ¤ "llHzlE ol ollilzlzf =+i4
    gs+ HISq Ag6J *Bol I
    +l + HI+g 44¤-(^lB rlQ)eEj{ zfg4 H}¤¤ E6ll ",}
    go}trI. ql zlzl ,JBg f.eJ 19.16q1 -E_oJ Hte+ ,J"1, 4tI
    e +4 ++g +=+ + 9l+.
    Cu2S(s) + Oz(g) .+ 2Cu(s) + SO2(g) E g4g +C6l-= Ee4 ¤Sol :lE olrJlL4l iL.J^I
    (adenosine triphosphate, ATP)I+ ol-rJl L4l ol oJt}(adenosine
    aG" : (+86.2kJ) + (-300.4kI) : -2t4.2kl
    diphosphate, ADP) Aq tlE H+Ig ol++trI. ATPTI ADP
    EA4se sk)e| ozk)9 zlg4 +¤¤ ^l-&4q *4ss
    -E H+IqH +E EI¤¤ zJz{e 9o14rll -J + fl= z}]? 9I
    +q +r] ++-g +=6I.= EJI gs* zI+ qlqzl= 43.t
    Hzl(lc': -30.s kJ)= BJ¤6J+.
    4,o14.
    19.i
    ^f+
    ollLl^lef -JE A+ 895

    oJi]lql^-l ql^}= z}+ 9lHzlE r}=61-= +ttJ 4 HI¤¤ z}xle oJ944l 6l+ Ell ^l-+g+. .JHl ^JEqlol
    =+a^ HJ¤q= zl+ ql + ^JsI+ r++g +Eg 5eE, zI+ qlLJzl= qlrJe] * d
    "JflE "JqUr+. ol rlCql^l
    H]+9 F6ll
    qzlel "J++g *g qlq^l ^J40J app= +g qLl^l ^J xllql dB6l= Ell ^F&q= "JHE ql+ql 4al{ rJ
    =a+
    4oJ erpe. qE4= Ell ^[+94. tr[4^] ATp_ADp tr-jr.
    H++g 4^l-r+c ¤..J 9lHzlE xlltafzl glall .(l-$slzls of +A g+ E4l: re.roo, le.ror
    i1, 4+¤ qLJzl= gs+ "J+ ,J=6Iq oJzll L|]$ Elztg

    =.e=,\ {lE dE
    (c6H1206)

    q& ^1lE

    ! .k-9
    EL
    I
    =+i4 rl+ oilLlrl
    til /\{x}
    ^1lE

    *r%
    Z4anN
    E+-z: ATPOII 9]6ll
    {]n[ollel6H ,J=E
    HI=EI olLlrlTt^IP
    lE-d
    0llLi^l7f ETIE Htrl
    ^t+ ATP-+
    ADP= +8Pl E^te
    EE-.Jtl. tH 616lr f

    -=
    Llo

    (Doco2 + H2o
    &* ollLlrl
    E+EJ
    Exl

    lllE tt|^l ?}Eoll^l golLt= r|.3 ollLlrl Eet


    :1H 19.16 Coz* H2o-+ t+EE qlLl^17[ 8dqq. 0l 0llLl^l= ADP=
    ^[+
    qlq^l7l Ll LIP ATPe Esdl'= Ell =+-=.^71
    0l+ =Jg-st 'J=9 ATP= zjEEl E^1"= Erl-+dEJ ¤Eee Es^l7l= ?i4'Jg Hlrt"J
    4 U8E goll.-l,ll6[! o]lrlrlgo+ ^tEErt ^]ls
    ^lEEtrl.

    EBJ qFJI
    .+-al 7IL{
    o ts'llE

    NaCt(s)rlAgcr(s)ol 9lrl. 0l E- Eoll +q o|8Esl +t.-4= E¤61-= rt8 HJ8Eel EBoll EH6H golH^l-.

    NaCl(s) "- Na+(aq) + Cl (aq)

    AgCl(s) i- As+(aq) + Cl-(aq)


    (a)298 Koll^l 4 U39 aO' ,J= a^l +e+. 0l
    Zltl6l.,'.l9. (b) (a)oll,tl ge F
    +e.E= 2,;?
    ollL1^l Eeloll^1el E!=J
    :d ^t0l= ^|.3
    trl :d ttHEoJTl,
    ElE+tr| ttl|E?]7t? (c) AG'E 0lt6[q 298 Koll^'l + gE ,("p ,JE Zltl6t^19. (d) gEt 4E3 E6t|d goe Z
    +-dtl.. UEoll gEl EEdoe Z+-dtl'. 0l7i0l (c)ol EJrloJ^16[=7f? (e) IE gsl E6t| al¤oll t}|-d AG' ilP ol
    E-sll -
    Hdt1ts7t? olal--J EolTlE"lE6l|E0ll olE g-Br= +E)l?
    =7l,{l7lE

    6ll'J AG!,.r(AgCl) -- (+77.r1. kJlmol) + (-131.2kJlmol)


    (a) 4 ¤¤"ll 4t lc"s* Ztg 4141617l +l6lq ^l 1e.14e}
    - (-10e.70kJlmol)
    ++ c9l^l9 Zlg 6J4l ^l_&B aolq(13.I¤ql^le+
    AG. : +55.6 kJ/mol
    zJol gg ¤^dql ql+ gqq oJol+= ag s^l6t7l +l (b) AGheE QIBsI aJ
    ol4 dzt'89'9 "J AH"+q4 t-=-eu1 -rAsbe9 !+
    6]]
    ^l-&*+). sE ¤ + 91trI.
    AGit q (NaCl) -- (- 26t.e kI I mol) + ( - 1.2 kJ/mol)
    1 3
    AGle:AHlq+(-rAS+e)
    - (-384.0\f/mol)
    zl s.lrr4 re.8g aai*q A$+E i}9 4l&S
    : ^l-.S6i{
    -9.1kJ/mol
    + 914. rfl E|S r=2e8 Kql^1 -rAsbeE 414I6J4.
    896 195| Etqr Eq-+

    zl4} ar+= q¤-sq sE6lqq AgCI: K,, : [Ag+][Cr] : e-(+ss'600)/[(8'314)(2e8)]

    g AH"eq ASe"a -TAS'ge{


    : e-22'4

    NaCl +3.6 kllmol +43.21lmol-K : x


    -t2.9 kllmol 1.9 10-10

    AgCl +65.7 kJlmol +34.3 l/mol-K -10.2 kJlmol Agcl9 K,p Alg ++ Dq fl: aI4 uNf f.rlalr|.
    + g +'-qe] QlE+q 6JE AEg,]]+ Hli6I+. ol+Al (d) +dlc ge Eq tI%+61 e. +E gol+ "* (q.24).
    El*f, olff 4 +6ll n+Aql^l ¤ol tot isl¤ ol39 Nacl9 &p #g l-E-{ 3q, o1L3 Naclol Eq A +=
    =
    BCg "l +A^jE7I ulf{ zzlE +71617l rllEol4a += ag golt4. Aeclg K,p <lg qlg {s{, ol{
    +4'J + 9l+ a.o (t:.t6;. HlEq + g +'-4E elgvl 3 egctol Eql Zel Yzl S*¤ 9"1t4. gal e+ B
    "Jql= 4++
    itolTt 9l¤¤ g + 914. AH+"rql^Jq zI +^dgeE rJ+6[o] 6J+.
    olzl AGle {}ql^lE zlol= A46J+. (e) {lt4e + gg +6il r+4e %t9 as <t-=q ztd4(G)
    (c) SdlE* tr-+(K,p)= +4 r+Cq q6J ¤B tlfol4 *: E E A4). u++^l zI+ qlLlrl Hclql^lE qlEtriil 6J
    (17.44). r+zl EllEql K.p= te.zt& zld -rA$sq9 *+ol+. "J"J arf**4 As's*o1 gEql 4
    ^l ^l-*6}q
    4 r4l E6Izl ?J:=+-a 7LA6IE, rE 67I= AG$,Eg
    AG'+"rs+El +$ + 9l+.
    Kro: 9-6Gk/Rr trl gq {te-_" EJ=4. E}4^l gg +4^l7l= eg rr}
    ql4l le.l2q^l 4+6J ar+ +rJg *He
    te.2tg
    ^l q+gq. r.H 13.taoll,t'l NaCI$ +6llE(r?-l-lr, aE E
    e llg 4ltlg + 914.
    K.p (a)il,H ?9 kllmol *919
    AGlq {}9 llmotE- H+{} + gE +ollE)7| $uzl fizlflq IrI4 +7l.Jg .J +
    ^FS6Jc}. =
    9l+ @E (13.3¤-).
    NaCl:Kr, : [Na+][Cl_] : e-(-e10o)/[(8314)(2e8)]

    : e+3'7 - 40

    eE g es Eq
    xlEl4 1[8(19.1tr) q]++q H]g"r] a]q] *C3 -l+E ,]6]^Jg '*9 ot+ Stll(microstate)4n 6J4.
    alE elEEitl: AIE +z}+l
    7l4L+. _L HI¤-s=e aj groo9E:. rFJ4(spontaneous)ol-2, : $ Eql qle zJEoltri. flc-eu1e1 419 ol^ tlEll +t w
    ^plql=
    4* 401 CB+4. s=k ln w. E^lE ^ll ++E g# ++. g
    q4"J AsE 44 arl ^J4q^l 4l+ t}4tr Hs}6l+7].e+ +¤ dxllTt +Aq^J olE6l= BE #(translational motion)4 E
    ^I
    qq 914. zlel zEl(reversibleprocess)oll^JL 4le+ +919 Hq¤ zI 49 9zl-5ol atl4" e Tlrl+)7i|44 HolzlE rlE EE
    ^)e
    Aq6}rll q os EIEH oBrq ++lE g?ll tr'Eltr, Eol-rJ +
    Zle+ (vibrational motion), r4l ez}Tl Solpi ,Jol qd6f: qE e
    914. utzlH 4El(irreversibleprocess)oll,rl Alb +9lql q¤ g+4 E(rotational motion)¤ Slq. ezlT} 71{- + ?lE "ld *EllE +.
    .J H+= +,{ g:a^J: g4
    ^}4e 9Eo}zJ + S.+. s= ^fB + $lEeq= +rJE +ul, +zI9 eE, E= +^lE ¤+ol +71-
    4e 4Ae HlTlq4olE|. gA6J +Eql^l "Jq+= 4Ag Ee Elql 4+^.1 A4l+. eI+6IE olBl,q} Sffi_e- Ezlz} B + 9l=
    4tl(isothermal) o
    I e}l g]rf . eFE +ei +^l7l714 + 9l= 9lil9 +¤ +71^l7l7l EllEoltl.
    olillql^l 7l
    Eeenle[ Eq+ 4PH=l(1e.29 s= 4Aql^] ^tgCg Eee
    tr++^l i18l7}
    "lrllTI Ela+ +Eg Bd6J trll, i14l+
    xllrl4cB Ell. E= sl4 ++q^l 7l^ll EzlE +7f 67f6J q ql
    s-tr E^lqE, glEErl(entropy)4a 6l+ gEq4.J ^J4 B+el
    eeq=.JHl4e.a ?zfoJ4. 0 Kql^l ++6J aad nillg flE
    +dqq 914. 'JAql gEq^l 'Jq+: qH EElq 4dl 4q sl
    E-tr.q H+= ,tqzl.J AeE qq 4zt ++6J gg gEtr +b E4: 0ol4= aol EelEt rBE*l(third law of thermodynamics)
    ol+.
    4ee 7a3u11as:q,*lr). E= rldql^l ? i9 fl=-eEl EEI+
    4le} ++19 flee.u1 Hs+g .J+ rJ4(As++:lsa+ASaq). 8l El+ U8oll^l Eeeul Ea(19.4tr) gEEi Sl3Bzlq E6ll qel
    E-trEl7I B= HsI4C9 ulBdg qBril ACq+^lE Ee|El 8t r+= gEql^l E4E elEeqE aaB + 91trI. s+ t}4ql^J q
    2E4(second law of thermodynamics)oll 7l+El q !]Q. ul z|$ (zf tr Ee I mol9 qltrE4E EE fifllEEE|(standard molar entropy)
    94) r+A ql^J AS++ > 0olr|. qlE e irl= EE I/K +9le .s.¤EE}. 4 6Iq s"E E7ldJ4. Eql gl= s'<tg ole"a|{ E= t}4ql^l
    Ext4 gEoll^1el glE-eElet gqqt fil3H=l(1e.3$ "tB +4 +
    {eq= .it= Hc} r}4E qlEEirl B+=}9 4tg + *4. rE-og
    ,Jql AIE +^J6l+ g^lel Eztzl-7lzl= flile+ ¤89 ECqi 4Cql^J 799 Qle-aul H+= -AHlreI a+.
    =
    ee EJ8^l gg7

    Gibbs r[?0llHrl(19.59 Gibbs ri* qqrl(cibbs free energy) E qlqrl, tE, tsE 8+(1e.6E, 1e.79 AHe+ as a
    ^t+gEql q+ rrll=ala
    ,J+61 zh+ qq4 G= +
    ^J4 'J+.J flgrle| slce.o1g
    g. e E6Izl ?*=+. trl+^l AGel gE el3^Jg
    =
    6J gqq}4 *ql EL+olEl(G:H- rs). oJA6J gEql^l "JqLI AG:AH-rASql^J +Er (}ql .el6ll aAgEL fl=e.q a3-o.1
    : E= Ep+ 4Aql^l AG:AH-T^Soltrl. .Ja6J gEe+ "J4 ras= aGE gE E+dql g6.r'9 +q, q+^l qts HEI n+
    ql^l "JqLlE He+ rlcql 4eL ac +a= r dpl4c9 zIBc =
    C9 zfBdql g6}-9 +trI. qE Eq ggol += 14 ,Jol la
    r+ +flol ?14. lczl +olB, r r+Cg zlg4ol+. AGz| o3.o1 >0ol-z As>ooJ r+49 *g gEq^J= Hlzfg4.J + i.l.zl"J
    E, r 4Ae Hlzlg4olzlE}, ErlAe zlB4ol+. ¤B ^Jqlql^l (AG>0) +g gEql^lb zlB4g i 914(lc<0). Els+ {'ql
    r r+Cg zlq4oln AG= 0olr}. zffi ollulxli E.J zlg4t + ql^l ac= AG.e+ HI* 4+ aql .il611 4+4 ag
    ^lol
    cB+tr|.
    Cql^l ZlTi "J + 9l= +e.+'JE 314=Jg +EU+. sE Hp+ AG:AG'+Rr ln a. gB t4(ac:0, Q:&ql^] AG':-Rr
    r+aql 4"J E.= xf+ qlq^l Epl"*(lc';g E= u8 rlfi oilLlrl ln Kol4. trl-+^l -*.= zI+ qlLl^l Bpl: El+E B¤ t}+e+ zld
    (standard free energyof formation, Lcfl7l t+gg gtr+El 4l4l *fl"1 ?14. ol +4lE B¤ d+9 gE E=Cg L++U+.
    gl4. AG/.E E6
    "J + ^JC flBol(Aar.)e+ +^I+ %I4ee 4e-1
    ¤4. s.+ ^JEilql^J 64aJ fl+9 aG/" 7lg 0ol+.

    6'la
    -r u z{F
    O-l I 0l 8E E+:eJ +0ll qelE¤ trl-=E g + ?lolot EItrt

    . zlB4ql4C, rlA, E"g 4C9 9,1¤ ¤E


    zl-9 ,+4, ElTlE . E.= EqlEEqtr+El 4lel s= qlEsq H+=tg Alt{L+
    611 4+++(re.1e). +A S+E4l: re.rr-re.r4 1rs.a¤). +H S+ E4l: le.s3, le.s4
    . flEtrqE ¤el6E1 gqql zil2849 215flr}(ro.zB). . +qA gEql^lq $BEle+ flE-eirl HElr*str+El Gibbs xI

    +E ¤+ +^{l: te.2t,te.22 + qqzl HE+r*g 4l4}dJ+(1e.s3).


    . dlHslq ql6J asE 4l4ltl+(re.2a. +H g+E4l: re.ss-re.s8
    g+ +^\:1e.23,1e.24
    +{ .^I+ qlq^l EEIE ol+6fq q¤ Hl+ol olHzlE
    ^tg4.Jzl,
    . 419 QIEtrqel zlgoal Ll^ qBrl 9S9"1 gllzl q+++(re.s¤). +H ¤++41: re.ss, re.s6
    ^JEll +rL
    ¤E6Jtrl(1e.3¤). +A ¤+ E4: 1e.30, le.3l ._tr= zFft qq^lE E= qlLlzl Hql+3 4l
    ^JC ^l-8.6lq ^I+
    + 9l= +^t et]E ++= 7l¤6.Jtri(le.3e).
    . 6J +zI7I 714 1l++(re.s¤). +{ g+ ¤!41: le.se,le.60
    +H g+ +41: re.37 . +q{ AHe} As-tr'rEl a}ECql q6J SEq g'}3 ql+.J+
    .E4zl ,+Aq +q4 4dql^l AsE +nE q+6J+(1e.3e). (ts.0¤). +d g+ E"4l: 19.63, te.64,te.6e,te.7o.
    +a ¤+ Ex{l: 19.3s, L9.36,19.4r,19.42 . ul-s.= tr-qlq^l AGE Zl&"JtrI(rg.z4).
    . gqq xllsHzl¤ zl¤tl4(rs.:¤). +H S+ Exil: re.37 +H g+ +4: te.77,te.78
    . g.+ EqlEEvl .ac"e+ ¤¤ tI+E +¤^lrJEf(le.7a).
    ag zl4iql+(1e.4¤).
    +¤ ¤+ E4: te.4s-re.48 +E g+.8^ll: le.7e-1e.82

    HF-e-/\l
    =o
    Orr- l. O i
    . or: 7}q 4dq^l ¤+6J g E= EJ¤,tI g+ flEEq H+e+q +41
    ? (.Ja"J r) Irs.z)
    . zl9 4C' AS++: ASal + AST9 : 0 I
    ulz|$ ${: AS++ : AS4 + ASrsr > 0 [rs.a] E9qr z]zB4
    I
    'S:klnW Irr.sJ trli ^JEll fe| ele-au]e1 .$41
    . AG' : )nAs"(rj{$) - )zas'(q}f$) [1e.8] E=EqIEEEE+E] g6 QIE.EE HE}=} ZI&
    -AH, oJqql^l
    'AS"et : -; Irs.s] "JA.J gEe| 'Jq4= H+ 4dql 4+ +fl9 elEe
    El EEl.*
    . AG: AH _ TAS Irg. r r] "JA+ gEql^] tBvlel tEeu.l H+*ee+q Gibbs xl-# 9l
    qal E++ 4l4I
    898 193 atq' gq-+

    . AG": )naci(g{g)- )mtci(H}¤¤) [rs. ral s+ 4^dzf$ olluJxltr$El E= 4.+ qlq^l HEi=J 4l4l
    . zt$ 4C' AG: AHq - IAS, = 0 .JC6J gse+
    I Itg.rt) "Jqql^l {Bq= HE+ r+cE 'lE^J4 zF+ qlLJ
    ulz|$ ${: LG: A.Ha1- TAs4 < 0 Hc}e+g +al
    J ^l
    . AG: -waq [rs. rs] AlzlxJ + 9l= 314 .Jr+ qlq^l H+"6hr+el S4
    ^I-S
    . AG: AG" + RTInQ [rs. rs] Hls:= tlqiql^-l zl+ qlq^l HE+=J 4l&
    ' AG': -RTlnK Irs.zo) E+ zl+ qq^l HE+elr+ E¤ ^J+E +zl

    oJ+ +41
    ts-e.e _H.= TllE .llHxlzt 4q] ¤+q4+ %I=g + 914. ol Hp| r+Ag
    oll

    le.l ofefl :zfloll.rls| eol


    F rllel +ql F zllg ^Js +E Tlillzt 44, +919 tl=.+u] Esl= qg4 g a_s-.e ql=61+7|?
    i1]+14 9l+. ols zlillzlz z[{a}r., F 714lE Br]61+ + Irs.z4,le.sel
    + +zlE g*g trl .Jq+E q4g gqtrz}.
    [rs.r¤, le.24]
    OO o
    (a) 46(E¤) tlql= rr.l^ls.
    + o
    o o

    I
    (b) ol 4aq aHe+ Asg +EE ql+6}^le.
    (c) H q^lE Eflg trI .Jq+: gg riq4.J 4C.JzI? a
    (d) ol4Cgi?19 qlceul Aql qH ¤"&9?bzt? o o
    q
    trL-g El+g AHe+ ASel +g= q+6|^le.
    e
    o
    cc
    o te.4 ell r+rll ^J4
    ee o
    6l+zl ¤B6l-^le. [1e.3¤]
    tr?
    1.'\f r'1
    +,'i
    >4 o-{
    rBq A+q ^IS ^lld +7lql= t\r
    te.2 o].4
    l, 1 -trlol g+g-+qlql gl(1. I -difluoroethane, C2H4Frg
    qlTloJql^l TlalloJ
    oq + ?'.\J
    J\{\,
    J
    ol+ Eeol ill+14 gEl. rE=g tsHg 4 n.Jel r.r_eol
    t F6ll EieE +sE^l zlolr.ll, o1
    le.5 opll E_EE 7l+ +g seq1,r1 ,lx,il.J qtr 849 elee
    =+seqlqlqlol =g
    zl;llz| zfgel BzlS Bqulfl4. [te.l¤, ts.2g)
    nlTIgEqlq4 qB4l H6l-=xl trq e+. [rs.:d]
    (a) 948 Aelq El+q B utl, ol ,lp+ r+Ag tlgql^l
    ^l- (a) q*oll,<J Oq @e E^l6J +zldg trl+ qlEEqTI ?
    Bzlt 4c.JzI? 7l6lb r+Cg Ft.Jzf?
    (b) r,r-r1o15+sEqEl.Jg 4l4r a9fl9 ull, ol zlEl
    (b) @ql^l tE eul HEIrI Otrtrr ol++ +t.Jrt?
    444 qazl oJoJzl, ¤.oJzl ql+g + flbz}? =
    (c) ol ${ol 0 Kql^l sd+ egal?+r *r+8, ol gEql
    (c) ol zl5| 4c9 aszl 0JoJ^1,
    +oJzl ql+6].^le-.
    s {tg gn}oJz}?
    (d) *E (a), (b), (c)9 B-qePE ol zll*9 zlE fl?]: ql ^l
    894 teeq + qB &ql trl 9=61+2l?
    u
    E
    I .e
    ; El
    tlEzlfl CzHa,Fz 5

    q+E c2H4F2

    aE(K)
    te.6 olCe4+ ol4 ¤lql.J(csH,J9 + olCex]le} eol, +q
    4g +zl"J flzlel ullgol EI= +zlol+. [rs.+¤]
    le.3 (a) 4s rBql E+ 4Cq q6J Ase+ AHq +E=
    E^I6J
    (a) + olca4lE ¤^ tBgz} erll q¤ aeE q+qE
    +9"J71? 0) "l H+ r+a F.J .JC6J gEE +z1617l +l
    7I? q r+rll {4d}=^l ¤E6f^le.
    3x1t 899
    =*
    O) qL ol^dei]lg -s.3 g$lEEvlzl-rl astr. qh}El (b) K.:1ol4B, 9:= :go1 Q < &oJ tlqlql flE 4l= +
    r+zl {$a}.rle.
    =
    ell
    ^J461.=zl 44EzI?
    =7t?
    (c) ol Hl*ql 4+ AGE a7171+716]E +^ls oI4 rH
    E +^.lE A6I^le.
    \ oit Ot,^ t rl
    rtr ,tt
    TJ
    t} -l
    (1)
    I- (2) o t,;, (3)

    cH3-cH2-cH2-cH2-cH3 cH3-c-cH3
    t'
    CH^
    19.10 olell E-B.b +*E ,ltr-4e HI+ A(g)+u(s)- 6(s;71
    1]4q: EoJ ^t+ ollulzl(G)z} qgrl H6l+^l trq
    CH, g+q= 44 r atmt +++ Hl¤¤ Ae] sz} 9l-7. eE+ =4.
    ,r-EJlElloJ LllgtrJlElloJ ql= Ef+7|^le l atmoJ ++6J {CE C7} 9lE}. El-g 6
    te.7 olrll Es.E 9H zlt4.J HI+ql ql4q AH(S*4 Oe+ qL aol *ol.l, zll.JzlE "J6}^ls. Lrg.zll
    (a) ol q*oll,rJ 3li.J ol tI¤:9 HI¤¤4
    r^s(+¤^{ ,s)7} gEql E}r} qBzl H6l+^l trq ^ld3 qlolrl. ^JCEol
    =+. EB tr-Elg sB+g BC+
    [rs.o¤]
    (a) AHq TAsz| zJofzlS:oo r xld¤ qE ?eCg r*b (b) EB ^tqlql^l Ae+ B= E-+ Hls"6}q ++dJ CE /d.^d

    tl? +tr|.
    (b) ol HI¤¤ qB gE B9lq^l (c) ol HI+g dceq {fl; o3=o1r;.
    ^Ig4oJ7f? rBel .r= ol
    (d) E]*q AGe+ aEI.
    (e) ol Hlgg AG= ol HI+ +d9 g+ ¤4 oi4+ E ^Iol
    g il.le| a+.
    AH

    I x
    TAS
    300
    3E(K)
    G

    I
    re.8 olells*.Y qB zI*4.J HI*ql q6lq acTr gEql IrI4
    Htq ilx{
    qBril H6l+^ltrq [re.s¤, rs.o¤]
    (a) olL gEq^l =4.
    4lzl EB.ll 5.9o1+7p &,94 r}1l(19.1¤)
    o) qe g_E
    H+lql^l ol HI*ol xlg4qlzl? rs.rr rl*-n+a + qL aol zf${ola, qL aol ulz}p{glz}!
    (c) AHE oloJz}, goJz}? (a) ulufulz| +cqb a
    (d) AS='Jtz[, *.Jzl? (b) Eag 4sl 4I +q fl= gr3o1 5i {
    (c) 25'C, r atmgl^l 44. 9j,47l Nz Ez)-E B^d6l+ HI-&
    1= a
    (d) Hzl]
    (e)*9 I atmql^l CO2el H2o-tr+q CUreI O' EzlTI /.J
    AG0 cq= a
    rs.rz trl-g +c + q!: aol zlB4.J7I?
    (a) -lo.C, 1 atmoll.r.l gg 44ol += a
    (b) Nzel o2el g6J Tlill-= +++ Nr4 #ft o2-e. er]6l
    2,50
    3.E(K) cLd r!'
    ^l7l+ql^l ,.zl*zl cE6k a
    (c)
    1e.e trI.S Hi+ Azk) +82@) : z eBgE gEltr^I. e flzl*
    Bg4, r flzlE +E-^l oE -s,\la}g4. [rs.s¤, rg.z4]
    (d)
    ^Jgql^l +4. Tlille| &4 zlz,llzf HI+aIq f?zlE B
    rol4H, ol4 rB + q! rgol dq+ a
    (a) &: BB tLqlq fl= (e) HCl(g)olEql+ot d+ g&+'lol Bdq= a
    4E 444izl-?
    900 193 al-+ gq-l

    19.13 ffi ffiol #.Jzl, 4l.JzlE g6}^ls. oqlzl?


    qE +*el qHI¤+ ae d,E
    (a)
    ^lg4.J =aq^J
    ElzI
    re.20 +E rNrTt 4zl'J91,<l +gilg q 'Jq+= trtlg ^J4
    ts4"J aolE}. 6llEzI.
    (b) E= zlg4"J EI¤¤ BiE4l tqB+. (a) *B9 rlq +A"J7P
    (c) 4*89 7}q40l+.
    ^lg4ql HI¤+ (b) ol 4Aql 4t
    rn-l BnE F9.JzI?
    (d) Fg 4dq^l ali gg g^l ?*=4. (c) ol 43.11 46J rryi *oJzL ¤-qlz}, olqE 0"J71?
    (e) 7IE +4tr4= HlTlq r+Cg ¤16l] El ge "Jg'J +
    91 rlel Eqqr rll2gEl(19.2E)
    =+
    91trI.
    rs.zr El-* 4 B+"1 *.Jzl, zl,!"JzlE n5ol^le.
    19.14 (a) G) qtr gE
    sg tlgol x|g{ oe al.3¤ + ilytl?
    ql^l alg4ql H}*ol 4E gEql^.i= tslzlB4oJ + 9tE
    (a) AsE tql EI+olEl.
    O) AITI7IE4"J Eclr+Cg 49 EI ++E eltrEqE+
    zl? (c) E3 +^el &^s EBll¤ + 9l+. EoJ +^e+ tI
    7I6J+.
    xl]a6J6ll^l +g + 9t+. olag ol tl*Eol I
    ^JCtr ,Iq4.J HEI r+Cg 49 trI 4lE qltreq HE+"J
    (c) 4lzl
    ^= 7lE4.J HI+"JS 9El6l+71? @) 4l7l +gql g
    9oi4-s-E. g +flE $E eq Hsl"*4 aTly 7Ja +EE ElqTl
    + 9lb "Jq .Jg f "Jg 6h= +4, + Ae"il el+61-L-z}? g+.
    ^J4.J Eol I atmql^-l l6zla
    19.15 ._qiil zl+61+ r+Ag ^J4 (d) 4l7l rlq4.J H+4Cg 49 Eil 4lel qltrEq HEl"*
    6]| trzf. g oolqo} sI+.
    (a) ol 4cg g¤ 4ctlzL tsE 48"JzI?
    tg.zz cl* 4 +tlol *"Jzl, zll.JzlE "J6I^19.
    o) qe gE H+lql^l ol $¤.ol 7'Its4"J7I? (a) *f9 siEsqb ztgzl"J +aql^l 6zlt4.
    (c) 9L gE H+lql^l ol H!*ol ulz|${olz}!
    (b) E.= El7|q r+aql^l 49 qlEtrll EeI"*e +9lE ql
    (d) qL gEq^l F tr', eq^il^J4 zlll^J.ol BB tI
    =|E = treq HEI+J+ aTly 7Ja +EE Hlqlrl E+.
    4ql fl=rp (c) 419 qltrEqE E= r+Aq^J 6zlo11o}g4.
    q=dg -s7"col4. ^lB4
    19.16 n-9Hl"J(csHrr)E CS (d) E"¤ 4C9 eleeq HEI*e aql gEe+ zlq +ag
    (a) m-+El9lol q= ae g9 4c.JzL B¤ 4C"Jzl? 5El dBg gE "Jq 9=6J+.
    o) qe .gE Hglql^l n-+qloJol q= 4col xls4.Jzt? srr(t)A AtL #Edg s8.8 "coli zlp* EQlgirli AH,r+
    (c) 9ggE H+lql^l n-$EloJol 9E4C"l ulz|${olz}!
    :2e.6 k)/molol4.
    (d) E4l+r+ ral^Jg r-+rloJol ¤E tlqle $Ez| 3zN -tyzt(a) nrr14o1 C^J BEAqI^1 #g q $lEeq= f,z}alfz},
    6l+7I? qlrC4
    ^J46h=zl ¤B6f^le. a^61+7P
    t9.17 ol5r zl;llz| tlql lq^l ttql 2E Ei+l= E"J s_E7l300 K (b) 1.00 mol Br2(fz[ s8.8'Cql^] ,le+.J ull As <]g 4lt]6]
    9lrl zoo K-a H6l+ IlAql ql4 ^J4dl sz}.
    ^19'
    (a) ol rlael gE HE+= ol +aol zI9 +celzl, E= El
    ,t.2a zf,$(Ga) gi= 2e.8.cql^l ga, +s EslBu.li la33
    7Iq r+4.J^lql rI4 E4zlbz}? :s.s9 kllmolol4.
    (b) ol 4c3 Eg +a"J7l? (a) *S¤ aEol At}+EAq^l +r6}q -74lca(s)zt¤
    (c) ol r+Cel 4P 9lilzl Ho](m)= ol tr4 Hclzf 994 ql asE
    "JoJzt, *oJzl?
    + ae.il E=61^bzl? (b) 60.0 S9 ca14o1 2e.8 "Cql^] s"nB 4l As ltg 4lt6}
    19.18 qtr alrl tLEI lq^l ld.q 2e ,;c+71, r+^1dtql re. q5o1
    ^ls.
    *trI.
    r7l= E+ rJe7n
    *.4+rlol *.Jzl, 7lll.J^l5 EJ:oI^le.
    (a) AE9 8Hls"r+ qHl+ql^'t (a) 894 B4q el6IE qlE+4= tr=¤tr|.
    (b) 914Aqlq6J+E +714H S"l*tfl¤EL {}ql rql -rs:so) 7Iq r+c"ll^] 419 sl=eulzf ?z}aJ4H ol +7}+ "J
    tlql2-tr HEI uI 4ql dgg gel .FL tr-4 2ql^l tL ,J+ ++lel $Eeqts a44o}'*El.
    ^l
    ql l-e H6J EI 4ql dgg 99 olol ag7t. 4=zl?
    (c) qtr 219 elceq Hpi as:4.2llKq
    (c) ol tLql Hslz} zI9 r+Aol4r 7ta6}zi. tql lql^l ^lg 4dql^l
    qlee.u]
    ^J H, +elel HEI-= -+.2 l/Kolqot 6J+.
    ql 2E tsE} Ell ,{zf 6J ge.l "J+, ,\}q 2ql^l .d-qi re
    re.26 (a) i9l9 9lE'eul= rl4ql^J +7li;lY7l? o) qB
    ^Ig
    ts.rs E* 44eE ol+qal ZIE ^J4611 H^I. ^lg $Cql^] alE $=ei'lzl a^fl+fl, as++r9 PE4
    rTlql 4El qtr AEg qB + 9l=7t? (c) oltr 7Iq qd
    (a) 9E aa6.lql^] gg a4ol zI94 " + +¤+ 9lEzI? ol ddq= F"J ++lE qlE eEl Hs} lsae :-7s llKol
    (b) g+ a4ol TlEzl e-e. \5119, ol 44ql qlql aH: *.4. ol 4Aql 46J 49 fleeul He+.*e guf.Jz|?
    901
    =* =xll
    19.27 (a) oltl 7l4l 10.0 L7l E"g B+g
    27'C9lrJ 0.200 mol9 H r,4.e'J7I?
    4l rsE +E= +E.J7l? b) f tlzlltl s+6lq +q7I (a) 419 3ETI67I6J rll
    18.s L7I qfl48. ol S1t r+Cel QlEEq Hrle}¤ 9"f (b) 7li{9 *irlzl- =" z}g Ell
    ol StrE.i4 Ecl+3 ZltdtTl 91d19rg 213a11 (c) 3* +qE ql+gr+ Eg si]6}q *"-qg ¤CB q
    "JzI? (c)
    oI6l+7f?
    '1=* 4 +^Jol +.Jzl, 4Aqlzl5 g6}^ls.
    19.28 (a) 3s0 Koll.tl o14- Tlall 0.600 mol$ azl oJqol 0.7s0 (a) ¤qEl ^I3H4q E4B eq eE 0 Kql^.i Sd6Ia +
    atmol4. +EE .JA6}zll trzlofS,t] oJfl$ f;zlr.lzl| { -r* +.J Aaale] Qlee.ulE adSlq e"&ol TlzlB +7I
    + AsE +n= +E"Jvl? b) ol TlalE 31= ${ol 1.20 +4.
    atmol qfl+B, ol !+aq QlEtrq Hp+"*g gEloJTl? (c) 0) Ezlq 'Bt &rE"'g ^lrJql EIE EzI9 3"zJ,.J9l^lE +l
    ol dEEsj Esl=*g 41416171 91611 gE= zl{$ pez} zl Hel¤ g++.
    ol L 7Lr)
    m:/I! (c)'4d ¤5e',4'{E &E" g ne "l xe4 ag g^l. 7l4lE
    E^El uJEofl cl g! e e ule[ Eq-4 rll3H4(19.3tr) Qleeqq,lqq}4.
    q¤ 7l'al7l4+
    ^l (d) Ezl= +c6lb 9zI9 fzt "*g++ e^F= qd4 {
    re.2e tlqlq^l 59 B+6IE AE:0, Q:0, w:
    E e+q qlt q Y*e zt+EE 714 A"l+.
    00lEI.
    (a) olag zloJ4 44.JzI? re.3s El-g 4 E+"1 &"Jzl, zl4..Jzl5 "J6I^ls.
    (b) ol +cql^l AlTlz,J orol ooJ olffi .$gal-.rle. (a) Bxl Epl"d."J "J + gl= slBq a4 gE, sE a+ r

    (c) ol 7l,ql7} s+61-b gFqg qlBulqlzL $=eqoJzp aqalg "J + 9lq.


    (b) co2 ag zliilE zfg6}H Bd, qd, {+ gEE AE
    1e.30 (a) Zl9 t4Gtate)o] ul4. {rll(microstate)el z1-o1=- a1
    7l +7l6Jr+.
    qlzl? (b) qE 4lz| dlql Aql^l
    ^Jql BE E.Jq
    q+ flE
    (c) couk)e} Ar(g)5 AE ?JZ E¤+9,*=+. +qA g
    trtl7} rJ46lf,4. tlEI Ael Bel "14 ^JEll +ql Ell6fl +9
    g "J6J f ?l=zf? (c) olB 54t zlB4 ++ql^l Altl zl Eoll.rl o1==g F"J"J +E 7te aolE}.
    "14 ^Jql=
    e + fl= Elc ^JEHe.l +71$r6Jr+8, asasE +Eql ql ,*e r1=g- 4 6}"ll ql6}q +"tt 9=q1,r-1 trl Sg E.r} SEeE
    6l ++ AEg.llB + il=7|? E ?Izl: Eeg :1e^ls.
    (a) A(04 erk)
    *=, 4 HEIzI "|tr 'JEe-l 4lzltlg+ 9l= Eld ^J4e1 (b) 3 atm9 He(g)c+ 1.5 atmel He@)
    +71^l7l+zl, zl4xltliTl, olqH tr14 ^JEl] fgl ol
    -rs:r+E
    +fl g6JE +zl 9*E7I?
    (c) ls.o L +ql fl= I mo19 N.G)c+ l.so L +ql fl+
    I molelNe(g)
    (a) 8s.9 ?zI
    (d) co2k)el co2(s)
    (b) +qg aA
    (c) 941"11,t.] rlaleel 1e.40 trl-g4aql ql6lq qeEeol El
    ^}BE+
    re^lg. =9"*QIeeulEzlul
    re.32 (a) 5-q n9 7l+gg 2s'ce| 100'cq^l E4 7l =^l
    ^l-s6lq (a) 300'C, 0.01 atmoll! I molel ozk)el300'C, 0.01 atm
    Elql ql+ sEeEl H5+E 4l4}6}^ls. (b) Eill *4.J Eel
    oll,{ l molel o3e)
    ol4 {}qle+ Eel +aql +6J zl^l sEPq (a)"llrl Ee +
    (b) 100
    oC, 1 atmql,tj I mo19 HzO(C)q 100 "C, I atmoll
    flEetl Ecl*9 i,l-ol= ¤E6f^ls.
    ;.1 r mot9 HzO(I)
    rs33 ("1 2 molg Tlillt Hl¤¤ol 3 motg 7lz,ll^J ^JCEtr B+l
    (c) 298 K, 20 L +tle-l 0.5 mol Nr(g)el 298 K, 20 L +:4el
    q= E+q H}+ql^l asel +-E= +l?]7}? (b) +41 rs.rrql
    9l: H+ 4C + q!
    aql^l 419 QleEulzl +7li'lY7l1
    0.5 mol CH+(g)
    (d) 30 "C, t00 99 NazSo+(s)9}30 "C, 100 g9l NazSor(a4)
    re.3a (a) qtr EIE HI*ql^J +7l1ll7l a.J6Iq nillE Bc6J4.
    r1g 4 HI+q ql6J 4lE qlee.u1 HEI*E +s= ql+6}
    AsE +s= ql+61^le. (b)E^ll re.12ql ,l¤g HE++A
    "tl4 41EtEEq: qBrll H6l-bz}? ^ls.
    -1qa1(a) Nzk) + 3H2fu:) + 2NH3(g)
    olqfl rq
    '1-*.419 tEe{b +716137l, A^61+z}, (b) CaCos(s) Cao(s) + Co2(g)
    -tr
    oJ7|? (c) 3CzHz(g) .+
    - CoHo(g)
    -rr:r (a) -zxllzft$']l (d) AlzO:(s) + 3Hz(S) zAl(s) + 3H2O(8:)
    (b) zlillTl "-4+E -
    te.4z L+* HsI rlAql 4t asaq +sE ql=61^l_s.
    "ll
    (c) nz]lz| (a) *&¤ +ol r8l7i ¤4.
    ^oElB 4l
    re.36 4lel tEerlE El.g a+q +7FlY7l, zlaaliz|, oiq (b) 7l4l^Jel chTI c?flql^J 7l,,ltel cl gztE 6l]q+El.
    902 1e5| 6t+ Eq+

    (c) TlilltlE coT} 7lill^J-g Hzel HI*6I¤ alill^Jg 'lltsg le.so E4 +liE gg, rlolo|$E, 'ilr"J^qE
    7I^l B4b
    ^Jl
    (cH3oH)g ¤^J++. 4{l6uckminsterfullerne)olr}. 298 Kql^l +S4 4olo}E
    (d) ca(No Jr(aq)q (NrD rp o +(aq)¤ e'JalB oJt a+ol Eel tEeq: ++ cql L+E|+ 9lEl.
    adgE+. (a) 9S4 rlolopgcA s" #9 ilol= rEE +=4"J +

    d ql^l ¤ E 6l^1 e(a_H D.2e).


    il+ HJtoil^.| Ee etrl EE(19.4E)
    re.43 (a) E9 -so"cql^J ll0"c-e.7Ig+ rllE9 qlE.sEl HEI
    (b) +¤+ ulolof-e-ce1 s. <FI Blid}q H"Jlqgq{
    5 +Elqb EEE f.H te.t2= EEJtr 6Iq r7.l^l9-. ql
    (:-H rz.as)9 s. <lg B"tB 4"-e qltid+7p ell r
    EeulTf +^.les +716I= gEE¤ s^l6l^le. (b) gg +r,ll ^J461=^l ¤H6I^le_.
    ol \| a+ Eol #= a 6 q! 19 qje-aul Hslz} rl 19.51 ++ cE s'llg ^l=&4q +g HI+E As" ltg 41416I^l
    ellr+4 ^J461-=zl ¤B6I^ls. e. 4 HI+ql ql6J as"E +n¤'¤B6I^le.
    =7I? (a) czHa(g) + Hz(g)
    1e.44 E.tr.$g(Cruros)g _r26.s "Cql^] +n, 97.4 "Cql^l g -
    CzHo(8)
    O) NzOa(S) 2NO2(g)
    I -lso'cq seS¤¤ lso "ce. Ttgg Ell
    atmql^l
    - .-- BeO(s) + H2o(g)
    (c) Be(oH)2(s)
    =4. H6IE-^I :fl re.nE -trEJE qq 14^19.
    QIE eulz1 qEal (d) 2CH3OH(g + 3OzG) 2CO2@) + 4H2O(g)
    ++ 4 tlql^l ol- E+6JEol El gg se gqltrEfl= 7l 19.52 5+ cel v {tg
    -r++
    Hi+el Asp 7}g 414}6}^l
    ^l=S4q
    -rqns^IAY7l|? e. 4 HI*ql 4.t ls:s] +s5 ¤E6l^le.
    (a) CzHzk) E= C2H6k) O) Cor(s) E= Co(g)
    (a) HNOs(g) + NH3(g) NHNOs(s)
    I 9.46 E Eull oJ (cyclopropane)r] r -Ep fl! (propylene) I (b) 2Fe2O3(s) .+ -
    +Fe(s) + 3026)
    ^lol=E
    E.+ c}+..lol c:HroJ olce4lol+. oI49 e4- ++e -H. (c) CaCog(s, %16114) + 2 HCI(g)
    o[, + olCaa]l 6 q! zlol zs.Cql^J El *-g .s= gslE CaCl2(s) +- Coz(g) + H2o(l)
    (d) 3CzHo(g) CuHu(/) + 6Hzk)
    EqE 7le a"E ql+q=7|?
    -
    H Gibbs xl80llLlrl(19.5tr, 19.68)
    HH
    \./C re.s3 (a) oJA6J gEql^l "Jq+E H+ r+aql 4at9 ciuus xt
    f,qlulzl H+= alE qlBEle+ flEeul Hglql 956t=
    :f. H 7f? (b) "Ja+ rel pq^l .Jq+= q¤ H+ r+aE AG 7i
    H ol "JolE+. ol r+cg zlg4.J7l? (c) olB HcI r+cgl AG
    reEl?l
    ^l0l=egeql?l Zlol aE. ol r+Aol uule7il d6JqETl?

    t9.47 of4 + Ee + q! aol 2s.cq^l q -*.+ glE+ElE re.54 (a) s.=


    ^l+ 9lHzl HEHlc9b
    6J,lJ- AG-H.+ (b) oJ
    =7I?
    zlzlflitll (++ cq^l 4 Eeel s+ =QlE erl <lg *e c+ gsc+.Jqql^-l .Jol+= EE HsI4aql^l AG:09
    qtr +!.cg 7*Y7l? (c) oltr E+ +aql^J AGz| 3 ¤+
    ^le.) olag ol Ep+ +aol
    (a) Sc(s)el Sc(g)
    oltrI. *g BCrI9lHzlE 7lA*+
    (b) NH3k)el NH:(aq) eltrl6l+7P
    (c) or(g)e| o3k) rgss qg ++ H]*E Nf : -35.4 klol-r., AS: -8s.s f/6olr1.
    (d)c(+¤)el c(+ololeE) (a) ol Hl¤* gE qI*"J7t, Sg HI+'J7P

    19.48 ol4 F Ee 6 qL aol 2s "cql^l q E= flEeqE (b) ol HI+g 4lel +e^lEL+ +zl+lEE +71^lvlY7l, ol
    tlzlflitl2 (++ cql^-l 4 EeE E= =qlE+rl tlg *e ulB zJ4,rlzlEzlr
    (c) 2e8 Kql^l ol Hl*ql ql+ AG"E 4l&61^le-.
    ^ls.) (d) 2e8 K. s.+ ol z}ts4.Jzt?
    (a) coHo(l)4 coHrk) ^JEllq^l HISg
    (b) Co(s)el Cor(s) re.s6 q¤ El4 Hl*E A,rf :+23.7 kJolr. Ay: +s2.4llKolr+.
    (c) I mol NzOrk)el2 mol NO2(g) (a) ol Hl*g BE el*'Jzt, Sg HI*"J7P
    (d) Hcl(s)e+ Hcr(aq) (b) ol EI¤e 4lE +A^lE qe ++gEE +71^lvl}.7l.

    te.4e 2e8 Kql^.] qE 14+ gaE s.= tIE-e.EI= trl-sr+ eq. olqtr a^^l7lE7l-?
    (c) 2e8 K9lrJ ol HI+E AG"E Zl&6r^le.
    C(s, 4ololEe):2.qs l/mol-K, Si(s) = 13.61 J/mol-K,
    Sn(s) : tlElql4 ol HI¤+ zfg4.Jzl?
    Ge(s) :31.99 J/mol-K, 51.818 l/mol-K. (d) 2e8 K, E.=

    sng zll9t E= Eeol rloloF.c +4= 7l4L+. gl s. il +=, CE zle= oleo61-{ r.l;^ 4 H}+ql ql6J 2e8 Kq^lel
    E a6*Cg ¤B6l^le_. AFr, As", AG.E 4l$6i^19-.
    -rgj7
    Ee 903
    =^ll
    (a) HzG) + Fz(r) -+ zHF(g) .+ 2NCls(8)
    (b) Nz(c) + 3CI2(g)
    (b) c(s, 4$ + 2cr2$) ccla(g) AH": a60kJ, LY : -27sJ/K
    (c) 2PCl:(g) + Oz@) - zPoCl3(g) (c) N2Fa(g) + 2NF2(g)
    -
    (d) 2CH3OH(S) + Hz@) CzHok) + 2H2o(g) AI{':85kJ,A.f : lg&JlK
    -
    re.ss ++ c.el 4sE oleo6|{ q+ 4 Hi-&q 4+ 25'cql^lE 19.64 iqd la's1 As" <lsE+q 2e8 Kql^l 'I-g 4 EI+E
    AFr, as., aG.= al&6f^19. aG"E alt6}^ls. oJg 51gol 2e8 K, -s= tlqlql^l Elzl
    (a) Cr(s) + 3O2(g) + 2Cr2O3(s) Bzl"j4E, qH gEql^l(-f fl 3E7t 9l4o ^Ig4ol g
    (b) BaCo3(s) Bao(s) + Co2@) 4"J71?
    -
    (c) 2P(s) + 10HF(3) 2PF5(3) + 5Hz(g) (a) zPbS(s) + 3Oz(S) 2PbO(s) + 2SO2(j:)
    (d) K(s) + ozk) -_
    -Koz(s) - :
    AH" -844kJ, AS" : -165J/K
    o5e 5-4 ce] olo-oel.{ ++ 4 H}-3.q ql+ AG'= al,$ (b) 2Pocl3(g) 2PCI:(S) + oz(c)
    ^fE¤ - : 572kJ,Lf, -- 179J/K
    6}^le. 4 tI*"I 2e8 K -g.= ^J4ql^l xlg4qlxl, +Hzl AH"

    =
    s^l6t^19_. r9.65 'JA6J.Jq6}ql^l d4qb q¤ E]*ol 3e0 Kql^l ^fH-4
    (a) 2so2k) + oz(s) + 2So3(g) ol+. ol H]*9 elBq Eq+ +23.7 k)olr[. o] H]+q Cl
    (b) Noz(s) + N2o(g) 3No(g) + As= +6}^le_.
    - =- 4FeCls(s) + 3O2(g)
    (c) 6Clz(S) + 2Fe2O3(s)
    ga6J oJqd}ql^l 4l4ElE qE HI*ol 4s.cql^l Hl^Ig4
    (d) soz(s) + 2H2@) .+ S(s) + zHzo(s)
    19.66
    ol+. ol HI+q 4.J flEerl Bsl= zz I/Kol+. ol El+ql
    re.60 ++ cq 4.EE ol+6}q q-s 4 ++ql ql6lq Gibbs xlf 4t la= +6}^le.
    ollulxl gE1gg. zltdl^le. 4 tlgol 2e8 K s= +qlql^l
    1e.67 qE HI89 m=-32 ktoln, AS:-e8 I/KoltrI. gEql
    alB4 ofH^lE E^l6f^ls.
    q_lzl,
    (a) 2Ag(s) + Cl2(s) 2AgCl(s)
    44 aae+ AszI E6lzl ?*E4r 7VA6l^1.
    (a) olH g-Eql^l ol E]*E AG:0ol q=7t?
    - + 4PH3(g) + 10H2O(j,)
    (b) PaOle(s) + l6H2@)
    (c) CHr(g) + 4Fzk) CFa(g) + 4HF(g)
    (b)
    "J'J (a)el
    gEtr+ 3=z| 5o1148, "l Hl¤¤ z}g
    (il) zHzOzU) -
    ZHzo(l) + oz(r) 4ol I !olz|, u1z1g4ol g A"J7l?
    +ql.J(cru,Jg
    - tlgq^l o-qiloJ E!++4, flg+q +CE 1e.68 EAol +flqq CoE gE tl¤¤ BzlsH(decarbonylation)
    ol+. H}+ol4a 94. o[,!lE&e] B7]EH t]¤¤ 4*4 zJ.l
    -rs.6l(a) CsHra(l)ol ¤461q BC6l+ ¤^
    Cor(s)e+ Hzo(l)E 1tBE4.
    t¤ +s. 4.g
    HI+ql ql'J ,^^le. CH3CooH(l) CHsoH(3) + Co(s)
    (b) g+o|4 ol aG.7| arf-B ++ce.l xfEE^l-861q- ol 4Col E=*4ql^l ^Igzlol
    ^lEE ^l-8'6}zl "Jn, HI*el El:31^ gEE 4l&61^ls(+, +Eql q4 AHel As= H
    + q +E <tg 7)+^1, q +e +q atg r*b^l=
    =
    q+6I^lj_. 6l^l ?}.=qn rl{'Jq).
    rsse e+ rJel trI.g EI¤¤
    1e.62 ol&+ +* 4}cl ffi$ zJol Hlg" 6.J+. ^J461i
    Eat.
    ^EEEi+
    SO2(g) + SrO(g) SrSO3(s)
    ^I++E Noz(g) + N2o(8:) 3No(8)
    - ol HI+E
    gn, (a) P* c9 ZI.EE ol+4q, gETt - +7td-ql q-4 ol EI*
    (a) 9s144 ztEE aG"7| arrE
    ^I¤:6Izl
    4 q +q Alg 7*Y^1. El 49 gq <fg ,*E^lE 9 Ac"zl qBrll HE^l q+4^le.
    =
    ql+6f^le_. O) gEql q4 Arre}Aszf H6I^l 9+=+n 7IA6Ii. 8m K
    ql^.i AG.E 4l&6.t^1e.. 800 K. E= tlqlql^.i ol Hl¤¤
    (b) ol Hl*ql r]6J s= q1gs1 xle.E} zlzl-r. gl4H, 4E
    xlts4"JzI?
    EeEql 4+ ++ cg zleE 28e Kq^j aG.
    ^]-s4q
    ilg +A6I^le-. (c) 1000 Kql^l AG"E zlt6}^le-. ol gEe+ _E= d}4ql^J
    r1-*- 4 HI+g .g le.3ql^l s"+e} ql zfzl zl-fql +B
    ol HI¤¤ xlg4.J7|?
    +
    of{e 551r1s. re.70 r{lEg(cH3oH)g qelqle.l a¤g &+ H}+g Fsll Eg
    -rr.ot(i) EE +Eql^l zlg HI*, (ii) EE gEql^l HlzlB4 HI -r dlrl
    ;l.'1 .

    +, (iii) *g gEq^l= zl.$! q!$olzl"J ke gEql^l CHa(g) + ior(9 cH3oH(g)


    El^lB4 HI*, (iv) +g gEql^l *e PB cq zlEE ^|+61q
    - HI*ql 4+
    ol
    gEql^l Hl^lg4 Hl+
    ^lg4 HISolzloJ (a) Arre+ AYE
    al&6I^le.
    (a) Nz(S) + 3F2k) 2NF3@) (b) gs.zt +7IQHI rI4 ol Hl+ql Eil6-J AG'= +7f6ld=
    A,H': -249 kJ,- AS': -278JlK 7L +d6IA=7t, otqE rr]lEolAEzp
    904 1e3 6t+ gq-+

    (c) 2e8 Kql^l AGg= 4l1}6l^le. ol gEe+ s= tlEIq^J 19.77 HI* 2 Nor(s) ----- Nzonk)E
    ^J4dl
    !-^I.
    ol ++gztts4ql7}? (a) s¤ cE alEE ol+6lq 2e8 Kql^l AG.E 4l4}6l^le.
    (d) s+ tlqlq^l ol EISol E¤ql EB6l-b $=olg,rj 5 (b) NO2e+ NzOn9 ? E .Jqol 44 O.+O atm, 1.60 atmp
    E+.JC44 +zl¤ +
    ^lq, HI*ql +716J +6J¤ol
    Ell, 2e8 Kql^J AGE Alt6[^le-.

    9lg CEe +E6l *g $ETI +zll6l-=7P 19.78 HI*3cru(g) .----- csHe(s) + 2H2Gfr ^J46fl tr^}.
    rq-zr t"l ++ c9 ^IEE ^l-s'"619 Hldl(ceHo(r))el #=eg (a) sE cel ol+6}q 2e8 Kql^l AG.E 4l4l6}^le.
    = ^IEE
    (b) Er]e+ pls]9 cnc fl=+(cRc Handbook (b) HI+ gqlEol 40.0 atm9 c&(g), 0.0100 atm9 c:Hsk),
    ^16I^19-.
    of Chemistry and Physics):t| eg +a Ef,g 0.0180 atmel Hr(g)e +Cqq flg Ell, 2e8 Kq^l AG
    ^|S6Iq d
    EeE. {dlE #=dg *e_^le. E 4l4}6}^le.
    =a'*
    re.72 (a) ++ cel zlE.= ^l-s-o6lq rr(s)71 rr(8).E. H6l+ Hl*el 19.79 ++ cel zlEE ol+6}q 2e8 Kq^l 'I.g 4 HI+g BB tI
    4-P. qlqzl Bclz} ool q= .gEE q+6}^le. (b) fl.,t.|o1 + KelaG.= 4l&6I^19-.
    E (www. webelements. com)9 +n ol$a|{, {Ql e- (a) Hz(s) + I2(s) i- zHt(g)
    ^t.e.E
    s +Ag I,9 +=dn+ #=dg *s^le. (c) (b)91.<.1 *g (b) CzHsoH(j:) : C2H4(g) + H2o(g)

    7} + qe 6}0l (a)ql^l gg A+ vl zltf$zl2 (c) 3C2H2(g) : C5H5(g)

    (acetylene)zl^ll(crHr(g))b+dzlgql^l*¤+. r9.80 ++ cel xle$ ol+a}q 2e8 Kql^J q+ rf HI+q r]6J {l


    (a) ol-,t119q1 714l7I ¤A6Iq cor(s)e+ H2o(t)71^J^JqE B t+^lg 4r. ¤B *ic+ zl-Pr qlLl^l HE+= 4l&6}^le.
    -rs-zl+418fl (a) NaHCO3(s) ;- NaOH(s) + CO2(g)
    s^ HI+ql qlt+B HI*4g r ^le.
    (b) 2 HBr(s) + Cl2(8r) .- 2 HCI(g) + Brz(g)
    (b) HI¤¤4 rJdE"l E+ 2e8 r, s'6 tqlql 9l+E o}^ll
    (c) 2 So2(s) + oz(s) ;- 2 So3(g)
    BHI Tlill r motg s.= t}4ql^J ts^e. EI g^J61.= g
    Ig"l.Jz}? 19.81 El-* +41El¤E ed Hl+g ^J46ll Ezt.
    (c) -86 {iqlql^l ol ++g ¤:6I g + 9lE ++{} "J9 3l BaCO3(s) .- BaO(s) + CO2(j:)
    4** g"I'JzI? ++ cE ^t.E.E ol+6l.q (a) 2e8 K, (b) ll00 Kql^l co2E
    D.74 ag"& d¤zt^ il*g s-E= +E qlql.J(cHo)o + 7c B¤ "Jqg 44 4l^I6}^ls.
    qq fl+. 19.82 E+g +*g ^J46tl
    Bat.
    (a) HI*84 ^8CEol E+ 2e8 K, E=.tlqlql 9r. Hro(t) PbCO3(s) :- PbO(s) + CO2(S)
    ,l ¤cgr+H. I mol9 cH4k)E ¤iE+ ull 9st"E9 ++ cq 4E= 0l+6}¤ (a) a00 "c. (b) 1ss '6oll,q coz
    gol g^J6IA=7I? E BB .Jqg 44 Alt6l^le_.
    (b) .s.6 tlElql^l "l AlTl B + 9l= ++.J .Jel 4q*e 19.83 oi{{l(HNoJ9 zs.cgl,rl & {lol ++ Dql +e+ 9lE}.
    tsuloJzt? (a) &91 qlB6l-= EE +E Hlso^.l¤. ,'^^le.
    xtft oilL1rH BE(19.7E) o) & *g ^l-s6}q ++.lql^l
    ole&el 6IEl HI+ql
    'il.J
    "Jqol ?zlelq qq LGzl6.
    AG"= 4ltI6I^19_.
    re.7s El--g 4 H}+ql^] oz9 *E
    (c) EB ac {}g g"ltz}?
    tqq^l
    7I6IEzl, Aiq+zl, olul $ :Ql e.oJzl $ $.rl a[.rl e.
    (d) [H*] :5.0 x ro-2 M, INO ] :e.o x to 4 M,
    (a) 2co(g) + ozk) + 2Co2@)
    b) 2H2o2U) ZHzo(t) + oz@) [HNor]:0.20 MoJ {tg 9"}"Jz}?
    trll, AG

    (c) 2KClo3(s)- 2KCl(s) + 302(8) 19.84 ullgolEJ(cH3NH2)el 2s "cglr] Ka ilol y Dql LIe+ 9i+.
    -
    re.76 trl^* 4 HI+q^l Hz9 *E ?z}tr 4l acz16z1a.i (a) Ka9l El'J6l+ E¤ slq Hl+^]-a ..
    =
    "J401 ^le.
    Ezl, a4d+^1, olqB rqEoJzlE s^l6l^le_. (b) ra it9 (a)9 BB El+ql ql+ AG"= 4ltI6I
    ^l-S4q
    (a) Nz(S) + 3H2(jr) + 2NH3(g)
    ^19.
    (b) 2HBr(3) Hz@) + Brz(8) (c) B¤ t}4ql^J AG {tg 9"}9_lz}?
    (c) 2H2@) +-CzHzi6) .+ CzHr(g) (d) [H*]: 6.7 x t}-e M, [CH3NH3*f :2.q x 10-3 M,
    [CH3NH2]:0.0e8 M"J Ell, AG ilg gu]oJz]?

    Pl "d+ +41
    re.s5 (a) EI* gqq4 "i r. E. q. w. s + qL a.l ^JEI ++t ql q6J aEql E+6}=tll (c) t;f,/lzl zlzl| ,rle +E F
    7l? bl qL gqq4 oJol oJ
    ^Jqql^l
    tr|= t}qs Hslg .:}4l rlol"ilL P zll9 zlfl lttl (d) E"9 zI
    =46}=zt?
    +7t 86 E^l 905

    q 4Cql ql4 aEE 4e{ w ;}e-+ s.¤61n, AsE qe+ r a3


    o + o o o
    :l
    .s.e6}^19_.

    1e.86 +gq^l aac ++Ee cd(No3)2.4Hzo(s)E "Jqg t o o


    o
    =
    aa+7lq HsE "I4 H}*^lq^lzlH +g gril ¤+. \
    Cd(NO3)2'4HzO(s) Cd(NO3)2(s) + 4H2o(g) olql gg
    le.el t}gql^J e&.JE-ES Eq
    - ^Igzle_e +eq,
    ol 4Ag zlg4 +Aee tlgq^.1 AH.= *q ak¤- r* g+.J+. ol +qlriAq Eil"JAse.l+EE q=6}^le.
    E+. ue.e2l¤41 ^l-sElE qloldg ag E+sile+g ++
    cH2F2e+
    (a) tgo1rl as$ +E= pgtzt?
    +48 BEIIE ^F&,*4. qqA B"l= qTl.Jql^l dAl Tl
    (b) +lE +EI¤ fi}E-3 Bg'Jel A6.zlE- 7h= + "JqE .J49
    sl6}q, zlalH Eilltlss d4 *+¤4. .il"tael
    *zl9l 'JE A+' l.Jgq^l olBJs"E As Alol HI+I=7I? 4E $Ae B,lzt o}4g + E4lg ,lil= Bf, 4lel rJ
    te.87 trl-s 4 EuJ"l *"Jzl 4rt.JzlE "5I^19. qi"J ,14"1+ +'J+ 914(*zl ++13 0l rgq +4LIzl s1t4.
    H r E6Lg *41 r.il^le.
    BA¤
    (a) Nzel HzsPEl NH3= 414¤-+ 9l=zl, s.=zl= d

    4 otr Nz(s) + 3H2(8r) + 2NH3(s) HI¤.E AH *ql Ei{t e7l


    el=+El.
    EH^l/Ltq otan\
    (b) Na(s)4 ct @)71HI+6Lq Nacl(s)g BC6l-= Hlq.g
    atg4oJ H}+oltrt. otilt
    flzl4 otr zlg 449 z|$zl-e_-+ gqg + 9lEl.
    (c)
    (d) .JHlzl os zlg 4ag ol n+col "Jq+E+ 617l +l 04ill 6/l

    6I 'Jg 6il+q.t ++.


    olE/-L-q ota{\
    gg H}+olq 4l7l q tsg ++9 e^l H+\rL Hi/
    ^Ig4 44e
    (e)

    E,*4 ++. S+ nlC 5"J eqi{ B,llE zl*9 $arde ts^}ElH^l zl


    re.88 EI-g 4 H+ r+Cql 44q Ase+ aH9 Pc.zI oJ"Jxl, g "l zlalb.J+dql^J r-|rl toJeE "J+qq "lill
    E+¤E|.

    "J^1, E= oql TPlg^lE


    g,tlo|,t19. $e-e. rl$olz.lQ.
    (a) nillz|++6J+. (a) SaI +Aq r||+ {el +e.= +E.J7l?

    (b) co(s) gE7t60'Cql^l zs"Ce,J4g+. (b) "J+ nlAql ql+ sE +q= +9."JrP
    ^leg
    ^l^BE {(chamber)g dqlql 9r
    (c) El4oll 9l= qlB.Jagol +g++. (c) 6"J *71 LrJ aJ

    (d) ol?lz} -5!^I7I flzl-E=E +6il8+. +E de delql 9lil6J+. s+d4.J+¤ + q!


    oJ

    ¤ol qqq ?l=7I? f olf+ +9.oJ7t?


    =49 +ol sd6lq
    (e) 6J cor(8)e+ Hzo(g)E Bc6J+.
    (d) .lal^J rjull ,rlEz[ *+d E].s.J+¤e-sa.l 9,.]4e
    re.8e 2Mg(s) + oz(c) -+ 2M8o(s) Hlg"g ,ll* zlB4'J tI
    ol qEolAqil ,b}*ql sz}. ol +A"l 7lq 4C.J a9.
    *o14. oJ B+7t H]*E $Eesl HEI= 4l^I6Iq ql
    As' tlg efl+. ol ++q 4,$ 4¤4 dizl
    E q+qE7I?
    + *el
    = (e) qtr +q4 r +qE e]+ gETl E+ 3r.c4r 7I4
    ?lflEz}?eilr+4 ^J461+^l ¤B6I^le_.
    6ll E^I. qlqag 4a g'f + +qE gETl24"c8
    Ue.eolF zllei f{$l-e +Cg 6}+E A|$ ^J4dl -H-z}. ol 419
    B4q9+. "l r+Ag zlg4oJ7i. EIaII*zloJTI?
    tF4: +^I9l AEq s^lg 45E aJg.-E AEg+.
    (a) cl^s fBql +E|u +491 qHq + ullgg Alzl zl4 [19.93] Trouton fZl (Trouton's rule)ofl el6l$, Ct] #Ed "ll^J
    .il++q EillTI7I^l= E= g 7lE+ SlEsq: qI se l/
    + 9l= F zll9 ula {refl-tr g + 9+. el f-flzl ¤H
    6l^19_.
    mol-Kol4.
    (b) 4 ulA q¤ tt49l oll'.t!bz}? (a) *¤ Cq ztE= ^l..&dLq usnJ(srJ9 Alr",laE +rt
    ^JqlE ols+q
    p zlzl zl$.fl ^J4zt 9lEzl?
    (c) ol 4l"llE
    _n, H.4.EJE C* #+dg *&<lge. +af
    (d) q¤ tI4(E)7I 7|* * flEeqE Ttxl=7\? ¤E ^ls(gE.ql 44
    Arr,lEl &g H6Ial fj9{ Trouton
    6f^ls_. 7zl"l e. "*=Elr 7Ia6L^19).
    (e) 9¤ ^J4(gJzI 7l* *? tlgeEl-=- TIzlETr? ¤E6I
    (b) Brz9 C{l #=eg ol+ql flE+olu| web Elements
    rls-' fl ,t lol e (www.webelements. com)oll,tJ *ol. S9l 4l&
    flee Ar+el Hljildl -E-^ls. Zl4l r+Aql^l 9lg + 9l= s+
    (0 ole+ Aol F zflel i,tlflE "l+"ltl Zl9 ¤4
    sl$ 4lt}6}^le. + g*g ,tdEg *9..JzI?
    906 193 atq gq-+

    lre.eal (a) NH3k)e+ coG)g Aciql EIBq= slq EI*4g ir^l te.ee Alill 34 4ql^l {}s| el$g co'el
    s. (b) 9l + Hi+ + qL H}+ql^l a,Gizl61ys4 El =+?^(c6H12oJq
    Hro= ^d^J6J4. ole| qa4 o-e, Ea ${q1r-1 "Jq+=
    tte+q =
    zlegq {t)ol g4(!.zl? (c) gH}4"e
    "Je.l +t}} E6ll HI¤+ q+g(c2HsoH)r+ CorE ^drd6J+.
    +s + qtr 4aql^l a,Gizl 6rya4 rl "JE at(+g (a) S¤ cel zlEE
    ^l-*6}q
    +-S HI¤¤s] BB tL+¤
    q 4e +q a)ol qd=7p (i) gs7} t¤ = trll, (ii) H]* Elil6l^19_.
    ol zI94"J trll, (iii) As/.7I 99 <tg ztd Ql C6H12O6(s) 6Oz@);- 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(/)
    +
    rs.ss El-S EI*g ^J46llEzI. C6H12O6(s) i- 2C2HsOH(l) + 2CO2@)
    (0 Ti(s) + 2CI2G) TiCla(g) (b) s+ *qlql^'l "Jq+= +lE + Hlg"etr+El ?g +
    -
    (tt) C2H6(s) + 7Cl2@) 2CClq(g) + 6HCl(g) ilb 4ql oJg Hli6l^le.
    (tti) Bao(s) + COzk) - BaCos(s)
    Ue.loolqlH Eol 'llEll.J.J d¤zt^E ollBloJ(CzHJrJol i zll ol
    (a) 4 Hi*gl 46ll +=,- cel 2s "cql^lE
    arr, aG., As"E
    ^lEE ^l-&6tol t9 tsa ?lz|= sBJ6l+ /dCEe HEillzlE ae 4IE
    z1416I^19_.
    4ee u14- +s,al +El +colEl. 94zles qlel{g
    (b) ol Hl+ + qL 4ol2s.c, -E.= ^JEIql^l qlelfl+i+-e gg.t1z3
    ^lts4oJ7}?
    qlqzlTl q + 9l'I.
    (c) 4 HI89l 4oll Ss.zI +7}*+ql ul4 zI-.,?
    .+
    zCHa$) CzHe(8) + Hz(r)
    B4lHlE^l q+6}^l9-.
    re.e6 ++ cel q-g 4 dzlls ol eI¤¤tI^zI *=*ql^i dd¤+.
    ^fEel +"141 'Jqg ^F*4q, Hl+ql
    zcHa@) +Lor@) czHo(8) + H2ok)
    ql+ Kpe+ AGE 4l&6}^le.
    (a) Nz(S) + 3H2G') 2NH3(s) (a) *E cel ^IEE - 2s "ce+ s00 "cql^l ol Hl+
    ol+6}q
    Pu, :
    2.6 atm,&,- : 5.9 atm,Il.rn. : 1.2 atm E KAg 4l&6}^19..
    (b) 2N2Ha(3) + 2No2(s) 3Nz(8) + 4H2O(g) (b) +l + HI*9 ac'<lel il-ol= +e qlgEl 6J(AH) trl
    -
    PNrH. : P11e, : 5.0 x 10-2atm,
    +.J7t, QlCeu] 6J(-rAS) ull+.J7t?
    P11, : 0.5 atm, &,o : 0.3 atm

    (c) N2Ha(j') .---- Nz(8) + 2H2@)


    (c) "Jg F qlgol qBzl re.7¤el "Hlatg4 HI*el+a
    4: 4-xlg Hl*"q^l Elzlg4el HI¤¤ "JqLI
    &rH, : 0.5 atm, PN, : 1.5 atm, P11, : 2.5 atm ^4lg
    ,ll 6l+ {lzl B + 9lb^l ¤86}^le.
    te.e7 (a) 94'* 4ltls. alxl "JL. c1-3- 4 El+q ql6H Arre+ (d) cH4e+ o27I Hl-so q-q CzHee| HrOg ¤d6l= H]¤+
    As'E f 6E ql+6}^l9.. (b) gHlzJoJ E+E 0l+6]-
    ^l^lg AC HI+$$ iildl ad^BXl +46H+ oJ4. zt$
    9 of4 ql* + qL aol K> loJzl ql+6}^lg. (c) 4 HI g .JqB + 9lE a'J El¤¤ +E.J7t?
    *q qlql e,E7l37lr*q qq Ktl Qzlt;fzl. r#B^lE qlqzlgos olrjlLd l*.J^I(Arp)E ,I+ +6ll=
    Ue.rorl4lE.=
    E^l6l-^ls.
    ol+++(rH re.r6). Arp= ADPE H+61= H]89 e
    (r) 2Mg(s) + ozk) .- 2Mgo(s) qlqzl
    (ii) 2KI(s):2K(s) + I2(s) ^t+ H+*g -30.s kllmolol4. oI49 -=F
    =
    n^ q^l
    (iii) Na2(s) .- 2NaG:) 44 os+E +s= sE zffi ollL{xlz} ADp
    (tv) 2V2o5(s) ;- aV(s) + sO2(S) 5 arpE H+t6}* ql 4"J+8, 1 mol9
    P E:el ArPE: ^Jd6J + ilYzl?
    =+ir-E+El
    re.e8 ol.,l]le&9 z[-E-p$(carbonylation) H]*E 6J qle^l Ell+
    c6H12o6(s) + 6oz@) +
    94 "J&++48 aq}^14 ,ll4g+ "JtrI. 6co2(g) + 6H2O(t)
    CH3oH(r) + CO(g)
    -
    CHsCOOH(I)
    lre.lO2leael sE|+ ol8 soEE sI s.ox 16-i 14olzluJ, l$
    (a) 2s "cql^l ol EI*E BB *+E 4l4}6l^le.
    ^ils
    o_qql^lg Effi ole_ r-oE= olEr+
    =+(0.Is
    gt
    (b) +94 "E ol HI¤¤ 2s "c-Btrl +g gEql^J 4l"J¤ M. Ba!+ ^ilEoqg ^.llEE-s_E Eqgq il_e_q, 4EE
    +. gEg +71-= ¤B ^J4ql fl= ottll-=-419 Etsg e K*{} Eo4B f gl+r 7la+q.
    + G,l^l7l*+71, $i^lvlAY7n el zs.c-u_r1 q (a),llg.J 37"Cql^l I mol9 K*E ¤Aql^l .tll+o-!og
    * gE= ^l-&9&94? dg51+ r+Ael AG= g"Iqlz|?
    (c) oltr gEq^l ol HI+E ¤¤ ttfz} 1r+ aolzlET}? (b) olcl zJol r*E dg6t7l +16l] d+ al^ .J
    (Arre+ As"zI gEel ++6}q-r. z[{a}1. .JqB + ^l-8-6l]ot
    E "Jg g"|oJzt?
    "JE -E.= tlEcl+ +,r.lalls. t4.)
    5g EA E^lt 907

    ¤,EF "J+ E4l


    le.l03 {++el "-q4= 7l+ EqlEEtlTl. 4* ss + 5 I/mol-K AHf AGf
    ol{i Trouton it4(Exll le.e3)g tr}EEt. H zlzl qtr. (kllmol) (kJlmol)

    ,?zl E]!l^89 CtI #=d4 ,l+ elgEl= q-g-r+ +EI. csz(t) 89.7 65.3

    x{/\} +rExl CSzk) rt7.4 67.2


    OO 6LE AHu tsl
    EII ('c)
    $zlel Lewis *4^19.*.,rle. C-S9 A!+ il+=
    (kllmol)
    (a) ol
    ol^llE((cHJrco) 56. I 29.1
    9u}4.a ql+q=rp
    +olollB 9lrl((csr)ro) -24.8 2t.5 (b) vsEpR %LEg cs, +zle.l +aE ql+6t^ls.
    ^l-s6iq
    9l*g(c,u,oH) 78.4 38.6 (c) 9ill cSzi oz +E E+g 44 ¤la1g
    4ellt(cru,J 125.6 34.4 =rH6Iq^J
    rl cozk)el so2k)= Bdt+. ol HI+ql 46J +¤
    ulr.lE(CsHsN) 115.3 35.1 ,J*^lg,r,<.<19.

    (a) 4 4aI9 AsaElE 4l&6t^le. e.E 9illz}


    9z,ll9l
    (d) Sq s,el ++ cE ^ttr=i-ol+6}q, (c)o]l^l 76J HI
    s.^lql qlf, arre+ AG'5 4l.t}6i^le-. ol HI+g ts¤
    Trouton +49 trlEE7h?
    q}*tzl-? 2e8 Kq^J ol HI+g zltszl.J7l?
    (b)ExlrJ !l(1r.2¤)g +n6}q ol +4E qqE ¤B
    (e) $9 -E= ol+8}q csz(l)9 ,lcl q}*ql 4t zss rql
    B f 9lEzI?
    (c) Eol Trouton +zlg tr+E a-g-E qt}6}=7i? ? E B ^19
    +aTI rls} Hl+ql q
    AS"E Zl&6}^le. As"E
    g ol3.oof{ B4l9 qltol cq*4 q-oJ6i^le. El "JHlzles ql+4E As'E +EeI,Jgzl?
    ^tEE (0 Sq .84 (e)il,! +t Bg ol+6}q csz(D9 #Ed
    (d) l3l'cql^l #bEI. Trouton *
    =ssHl{l(cuurct)3
    ol
    g +6}^ls_. 2e8 K. 1 atmql^J ol E4g
    49 ^l=S4q EeE AH,1s+ +d}^le. =-}t<tsE
    =*UtS slrjl.J4.7qlqrn
    19.104 +q HI+ +Egql^l 9C4 teeqGntropy of activation)
    tlzl ¤4c ol8 r+ElE4 r EeEol Eql
    lre.roel ofell $.E 9.
    Hl*Eol gC+ +E*3 Bd6}b +Cq qt'J t=.eq
    =
    HEloltrI. ol$z|(bimolecular) HI*91 4.J 9Cs] $tr.tr.
    +ot 9l= ++.-qq ql+ s+ ^Jd elBqel zI+ qq^l
    ulE e5 +q &g zixlizl, .Jq ilg TtxlEzlE ql+ ¤i EliE.J aol+.
    6I^19-. Alri AGf
    gxl (kllmol) (kJlmol)
    19.105
    ^Ia+ol +tsql 96tl e
    gzl-a +gq= oH HI+g "l
    ¤ gEql^l z|g{ee +l49bz}? AgNO3(s) -124.4 -33.4

    Fe3Oa(s) + 2C(s,9S) -+ zCOzG) + 3Fe(s) -t}t.7


    AgNO3(aq) -34.2
    MgSOa(s) -1283.7 -1169.6
    re.r06 +.9 4AEg E+ 18+ "+a+q'q^i EqElfl4.
    Hs+ MgSOa(aq) -r374.8 -1198.4
    4 EEI rla +ql 4le.l tlEeulTt 6zlElzl, ai6J4e (a) AgNo:G)9 /dd HI+!g'rA^19-. ol HI${ee+El
    ql+6t^le-.
    ^JC¤ 419 Ql=eulzl ?7]B aoE
    AgNo3(s)z[ E]l
    (a) ozk)9 *oll4 ql+gEzl, ?^tr 4oe ql+q=7P
    (b) 4l^ Ez|e+ t^ gzlE+qE s+
    ^Jc (b) AgNo:(s)9 AHJ'el AG;"E rl-*afq "l Eeg
    (c)d6flo + cFCq q4I ^Jd
    HI+ql ql+ SlEeEl Hs+= +6t^le. ol B'4 (a).il
    (d) qtFBql96JEel B++
    q++ B-ol oJzl6l+7l?
    ue.lo7l "JtI4"J BEd 3e -20 "cql^l 4999 at'c,
    g9 ^l
    20
    (c) AgNo3z| Eql + ae gg 4c.JzL +g r+aql
    500 mL9 E4+ Eol BA dql EqEflEl. a +E al zll Mgsoazl Eql += ag gg 4c.JzI, +g 4
    + eE= H E"J7l? (+, "-l4l Ee] "JEE 1.00 g/ml, 4"J71?
    g+el Hlgg 2.03 tls:c, "-qil E9 ulgg 4.184 I/gJC,
    (d) AeNoaelMgSoazlEql + EilE SlE.eul E++q
    Eq +& elgq= 6.01 kf/mololQ.) .s.E xlEE al4}6}^le.
    re.r08 ol+E| +4(csr= +dol flsq, 4+ .Jslrjol Ee (e) (d)g pffi ^l-S6Iq
    ol +g
    'll+"+ *g le.2aql flb "Fe
    olr]. 2e8 Kql^l csr(l)ef csrk)ql ++ gqEI = + qltrEul HE+' rll¤¤ +n6}q E6l
    ^lEE 'J+61"= Tllls.l
    *4 aq. ^lg.
    908 1S3 at-+ gq+

    ue.uolq-*E BB HI+g ^J4611


    E^t. (d) +g gEq^l ol Hl¤+ rJ a$!qlz|, olqE 'J E
    NzOa(g) :- 2 NO2(g) ;7l-Z-]ol7L?
    tru,t:
    ol zlitlEg gq4-xlei ++ cql 4c+ 94. la.el Le.tt2 q+ rBql^l !-= EIe+ eol, ql++g +d +6Jal(ql: 1L
    As'b gEql qq H6Izl ?+=+jz ,IAB + 9l+. + HB9)7I tsq*g ql, +4¤e trl +g a^lEE TIdr+.
    (a) ¤B t}qle-l g6.JEol ae o}el + zl;ll$ E$ap !l
    g qlE gE='c EoJTl?
    (b) dill "Jqol r atmoJ ¤¤ tlEilE gdJEol N2o4E4
    F Hll "*g NOrE s6J6la 9tg 'Iel gE= 'c EoJTI? n+ HIEE +ot 5flElj1 zf{aN Bz}.
    (c) dill olaol l0 atmoJ BB (a) 419 flE +rl7} +716871, z]+olitll
    ^JEIg s*Eol N2o4E+
    (b) E" g 4age r+=3 +l.I Efl+B, "JCaJ gEE
    F El] "*g NOr= _E+6lr 919 El]E gEE B EoJTI?
    +^1617l +1.fl gg g:+61-rl+ B=B gsTt llizl?
    lre.llr]o]4 E]+g gd^. +9-= Tlill so,= 41461-=
    rl-* dBg
    =+ql^l (c) 6il 5_^ls.
    t}+ol4.
    :
    n+ HUE= d-o} +^l 7l+il4. rfl qg,
    tr}.s,
    So2(j:) + 2HzS($ 3 s(s) + 2Hzo(g) ="J
    d.ol EoJ n+ HIEE fl"J¤ glql gEj+a mle.4l I
    4 E.eel s+ zI+ qlq^lE ++ cq gq. + HnE= ar"l-5ol7l dq ^}qltr EotTtal q}+(n+
    (a) 2e8 K9lrJ ol HI+el ¤B t'-+b g"toJTI? qtg= Zl+ttl,q + Alil ll9.t EI4=
    ^l-¤g
    Hd6l
    (b) ?l?]t}-e.g ol EI+ol sozE 4146J + 9l: *H.JzI? ol
    ^le).
    +Eg +$9 + 9lbz}? ++ ?4zI tu)91
    (c) pso,:pH,soltr
    E9 ?7l"Jol 25 torroJ ull, 298 Kql^J oJil6I=7I?
    ol llel so2 BB .Jqg Alt6l^le. ^l ++ BnI

    !6.{ ¤41 +41


    gdq
    ^lE 4E
    geql,,.l stE +tr Eeol DNAqI aqI6L= HI ule+ s+ flBq Hq¤ al^I6}zl +i4, Ke+ 7E qB4l r
    +ql 4+ ¤B t'-+¤ +C6li1 9l+. A+q EeBg ol+4q 4sE +EtB + 9lE^lE Eol^le-.
    DNAe+ y*g +4. a6Jg 6ta+, E= +q+.r!.fz|-ffi2[ tL ?B EI*g elB l Hclz} oq Tleil qltrEq Hq+
    (c) ol
    a 4¤¤ 6J aqe q+q= EzlFg alE +tr Eetr dctl .Jg <lg r*=+: =
    Eg 4o14. ol ^ldg ¤B6I:2,
    ^l"gq
    tr}. $+ +aqql^J si$ +tr Ed4 oNaz} e*g +Eql olag a+.J dEg ¤416}^le-(fle: g+ olgq ql4 d
    'Ie
    ¤+¤ +q6lq q4 qE gE rql^l K tlg +C6In rag 46t^le).
    E-a HlEtrt. (d) DNAeI ¤EI'J e +E a+E +-H- Eeql ql6fl^]E E
    ^lEdl
    (a) ¤E tl+ei, s.= flBq Hs+, r4n s.+ qlE-Errl BEle] 4. ol slE
    +tr 5e+ DNATI AEJ6I+ HI+q 4+ qlg
    +4lE +EI.{= 49 +E6}^llt(6JE: ¤B ,!.f, sgul, ul H+b gE alg zlxlq, qlEEul Epl+ 4e "J9
    = goluE}. +^I ++ql^-l olag ¤B
    sE +ul= s+ xl-+ qq4el *4lzl 94). itg r*=+E ^PJg
    (b) .+E +B Eeol DNAqI a6J6l-= Hl*q 4+ .g+ $EE 6fa, ol 7I¤g A="9 gqg rjfllalz.le.
    I
    .L ,

    *-r. Ikr I .
    -ift J.-
    , ,

    / , , ,
    ,.}

    /\/\

    7
    H
    Ifu
    J
    t -rt I
    & -n -=-=-
    l-.-i
    il r rL
    --I-
    L-

    -4
    '!
    r*
    **&* --:
    "flLm 4
    :fli
    ;#;p-#' -
    trrt
    t
    "
    2O.1 > tit BEllq tat-Etfl UB tlEI ^JEI
    e+ &+-+g qlSolr} Fq.Jzl 4*
    '*EI.

    20.2 tleF:ptfl Et8^l ilE "*+21 q14 q}


    +Hg ol+6}q &E+- +g Hl+^lg
    S¤6IE'JBg +E+.

    i7 I Et+ 20.3 > EEt E^l E4 dzl=


    ^lgzl
    g El*etr dzl= "JE4.
    8l d+ sHql^J "Jq+r,
    ol 'Jq+b d+g &+ d*.
    HI+3 r1
    HI*
    ^lc}4t9ol
    4}cl-+l

    gq+= d+g +tl d+ol4r 6J+.


    2O.4 > EE.sEflo{l^le.tErlE+t E4 dalel
    flEJ| EB= IlEJ6l.= d7lts Btrot B^t.r, xld.tTt qarqts .=^d 6 6IL+= dxl d+ieql, d^l d
    EEol 9lrt. E+d= qal^l E0l9= dzlts ule +cEl^lEJ, rlg-dE-E-e^l +lb + d+ ^l-olg d+lilolq, EE
    tdtTl 9-1611^1ts 17l ollLj^l7l"Je.aEl. olal Z+0ll= d7l o{lLl^l7ltrl +9le +aEL+. E+ ^Jqlql^l +lg
    ^l8E HI+ Hl+ee sg d9tE aE4 +9t
    qr'ollL1^lE HEElol +ff7|.71=6[q, "Jsg q q^l ETle EEEtt.
    ^l8rt Erll. olE $.+ sg d+l4r 6Jq.

    20.5 > xtP o{lLixlel tEt-EJg UB Gibbs


    "llHzlE ^Js H+6]= +Es 7l* "t
    HllEl4= dzl glHzlc+ s[4 zls ollulzl(AG.)= dzl d+le+ +fl
    ol
    ^]-.Sq=
    l}ilolEl. t E+ A+q, +Eil+, dzJ ulEzl + rqr : 99 il4.
    Be +E a.71=g EI]EIEIE ^l-&6}q zlEql gs6J dzl= zil+.J 20.6 > HIEE 8Eflofl^Je] drt 191 uls.+
    +. +61 {zl zl-="7}oll aqg 3"?6t71 91g,r.ll-es tsIEl4el g+ t4l9 dxl d+lE E= dxl d+le}
    "t ,Hgql tr-'J+ t qol d+qr fl+. q 7IEr, q Eq +d6I ' Nernst al$ "l*o}{ 9b4.
    r. trl B:g dqg +=!6rr, q s4 + gl=
    ^l-s"6J
    tsllElq
    ^]l.g-g 20.7 > ullElelelE-E drl ?e ollulxlglog
    z[ pea]r]. rq+ rlgg qCg HIiEI=l.ll dqg ="?6]E &4- p|4
    dzl HI¤¤ olso6I= EllEl?.le+ S
    +Ig H}+olrt. d& trzle+ dzlE +^.i6t= sl*Eel .Jd¤E EE E d^l= +EEI.
    +s6J e-iol+. dzlE &EI-+tg HI+g ol+.Jr}. 20.8 > +4 Hl+.J +4g +
    ,ll4tlql^J E]]g Hle+ z;ol, $zlzl dzl-E gs$ &51(oxidation) Er+. "+q ^l-,J4
    7I "JqLlr, dzl¤ g= CElqlE r+Cg ffi(reduction)ol+r *
    Elu,.,. (4.4¤). trI4^l {}Ei-¤Ifl(redox) Els"3 4zlzl tls+g g
    20.9 > E7l E6|1 Hlztg4 4IEI-gg H]¤¤
    gszlb plE HI*ql dzlE
    zls+q +Igg gzlg dBg q g^J++. 4IEl-+g HI¤+ tsll d6ll d^l$ {EE|.
    ^]-8-61+

    El4E +rE"S"J otr]4 39 pal.l+


    ^lE,el
    aH "t E¤q gg
    g EIE6J +oJ* r+4!+E +{qq fl4. rzt ttrr
    ^IEg +_e-q} g+61+ olEge
    (electrochemistry)S 4zls4 3r+ar HI*el +41=
    zlBzl. Hlzlg4 s+E HI¤¤ E+ EQI++.

    < Z¤ 6oJ ql¤at TlTtEEal 20l7Ll0llS=EIE


    NevadaollAl
    ^llZl0ll^17lt}
    alE 0lE BHElalSll^l¤0lEtt dtJE HtlElal= ql*aiel-"8ll'Ero^tE
    =
    gg Hl=6tq +oJ-eliEE-E^IEEJ a0lq1

    911
    2a.1 I |r+ tEllel-t!l-+eJ tl¤.
    HI+ql +q,J E= g^el &q+(4I+ *4)E ¤qEH, +qd cls+ H}gol &+_+t-g HI
    *"Jzl, olH4='J + 9l+ ,,"",, (4.44 . ol r+Cql^l Hi*ql +A¤ 9E StE 4Ia1471
    H6l=zl= q"Jg + 9l+. ql= zn fr$$ ,&I ++"lql Bflg ull z}ts4ee 9"1
    =q
    += HI¤¤ ^J46ll !.z}(ral 20.0.
    Znz*(aq) + Hz(S)
    Zn(s) + ZE+(aq) t20.U
    -
    HI$4.il 9= E= elE}+q &fl49 7]E6IH olqe| A+.
    H+: etflE

    t\ +2 (aq) 2+ (aq)
    + [2o.21
    -

    ZnP uElE

    HIg^l o|4ql 46J tEl+= -HH zng &a145 soll.{ +2-E H6}r, +AE t}El+= + 1
    E+q 0_e_-+ Hqi+. _14o e ol HI*g t}*o14. 4^l7l zn flxloll,r.l +a ol
    g_e_q olE6}tle tr_zn* dzl¤ gq &clqflr.,
    E ^Ic+-++g H*= dzl-= Eq +!flq9+.

    0l tj301 gg uJ3?]71..otl-lE ,J3E7l-?


    =g

    r- '-
    r- E 4/

    Zn(s) + zllCl{aql -----) ZnCl2(r4l + Hzk)

    Aral 20.1 glJ +Ee4oll,\l Zn E4ol tel

    912
    20.2 I $tr|-E? ffS^ld-d "J+71 913

    4 zo.z4 ee HISq^l: qdq dz}9 ol$ol ^Jaq. rfl{ 7l+'tlr+++ H6|q.71


    EI ¤xllE qH Eaol d4¤ s*.Ezl, gflEzl ErJsITl q4+ 4*zl ?14. :z qe +
    i Tlillel ¤a EI¤¤ l_zt.
    2 g)+ )-------+ 2 [20.3]

    +^= ogl! +rel {}s} tr-qls 4}p+qfi.r, 4I4= +Igqs,eE


    Oql^l -2el 4IcI {}qltr
    -e, al zo.:3 tlsl-¤lg HI+o14. &EI+q +zle 4IpI-++g HI¤¤ q?l6t= rla't't}
    +'e+ Ag zl5f 6Izl"J, "JHI4.9-e g^lel &0p= +6JEE dzll da}$ E"J^1611^J=
    .Jg+:r:r (g.-i!,).

    A 0t'tr.s 0t3{Not)0il1 4 ?4e16a1a5 +q?l7l?

    qH &a}-+fl HI*ol= 4lslel ++ge g]41 .J940t ++. ,* Eaol &s+slE +


    =
    E EAg +Ifl9olo} 'J+. += EAg &s+^l7l= EAg tlEffi!(oxidizing agent E|
    oxidant)4.r q14. tlsizll= += Ed.g+q d4¤ 9o Ir-e, z}4lg +lgg+. ag Ezl
    g, ffifi1(reducing agent -Ei reductant)E 4= EAql dzl-= +71 trll+ql += EAg
    ++fl^lAq. q4^l ¤tflzlli ol r+Aql^l &alg+. zl zo.zglrl H*(oq)i ++tlqfls trs
    tls+4lol:1. Zn(s)E &s+518." oE ++g4lol+.

    N
    E
    qH 20.1
    {sixll, +t?11+Eilrl
    Lle-7tEE{Ll7tE)Erl= q"34,Je taFsfl HJ- 0lE6[q d7l= g8^lzrl..
    Cd(s) + Ni02(s) + 2H2o(t)--- Cd(OH)2(s) + Ni(oH)2(s)
    tel.EJ EErl-EflEJ EtrE q?l6l-r., q! A0l tef^jlolr, q! aol Sfl^lloJ^l= +Hal"^l9.

    6tl'J 6}9trt. Nio2= dzl-= Eq ffirlglo ps tlE+4lol+.


    E^1 4IElg Ear+ +g¤ Eeg oJotts_.11,
    4}s+xlle+ ++l4l +E &Efe+ ¤1fl9 zl9olb +l+ %IBe El-e-=$ A+. "LEo
    e_7+7+ +++trr. GERoI +]. "J,tI4. "
    ^Izlzl
    atq a4l, *^l ule +zl ¤6tr)(4.4e)g ol+6}q q}g4E LEO(Losing Electrons is Oxidation)l dzl¤ SE 4ol AIE+
    E= gzlql 4IE1+E Et'o61a, 4Iq+ tr+s ac++. E cER(caining Electrons is Reduction)i dzl¤ 9E 4ol ¤}fl
    ,ll, 4}p+e++lgE AE= 4s"6J4. > leE qrllr
    Eol El-¤- E}+ql^l :a¤^il= "l.s l"Jzl?
    Cfl(s) +Nio2$) +2 FzP(t) qd(9H)r(s) + Ni(oH)2(s) 2k-(aq) +H2O2@q) + 2H+(aq) Br2@q) + 2H2O(t)

    o @o @o- @o@@o@
    cd= oql^l +28 &o11r]- f;zla|fl:L, Ni= +4ql^l +2e. > EE qlr.il 2
    -
    (a) k- (aq) (b) H2o2@$ @) H+ (aq) (d) Br2@q)

    &3rlfz} rJ46}fl4. cd g4+ dxl-E *"1 cp*99" oe trl-.g Hl+ql^l tlgl^llel {}flzllE +86}^le_.
    i+g^llol+. Ni= Nio2ql^l Ni(oH)r-tr Ht+lq &s++tl z]1: 2H2O(l) + Al(s) + MnOa @Q .+ Al(OH)r (aq) + MnO2(s)

    2o.2 ltlEl-sJeJ'J¤4r i.B *?l


    elql EI+4E +Bg "*= rl1= 4* B= Hzl¤- trtzt"t *rL slql Elg"eE flzt7t ig
    914 2oB 57ltrlqf

    qrlL} $CH4 ?*zl 4 SeE ,I+E oJ+ol ?otot ajr1. uftzlzl-e &si-*tfl
    oll+91
    HlgoeE 4^l7l4Eq4+ ^8d9zl ?*zl ullE9l dxlg E*4 Sgs 4+71+oto} 6t
    aAol q 9lrll gq. HI* + qE Eeol dzlE SeH, qE Eee zJg *9 dx}
    =
    E B9oI.J4. =
    4 zo.zel Aol tsljr.4 ,J+6J slql HlAg dz}
    +Bg "Jgol dz[9 7l]+E Aqq ^Izl
    9j:r.E Hi849 +Bg "*+= ai-lH
    ^l+.e-tr
    alt}ol g+. rBl+'il++E tle+-+g
    HI*4e 4 zo.z}-4 +e-6l]^l HI* + e4+ Sg dzl-= rle rqolz1 ?+r^J= ++ +
    ¤e "*¤ + Stri. ol ¤q^Jb al44ee &s+-++g HIA^IE +¤g "*,i= HI+ HI+H
    I t4trzt.
    Bl-4. Hl-9-
    U-r Uo
    &E|e+ +gg F^lql .Jq4zl"J ++ 846|q ^J461+ lol E4aI4. q= Fe,*oll
    9t sr,'*E 4}sl HI¤* sr'*9 t}e+e+
    =q
    Fe'*9 +tgE + HI+ HlsoeE ^J4++.
    Snz+ (aq) + 2 Fe3+ (aq) Sn4* (aq) + 2Fe2+ (aq)
    -
    &4' Snz*(aq) Sna*(aq) + 2e- 120.41
    -
    Stl: 2\e3*(aq)+2e- ZFez*(aq) t20.51
    -
    &F+ r+491 dzlE HI+ ++q ddE +ql +Elqr, +g rlCE d4= HI+ HI+e-l HI
    ¤¤ +q LI4UtrI.
    9l zl zo.+4 20.szle &sle+ +gg IrlEr+E +4U 4¤ r.t+ E!8(half reaction)olr+J.
    +4. dll tls+-+g ++q^l &sl HI+ HI+ol sg dzle-l +e+ ++g rI4 rI*"1 ?9
    dzlel |zl z;o1oy rJ4. olelt saol l=+qq 4 El4 *¤-ol +¤ol **e q, + ++
    HI*g tr1611^J oJ+q dzl¤ +¤ "*+ 4}s+-+fl H}+alol s4.
    ^aatH,
    ,J+ Ut,Jg oIEEJ UB^l trj
    4IEl--+g H}¤-^ls.l +Bg "*+E SHI4.J %IBe H]+ HI¤¤ ol+61+ a-g-tr, tls}e}
    +Igql +qq+ Elot.6'"J ++u '¤4' olg E}¤-4se ol
    ^l46IE ¤EEI + 9lE|. a+
    q= 4I+-:*g **.Jxl qdE + s= a+ql"J ala145 ,!+H g+. ++ H"(tlc +
    .l)4 on-(g7l^d +q) EE Hzoz\ **Eol4 ddg-e &p}-++g EI+ql +qq+ a
    *zt ?14. olEol zld 4}slqz+ sflqzl *=trlE E4^_lql lrzl g:olE g+. Ll-6=ql
    EI*49 +¤g "*+E^J olEE +E-6J + 9l+.
    =rIE
    (a) 'trt='flrt= H,OEE c'¤ +tEoll^1 golLt= LrEFElg HJS9IEEE g+,,JE
    grl ae "*+71
    t. H}*49 &El qI+ EI+4 +Lg Hl+ goo e-E Llbq.
    z.4zf4 HI4 EI+g "*+trI.
    (b) o H2O ts7fB
    (a) 4.41, H4 o EE g^e.l 7H+E Hzl "*=4.
    O E-.J q+71
    (b) :zr1-g-, gs,* EJ+ H2o= TFlq &l gzl zl+E "*++.
    (c) :r=.]_L gsoJ
    "J+ H*= 7I6[q +^
    gzi Z]+E "*++.
    H+ Ajle (d) 4+4g+, ge6J o}+g d6I+3 *++.
    (c) H "J=- e-E 7}6lq
    H JE "f+71
    (u)-(d) 44e q +s-6l.s-E gql rH o E +4ql9r. lzlt1 zq HI4 HI
    +ql fl= flzl! zlllzl tlgl+ Hsle} "J+.Jzl q.J6H Bol-ot oJ+.
    (d) e- d^l E--J "f+71
    3. + HI+ H}+ql^l Sg dztgl +e+ Ee d49 iz}4sElH, 4 E]+ HI*
    I{iufiat¤ Az]l EI=rI.
    20.2 | ttaFEJ? EJ8^l J-J "f+71 915

    4. + HI+ H]-&g q* + 7l+6|H, ^19 .J+ql zJol 444ts slol+g a+61


    6J+. ^z6l.q
    s. oJ49 flzlE fc+.JaI da|*ol zJSzl q.JdtrI.

    qltr, 4Ic ++.lql^J r+"J7Iqe4I ol$(Mno+-)r| +a4l olg(c2o42-)9 tI¤¤ ez}.


    czoqz-9 +IC ++.lq Mno+-E zlalH(:B 20.2) 1l+ 4+^qq Mnoa- olgol $,q{
    4. co, /ezl g^JEIr +Eql M','*9 ot+ Eg ¤+,9o1 +EI++. +¤-xlH g44g
    Hz] ¤ + 9l+.
    MnOa @fl + Cronz-(aq) Mnz*(aq) + CO2@fl t21.6l
    -
    iHl6E H2o= ^Jc6l+Ell, ol= +¤.4g $a6l+ r+a
    d^l51 ol Hl+g H+E +q zl
    fl^ql +e4l g+.
    4 20.09 +¤g "*+l SA47l +l6]]^J= + HI+ Elg" 49 "JEqoF at*ql(rt4l), *
    43 4¤s o}qq Mn9, q= 4e E++lE oJ+ql cE + saJ^l4ot 6J+.
    MnOa @fi ' Mnz*(aq)
    CrOnz-1aq1- COz(S)

    q¤+ 4 HI+ El+g sa6lot,*tr}. o= 4l9lt E= g^E ,H+= HxJ *


    Hx], He+
    +41). 4"J7lq=& HI+ HI+4g EE Mn9 7H+= oltrl *+q4 flr., gg41
    =4(2a
    HI+ Hls" _qE4ql Al+ 2= *6|q cg zilfE *+tr gtrI.
    ^lg
    MnOa ------' Mnz*(aq)
    @fi
    C2Onz-(aq) 2COz@)
    -
    4¤, o9 Zl+= "*iqot *+(2b +41). r+Brlqz4} olg HI+ +¤+ g+ql &a azH
    7t 9lr, sE+q= &tz1 S.tI. tI^ SzI +zll9 +Bg "*izl ?lull e-E+q H2o +:zr
    47llE B=+.
    MnOa @fi Mnz*(aq) + HzO(l)
    -
    olzll
    ^JcEgl 9lb +A sx} azH= HI¤¤q 8 H*E Bq +¤g q6Q(zc B4l).
    8H+(aq) +MnOa @fl vrnz*(aq)+ 4H2O(/)
    -

    0l HJ8otl^l $BEJ afql¤e? ttlt olE ,I0lgflrjl?.]7|"?

    MnOa-(aq)

    \.
    der I[f^Iel Mnoa-ts
    croo2-zy UB6Iq +^l
    flqtltrt.
    x
    ry croo2-t1 ta
    i:i ="JEoll,.r1 nllEollMno4-sl
    ^eElfl7l
    T!-d xt+^401 H=trt.

    C2o42 1aq1

    (a) o)
    L1120.2 NazCzOa ud +EE= KMnO+(aq)-=.48
    916 20Li 87tai+

    olxJl= HI+^l .J+ql fl= EE flzl9 fzl eq. rq+ qdq dq-= E¤g "*¤ gs
    zl- il4. EI*EE d6l-= s(t+) + (t-) : z+oln, :
    ^JCEE A6I= t(z+) ++(o) 21olu
    -a, da[9 +Bg "*+EJts H]*E 4.ll dz] szl]S'JE4(za E4l).
    5e- + 8H+(aq) +Mno;(aq) Mnz*(aq) + 4H2O(/)
    -
    "l4l= dr[e] 4+71&s]+ H+* "J+oJzl +"J4 -H_xi. E]+ EiSql^J Mne Mno+
    o1
    el 4}sl
    ^Jelql +zglrl Mr'*9 tql"J +ztr 471szHE sH-L, olE ^lr+ "Jzl++.
    ¤rJ& olg Hl+ Hlgql^J= olul^Ie+ce} og zl+71"*oI glo E]e.(2a +al)
    ^JcE"ll dz}
    .J+9 d6relg "*+E g+(2d +41).
    "J 22115 Bq
    cro n2- (aq) I co2@) + 2 e-
    uffizlzlE $zl! \fzt -
    Hsld} "J+"J^l +e6ll sxl. ci czo+2-9 AI9I t}4e
    +ae. dx} lrH= gfl+. Ir};+^J c2o4ql^l c gzl 2/lzf $zl
    +sollrJ coz9 4iE+ tEI.J^Iq+
    2rHE gS+. ol= HI+ HI+4 .Jil6J+.
    olxll 449 HI+ HI-&q 4B.J A+E +6[q, 6J ++ t]$ol Se Az]el +e] += H]
    4 e}g"l gg dzls.l +E rJAl a3c|(:B4l). Mnoa- HI+ HI¤-q= 2E, c2o42- Hl+ Hi
    *ql= sE *oJ+.
    10e + l6H+(aq)+2MnOa@q) zMnz*@q)+ SHzO(/)
    S Cronz-(aq)
    - 10 COz(g) + 10 e-
    16 H+ (aq) + 2 MnO a- (aq) + 5 C2O n2- (aq) - 2 Mn2+ (aq) + 8 H2O( I) + 10 COz(g)
    -
    +B "*= H1g4e +E *+ HI+ HI¤¤ trJ6J aol+(4+41). HI¤¤r+ ^JCE .J
    ^lql^l
    49 dzlE +E6rrI.
    ulzluJe_tr,^Z+g
    4 gzl ,H+e+ oJa[ {a}{ol o}4ol zJSz]E q"JE}tr}(s+Al). .J+ol 44
    16H,2 Mn, 28 O, 10 Col_Z, d6tr+ a+-E rJE a_e-E_E, H}+^lol +Bg + ol+9*g
    .^. olrl
    oL -T-
    ,r^"-l .
    ='

    qHl 20.2
    A tlEl--eJg HJ3^]01 g=ElE, C^Pl.HJ- + !E= 8d= +, olE7l,'Jol, 9lGloi 6l.= ezt?

    ti^d ++o-{oil,q tlei-s? tl*{ teqTl


    HJ+ HJBHE 0lE6lq rl.g¤ S=61^le_
    Cr2O7?-@q) + Cl-(ag) -------- Cr3*(ag) + Cl2(¤r) (41d aq)

    6tlff
    B4 4ic +.-4ql^l gq+= 4lF+-++l HI+E Esdt * 4q *4 Hl]+ HI+ Hl* r+49 ol+t+
    449 +4, Sd* HI+4g +6F= Exllol+.
    E0l Cr2O72-(aq) Cr3*(aq)
    tt4l: F HI+ Els"eE +b+ Cl-(aq) -.+ Clz(t)

    z*A:44 HI+ H]¤¤ *=4. Crror2-Y ^JCE 491 cr3*


    zzll, o 77H= zll*6tE-e H2o 77H='-Jq t}a zlag "*+4,
    HI¤¤ +ql H* tazHE Hq +4 ,l]+¤ "*+trI. l4H+ (aq) + CrrOf- (aq) 2 Cr3* (aq) + 7 HzO(t)
    g+q dzh$'Ji q}*E -
    -rfln+^J d6}+g ulla|{
    ^lE
    rl d{Eel d{z} AE+ 6ll=+. 6 e- + 14 H+(aq) + Cr2Ol-@q) 2cr3*(aq) + 7 HzO(l)
    -
    20.2 | +t+-Bfl HJ8^lEe *+7t 917

    {lffiz} +oql.<.1 +3-tr Hl+]9.r, 61o1 2zllol


    Crel
    Ee dzf 67H= eg 4"11, ol: Hl+ Hlso4 d
    zl6J+.

    + H41 qI+ H}*ql^'l cl- 27H= t¤9 *izl 9l


    2ct-(aq) Crz@)
    6]] Cl2 l7H7I 9-0.6l+.
    -
    e.Eqql \zl zz\Z Bq d6I+9 "*++. zcl-(aq) Clz6;+2e-
    ol AnI= &s+ tlq trp+e+ -
    "Jilqlq. 44E cl +l
    zlf -rollr.l ooE go.l {z}¤- rzll gqa, q+^J
    zzll4 ct gz}Tl-dzt zzllE 91fl4.

    rt4l: F HI+ H}*ql^l olE"J dz}g 7ll+E rJAl


    *+qot +4. + HI+ qI¤¤ qe ql azl#
    4+ + 9lE+, cl ++ HISql 39 E4 f9 cr ^ HI
    q Hl+g dzt z]]fe} aolzlE+ 6J+. 6Cl-(aq) ------ 3C1z(g)+6e-

    It4l: F HI+ HI¤¤ trl6l] 14H*(aq) + CrrOf (aq) + 6Cl-(aq) 2Cr3t(aq) +7HzO(l) + 3Cl2(g)
    =4. -
    st4l: HI*4g "J+9 4 flag t]Pi1qH,2cr,
    7 o, 6 cl)e+ oJ+ 6JE {afe}(6+)ol
    ^lE
    44. r
    BlEs HI+4g SAqfl+.

    > _5A* qlrll1 (a) HI¤¤ +ql 47ll G) d^JE 491 :zl] (c) Hl¤¤ 4oll tzl]
    El4 HI+Bse 4IC +"jq^l q^g HI+43 sa4^le-. {^.rE
    (d) 44lzzl (e) +ql24
    ^JCE
    MrP*(aq) +NaBiO3(s) .+ Bi3*(aq) +Mn0;(aq) +Na+(aq) > E+qtd2
    al^g a+ al+= TIzl= +¤ HI+^lq= E +zl7| q HI+ Hl+Hse &C +"-qq^l q-9 HI*4g ge6}^le.
    t\zl $olzlolt;)tl2 Cu(s) + NOf(aq) Cg2*(aq) + NO2(8:)
    -
    oJTl¤
    +¤-o4qFl fft^l t 3nl7l
    4is+-g¤ t}*ol Ezlc 8"-491^J "Jq+E, H*el H2C71olqE oH-e+ H20= 0l+6ll
    ^J
    HI¤¤ Sadl]ot .J4. ou-e1 H2o= E + +iel tiE s¤,6}r. ?1"1, ol %r-Bg Ei
    ¤.^19 ++ql^J +E +sE rl Bol olf,,r.lflof 4¤+ H]+ H]+ql EBg + 9l+. +=
    d=Hg i7H'J+.

    Ezl$ ffie4sil^l tr.il-elE! H!8*lsla¤E *+ts I,JEI

    r. &C +.-4ql^J ++ol "Jq+= ailH ++ Hl+g JBg "*++.


    2. L++ 4 ++ HI*E u* zl]iE HI+ HI*el oJ+ql zJg zllf9 0H q.J+.
    ^llq =
    .J+ql ag +e.l oH-= qal-*.zl qlEql HI+49 erJ +Be frzl¤4. H+z| glca 4
    e oH-ql E+ '6pl HI*'" -e go1 rizll(H* + oH- Hzo), +E +g oH-71- f.LJ
    B=+. rrl.r' H2o= gs6J uJ+ ¤4. -
    ^4alB
    qHl 20.3
    g?l^"{ 8"4oil^1t}c|.e}fl ,Jt{ *esPI I
    ETld Eo-4011^1 tlE tlEFEtE US4E E=6't^le.
    CN-(aq) + Mnot(aq) .+ CNO-(aq) + MnO2(s) (E7ld E.-4)
    918 2oB l7l alql

    6ll'J
    E{ g7l^d +Eq^iE Esd+ H}9"4s +a, H}-&^lE + +^lqls d4++. I 4s 4¤f, zl]f9 oH-= Hl+4E
    oJ+ql q6}r, ag +ql gl= uno]-ou E a.J^14 H2oB
    Bg "*+= E4lol+.
    xpt AIC +._qql^l q1*ol g{t4z7tc6}r., *ql^l Hll+ El-+l HI84g ++E^l7i^l al+ HI+4g e=+.
    =+.
    E0l
    rt4l: t¤ "*xl t*E E+d6J Hl+ CN-(a4) ----- CNo-(a,)
    Hi¤¤ +4. MnOa @q) ----- MnOz(s)

    zt4l: 4lC +.-4ql^l el*.] 994 CN (aq) + HzO(/) ------- CNO (aq) + 2H'(aq) + 2e-
    : az)H 4*1HI¤¤ "*++. 3 e- + 4 H' (aq) + MnO4 @fi -+ MnO2(s) + zHzo(l)

    olSl=+ Hl+ HI¤.il H*E ++^la +


    gls.B oH-(aq)E "J491 +Aol '+ cN-(a4) + H2O(l) + 2 OH (aq) CNO-(aq) + 2H'(aq) t- 2e- + 2OH (aq)

    BzlC +"-qsE H[+q +tr E+. 3e- + 4H*(aq)+ MnOa(a4) +4oH (aq) - MnO2(s) +2H2O(l)+ 4oH (aq)
    "l -
    H*e+ oH-: ,+ *4 HI+E ag +
    ql ilg trll= H,o= '+E+ CN-(a4) + HzO(/) + 2 OH- (aq) ----- CNO-(aq) + 2H2O(I) + 2 e-
    ^JCqq .+
    gtrI. 3e- + 4H2O(/) + Mnot(aq) MnO2(s) + 2H2O(l) + aOH-(aq)

    4+, HI¤¤4 {^"rEql^l Il+ trol


    E E{-E i!6J+. CN-(aq) + ZoH-(aq) CNo-(aq) + H2o(/) + 2e-
    = -
    + HI+ HI¤+ olzll
    $?slH4. flzt 3e- + 2H2O(l) +MnO4 @q) .+ MnOz(s) + 4OH-(aq)
    e+ dill d6l¤q'J.J+ 9l+.
    r*41: F HI+ ql8ql^l 4215 ozfl
    4-e--e *+71 +1611 9l 4g 39 B6I
    { ozfl9 dxlzl..JCE91 rJzla, o}
    4 49 zE #aI¤ 67l]el dztT} Hl¤' 3 CN (a4) + 6OH-(aq) .+ 3 CNO-(aq) + 3H2O(l) + 6e-
    E9l ^Jzls+ t4. 6e- + 4H2O(l) + ZMnOa @q) 2MnO2(s) + 8OH-(a4)
    -
    4+41:+ HI+ Hl¤¤ q6tn, HI¤¤
    4 ^gCEg eg +El+e 4eq
    a+4. ^ 3 CN (a4) + H2O(/) + ZMnOa @q) .+ 3 CNo (a4) + 2MnO2(s) + 7OH-(aq)

    st4l: S4fq d6}7l +¤ol *+


    oldEzl q"J6J+. +*4 o}+ol 44tc.3N,2H, eo,2Mnola, d6}elol s-ol+.
    5o1 ulzl 4Ic 8Eq1^l uJ*ol .J"l4E ai.lH HI*4g "* 4q)q= +4lp} olgol q z}] 9l=z|?
    ?flzl"J, gxle u* olgol HI*ql +q6l= ag otq+. No2 (a4) + Al(s) + NH3(a4) + AI(oH)a(q4)

    [H*][oH-] : 1.0 x ro-'4(zs.cqll.J)ql^l .J + gl*ol, g7l (a) HISE +ql 17l] 6) ^J^dE 491 tzl]
    ^d +"lql^l
    H* olg9 r-oE= Ell+ $r| '=-:*:: (ro.:E). (c) HI¤¤ +q 47]l (d)
    ^JdE +ql77[
    (e) fl4

    > .H.* filr,fl 1 > E+ qlrll 2

    Bzld *991^l trI.g HI*4g sa+elE, + ¤zld *q"il^i El-¤- 4}pl-+g Hl+^lg sa6}^1e..
    ¤ "*+ eI*4(zI* zle e+ 4l+E 7I1l tB Hi+ql ql
    ^IE+-+g Cr(OH)3(s) + CIO- (aq) CrO a2- (aq) + Cl2(6)
    -

    20.3 I EEI tzl


    z[$!9._+ .Jq+= 4iq]-+tg H]*ql^l ^JcE qlHxlE dzl4"J "Jg 6l+ Ell
    ^l-+g +
    ?14. ol 4r-gg EH Erl(voltaic cell Ei galvanic cell)E E6ll^l +494. 94 dzlE F
    20.3 919
    =ElE^l

    t!301 xl+ TIBEIE 8.-{el+E^qol EE Eolxlb 0l8b +q?l7l?

    :!!re: 1l'
    +

    F
    _QoH 401
    zn 44oll,'.lg Cur'o13 Zrf* ol?
    8^l
    Znoll,( Cu2*E Cu Ex[
    d^t7f ol5:d

    Znol tlaFJ
    d
    Cu'7*7f A3EJ

    Zn(s) + Cuz*(aq) S Znz*(aq) + Cu(s)

    AfA 20.3 olE++alol^l.g! ttrt-EJfl BJB

    .J.J EI* 8zl q}.il 9l= qI¤¤ rJql dzl-= zld olE ^l7lzl ?*1, ql^l el+ qtr
    E6lq dzl¤ ol$,tlzl| tlzlol+.
    = zn 449= cu2* ol¤ol Eq g1= +alql BeE zlg4 e}*"l
    m=El
    C^loll^l= Cuel.Zn 6 qL aol
    "J"14 Cu2*(aq) {lsfElb7f?
    olgel +¤rlol $.qzln +4 ++ol otg e4 sEql 4eg+. E^lql olEol I M ZnSOo Eo40l,t.l
    5zl rlzldq. olq+ E+= f.g 20.3q1 444fl1, 4 zo.ze_ eqrg + 914. ZnEa
    I M CuSOa Eo-4oll,(l
    Zn(s) + Cuz*(aq) Znz*(aq) + Cu(s)
    Cu I*
    l21.7l

    ra 20.4= 4 zo.zq &s}-+g HI+g - rH


    ol+6l.= E4 dzlE trq
    =+.
    20.44 tl;(l= rH 20.3EEI rl +d-6tzltrJ, HI¤+ + a+ +rJL| +se TIol:",
    94 dzlql^J= olE ++r+ cu2*(aq)ol zld d+6t71 g+11, rll{ql zn f,fol a
    +ql^l znz" (aq)\ d+6lr cu fr$$ trlE +ql^l crf * @d4 d+qlEl. r4E .J
    s e.l+ pl.EE E4q 4zlzl 6E trll"J(= Znal cu z7J* ga6l+ Edg E6I
    g dzlzl EE trl]) cuz*zl ++lqr zn? 4]s]g+. +^l "J8H^J &s] H]+ q]g"q
    +tg El+ HI¤¤ Eel6}.l 4olzl t*2il als.zl trIEql, ddg F6l"l Es= dzi rE^1 orlElg E:U
    e+ +Eql^l .$4"lE olgg EF d#(electrical currend= +dBJ+. ol4t dzl ^1e
    E+6lr 91= 3._q

    rH 4 HJ- 0l86l.q
    4 d6tE E+ol dzl4 .JS +6J6t= ql ^FSg + 91trt. A 20.4
    trJE Cu-Zn EEI
    20.79
    EII
    e.l+ q.+.E gA4= + rxll ++¤ d*(electrods)ol4J 4q, &e+ e}*ol 'J
    920 208 E7t at+

    q+= d+g 951ffi(anode), Elg HI*ol .Jq+= d+S gg ffi(cathode).olep 4


    9++. d+e zl+E qlr]H, ++ql zld +q6}b Ede +dg + 9l+. H]-ts9 6tE
    z;n449- dd d=Jol cu d?3 Ad "JEl4etr dEC d+ Ee'J
    =q5r, =q+4.
    E""l+ q$s-l a+, HI¤¤q1 d4¤ S4 ++ q¤"J 6Pl qlEql e*e ?+=+.
    E+ dzlE F +g 4r+ *+ {xl(half ce[)4.4 'J4. + H]+ dzl= =rl+ =4
    &3r+ E]+ H]* +
    olr, += 6Iq= +Ig HI+ tI* 4o14. qlql^J, zne +}4gr cu2*E +|ggEl.
    4l+d+(4l4H}++9") Zn(s) + znz+(aq)+2e-
    g-g d+(++l HI+ Hls") cuz*(aq) + ze- cu(s)
    -
    4l+ d+q^l Zn fr$o1 &Elqq g^89 d4* E+ Edg 56ll ++g d+se o156}
    q cu2*(aq)= +fg^l7l= ql Zn(s)E dxlglr..l tplgflzl rlgql, zn d*9 d
    ^F&9tr1.
    =Jol ¤"lEl znz*(aq)) bE= 4?.171zlE.Jql uI4 ?zlEl4. F^lql cu d*9 4elol
    Eq+r cu2+(aq) +Eg cuz+(aq)zl cu(s)E. ++gEql 4+ Ad bEzI ?i.J+.
    E4 dzlzt 4-:=" alzl 9l6ll^lE F HI+ dzl9 ¤-9o1 44 4214etr frjol +Tlqqot
    +4. zrol &ElFlE &E+ d+ + +Eql zn2*(aq) ol¤.ol oldolT} +7lt;la_, a7\9
    =q
    Znz*fson2- do.I +Bg "J7IEfl+. +"jg dzl4.J +^dgE +z1617l +161^l:, Zn2* oJ
    olgol tlsl HI+ dzl q}_qe oleool.-J1+olsol oJge. Eqe_E+ atE *Hol qlqot t
    tri. trt&7[^]tr Cu2+(aq)tl +gqH +]g d+ + +.-qql Cu2*olsol ¤qEq SOr2- go1
    go1 $ejeE {lg Hl+ dxl9l tsoI llzll 94. dzl4 6^dg +z16lzl +16]l^1, *olgol
    +g HI+ dzl Et-s--+. olf,ap, "Jolgol HI+ drl oJge Eqe+ot etQ. {xlle o1go1
    olull ulE^ 4zl s)ezl +Eqd+.
    rH 20.4q1^l= rl-+C +i] g+se + +g gA6lq ol$ol oleo s! + ilE+ 6Iq +
    +"-qE dzl4 6C¤ #zl.J4. ral 20.5q1^J= ol;l6J +4e.E ¤44(salt bridge)g .r|

    g+ &+ E+oll^i zn2*(aq)g tsE71.=7t61'E d7l^16de olgll9^lElts7f?


    e
    @
    e

    +tEl d+ +-e.-+
    T"JlI sg fl+ +eE
    golgol olSEirt gol8ol ol=:dtrt,
    Zn Cu

    NOs- Na+

    tir d+(-) gqal c3 r=(+)


    0lE=
    (01801
    71561'11 --J)

    I
    Zn2* Zn(s) -----+ znz+(aq) * 2e- Cuz+(aq) * 2 e------+ Cu(s)

    a -r.B 20.5 gqal= Ele= ?d-d EEI drl


    ^lt6[q
    - Tlqg E7l 9rll E9 o e, zl$9E.
    ^l+¤g E++
    anode9l oxidationS cathode4 reduction$ 7l
    20.3 I Tl^l 921
    =El

    +qI+. g+?-l= +"-4q glE ol9ol4 d+ Eer+ HI+6[zl 9*] Natto31a4; dIIE EE
    +
    ag dqle +"-49 il]+ uz} E*E -?4sol4. d61]a+ ¤Gel) tr-qle "JEq e
    d"J/l
    Bflzl9l uzi*g 4+E ^ll+lE sq+szl **+. d+ql^J &sle+ +g EI* AJEI rL= i El sfl
    .Il= EEq CJlrLfl rl=
    ol .Jq+E grI4E 56Iq ol&5ol + H]+ dzle ol$rtol(oJolge +Ifl Hi (-) (+)
    a d+e--+., golg+ t}s+ HI+ d+eE olE") dzlzl +cg +^l^lrJ+. qts
    tlilE ols-" olol F Hl+ dzl$ gAorqqE +olg.$ {IF+ A+ 4 *9 o e ol *-+-gol-q
    t'?'rr, ololgg +g d+ 4 *qg.e olE" oJ4. +--+
    f.g 20.6e 94 dzlE +EI'H= -E^lEol+. a4+ &+ a+ql^.i el+ qs
    E E6lq {Ig d+qE olf++: 42 zlE"le}. ol E+E EJ.J ql$q 94 tat d^1, #fl u+ d^1,
    BJ+
    tt+7t"Jol'J +Bol gol.J
    dzl9lrl 4Is+ d+g * +E, {}g a+e + p-se. E^l++. +rl= 4zlzl g a rH 20.6 EEI' Erloll^l golLl-= HJ¤i 7|]

    + 4EE 54 g+q^l offieE ¤9Bzlb 1ee- {ltlEl + 9t+. +E F EJ+


    I^l7l.rEd ?4E(reJ 20.4)
    0lLf E+al(re 20.5)e EalElol 9ltf.
    N\l ql4l 20.4
    /-/ EEI{al ut
    rl..3 tq--trJg HJ-
    ^l-g40lrl-.
    Cr2Of-(aq) + l4H+(aq) + 6l-(aq) + lCr3+(aq) + 312(s) +7HzO(t)
    KzCrzOzal HzSO+E4]3 +As{= -.J Hlloll, Kl +Eo-4e EIE HlZoll '-lr gtial-+ F HIZE E=-dtl.. Eo-{Tl EJBdlxl .9J= ,-4=
    d 'Je d=¤ 4 Eo-4011 EJr dgtZl= F'-q= C= Edo+ E=dl'E, EEI dxl= el+ q-+ql d+= + 9,lzl EJtl.
    til'E=4 aJ3 E+0il^1 golLl-= ^l0l0ll
    u3, E^l'el. 0l8ol 0lE u:Br. E=q +a= 2+4 LIEILH^Ie.
    =g

    6ll'J +tl d+(e.l+ E.Ug Eo6Iq dzPI EqTl+)$ (+) -pao1r1.


    .E{ E4 dzl= TCal-b
    'il+4"J ¤H4 z}84 H}soeE > .H.= frlr]l1
    +El ++ Hls" 4 dztel olgE olE %}6J, d+E +E= + E4 dzl9 + HI+ HI¤+ +gr+ A+.
    44ot qI4. Ni(s) Niz+(aq) + 2e- (d+: Ni)
    l{El +d +q} H}+^lg + 7l]E ++ q}*os ++q &+ - Cu(s)
    Cuz+(aq) +2e- ------ (d3: C")
    I}A]I +?l 449 *ot4n, rH zo.09l 44t ¤Er+ e rl+ + cu d*ri c,i+(aq) +eqg s.Jd HI+ drlql^l
    ol 6IE g+.
    "JqL+= ¤tr$ zl"J 4+61 ¤B.f, ae?
    (a) d*ol A+g gr, g+r-14^-l oJolgol ++ dzl +
    =01
    otr gfllq ,J4.
    olgq^l 6.*:"I¤ HI+ +¤¤ Saoltr E+s. r+ AEi. (b) d+ol d"*9 ?;r, ¤+4ql^J oJolgol HI+ dzl +
    Cr2Ol- @q) + l4H+(aq) + 6 e- + 2 Cr3+ (aq) + 7 HzO(t) o E gEEq
    AE|.
    4= HI+ Hl+ql^J= r-(aq)zl IzG)e HE}E4, (c) d+ol a+g Sn, gq4ql^J 9olgol Elq dzl +
    6l-(aq) -+ 3Iz(s) +6e- otr gqEq ++.
    olx.ll rH eoJ$ ol$alq gEI dzlE 016]]g
    zo.09l glE (d) d+ol d=J.g *a, g+4ql^l golgol HI+ dzl +

    + 9l+. a H4 HI+ Hl¤¤ +tg r+Col+. AE^J:+g r+


    otr. gfl=q
    'ZJ+.
    ce +g d+ql^l gqu4. + H4ll HI+ HI¤+ &+ 4a > H=qH2
    ol E e d+ql^] .Jquq. Eq dxlql^l + Hl+ qI¤¤ +gr+ ?+.
    r- olgg^Is+
    {zfg u}ia}a, Cr2O72- olgg d^l¤ E=+. Zn(s) + 2e- (4a:Zn1
    Znz+(aq) +

    f4o.=. ru i$991 +a d+qe+El el+ qEE E6l] Clo3 (a4)+6H+(aq)+6e- cl-(aq) +3 Hzo(/) (d*: pt)
    K2Cr2O7-H2Son i$991 *?J 4+ +oE. A47t EE+.
    -
    (a) &s] d+rl +Ig d+ql^l "Jq+= +¤¤ 44 +4
    d+g r zl^lE q}-3-ql +q6}xl ?}j1, ++.-q +ql^l E= Lll^ls.
    ++eq + e-tr d7t7| olE6I= Eo E= ^ll3o 6J gol+. ololg fl+]znd+ea*'ol qB4lH6IL_71?
    (b) HI¤sl 4l.8Eq
    g 8._4¤. Eo619 ¤Ifl d+g.E. ¤-olgg &+ d+oE ol ft d+g e#l qB4 H6l+7t?
    (c) Hlgo ol 4l68Eq q¤I
    Eo 6J4.
    &al d+(dzt7} e.l+ Ed o = +9-=)e (-) +E, (d) qL d+ol (+)+Efl7I?
    922 203 ETlol-+

    2o.4 I -f,+ tlEHql^1el tzl t+l


    4^l7l:ae 20.3q1^lx-lH zld, E: fg zo.sollrlx,lH e.l+ sls= soll ZnoEFq crr'*
    ol¤oe. z|$!e-tr *4olts olf+ F9.Jzi? ol dz} E# +s+ql ullalH ol;|z|
    dg + 9l+(fA 20.7). +s+= +Eq +q7le+ EIEI z9 i4El¤ 9lHxl9 ilE ql4 zl
    g4sE Eqd+ ,, (s.t3t. u[{z}zlE dz}s E]Hl¤.llHzl9 z}oltr .Jdl Eq dzl
    I d+q^J qg rdg 56rq +lg d+ +ss z|${ee 6 e= 4,o14. a+4s
    dzt= q +e d+l= r*r1 9l= d+ +oe z|$!e_e. EE+.
    E ^I3rI
    + d+ ^IolE {flz}(potential difference)E F d+9 irlHl¤ 9lHzl9 zl.olE d6}e}s
    e +b ,*o14, ++l= Ee(v;o1r1. 1 v= l=:E(c)E d"I*J'6+ 1=0)el El¤l¤ gluJzlE
    ,*r ?lg ollol4.
    ,u:rf
    dzl aJ,]lB d6[.]g 1.6Q x 10 'e Col4 .1:, (2.2'1$).
    94 dzlql^J + d+E d9lil+ ErlEgl(cellpotential)4.L 6|q, Ecerr-tr 44U4. ol
    dglil+ dzl¤ el+ qEe "JqE + 9l= +Aqg r*.I. 9lq zffi{(eml electromotive
    force, d{-B olt^l7l= ¤)ol+rE oJ4. E..rr¤ BEtr 44421 ql$ql d$(voltage)ol
    4 ¤6lZl a6lil oJ+s +4U4. 94 dzlg zldqg ++E ++, HI+EI+ ^8CEg
    *E,8Eq rrl?++s+. ¤.E=s^lElq flzl ?*gH 2s"cl rld++.2s.c.E=^Jq
    (standard condition)ollrJ9 zld49 ol eql^l +E+. xllrs.z¤914 EllS.Eol, E=
    ^Jql
    + Elg +"ltlql^J= _E= *'ETl r molol44 Tlill{}ql^l= l7l"J"J ollol4. s= t}4ql
    r'19 zld49 E= Erl E9l(standard cell potential) E= E= zlE4(standard emf)olz[ a[
    r, +l ezr Er+trlE E{ r:.Iol4-il. +q. rH 20.sE B4 dzl= 2s.cql^J -E= Azl
    d9l7t +t.tovol4.
    Zn(s) + Cu2*(aq,1 M) -+ Zn2n(aq,lM) + Cu(s) Ei"n : +1.10V

    9l Ezt.= s= ^Jql
    aag 9"lal}. 49 zl9at4 ..: (5.7¤).

    > a"J 20.7 E=rl c^l.e.l


    6= EOl =el 6 olaHB
    ^lE^aJ/l ts3 trlEl¤ 01111^l
    == a^lg, EEI E^loll^lol E
    ttrl l=o1ll.1
    t+ E+
    ^fjtr
    tr.Jfl ^fE^aJ7ll
    E=tf.
    Cr_qe
    O Tilitia Claassens/Shutterstock \

    d
    D- ^[
    el

    ,,;,] \ E
    sffi
    t E
    +

    I
    eJfl Ilf

    Lfe EIEJI¤ 0jlLl^l


    20.4 .trf; SEiloll^lol t^l Egl 923

    B ?E)125 'Coln E= Tldaj E3"rr:+0.85 Vg ir|], 0l EEI d^lel HJ-


    ^l-94?.17|.?

    E-f eJ+l 191


    E4 dzl9 -E= dzl a+l(Eail= +Ig d+4 &sI HI4 dzl9l trI+ +e+. ^[d
    =a
    E= 7po6J &3rl d+-+fg d+ a6Je_E -tr+ Tldq EE EJE + gle+, f+ll 6|
    ^J
    H q+ f*otzlzll 99 :zBzll 6}zl= ?+n, EI+ EI+s_l E= d+ A+lE sE ".]EE E?ar
    g flAl eg + ?14. zldqg F Hl+ dzl d?19 ilololr+. +qltr +g Ei+ H]+q E
    d+ d+l= 4q6lq E= +}fl E?l(standard reduction potential, 4"JE S.tr trJEq
    =
    +r., E= Tlaqg Elg-r+ rJol *Is a+q s= +Ig d+l(E%d(¤Ig d+)q^J &s+ d+
    I E= ++g dfl(E?"a(4}4 d+)= uul.! e-qH 84.
    4eu : 4eo (+|fl d+ - 4"a (4I4 d*) [20.8]
    qtr ++ HI+g E= +|fl d+l= ge +Cg += S+. 6l7l"J 7l= HI+ Hl¤¤
    =4
    g= +lg dge C6lr, ol 7li ilq nln+ += HI+ HI*E s= ¤+g dflE +4ts +
    ?14. z16 Hl+ Hl*-s*+ E= 4aql^l H+(aq)zl Hr(g)E ¤¤q= ag 4+61 0vel s
    ++g d+lE E+6IS.tr1. qE d+r+ sHEe+ ^Jq4.J zlol= r d+E s= ++g d9l
    =
    E c6J+.
    2H+(aq,l[n) + 2e- Hz(E,latm) 4"u : 6y l2o.9l
    -
    ol 7l= HI+ HI+ol "Jq+E+
    "JEq{ 4;-ol EE t+ fl!}(standard hydrogen electrode,
    sHE)ol+. -tr= +^ A+e E+dql E+ EEg ga6}r EEI 9lql ul.{la}fl Es}g E
    +g .J-d "l d+ol +i +|?l E]*q q4 +,Hdg trl^l ?+7il +trI(fs 20.8). E= +4
    d+e E+ d+"1 1 M H+eI, gq+= 1 atm9 ii zlt)lzlE+ d+E+ + 9ril qq gl
    eq, += a+E HI+ol +9"1+"il trl?+ d+ol* g,g d+-q-E 4E"J+.
    ral 20.e= s.+ +4 d+g ol+6J E4^IaI dzlE L[+u 4o]4. a4 20.1q +g azlH
    zlgzl.J E}¤-olq, zn9 4IEl4 H+sl ffio1 .Jqt+.
    Zn(s) + ZH+(aq) Zrf* (aq) + Hzk)
    -

    Pt H+olP H2 E^l < f.B 20.8 7l= d=-e-e .uol

    =
    E= + d<sHE)

    +
    El3
    t
    o

    SHETISfl d+
    Hzk) Hre sflE;
    1H+z[
    Pt5
    E^t H+ OIP
    Pt
    TM H+

    +
    tit
    SHEzP5aPS;
    (H27t H+e tE|E)
    924 208 TtTtat-+

    tj30l TIBEIE Na* 01301 Etfl dE u+ Exl+o.-e 0lE6lts olfth +f,oJ7l?


    e
    0.76V
    d"Jzl

    Zn NOs- Na+
    tl+ E= Hzk)

    L-
    I
    l

    +
    Nos Efl E+ U+ EII
    tEl E+ Zn2+ t t
    NO"- (E= +4 d+, SHE)
    HJ+ dxl " H'/ I
    t$O*,

    Zn(s) ------->Znz+ (aq) + 2 e- 2H+ (aq) + 2 e--------+ Hzk)


    arB E= +A E<SHE)=
    20.9 |tet 8= HJ+ d^lE Zn(Noohkq)t"-4oll ?lE zn
    B+01r, Sg 8= BJ+ ^l.t-d =El'd^l
    E^l= HNOg(aq)E"-4011 ?,Its SHEoltf.

    H*9 g= ++g d+l(E?.d:0 v) r4r al zo.s¤ 0l+618, znz* fzn HI+ Hi*el E+ +t
    g d+tE +B + 914.
    : Ei"o (+g d+ - ri.u 0J4 d*)
    Ei"rr
    +o.76V : OV - ri.a (tl4 d?)
    Ei"a (4I4 d+ : -o.76v

    EI4^l znz*zl Zno e +gq= HI+el s= +Ig d+lE -0.76 vol+.


    Znz*(aq,lM) + 2e- + Zn(s) Ei"6 : -O.76Y
    ¤4lE rB 2o.eql^l znz* fzn d+g +IEl t}¤-ol "Jq+E d+olzll]J, fle+ rJol +g HI
    goe-E Hlg"
    ^lg
    +tr}. HI+ HlaE aflE 49 qE t4l+ +*l Hl-&es 4ot oJ4. :4
    + 4 HI+ HI¤+ &EI+ ++g qL 4eeq 7k6'J ztq H13oltrt. El+^J ¤¤g +44
    : a+ nffizlzlE, HI¤¤4 ^JcE ^Flq
    oJ+ %I6J r{{!e(-15,r.I-&ollE ¤4.
    4E HI+ HI*g s= ++g d+lE znz* fzn HI+ HI*ql ol+e a4 +^I.J *BsE A
    46J + ll4. e 20.1q E= +g d+lE .J+ ++611 +9i:ql, trj Bg HI+ HISq EIaJ
    E= ++ EE +3618 g+. Hl+ {xl {fl(half-cell potential)4ts. 6l+ s= +}fl d+l
    +"&5J E" F9 E4 dzl9 E?ar ti9 4l4}g $lafl aa3o1 7l^b6r+.
    =

    A Ct2@)+2 e+ 2Ct-(aq) U+ U8oll^l 4 il.-+=9 EE 8Et|= +EoJ7l?

    dg= ElHl¤ qlqzl= d6}"*_s__8. r It <tols-tr s= ++g d+l= .rllzl .!{olQ ,,


    (1.3e). &s+-+lg HI+q^l EeE .Jg 548 qlLlzle+ d6[*g 59*zl"J d6[=]ql

    E Hq^l4E E= +tl d+l= H6'lzl ?*84. qlE, 10 mol zn'* 9 ++g d+ dgl r?.ai
    1 mol Zn2+9 +lg d+ dgle+ ++L+.

    lOZnz+(aq,lM) + 20e- .+ 10Zn(s) E?"a: -O.76V


    20.4 I E= 8EHoil^le-l I^l I?l 925

    s.20.1 2s'c +¤-o{q^1 x.+ $fl tel


    E%a(v) EJfl U+ E]3

    +2.87 Fz@)+2e- z$-(aq)


    + 1.51 -
    MnOa @Q + 8H+(aq) + 5 e + Mnz+(aq) + 4HzO(l)
    +1.36 C12(g)+2e- +Zcl-(aq)
    + 1.33 Cr2ol-@q) + L4lH+(aq) + 6 e + 2 Cr3*(aq) + 7 H2o(l)
    +1.23 Oz(g)+ H+(aq) + 4e- + zHz0(l)
    + 1.06 Br2(/) + 2e 2Br (aq)
    +0.96 -
    NO3 (a4) + 4H+(aq)+ 3e- NO(g) + zKzo(l)
    +0.80 Ag*@q)+e--+Ag(s) -
    +o.77 Fe3+(aq) +e- + Fez+(aq)
    +0.68 OzG) + 2H+ (aq) + 2 e- + H2O2@q)
    +0.59 MnOa @fl zHzO(l) + 3 e- + MnO2(s) + aOH-(aq)
    +
    +0.54 Iz$)+2e- + zl-(aq)
    +0.40 Oz(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4 e- ¤ aoH-(aq)
    +0.34 Cuz*(aq) +2e- Cu(s)
    0(4elE) -
    2H*(aq)+2e- -+Hz(g)
    -0.28 Ni2+(a4) +2e--Ni(s)
    -0.44 Fez+ (aq) + 2e- Fe(s)

    -0.76 Zr?*@q)+2e- -
    -0.83 2H2O(l) + 2 e- -Zn(s)
    Hz(s) + 2 OH-(aq)
    -1.66 -
    Al3*(aq)+3e-------Al(s)
    -2.7r Na+(a4) +e--+Na(s)
    -3.05 Li*(aq)+ e ----- Li(s)

    qH 20.s
    E:"rrE*E1Eilo 4lthalzl

    Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq,l M) Zn2+(aq,l M) + Cu(s) Ei.|1 : 1.10V


    ral 20.5= LtElL.! +.1 olEdtq Zn2+/Zn E=E -r= SB E+.17t -0.76 Vg trll, rl= Cu2*/Cu d+g EtLd= Zltbl,\lg.
    ^lE
    Cuz+(aq, L M) + 2 e- Cu(s)
    -
    BllU
    E4 d+ql q.J Ei,azl a4aj1, cu2*/cu
    E:.ilr| zn2* fzn aE ol s= +g dgE s 20. rql *E s= +|g dfle+ "J
    d+q q+ E%d= +4ot tE+. zl6Jtrr.

    4A ol 94 d4ql^l zng &EI9s.o EE fqd r?"ozt +el cu2*9 g= +g d?ii r3,,. =0.34 v, znz*9 &=
    E?"a(&ol d+)ol+. cur*E +gqs,"ss +Ig d+ eI+ +g dfl= E"7n*: -0.76 V-E s.T1B + ilEl. ez1= +g
    dzlol4. r;-4,r.-l cu2+9 "lzl Qlg dgl= r;.o1gg d+)ol HI+ qI+q^J +++lg olgol+.
    4. 4ar4 E?"a(&ol d+)g gE, 20.89 ol+6lq E?..a(B > H=q|fl1
    g d+)g +6J + 9l+. ^l
    q-S q}+q ol+al gq dxl9 E?.u:*0.07 vol4.
    Eol 2Elz+(aq) +Niz+(aq) 2Bu3+(aq) + Ni(s)
    E?"u : Eiea (+L+l d+ - ri.o (4IEI d?) s=- g
    s.20.1q flts Ni'z*s] +Ig d+lE aEql Eil, +
    1.10v : Ei"a (s-fl d+ - (-0.76v) g Hl*e.l .*.= s?l d?l= gEi.JTI?
    4.a(sfl d+ : 1.10V - O.76Y : O.34Y E$+(aq) +e- + Ettz*(aq)
    926 20Ar tr71 trl+

    (a) -0.3s V O) 0.3s V (c) -0.21 V (d) 0.21 V (e) 0.07 V +a6}q rn3*/rn* da9 r?.a= +6}^le-.
    > 5.6 fili{l2 ln+(aq).+ln3*(aq)+Ze-
    +g E4 d4E E= 4zl 4?lzl1.46 voJ ull, s.20.19 Br2Q)+2e +2Br-(aq)

    qH 20.6
    El"o oll*l Eiar 4lll.6l.7 |

    tr 20.1= olEal.G, qlrll20.40ll LlfftrJ ttE HJS9E= Exl d+lE3"rrE Zltlotll9.


    Cr2O72-(aq) + 14H+(aq) + 6l-(aq) --------+ lCr3*(aq) + 312(s) + 7 HzO(l)

    6l{3
    E{ 4}p+-+}g H}+ol +qAr, s+ d{ d?lE:dg 4+ 4q d+r+ +Ig d+9 HI+ HI
    qlztl 20.4q1^]el zJol, +IcI
    ot7l +16ll^l= E 2o.1g +a6lH ¤+. +g Hzl oJolBr., s.20.1r+ a1 zo.sg oiso6l{ -tr= dzl
    afl= 44IqL+.
    &0i $tl d*, Cr2O7z-(aq)+l|H+(aq) +6e- + ZCr3+(aq)+7HzO(l)

    HI+ HI+g +++ 'J+ A}cl d*, 6r-(aq) 3lz(s) + 6 e-


    -
    s zo.rll qeB, fl HI+q .E= +Ig d9l= +1.33
    vola, ot4 HI+E E= +g dg(4ls+ d+ ++g
    q)= +0.s4 voltrl. ol= Zlg 20.8q1 rllE6IH +
    ^l
    o ;tl TVrL
    E- E-l . EieI: E?ea(+lg d+ - E?"a(&ol d+) : 1.33v - 0.s4v:0.7ev
    ololgE+ olg Hl+ Hl¤+ +¤ "*# eI*49 Bzl
    9141 :9 +6l]0} 6tzlEJ E%a ale 39 #6ll^l= qI g
    4. "J:1 ?l= BteI z;-ol, EG +fl d+l=,<llzl ^J{ol
    E-e EIE+-e 4l+e+ ru6}+.
    ,Js" 321 dg({zlrlL +0.7e y)71oJ+olEI. *ql^J fl+ (a) +0.52 V (b) -0.s2 V (c) +1.08 V
    6J tsle} ?ol, E4 dzlE dglzt.Jtr oli{ot tJ4. (d) - 1.08 v (e) +0.80 v

    "H6 qFt 1 >H.=qH2


    ' -s. zo.t9 qlolEl= ols-"o}q, Arll d4 q16.o1 rl-e=$zJg s.20.le] Ellolq= olo-"ol-{, dz{ a4 e}¤..1 4*.4 zJg
    g4 d4E -E= Tldq(4.ilg 4l4I6tE f <ig gutqlzl? dzlel E= .-15 {4!a}.rle.
    2 Ag+(aq) + Ni(s) 2A8(s) + Ni2*1a4) 2AI(s) + 3 I2(s) z N3+(aq) + 6r-(aq)
    - -

    r) = 9ol 2l HI+ HISE e= +g d9l= +ifl rlSol .JqB A6JCE 4E7l El=ql, E?.a {}"1 Ef
    + E= *qq^l *gol * ¤+. E= tr-4ql^l 4IE6I= qE E+ dzlglrlE, +]g d+
    Zn------sZn2+ + 2e- e-l HI+ql 4aJ r;.0 alol tis] d+E HI*ql 46J E?.a atr+ r+. IIt+^l E:.a7t 0
    -0.76 ^J44
    ^16l ^l= E +g *2 '*= a+q^J .Jg {lg '*= d+str. 4zlzl q+ sle= E6}q qETll g
    r+. r=J 20.109 rH 20.sq zn-cu E4 dzlgld + EI+ HI*g E= +g d9l ,JE +
    !
    ^9 E:eil:(+0.34)-(-0.76) 4lE E-E-e ¤B+ 4,olrl.
    trl : +1.10 V

    sg I+
    +0.34
    Cu2+ + 2e----->Cu <:18 20.10 Zn-CuEEldllol HJ+IrlE+lslE=IIlIgl
    20.4 trE 8E|o]l^le] c^l d9l 927

    & Ni2+(aq)o;rr= alfl Efl e;"0:-0.28 v, Fe2*(aq)9 E= trJfl EPIE%o:-0.44 vg

    i n|l, *,-r" EEt d^|oil^l NielFe 6 qE aolEJfl E=oJ7l?


    I

    qlz'll 20.7
    {+,J+,JB¤,JaEH {zl t+l 4l{-dlil
    EEI dxl= trlE + E= HJ+ HJ8oil
    =Z"Jtrl-.
    Cd2+(aq) + 2 e- --- Cd(s)
    Sn2*(ag)+2e-------Sn(s)
    +E Eol^lE= (a) t+ E=al.SB E=ofl^l golLl= HJ+ HJBzl, (b) E.= drl EglE
    ^|.e-dtq =861.^19.

    6li3 4tq +Ig d+e trl oJ9 E%a tlss aigr. &El a+g
    Eq + 49 HI+ HI+ql EI6I E%aE 4.t"F 6J+. fA q+ 'J "Jq E%azI ¤4. tIpI d+ql^l Hl+ HI.*g zlC6tqH
    ol <Ig ol+4q 4IEI d+4 +lg d+g AA* +$, E= +lg Hlsoss Aql HI+ tI¤¤ eld,\14 HI+ HI¤¤ &s+
    dzl dg(rs.u)E 4l&*+. HlsoqE +r+.

    E0l
    (a) 9E Eq qgE, r?"a(ca2*/cd): -0.40 v, E?ed(sn2+/Sn) : -0. ta volr|.
    s."*gl 4t *= ¤tg d+l= cd2+-H-+ q oJE alol+. 61-4,11 Sn2+9 Q|
    ge ilg d+ql^l "Jqf+. +tl d+ : Snz*(aq) + 2e- Sn(s)

    trI4^l 4IpI HI+g cdq Et dz} +dol4. &+ d+: cd(s)


    -
    cd2*(aq) + 2e-
    -
    (b) d4 d9l= {+g d+r+ &3rI d+q^lE s= +Ig dgE ilol(^l 20.8)ql
    E4 +q{+.
    + HI+ HI89 r:.a Ttol g+4-L 43 +s-a121 S4. g.E atg ol4t e| 4err : 4ea (+?l d+) - 4"a (4I4 d-)
    flol zl¤ Hl*9I H*1a4)E {++lr} ullali ag +4{E}. : (-0.14V)- (-0.40V) :0.26Y
    aE s= Tlaqol oJ+olE-e. s= tlqlql^] E4 dzl-s 4 dzl :: 1.0 M ZnCtz(d{) +aH+ Zn(s) d*
    E"++. (a) dzl I (b) dzl 2 (c) z$xl 3 (d) dzl 1+ 2

    >E=qF{1 (e),tll {zl !-i


    Efg. E4 dzl9 .J+ d+g E_+ 1.0M Fe(No)2(aq)
    ^ll
    > s= qlr'il 2

    +E4 Fe(s) d*s-e +Cgq :14. o|4 4l dzloll,tl ol co2* fco HI+ dzlel Agcr/Ag Hlq d4s "JE 94 d
    v4471Fe(s) {lol 4}E} A+.J7}? zl9 (a) .tlEr d+q^l .Jq+= HI¤+ +te7r? (b) s.
    dzl d9l= gEtq_l7l?
    dzl 1: 1.0 M CuClz(d{) +"14 Cu(s) d? =
    4^\ z: 1.0 M NiCl2(aq) +E!} Ni(s) d*

    trEl4 lel EJeJal |sl 17 |


    ^1
    s.20.le +g ao:lol +i6I= +^ls HI+ EISol +gqq 9lq. qlE EH rrzl rI+ +l
    gl ?1" e E%a zlol 7l* ag .J + gl+. q4^J Fzi{.)zl7l* dAl ggqug ol s.
    =
    ql +e+ fl= a +ql^l= F27l7l* rJ6J &EFllol+.

    4}slzlls ,Aol= ged, oz, ¤!d flzlz[ +g "]E 4]c] t]EI.J 4]a4](tvtnon,
    =+
    cr2o72- . Nor- =o;g .E 20.lql^J tr= EIel ?ol, r?.a {tol oJE atolE + drll +flg+.
    =
    7l* *flr{71 qH4= 4? t +*E ElEi %l.J.J &p+ HI¤+ 7l* dA "Jq+= ag
    g"l;J4. trl+^l E 20.roll^-l *fl dflzl7t+ +q tlol HI+ Hl¤+ q+*.J &EI HI
    =
    928 20I] C7t Et-+

    +Jd +aEa g+nlts tat^le + 9ib7l.?


    ^49
    TtaI gel ,JE zlxtts Eiea
    =

    7t8 ElflEtTl +13, 7|'8 olalE,


    7|.8 "f-d
    ^JafElTl
    El?^ll
    7[8 eil ,tJEf^1|
    F2G) + 2 + 2F- (aq)
    a a

    a a

    tet + e -+ 2 - (aq) c
    3
    I
    ^il
    a
    sl
    ^ll

    )l
    ^ll 7l
    ^ll
    5
    )t 2 (aq) 2e' + 6
    )t
    o a

    a a

    Al3+(aq) + 3e +

    a a

    Li'(aq) + e + Li(s)
    7l-al +gEl7l 01a13, Ttaj {J+El7l +13,
    7Ei e+-.J t+{l 7Et 3il Elg8t

    Ttat Ssl ,JB zlxlE Ei'"a


    =
    arH 20.11 {tslxllet SflIlg 8ttl4
    ^jl7l

    *ol zl* d4 "Jq*+. -s 20.IE zltl gql ?lE ri*1aq;ts TI1I {}fl921 ol4-?e.-e zt
    tL e+-J &s+^llol+. Li*(aq)Y dzlE g= a6}ol z9 szl"J, +qi ,J"JoJ Li(s)9 Li+ r
    @q)eq te+ HI¤-e oI+ *
    gq++. EI4^l Li(s) f,$$ s 20.lE Ee + Ttt rJ6J *
    flzllol4(i9: s 20.lql^l g+ tISEol 4}slzll, e_=4 ^JcEe ffizllolrf).
    Hr4 *C ?4({l: .JrJ4 ++, .JrJ?-l E+4Jol +}g4lE .JH}zles E?,a7t
    ^l-&¤+.
    ol ++oJ Fe) EoE EgzilE ++ *lgzll +&"le +71 +ql fl= +e
    =E1,Zn, ^l-Sgtrl.
    &slxll.J oz 4lE9l e_4 tr+B + S+.
    E 20.lei E%a ilol &p+^ll, *fflxll9 {-ql4 ,rllzlE +4qlsE, r.A 20.11i1H e?-lg +
    91tr1. s 20.rE tl+ql fl= HI+ HI*E HI¤¤e -*.ql^J 7l+ d7il ggq= +olq, q+
    7l* rlq'* +Islxlol4. olE HI+g ^Jcge 4IE+6I7l7l ,I+ qEl+s-E sql^l 7la-
    ^l
    of$ {lflxllol+. tr}4^J rH 20.119 F2k)7} zl$ zsxl4}s+rll, F-(aq)zl r}+ qr"J +tg
    -Hq Elql.e, s.20.lql^l 7l+ ol4 gl= Hl+ HI*el HI¤¤e Li+(aq)zl zl$
    ^ll.Jg =+. tr14^l 7[t] eF*
    +l-+l^l7l7l 9Br, 4]E]4lol+. relr ^JcE Li(s)zl-sq^l 7l* dAl
    $s+q= EAe, 7l* r}q& ffizllolrf.
    4Is+
    ^ll7le+
    {l+l ^ll7l ^}ol9 H}Hlql +41: E}4}4 4gzl9 4lzl zJ9 H}Hlql +4le+ +
    ^I6t+ -: (re.z¤. reJ re.:).
    20.5 o1lLl^lsf daFeJfl HJ8 929
    ^l+

    qFll 20.8
    tlEt4lsl trtrll4l ^1171

    E 20.1= 0l86|G, tl= sl+=g ttrElel +^lE LIE6H -E^le.


    *(aq), ^11721=
    NOs-(aq), Ag CrzOt2 - (aq)

    Ttlff
    E4 4Ip+4lE ++6h= olgE e. qq ++l= E+ ExlloltrL rjlel E?.a Alol +|Sol 4 g qts rJ+ Ai+4lol4
    ^ll =++
    =01
    s.20.l-tr+E] trls=r+ ag 49 Eg+ 9l+ Nof(aq) ++H+(aq) +3e- + NO(g)+2H2O(l) ELa: +0.96V
    Ag*(aq) + e- .+ Ag(s) ELa : +0.80V
    Cr2o 72- (aq) + 1,4 H+ (aq) + 6 e- 2 Cr3+ (aq) + 7 Hzo(l) ELa : + 1.33 V
    -
    zlEtr, Cr2O72 7l \ + 7l* ?t* +ls}4lolE|. +
    Ag+<No3- <cr2o72-
    +^l +^l= +gr+ e+.
    >H.EqH1 > E= qtr{|2
    El-g slq+ql4 zl* z.r'* &Elz]E .+qelzP (.s. 20.IE +S EIEI+g ,J+ +fl4q1^l qt ¤¤4144 ++l= C
    qlolq= ol3-oBJ+.) 6}^le_(*. 20. lg ol+6J+).
    (a) Cl-(aq) (b) Clr(s) (c) ozk) (a) u*(aq) (e) Na+(a{) r-(aq), Fe(s), Al(s)

    2o.5 I al+ qlLl7'le,l ttEI -trJfl tl't


    E4 dxlE "Jel dzl dglE ^Jc6I7l +16ll ^Its4 t+-+I+l Hl¤¤ ol+qlq= ag'J
    olHgl+. HI+ dzl d+l= "JH, +q{ &p}-+tg Hi*q z}gc q+E aa6J + 9lE}.
    4¤e 94 dzlql"J .Jag 1* olrl4 "JEI4"J 4lsl-+tg Hl*q s* 4o14. rqs
    e al zo.sg ++r+ zJol .JHlaletr ¤ + 9l+.
    E' : ELa (+tg r+A) - r,""a (&:* 4d) [20.10]

    zl zo.sg ErJ H¤^14, Tlaqql^.1 ot4 e4'ceu'g zl+-r', &sr, g¤ a+g &sl. +t
    g Hlqo e-e ut+q + gEl 4zlzl otqqE se:trI= 4g zJaa[g4. olx]lE q]89 z]ts
    C4 zld49 +41= "JHI49E Cr-l6IE, "J+ E alg zlgzl HI-8-g, ¤+ E Al* ulxtg
    4 Hl¤¤ +4U+. q7l^] E= HIE= ^Jqlql^J 7)44, 9l dzlzl gl= E E= t|4ql
    Tldqg 44 9rlaJ4. =
    ^J
    tq
    .rz
    qHl 20.e
    4'J41tt8 01+

    8 20.1= olEdlq qB HJ30lE= 8EHoll^l "Jolg aoJxl=


    ^|."J4oe =E6l'^19.
    (a) Cu(s) + Z[+(aq) Cu2*(aq) + Hz(g)
    (b) Cl2(g) + 2t-(aq) +- lCl-(aq) + l2(s)

    6llS
    +l6}q, Bzl {}c+ +9"!+ +g HI+E HI+ q}+g ++. +g
    + Zlel HI80l +q4 fla, 4 Hl*el zlgcg aaql ql s= +g d9le} al zo.to9 ol+4q HISel -Ef emf r
    =4
    oF 6J+.
    E"= Al4I6l=EJl, HI+ol z|${eg .JqL}eJH -Ef emfizt
    rE q}+ol Ef tl-qlql^l ztg4.Jzl 446171 oJi¤o} el4.
    ^Ip+-+?l
    930 203 E7t et-+

    E0l $fl' ZH*(aq)+2e- ------Hz(g)


    (a) Bz] 4I+ HI+ Hlg"r+ sg HI+ HI-"qg sqloilo} rJ4. 4I4, Cu(s) Cu2*(aq) + 2e-
    -
    + ++ HI*E s= +fl d+l= *4, ^l zo. rog olg E' : Ei"a (¤I?l 44) - ri.a (ts] 4C)
    6Iq E"= 4tlqlq. : (0v) - (0.34v) : -0.34v
    E z| $folue, ol+¤¤ zlx]l$ $aJ,eE! zlEJ4q
    -E .Jq+zl ?*=+. +?.1 ++e (a)g HI*91 zlfl 'Itr
    +._qql^J Hls"6t^l g+=trI. rq+ qH}gg q-e-=4
    ztol E"zl oJ+71q!.E HI*ol .Jq\14.
    ^Id Cnz*(aq) +Hz(s) .----- Cu(s) +ZH+(aq) 4" : +0.34V
    r}4,<l cu2*g Hzoll 96lI +|gg + gl+.

    (b) (a)9lrJ4 ee rlag q=q $tl, CI2(g)+ 2e- + zct-(aq)


    {S, 2r-(aq) Iz(s) + 2e-
    -
    ola+ql= 5": (1.36V) - (0.s4V) : +0.82V
    E.z| olf.olss, ol tsJ+ol zi$zJ9E "Jq+I 94
    dzl= EI5 + 9l+.
    > H5qH1 (a) I2(s) +SCuz+(aq) +6H2O(l) +
    Cl2, Br2,I, + qL 4o]t fez+(aq)$ Fe3+(aq)E 4lf+^lrJ zIQ @fi + 5 Cu(s) + t2H+(aq)
    f 9lEzI? @) H**(ail + 2t-(aq) -+ Hg(l) + Iz(s)
    (a) Iz 0) Clz (c) Cl2e| I2 (d) Clre| Br2 (e) 94 -Er+ (c) H2SO3(a4) + 2Mn(s) + 4H+(aq) +
    ^jl
    > H=ql1l2 S(s) + 2 Mn2+( aq) + 3 H2O(l)

    4-q rel s= {}?l d+l= ol+6}q, +g E}*ol s'= ^}


    4 ql^l ztg4 olzl$ !z$alr.le.

    ++9 ¤.FE ^lgql s= Sg d+l= ++B + 9l+ a,---' (4.4$).:g+E .tl¤(E a.s)oll
    E= ++g:1++trtrt ol4ql fl= ++ olgql E6il &Elg+. gEE
    ^l ^Jgg ++E
    tls+ HI*q 7la6}q 'J6J +92,il= +lq, "+J +lfl4lE ol4ql +gd+ql, olE s zo.r
    +^Je+= Hlql %I6J.oltrl-. qlE EE I\{iL- gsoE 4lgq^l Ae!_4 glgl glErll, olE NizI
    e.l

    Agtr4 trl 'J* E}fl4l4E Eol+. &sl-+g H}¤.ql^l Etflzllb tls+qI] e,


    '-l4ol
    ge
    + dzl CE+g+. trl+^J Ni ++4 Ag+ ol-e-o1 4q 9= g6JEql^l= i]+l. EI+g ql^J
    g+ flbq, Ag+ ol$o1 uld olgge qlillg+.
    Ni(s) + 2 Ag+(aq) .- Ni2+(a4) + 2Ag(s)
    ol HI*ql^] Ni= &+q.a As*i +gqflq. 4+^l ol Hl+g E= Tldq E.= +6li .H
    H,
    Eo : Eiea (a87ag) - Ei"d(Ni27Ni)
    : (+0.80v) - (-0.28v) : +1.08v
    gE il++ol t}e+e+ Ae* ol&g +lgql gt zttszJ 4c
    oJ+ E" <tg Niql 9.J Ni ++E
    ol+= ag +4U4. Ag* ol*9 HI+ +¤¤ 2-e. +6tqzl,J E= ++fl d+l= HErol $
    += ag +^l "Jtr ,Ja6J+.

    A E 4.sotl^l sn2*e[ Ni2+e1 dr64 pl-lE -trq1g --J nll, sn2*4 Ni2* 6 ql aol trl E
    | =* E+t= 7tx=rr
    =
    =Edt^te.
    20.5 0llLl^lef uol-sJfl BJB 931
    ^f+

    7ltaj, zh+ qll--lzl, BE ^J+


    Gibbs zl-ft qlq^l Hg|(AG)= gA+ gEe+ "JA+ 'Jqql^J gq+= qI+E
    4gc lEolrf ,,,,, (rs.s¤). zl44 EE_ lls}-+g HI+el zlgc q+= +Et &
    qlL aolE-+, 7ldq4 zI+ qlq7l trql +41= trI¤-4 ag 4eE +
    4E + el+.
    ^rolel
    "t
    .-,.1.,,tG
    'i F
    LG: -nFE l2o.r1.)
    ol n3 H}*oll^l olEot dx[9 EfE +E+,]l= ++l fl= o3=4o1Q. FE
    ^lq^l
    Michael Earaday9 ol$g up.J Faraday tH{FaradayconstanQ+r 6Jq(]B 20.12).

    F: 96,485C/mol : 96,485J/V-mol

    Faradayt+: {z} t molel d6fE}ol+.


    zl zo.ttql,'.1 Al&¤ acel +fl= I/moto14. rl ts.tsglrJpi,Jol, 'EBbe'
    mole)'3 '$A¤ H}*^lql 4fl ll+qltr HI+61+ E J'E 9"ls .rl--$6Jr{ ..,.,.
    (1e.7il ).
    nal FY oliolr.tr., ll zo.rr9 E atol o}+olH, aG {tg *izl g+. II}4 r^JzJ 20.12 Michael Faraday Faraday
    E {}ol oJfolzlq AG 7,[o1 *+olH t]*ol z]Bzlol+= ag']El-B+. H] 7e1 -1 867)= E+0ll^1 TfuEf LH880lol
    (1

    ^l 0F=e r+,51q1 I El EHolLJrl. qxllu


    ¤¤r+ rJCEol E-+ g.= tl4ql $+8, ^l 20. n9 AG'e+ E'E El-g + 9l+. 0'l + 9lfir ^11E39
    rJsl0ll-E ef4-g +
    ^!= "J=
    91

    LG" : -nFEo l2o.l2l zl Elflrl. 1812Lloll= 8|aJ E+40il ?]flrJ


    Humphry Davye.l 'tE¤ 4+7f Elfltf. f.ts
    AG"= AG': -Rr ln i((^l 1e.20)ql E6ll Hl*E ¤B tl+ rs+ *flol 9l g=oll^l 718 +Eol-z g-Btq fl= 4-+^le
    7l trllE.tl, E'ql ql6l] 4 z}.tz= EE E"= Ke+ +dzlg + 9lr r ++"ll oJdBJol Davy9 FZlrfz[ slflosl. a[+ tr
    ^l I+sf 6l+ EJ39 5eJ4 trZl= "J6l
    le.209 ac"ql qlEf,+. ^10il^l
    L WIT trlo
    E nlx Olll-q LFTlrL

    *:fl:-+#:ffmx ?o,31
    E O L:E H--i= E'^ALI,
    O Everett Historical/Shutterstock

    :1a 20.139 Eo, AGo, r( eqh"J aol+.


    ^|ol9 +41=

    0lafl rtsoil^l AG" 4r|" r ^l0ll


    ?]ts n3 +18 sl0l6l.E7l-?

    L,Go : -nFE"
    AG":-RTlnK
    Eo

    K
    r" : BImr
    nt
    arB 20.13 E', AG', /(el trZl Cl 6tLlU gE Llq^l 7ll= +-g+ ?tl. E"el AG'ql ?6=
    E= 8Et|oll^] BJSe-] U-sr=
    =oll^l
    K= E:d dElloll^1
    =
    U3E48¤E9dtH4 g=
    =E6fr. =5-srtl.

    ql4l 20.10
    $.+ +fl {?le. ac'e+ K +gl7l
    (a) E 20.1011 ?l= x'= #fl d9lE 0lE6|.q, 2e8 K0ll^1 tlB HJS9 s.= 011L1^l EsKAG9el EE 8+00= +61^le.
    ^l+
    Ag(s) + OzG) + 41+(aq) + A,Ag*(aq) + 2H2O(l)

    (b) +l HJ8al. ,JxloJ Al+71Hlfl, rF= HJSel E= 7|EqG.), E= 0{lL1^l Ha(AG.), EE A+{'()= +al^lg.
    ^l+
    * ior(t) + 2H+(aq)'-------+ lAg*(aq) + H2O(/)
    1
    2Ag(s)
    932 2oB ETlEIqt

    All'J
    E4 s+ +Ig d+l= ol+4q 1I+-+g HI+E AG'e| K 4 zo.ro9 zlEE ol!-o6l-q E"E flxl lap.,
    filEl s. zo.14
    ++4. L,Go: -nFE"q AC.: -RT In K= ol+6}q AG.9I KE +
    = +4.
    Evl
    (a) *d HI+4g + HI+ HISeE ++n s
    zo.r(s.= +E E)ql^l l}g e*etr4(E?.J= SB, Ozk) + +H+(aq) + 4e- + zHzo(l) Ei"6 : +1.23V

    +5J+. aAg(s) Ei"6 : +0.80V


    ^lpl' -4Ag*(aq)+4e-
    + H4ll HI+ Hi¤+ ql 7l]E g gxl-= 7fa4+,
    Tldqg +Colse s.20.19 ZIg rElle
    ^ll7l
    .al zo.rog ol+6IE ++n+ a+. E: (1.23V) - (0.80v) : 0.43v
    ^FSoJtrt.
    +l HI+ q]¤¤ HH n:4e+Y Ag'J + gleE A,G" : -nFE"
    -tr, olz.ll \ zo.rz* ol++q AG.= 4l4}+q.
    : - (4)(e6,485 J/v-mol)( +0.43 v)
    : -7.7 x 10s17mol : -170\J/mol

    +¤-g aco: -Rr ln K= ol+6}q B¤ t+E :


    AG" -RTlnK
    +6lE EtrI. AG'=Ell+=++olE+, ol Hl+ -1..7 x 10s17mol : -(8.314JlK mol) (298 K) ln K
    e gqq4e-E zlg^dol Efl+ r+L 49 9"1 lnK: -1.7 x tosJ/mol
    ++. tr14^l K7l Z a o-e qtr-¤+. -(8.314JlK mol)(2e8 K)
    ln-K : 69

    K:9x1O2e
    (b) diJ Hl¤¤ (a).illg *.1 ar+ ae-E-e EI+ Elfl' LOIG) * zH+(aq) + 2e .------ H2O(/) Ei.a: +7.23Y
    HI¤+ +gr+ 44. &EI, 2 Ag(s) -+ 2 Ag+ (aq) + 2 e- Ei"a: +0.80 V

    E?.a <}3 HI+ Hi*q i= +qs E6I7l g:7


    (a)ql,rle} *4. , atol (a)ql^-le.l ¤*"J n:z-tr
    Eq} aql ++aI4. r4oe AG"i (a)9 EHI
    H EI
    =trL LG" : -(2)(e6,485J/V-mol)(+0.43V) : -83 kJlmol
    aG'E <ig 3I}4^lel 4lfz| tlol qq^l (a)ql^l
    9 elol ¤4.
    olxll KE +6IH +gr+ a+ -8.3 x 104Jlmol : -(8.314JlKmol)(298K)lnK
    K:4xlola
    +st E"=
    ^llzl
    Ceolq^l qE 4l+tr E.6l.4+ ++qE ¤ CrOaz (aq) +4H2O(/)+3e- Cr(OH)3(s) +sOH-(aq)
    6Jg Bzl ?*=tr}. rq+ aG.= e7l .ceolq^l sa¤ HI (a) -0.a3 V O) -0.28 V- (c) 0.02 V
    +^lql Ll4t 4ltg azl"il g6}-9 E=+. *B l}+E 3 (d) -0.13 V (e) -0.1s V
    7l teol+. > .EAE qlr.{ 2
    > leE qlfl 1
    -+
    2Ag+(aq) + Hz(g) 2Ag(s) +ZH+(aq)
    trl^8- Hi+ql^l AG: +87 kl/molol4.
    +l H}+^lql^l H2@), Ag(s), H*(aq)A AG/.E jr+ 0ol+.
    3 Ni2+(a4) + 2 Cr(OH)3(s) + 10 OH-(aq)
    s.20.rql flts Ag*(a4;E s'= +g d?lE ol+6lq As+
    Ni(s) + 2 CrO- a2- (aq) + 8 H2O(l)
    (aq)9 AGr"E +6Ia, ol= ? ce] <I+ Hli+q B^l
    3

    *.20.lq1 91ts Ni2*1a4;E s.= +I+1 dgE aq6ll g trll,


    9. =
    q-g qI+ ++E s= +g d+l at* 9u}.Jzt?
    20.6 | HIE= alEHoI^lol Tl^l tr91 933

    trl4 g
    zlg4 +*ql,tl ac= HISq^l eg + ilE =149(rry.J$ ¤4. ol4a Hlzlg4 HI*g E^l.e H}*^l7l"ltr E+ d
    9"1,*4 e=:-. (l!.1$). u}4r-l lc : -nFEE ol+"IE B4 gg ga6|q lE*illB+ t E+ dgl(2.*)5 aq+qot'J
    dlql^l Eg + 9l= 44'Jg Elgl} e+. 4. qltr, E: -0.e volH E"*,9 +0.e v-H-4 4oF HI*ol "J
    : -nFEr4
    wmax
    qg + fl4. ol4al q= 2o.e¤q^l +E+.
    [20.74]

    E4 dzl.ll,<l E*ug flxll4 "Jiolo.+ w.,,E 6o^J-¤+7i dzl4 99 e+E +6171 ,(lzJe-E, qlqxl *+l= r*=tri.
    9Erll, olE 4l(system)zt f9lfuurroundings)9| "Jg 6t/l
    elE(w)=,tlzJcj olluJzl dqg *91.1+.
    : 1tls
    ^El&oJ
    1W
    Elq Zl9 qluJzlz| Ai6J4= {olc} r=:= (s.23).
    u}+^l e+tr *:6171 ¤0)9l E+l= ,*rll 94. .JHI
    9l 49 HE d6t"*(np)ol fiffi, E.drol EEI d ^lAg
    =++ zj otr dq4q^l ++l= atrelE^l(kwh)olq,
    zl= "Jg E*ol 6lz1 84. ql4 20.10q1^l aAg(s)+ozk) ^I¤:6I=
    rl-$$ zf,ol al4I6IE I kwh= 3.6x ro6 ;o1r4.
    + 4 H+ (aq) 4 Ag+ (aq) + 2 H2O(l) qI+E AG= - 170
    kflmololfluf.- 4 mol Ag(s), I mol O2@), 4 molH+(aq) lkwh: (looow)(1r,(#X#) : s.o rour
    "I+^l "
    iE-6lH :a,14 170 krE gg E4 dzlzt 6}al g+.
    = qtr q13-o1 u1z].g4olB AGE oJ+olr E= ++7I +¤ ¤+E4l:2o.se,20.60
    "J"J

    20.6 I HlEf tlEfqhlsl tal 'zJ+l


    zl+vl^]+ HI¤¤$ ^JCEol E= tlElql ilg trI zldqg Zl&61-= ,JHg "Jolsgi4.
    relLt E4 dzlE
    ^l-&614
    9E dFzI 3-E7ll El-a HI*ES iEl6lq SCE-S "J=EI.
    l4,E olE EaE +E: H6Il1 'ldqg a{zleE 'Jd6l.4 qr a"+ql: E:0ol
    9 ull, dzlE'trI {l+'+]1 ++. ol eql^lE Tldqel {lol El-E= z4E ril qB4l BC
    q=^l= gqtra+. ulEf tL4q^J g^J¤ Tldqg dzl EleI olEel 7la= qB+ 5
    99 c+qlzl walther Nernst(1864-re4r)71+E+ !$ ol*a}{ 414}E + 9l+.

    Nernst 4.1

    t.Eql ulE zld49 Hs|= zls olluJxle| +EE +4l4sE+El +E6J f 914 *
    0s.t4)..JEE Elq EISql 4El xI# "llHzl Hs](ac)z} r}89l 4* E= zI+ qlqzl
    HE(acae+ *Ag+= 1¤ trzla[4.
    AG: AG"+RT1nQ [20.15]

    {zld qE *¤- zlfe, ¤B tt4z} otB qlq EoEE L}4.1t= 4"J +-e^1"j BB ^}+e+
    eg Eo"tolr}. AG: -nFE 44 AG.: -nFE. ^lg rl]Edl-E q+4 e+.
    _nFE: _nFE" + RTInQ

    ol !g Eql qql EE o}4e+ zjol Nernst {(Nernstequation)ol $r}.


    E: E"- #,"O tzo.r6)

    ol
    ^lg
    ++ ql+e EI-+fl,
    E: E" - ffiq,o*O lzo.r7)

    2e8 Kq!= 2.3$ RTIF *ol o.ose27l qEE Nernst 49 7J+61 B + 9l+.
    E: Eo - 9Ya"rO (r: 2e8K) t2o.18l

    ol 49 ols-o a}q HIE+


    ^J4ql^l
    Tldqg Eg + flsq, HlqE Tldqg +46I9+H q
    934 208 I7ltrlq

    tr slE+E LoE=. golg +E 914. trl-s EI+ss Nernst alol 9Bzll ¤*9Ezl airlHz}.
    Zn(s) + Cuz+ (aq) Zn2* (aq) + Cu(s)
    ol EI+ql^J n:2, *_i 7\44 E.:+1.10- yolEE 2e8 Kql^l Nernst 49 q-94 g+
    (zo.+4).
    "'"=

    E: 1.10v -o'os2zv brffi tzo.Lsl

    aql^J +++ r4l= 4lq¤g 7lE6|zI "-.=. (1s.6¤). u3$ [cu2*)tl rtzlfit_lzn2*lty z;
    d6IH Tldq E= .E= 7144 E": 1.10 v itEtrI 42141 g+. ql= EH [cu'z*] : 5.0 M,
    Vr'*):o.o5o M g tr]],
    E=1.10v-ry?4.r(ff)
    : 1.10v _o.os2zv e2.oo; : 1.16,

    ulE^l [cu2*]z] e= tlqtr+ ¤17]6]r., F^lql Vn'*lzl .s= d]qtr+ 446]H 7144

    !g
    gEr 4zlzl %lAflql ulzt^J 4 d{9 Tldqol E9zlEzl$ ol6fl6l+ Ell
    Nernst
    ESg dxl HIBoI Tlqolrll EH e}¤¤ol ^JCEg Hslslq HI* {+ ezl rtzlirl
    =4.
    r, q+^J E7I +4'6l+ql A+ E:0q Ep:"|zll ¤4. Ac : -nFE(A 20. tt)ols + 6:s
    g qlEolg AG:0ol fle enu., (te.7H). trF|^J E:ool{, d4 elSS ¤Bq olsel d
    4l t}*ol "Jq+4 S=+.
    .JHl4sE HI¤¤E EoETl +7li;l4L+ boETl A46IH Tldq E= 4zl4l 4
    ^JCgg
    tr}. HI4.E HI¤¤g *ETI Aa6Ir.
    ^JCEE tETi +7I6IH
    Tldq E= s= TlAqB+
    zlotzlzll 94.
    qHl 20.11
    H
    lEt"u E|lqF-l 7 ltal +BP I
    I
    ?E7l298K.lCr2Or2-):2.0 M.lH+):1.0 M, [t-]:1.0 M, [Cf+]:1.0x10-5M g r4l qE d^l HJSe-l T|daJE +61-^19.

    Cr2O72-(aq) + l4[+(aq) + 6l-(aq) + lCr3*(ag) + 312(s) +7H2O(t)

    Ttlff
    E{ E4 dzlE e}E} H}+^1, gE, Els.= t}EI"J 4el ,14 uls.? *qlql^l {zlel emf= ZI&6}EE, rl zo.rs B
    ^JC
    E4 HI¤¤g E" EE ?r ,ldqg fali $xllolr|. rllel Nernst 49 ol$aJ4.

    E0l
    +d E= ++l d9(s 20.1 E= ++ E)E+q dzl tI*
    ql 4+E'ag +++. qxll zo.oollrl +6J ol HI+g s= lcr3*12
    x
    emfb.E":0.7e vol+. qlrilq^l E Ere+ Bol, ffixllEf Icr2o72-][H+]14[t-]6
    rl dz} 0zHzI 4}Elxlle olf,a|fl 9 s E n : 601 4. f el o -=. _ (1.0x 1g-s)'z
    - :s.ox 1o-,1
    tI* zli Q= Els=4 eq. (2.0X1.0)14 (1.0)6

    al zo.rsg ol+6tE trfs=4 eg arl^= gg + gltrI


    E: o.7eY (r*r)ros(5.0 x 1o-11)

    : o.7ey (try?I)(-10.30)
    : O.79Y + O.1OV : O.89V
    20.6 HIE= AEHoll^lel t^l E?l 935

    ztr Hl*=(cr2o72-)E EoEE 2.0 Mtr- 1 M-E-+ ri1, {^d zldqg $"I"JzI?
    s ^19
    E(cr3*)9 EoEE t.0xt0 ME t ME+ zlgE-tr emfzl (a) 0.71 V (b) 0.s6 V (c) o.ae V (d) 0.7e V (e) 0.64 v
    E.EEI 4atl. Q7I4q 10-10olEs, log Q= E -roo14. > s.5 qtfit2
    > H= qliJll :H zo.s9l ilE zn-cu EEt dzlql^l +g d+ +ql
    Pb2+(aq) +zn(s) ------. Pb(s) +znz*(aq) cuSoa.5 HzOE G]*@q) LoE=i. <.71^171P',7]|44
    44
    [pb2*]:1.5x10-a M,lzn2+)=0.55 Mg ql, +l E4 d g qBzl HB 1"Jz|?

    qru 20.12
    BEI trlbr +Et7l

    ral 20.9011 .H9! Zn-H+ d^loll,\l ?E)l25 "c, [zn2+1:1 .o M. P4:1.0 atmg r|l TlEajol 0.45 vflrt. oltrll u+fl E= Eo4el
    pH=+6|.^19.

    rHS
    E4 E4 d4, em1 znz+! bE, ur9 +E "Jqq 4".J t Nernst + ^l 20.189 ++. [H*]E 44i;l7l gloll [u*]
    = +ig d+ +EE pHE 4l&ollot q+q,
    zlezl iq4 91tri. s+61+ aql
    ^1,
    qlql 49
    zI¤6171 9loll d4 HI+ql ql6J
    oiae HI+ SdoJ H*9 Es+q z1^Ig + 9ltrL
    r-o
    = ulzlu|g--e. pHE 4lcalzl g16l] [H+]=
    ^lg
    6J4.
    ^l-*6J+. ^l-g'
    filq dzl HI+q ql+ 49 4}c6ta s= +|g dg= ^l_s
    4q E"= 4l4I6J+. HI+^lql^J n9 {19 a4+ +ql aql 4
    E0l
    dzl tI¤* +++ A+ Zn(s) + ZH*(aq) Zn2*(aq) + Hz(8)

    : -
    -s= Tldq E zlg +6J+ E" Eiua (+g) - E?"a (&g+)

    : 0v - (-0.76v) : +o.76Y

    449 zn flzlz| {z} + 7l]= So o-e n:2


    rl zo.re¤ ol+4q. o <ig tsg + 9l+ 0.45 v : o.76v -94P92v toge

    Q:1010s:3x1010
    9l ti¤:^lql^J BB tr-+ ¤4q a= ols"6tH, (1.0)(r-o)
    o- :lt!'_",_ : 3 x roro
    [H']' [H ]'

    [H*]91 46l] IH*l2: l'o,. -- 3 x lo-,


    =8. 3 x l0ru

    tH.l :\6x10":6x106M
    ufxlnJe_e., +g +"-q9 pn= 4l&6J4 pH : log[H*] : -log(6 x t0 6; : 5.2

    +et H}+^lql H*7t fl= g4 dzl= [H*]+ pHE * +? ++ {!$: 2e sn2*1a4; + Sn(s)
    =q
    g + 9l+. pH trlElE pH= +EI.E 9lg + 9lE+ ,J= E (a) 3.:x to M 0) r.9 xro 4-M
    2
    (c) 9.ox to-3 M

    4 dxlol4 -" 1ro.+E). (d) 6.9 xt} M (e) 7.Ox tO


    4 3
    M
    > .E= qlx.il 1 * "=* filrii2
    El¤- Hlso_q_-+. ol+q1l E.Et dzlql^l *E7l2s "c, 7ld :H zo.sgl -H-ol Zn-H+ dzlglrl +E7l 25'c,lzn2*l
    qol 0.660 Y,lZn2+l:2.5x10-3MoJ 41, Sn'*9 bE= :0.10 M, p11,:1.0 atm? ull Tldqol o.s+z V94. ololl
    Boltlzl? g-q E9 ¤tg dflE ols-"o]-.r.le.) +g d+ *"-99 pHE +6f^le-.
    &3tI Hl+ q]$: zn1s1 znz*(aq) + 2e-
    -
    936 203 E7l6t-+

    tE tzl
    ^)+vl^l +qe E4
    dzlES &sl d+ql^] Elf,-{+ EA4 +lg d+ql^l Hlso 6I= E
    aol ^l-e r+s4. rel+ dzl9 zldqol L"E9l E++trI= ag, + HI+ drlE Elq
    +ol aotE EoETI 4e21".1 6IH E4 dzlE +d6J + 9l+= d¤ 9"1e4. ole+ A
    ol a3 s+q}+olzl"J Els +E EIEqI g^J6l+ Tlaqql TIHI* dxl= tE Ert
    ^JE
    (concentration cell) eP aJr1.

    tE dzlE qL ql= r.al 20.14(a)q LI4rXfl4.


    ++ dzlE 1.00x10 3 MNi2*1aq1 .J
    +slql qA ++ d+g -Jq "J59+. trI= HI+ dxlql= qA ++ 4aol t.00 M Ni2*
    BA 9lq. + HI+ dzl} e+?]e+ d'JZIE zl+= ddql Edl EAg+.
    (aq) 89"11 HI
    + dzl ++e ,+ 4+ Hl*E 9r}8.l 84.
    4I4 d*' -+ Niz*(aq) + 2e-
    Ni(s) Ei"o : -0.28V
    *fl d*' Ni2*(a4) + 2e- -+ Ni(s) Ei"a : -0.28V
    ol dzlg E= Tldqg ooltrI.
    E3"u : Ei"a (*ifl d+ - r,""0 (4}sl d+ : (-0.28v) - (-0.28V) : 0v

    rEl+ ol d4= + HI+ dzl 49 Ni2+(a4) bETI E-+ l yol olrlzl qlEql uls.#
    ol dzlE [Ni'*].r+"=:[Ni2*J41ea+ol ¤ 4]z]
    ^Jqlql^l 4*+tr1. dxll,
    (nonstandard)
    xl zlE"t4. F HI+ dzl 6 Ni2+ t:E7I trl #g +.-{ql^J Ni(s)9 &s} e}*ol .Jq+q,
    nlE+^l Eg +"-qE HI+ drlTl ol dTle] &s] d*ol g+. Nir* +E7[ rJ d6.J H]+ drl
    ql^l= Ni2*(aq)el sfl e}80l Tl68qq, q4^l rl+ s90l Eq 9l= d+e sfl d*ol
    ¤tr}. d{ dzl tI¤¤ Elgr+ Aq.
    &4 d*, Ni(s) + Ni2*1a4, #g ¤-ol)+ 2e-
    Sfl d*: Niz*7aq, tI.J +"-q) + 2e- Ni(s)
    d4, Niz*1aq, AtJ +.-q) -
    -+ Ni2*(44, #g +.-q)
    bE drlel TlAqe Nernst al9 ol*a}{ 4lt}g + 9l+. 9l dzl H}+ql^J n:2o]r4
    dill HI+g HI+ zl+ 49 a:[Ni'*]se*e/[Ni'*]a++eol4. tr]?+^l 2esKq^l ol dzl
    9 zld43 +S+,Jol 4tE + 9t+.

    HlBol Tl"JElE oltr d+0il^i EHot67l.6tE7l-?


    e
    0.09 v 0.00 v
    Ni gqel
    TEI E+

    +
    H lX{

    Ni
    +g E+

    tNi?*l : t.oo x to-3lz [Ni2+1 :1.00M [Ni2+1 : s.5M [Nt2+1:6.514


    (a) (b)

    a.fg 20.14 Ni2*-Ni d^l HJ- olt-d tsE dxl (a) + EJ+ E^l r-tisl t\i2n(aq) EiE7l ,J^l
    ?ir. r+aN ol t^l= Egtiil. I+= g
    8-sltL (b) ol d^lE F U+ Erl Ltlsl l,li2*(aq) trtlztll F d^l Ll|E ^1tr
    Ni2*(aq)EE7l-,J01.*= q E^|= EEoll EJ6l-
    -EE7l-rJo}tr ^tE:dtl-.
    zllEI. emfzl-00lEtt
    20.6 | BIE+ SE|]oll^le] tr^l t+l 937

    <.r.H 20.15 d7l"J80l gC


    6l=
    ^llEaE
    +e Na+g[K*e] ol8^llEoll^l=
    =E-st
    EiE
    ^lol
    g
    0ll 9611 0.1 v 8Es.l TlEal=
    g^la+. olalEr +tr
    7ll ^lls=g
    4=le E=-stoeu 'J0lollal
    7f9 Er7l=e tll= 500 Vr[
    sg E7l4E "J^= 8d
    ^19
    6t Olrl
    @ Stacey Newman/Shutterstock

    *i..'
    k.,x-r (

    E: E - W#4,o*o
    - o -o'os2.v r"rffiffi 0.0592 V
    -2
    x l0-3M
    Iog1.00too,lz
    : +0.089 V
    ol +E dzl9 r':oolzl"J, zJ9 o.os v9 zldHg gs-Jr}. + d+ 8zl9 *Ezfz| o1
    dzlE LE^I 7l= +el4 ol4. + ++ dzl9 Eo E7I 'JolzlE Q : I ol ql, r : ool ¤4.
    b=. zlo1g ol+6}q d+l= gt^l7l= ololqqE pH trlEl +E g?-lE zl=zl qflr+.
    soJ:-oE iiolql 9.J d+li}g g^Jg ^JEqql^lE ol+ +s6l-trI. elE EE qql fl=
    1i4 ,rllgE ^llEE.J+r+ El++ Eql ilE olgEg E"s. z1o1q1 E6|] ^JIEE "J+ql d9l
    zlzl tgz1q. dzlrJ^J"lE EErJg 714^\vljr- s^lzl¤ +H^l7lEJ_r., *zl"J rlE.J d
    714.J g^E Hli.J g?-lql TlHlg E gd
    ^JC^l7l= 44 ^jlEr+
    E?]= ^]lEE ^l-o"6J
    rt(r=J 20.1s). rI-S "rJtl. EEq ddzl"ql^J ¤B.J ai]H, effiE dt} EE a¤ q^l
    ploi9 +scg trq += E EIE qolr+.
    ^JBillql^l dzl
    Al.xl
    EO aOa
    Hl5-?1. la{/l
    Or-q
    I
    "JAg C+e E¤.Cr+ ajlCol aolsg CEtr. Hq+4. ^llEqg ^Jr]q4sE =!s_6J E|g "lg(561 Na*, K*,
    "JHI4g.tr. C.JE dtg 5[+ql 7000 r "l^J9 e"-49 +¤] c.'*)91 qluil 7I1l EoltrI. ol= olgE
    ^lE +E +r+Cg
    Ale' Ll]tr\Xtr}. olgl"J C+q +F3 +z16[7] fl6l] gsp] bE= ^Jls
    ?Iql flE -,i;1(.!le{l *4l(intracellular fluid,
    ae BE 9l= ^l^Iel 8.+I. ^,+ ole.lql= fl+. +rl= trF ICF))e+
    ^llE +Iql ?l= +i](^llsHl *z{l(extrantracellular
    ,Jt]-g, +zlzl.J tlz] z]los +q ++ ¤+¤ 6IE^J +
    ^lE +s+. dt} =q ^llsel a+= ql
    fluid, ECF))ll^.]
    4 $9 e"-!g +i+^lzlE al49 TlAl ^J71e ^J46J+. 6l e EE, rcFe+ ECFqI ilE x*E bE= zJzJ r35 mM,
    zl"J rl++El zootr dgl agt'J dzl olEE + zl4z}"J + ma,iol4. 6[zl"J Na*E a+ rcFe+ ECF 7J br
    21o13

    Luigi Galvani (tz zg - tz gz) 4 Alessandro v olta(\7 45 - | 827) K*el a+e+ Hlrllol+. -E_5 [Na*]rcp:10 mM, [Na"]Ece
    c*9 olEl6J +=. g+ol qlii= +E6I= da ^L+r+ : t45 mMol4.
    =
    zJol dzl4oJ Btlql 96ll ae¤+= ag ilgql K* "l¤e a Fr+^lTlzlEI Na*e| ca2*
    "Ja6}fltri. d+ ^ilEEg
    *# 9"zl: dzlzJ"J g^= d7l sloln+ HI+Eol 7f{ g F4^l7lzl *fl4. rcFe+ ECF t K+ olgE bEiiql
    =
    el6[ .J+9 r-oE dzlT} "JEqA+. .$eg olgol "+ oot
    ^deE E4+ a6Jq E6]]
    g^J+trI,,,.,--.(13.511).
    =
    938 2og ETltrfqf

    +q +^H6Iq+E E:ooJ Nernst 49 ol*ol{ 414}B + +4. ol zld49 t¤I izlb C6l EE +E= aC++.
    ,ll
    glts d+lil7l gd6Jr+. gE(37.C)ql^l K+ ol ,Jg +E a4 .!ls.z} Eol+ {F!s "Joll zllqe z}.El6l.zl
    ^J4qL4.J
    -ool s6roll.r.l rCFE olE6l-zl 9l6J d+lzl-= g=+8, .J+4"J +E aA tlzl= Er+ ++g E6ll ol^l
    po _ 2.3oRT,^_
    g + 914. oi "J* +E aA tlzl= CtlE ¤ +5g +
    F : L'
    L: - np tog
    LK-Jrcr
    tK,]ro g^l7l= ql gs+ dzl4"J g^= gd^l7l= ie ul]El4
    ol+.
    : o - (61.smv)rog(1j#) : -e4mY
    r800Hql +HlE q-q45e ct
    +q ++g .Jerl
    olq. EazJ-g-tr' scr= 6Jrll "J+E EEI d d7l4oJ zt*ol .J^llg EEql^l A^lB + flg AE
    ^,llsE 4p4 =
    zls ++*rI. 9lql^J 4l4I.J d9lzlzl-¤.9 (}g ,*=+= E +E6l Ba6I9+. ol4,* Bdol {+ +l
    ^Idg
    ag K*= 16pg olf,.r.lzl7l gdl^l= "Jg 6]] +qo} ttrI= q +aL6I4^ll+=Hllgg a+g ol+6iq d^Jol E¤.6t= t,.J
    ag +4,J+. dg Hq¤ +A6f= Hla+C dt 4l+ zlH'J ddE4l
    ECFe+ rcFql fli
    ole.9 tr-Elzl.J r-oE Eq+ ¤:4 dxl (electrocardiography)9 zlaz[ u]flrf. d¤4e dds= :
    9 zld4 HEI= 71494. dtr-++ +E= req+ dzJ aJ 20.17q1 Ll4qfl+. d+E
    +3_6J ztSol 899 zlZl4
    .tJlgE 4E a{ ,$l}.(pacemaker cell)4rr. 94. ol ,!}e9 o-e EB6lb 4.olzl"J, ot+ zlg E4 dzlglrl ts^Jal d

    "+3 rcFql ilE "l¤ bE= illzl4"J %I$etr tr+^lrJe 714"J tsE ol+6}q ot+ dr,ll 7l+6J + 9l+:
    ^ldg
    -trrl a¤6J+. f.a 20.16q1^l .H.q += a^lH, ol*l+ bE ,ll+ 5*4.
    {!}3 o1 ^lls"+ EE+ dzl9 zldqg ++ rJ^l"E H+6t
    F- ls____->]

    t
    t )l
    c d
    el
    n
    il

    ------>
    ^l7J------>
    ^l2J
    afg 20.16 oJ2Jel dSoll^1 E+l^tel Est dSel+E A.fe 20.17 de4?l ddE(electrocardiogram) ?1^11 trEoil +
    E ol8 5E Eetoll ttl-= d9l^l-sl Eal ^8 ^llE
    AIEII=¤ E6t| A^l-d E7l^1?.1{lE= 7l=-Llrl.

    qFl 20.13
    /-, tE fx|$ olttr to{el pH +A
    F THel +4 d=e.E C^l= oJ=fltl. 1U d+e P11,:1.00 atm"f nlxl ts-E9 H+(aq)E EJ=olf;rl. 2E d+3 E= +4
    =El
    E+0lr[(PH,:1.00 atm, [H+]:1.00 M).298 Koll^l 0l E^lsl dgP 0.21'r v-+ +8E1fl?, E^1.= 1u E+eE+El el+ trlE=
    E6|1 2H E=o+ Ee= aolrJ=Elflrl.. 1H l+ql^l Eq{9 pHts g0l?]71?

    aflu
    E{ LoE dzl9 d.F}, d+7} s.-=.i [tt]ol +qa+. E IlEi Q= +6}rl fl6ll Nernst 49
    ^F8-6J
    + 9ln, rfl q.g
    6J 1B Hl+ dTlE [H*]E xlleloJ E_f H]¤¤r+ {cEE b ulzl :-oEE +6171 +loll Q= ol3.o6J+. ol dzl= toE d7l
    E E= FE "J4.1 +qA+. olTl qlEql E".a1 : 9 yo111.

    E0l
    al$ 4+g Eg + o.2L1,Y: o _ 4Y4'orO
    Nernst 49 ole" ?1q.

    logq: -(0.211r,(**-) : -7.13

    Q:10-7'13:7.4x1,0-8
    20.7 u|IElalelEE t^l 939

    d^l+ lH d+ql^l zH d*es a=zl ullEgl


    rH d*ol 4Ie+ d+ola, zH dAol +lg d+ d+ l: H2(9, 1.00atm) 2H*(aq,xM)+2e- ff*a : 0

    olEl. r++^l d+ HI¤+ q-q-rl eq. rH d* 4+ 2t 2H*(aq,1.00M) + 2e- - H2(g 1.00atm) 4"0 : 0
    2H+(aq,1.00M) -
    E [H*] ]ri ulzlf xe 4449.4. d4l: ZH*(aq,xM)
    -
    tri4^l
    o_ lH' (aq,xM)12
    _: r, : :7.4y
    - [H'(aq,t.OOM))" (1.00)2=
    xz 1g_t

    x : [H'] : \h.4 x70+ :2.7 x ro-4

    r4oe. rH d*9lrl f4 899 puts pH : -log[H*]: -log(2.7 x 10-a; : 3.57

    +st rH d+E H* tE= 2H d+tr+ z+e <lg 7l4tr+. (a) -0.23 v, +?l d+ G) 0.46 v, $fl d*
    q-4,r] rH d*ol &cI d+ol g+. 4Hz9 H+(aq)89 {} (c) 0.023 v, &e+ d- (d) 0.23 v, Qltl d+
    4t td d*9 [H*]=. (zltlz1q. (e) 0.23 v, tlEl d?

    > !l¤ qlfill > H* filrll2


    qE r-"E d47I + Zl9 +d d+ss+El +Cq9tsql, qtr *E 4^l7l + fi! zn(s)-zn'*(oq) HI+ dzltr +
    + d+ EF PH,: 1.0001+. 6J+ d+e ++el Eql Ba Cqq 9lq. a H4 Hl+ d4ql^J lzn2*1:r.3s Mola,
    4 9la, q= + d*3 o.o M g&q 844 9l+. ol dzl + Hrll H}4 dzlql^l lznz*1:3.rtx ro-4 tvrol4.
    tr+q ^Jcqb emfE Bulolq, gAlql Bad d+9 a (a) o-19 EI+ dzlTt 4IEI d+.Jrl?
    ;llts #g.JzI? (b) ol d49 emfE guloJzl?

    2o.7 | HHElale,l "JB tal


    rftElz!(battery)= dt+ E= E oltr-e] Bq dzlE +Cqq 9leq,

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