Professional Documents
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8/28/2023
1
Outline
1. Introduction
2. The ideal diode
3. The real diode
4. Applications
5. Other diode
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1. Introduction
• Diode is a semiconductor device which conduct the
current in one directly only. The name diode
comes from dielectrodes, that is, 2 electrodes.
• Two terminals: Anode (A+) and Cathode (K-).
• When the positive polarity is at the anode, the
diode is forward biased and is conducting.
• When the positive polarity is at the cathode, the
diode is reversed biased and is not conducting.
• If the reverse-biasing voltage is sufficiently large,
the diode is in reverse-breakdown region and large
current flows though it.
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2. The Ideal Diode
2.1 Current-Voltage characteristic
• The ideal diode may be considered the most
fundamental nonlinear circuit element
8/28/2023 5
Exercise 1
For the circuit as shown:
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Exercise 1 (Solution)
8/28/2023 7
2. The Ideal Diode
2.2 Some applications – Diode Logic Gates
The output will be high if one or The output will be high if all of
more of the inputs are high the inputs are high
vY = vA + vB + vC ⟹ OR gate vY = vA.vB.vC ⟹ AND gate
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Exercise 2
• Assuming the diodes to
be ideal, find the values
of I and V.
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Exercise 3: Find the values of I and V in the circuits
shown in below Fig. Ex3
Fig.: Ex3
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Exercise 4
Figure Ex4 shows a circuit for an AC voltmeter. It utilizes a moving-coil meter that
gives a full-scale reading when the average current flowing through it is 1 mA. The
meter has a 50 Ω resistance. Find the value of R that results in the meter indicating
a full-scale reading when the input sine-wave voltage 𝑣𝐼 is 20 V peak-to-peak.
(Hint: The average value of half-sine waves is Vp /π.)
Figure Ex4
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3. The Real Diode
3.1 The I-V characteristic
• The characteristic curve consists of three
distinct regions:
✓The forward-bias region, by v > 0
✓The reverse-bias region, by v < 0
Knee
✓The breakdown region, by 𝑣 < −𝑉𝑍𝐾 voltage
8/28/2023 12
3. The Real Diode
3.1 The I-V characteristic
• The Forward-Bias Region:
𝑖 = 𝐼𝑆 (𝑒 𝑣Τ𝑉𝑇 − 1)
✓𝐼𝑆 is constant (~10−15 𝐴) for a given diode at a given
temperature (Saturation current).
𝑘𝑇
✓𝑉𝑇 : thermal voltage 𝑉𝑇 = , Note: 𝑉𝑇 = 25.3 𝑚𝑉
𝑞
(≅ 25𝑚𝑉) at room temperature (20𝑜 𝐶)
✓For 𝑖 ≫ 𝐼𝑆 → 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑒 𝑣Τ𝑉𝑇
or Where 2.3𝑉𝑇 = 60 𝑚𝑉
8/28/2023 13
Exercise 5
A silicon diode said to be a 1 mA device displays a forward voltage of 0.7 V at a
current of 1 mA. Evaluate the junction scaling constant 𝐼𝑆 . What scaling constants
would apply for a 1A diode of the same manufacture that conducts 1 A at 0.7 V?
• Solution:
✓ We have: 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑒 𝑣/𝑉𝑇 => 𝐼𝑠 = 𝑖𝑒 −𝑣/𝑉𝑇
✓ Diode 1 mA: Is = 10-3 × e-700/25 = 10-3 × e-28 (A) = 6.9 × 10-16 A
✓ Diode 1 A: Is = 1 × e-700/25 = e-28 (A) = 6.9 × 10-13 A
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Exercise 6: Find the change in diode voltage if the current changes from 0.1 mA to
10 mA.
• Solution: we have V2 – V1 = 2.3 × VT × log(I2/I1) = 60 × log (10/0.1) = 120 (mV)
Exercise 7: A silicon junction diode has v = 0.7 V at i = 1 mA. Find the voltage drop
at i = 0.1 mA and i = 10 mA.
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3. The Real Diode
3.1 The I-V characteristic
• The Reverse-bias Region: If 𝑣 < 0
and a few time larger than 𝑉𝑇 (~25
mV) in magnitude, the diode current Knee
becomes 𝒊 ≅ −𝑰𝑺 voltage
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3. The Real Diode
3.2 Modeling the Diode Forward Characteristics
• The exponential model: The most accurate description of the diode
operation in the forward region is provided by the exponential model.
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑆 𝑒 𝑉𝐷 Τ𝑉𝑇
𝑉𝐷𝐷 − 𝑉𝐷
𝐼𝐷 = (Kirchhoff loop)
𝑅
Two ways for obtaining the solution of the two above equations:
✓ Graphical Analysis using the exponential model
✓ Iterative analysis using the exponential model
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3. The Real Diode
3.2 Modeling the Diode Forward Characteristics
• Graphical analysis using the exponential model
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑆 𝑒 𝑉𝐷 Τ𝑉𝑇
𝑉𝐷𝐷 − 𝑉𝐷
𝐼𝐷 =
𝑅
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3. The Real Diode
3.2 Modeling the Diode Forward Characteristics
• Iterative analysis using the exponential model
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑆 𝑒 𝑉𝐷 Τ𝑉𝑇
𝑉𝐷𝐷 − 𝑉𝐷
𝐼𝐷 =
𝑅
Two equations can be solved using a simple iterative procedure, as illustrated in
the following exercise.
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Exercise 8
Determine the current 𝐼𝐷 and the diode voltage 𝑉𝐷 for the circuit in
the figure with 𝑉𝐷𝐷 = 5 V and R = 1 k. Assume that the diode has
a current of 1 mA at a voltage of 0.7 V.
𝑉𝐷𝐷 −𝑉𝐷 5−0.7
• Solution: 𝐼𝐷 = = = 4.3 (𝑚𝐴)
𝑅 1𝑘
✓ We then use the diode equation to obtain a better estimate for 𝑉𝐷 using equation
𝐼
𝑉2 − 𝑉1 = 2.3𝑉𝑇 log 2 .
𝐼1
with 𝑉1 = 0.7 𝑉, 𝐼1 = 1 mA, and 𝐼2 = 4.3 mA results in 𝑉2 = 0.738 V.
=> Thus the results of the first iteration are 𝐼𝐷 = 4.3 mA and 𝑉𝐷 = 0.738 V.
✓ The second iteration proceeds in a similar manner:
𝐼𝐷 = 4.262 𝑚𝐴; 𝑉𝐷 = 0.738 𝑉
Since these values are very close to the values obtained after the first iteration, no
further iterations are necessary.
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3. The Real Diode
3.2 Modeling the Diode Forward Characteristics
To speed up the analysis process, we must
find a simpler model for the diode forward
characteristic.
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Exercise 9
For the circuit in beside figure, find 𝐼𝐷 and 𝑉𝐷 for the case 𝑉𝐷𝐷 = 5 V and
R = 10 k. Assume that the diode has a voltage of 0.7 V at 1 mA current.
Use (a) iteration and (b) the constant-voltage-drop (CVD) model with 𝑉𝐷 =
0.7 V.
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3. The Real Diode
3.2 Modeling the Diode Forward Characteristics
The small signal model: vD(t) = VD + vd(t)
iD ( t ) = I S ev /V → iD ( t ) = I S e(
V + v ) /V
D T D d
= I S eV /V e v /V
T D T d T
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Exercise 11
Consider the circuit shown in the figure, with R = 10 k. The power supply V+ has a DC value of 10 V
on which is superimposed a 60 Hz sinusoid of 1 V peak amplitude. (This “signal” component of the
power-supply voltage is an imperfection in the power-supply design. It is known as the power-supply
ripple). Calculate both the dc voltage of the diode and the amplitude of the sine-wave signal appearing
across it. Assume the diode to have a 0.7 V drop at 1 mA current.
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Exercise 11 (solution)
• Considering dc quantities only, we assume 𝑉𝐷 = 0.7 V and calculate
(10−0.7)
the diode dc current: 𝐼𝐷 = = 0.93 (𝑚𝐴)
10𝑘
• Since this value is very close to 1 mA, the diode voltage will be very
close to the assumed value of 0.7 V. At this operating point, the
diode incremental resistance 𝑟𝑑 is:
𝑉𝑇 25
𝑟𝑑 = = = 26.9 (Ω)
𝐼𝐷 0.93
• The signal voltage across the diode can be found from the small-
signal equivalent circuit in Fig.(c). Here 𝑣𝑠 (@ 60 Hz) 1 V peak
sinusoidal component of V+, and 𝑣𝑑 is the corresponding signal
across the diode. Using the voltage-divider rule provides the peak
amplitude of 𝑣𝑑 as follows:
rd 0.0269
vd ( peak ) = Vˆs =1 = 2.68 (mV )
R + rd 10 + 0.0269
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3. The Real Diode
3.3 Zener diode Operation in the Reverse Region
• In breakdown region, a reverse bias (𝑉𝑍 ) beyond (knee current)
the knee voltage (𝑉𝑍𝐾 ) leads to a large reverse
current (𝐼𝑍 )
• 𝑟𝑧 : dynamic resistance, is the inverse of the slope
of the almost-linear I-V curve at the Q-point.
Typically, it is in range of a few ohms to a few ten
• ∆𝐼 and ∆𝑉 on Zener: V = rzI
• 𝑉𝑍0 denotes the point at which the straight line of
1 (maximum current)
slope intersects the voltage axis.
𝑟𝑧
• Voltage 𝑉𝑧 :
VZ = VZ 0 + rz I Z
8/28/2023 27
Exercise 12
The 6.8-V zener diode in the circuit of Fig. Ex12(a) is
specified to have 𝑉𝑍 = 6.8 𝑉 at 𝐼𝑍 = 5 𝑚𝐴, 𝑟𝑧 = 20 Ω, and
𝐼𝑍𝐾 = 0.2 𝑚𝐴. The supply voltage 𝑉 + is nominally 10 V but
can vary by ±1 𝑉.
a) Find 𝑉𝑂 with no load and with 𝑉 + at its nominal value.
b) Find the change in 𝑉𝑂 resulting from the ±1 𝑉 charge in 𝑉 + .
∆𝑉
Note that 𝑂+, usually expressed in mV/V, is known as line
∆𝑉
regulation.
c) Find the change in 𝑉𝑂 resulting from connecting a load
resistance 𝑅𝐿 that draws a current 𝐼𝐿 = 1 mA, and hence find
∆𝑉
the load regulation ( 𝑂) in mV/mA.
∆𝐼𝐿
d) Find the change in 𝑉𝑂 when 𝑅𝐿 = 2 k. Fig. Ex12 (a) Circuit for example; (b) The
circuit with the Zener diode replaced with
e) Find the value of 𝑉𝑂 when 𝑅𝐿 = 0.5 k. its equivalent circuit model.
f) What is the minimum value of 𝑅𝐿 for which the diode still
operates in the breakdown region?
28
Exercise 12 (Solution)
• 𝑉𝑍 = 𝑉𝑍𝑂 + 𝐼𝑍 𝑟𝑧 ; 𝑉𝑍 = 6.8 V, 𝐼𝑍 = 5 mA,
and 𝑟𝑧 = 20 Ω => 𝑉𝑍𝑂 = 6.7 𝑉
𝑉 + −𝑉𝑍𝑂 10−6.7
a) 𝐼𝑍 = 𝐼 = = = 6.35 (𝑚𝐴)
𝑅+𝑟𝑧 500+20
→ 𝑉𝑂 = 𝑉𝑍𝑂 + 𝐼𝑍 𝑟𝑧 = 6.7 + 6.35×0.02 = 6.83 (𝑉)
b) (∆𝑉 + = ±1𝑉).
𝑟𝑧 20
∆𝑉𝑂 = ∆𝑉 + = ±1 = ±38.5 𝑚𝑉 . So line regulation: 38.5 (mV/V)
𝑅+𝑟𝑧 500+20
c)
Because 𝐼𝐿 = 1 mA, the zener current 𝐼𝑍 will decrease by 1 mA.
∆𝑉𝑂 = 𝑟𝑧 ∆𝐼𝑍 = 20 × −1 = −20 (𝑚𝑉)
∆𝑉𝑂
The load regulation is: = −20 (𝑚𝑉/𝑚𝐴).
∆𝐼𝐿
8/28/2023 29
Exercise 12 (Solution)
6.8𝑉
d) 𝑅𝐿 = 2𝑘 → 𝐼𝐿 = = 3.4 (𝑚𝐴)
2𝐾
→ ∆𝐼𝑍 = −3.4 𝑚𝐴 → ∆𝑉𝑂 = 20 × −3.4 = −68 (𝑚𝑉)
6.8
e) 𝑅𝐿 = 0.5𝑘 -> 𝐼𝐿 = = 13.6 (𝑚𝐴).
0.5
This is not possible because I = 6.35 mA (for 𝑉 + = 10 𝑉). So the Zener must be cut off.
If this is indeed the case, then 𝑉𝑂 is determined by the voltage divider formed by 𝑅𝐿 and R (Fig. a):
𝑅
𝑉𝑂 = 𝑉 + × 𝐿 = 5 (𝑉).
𝑅+𝑅𝐿
Since this voltage is lower than the breakdown voltage of the zener, the diode is indeed no longer
operating in the breakdown region.
f) For the zener to be at the edge of the breakdown region, 𝐼𝑍 = 𝐼𝑍𝐾 = 0.2 𝑚𝐴 and 𝑉𝑍 ≅ 𝑉𝑍𝐾 = 6.7 𝑉.
At this point the lowest (worst-case) current supplied through R is I = (9 − 6.7)/0.5 = 4.6 (mA)
→ load current is 𝐼𝐿 =4.6 - 0.2 = 4.4 mA. The corresponding value of 𝑅𝐿 is
6.7
𝑅𝐿 = ≅ 1.5𝑘 ()
4.4
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4. Some application circuits using diodes
4.1 Rectifier circuits
Fig.: Block diagram of a DC power supply
Ripple
• Half-Wave Rectifier Still contains a time-dependent
• Full-Wave Rectifier
• Bridge Rectifier
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4. Some application circuits using diodes
4.1 Rectifier circuits
• Half-Wave Rectifier
For the half-wave rectifier circuit (figure), show the following: (a) For the half-cycles during
which the diode conducts, conduction begins at an angle 𝜃 = sin−1 (𝑉𝐷 /𝑉𝑆 ) and terminates at
(𝜋 − 𝜃), for a total conduction angle of (𝜋 − 2𝜃). (b) The average value (dc component) of 𝑉𝑜 is
𝑉𝑜 ≅ 1Τ𝜋 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝐷ൗ2, (c) The peak diode current is (𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝐷 )Τ𝑅. Find numerical values for these
quantities for the case of 12-V (rms) sinusoidal input, 𝑉𝐷 =0.7 V, and R = 100 Ω. Also, give the
value for PIV.
• Solution: rms (Root mean square) of sinusoidal input is 12V => 𝑉𝑠 = 12 × 2 (V)
✓ The conduction angle(𝝅 − 𝟐𝜽)
𝑉𝐷 0.7
𝜃 = sin−1 = sin−1 = 2.4𝑜 => The conduction angle: 𝝅 − 𝟐𝜽 = 175.2𝑜
𝑉𝑆 12 2
𝑉𝑠 𝑉 12 2 0.7
✓ The average value (DC component) of 𝑽𝒐 : 𝑉𝑜 ≅ − 𝐷= − = 5.05 (𝑉)
𝜋 2 𝜋 2
12 2−0.7
✓ The peak current: 𝑰𝑫 = (𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝐷 )Τ𝑅 = = 0.1267 (A); 𝑃𝐼𝑉 = 𝑉𝑠 = 12 2 (𝑉) = 16.97 𝑉
100
8/28/2023 33
4. Some application circuits using diodes
4.1 Rectifier circuits Fig.: Input & output
• Half-Wave Rectifier waveforms assuming
an ideal diode.
Let the input vI be a sinusoid with a peak
value Vp, and assume the diode to be ideal.
Real Diode?
Fig.: A simple circuit used to illustrate
the effect of a filter capacitor.
The circuit provides a dc voltage output equal to
the peak of the input sine wave.
There is no way for the capacitor to discharge.
34
4. Some application circuits using diodes
4.1 Rectifier circuits
• Half-Wave Rectifier
dvI
iD = iC + iL = C + iL
dt Ideal diode
1
VO = V p - Vr
2
T
Vr V p is peak-to-peak ripple voltage
CR
2𝜋
𝜔∆𝑡 = 2𝑉𝑟 Τ𝑉𝑝 , where 𝜔 =
𝑇
8/28/2023 35
4. Some application circuits using diodes
4.1 Rectifier circuits
• Full-wave Rectifier
8/28/2023 36
Exercise 14
For the full-wave rectifier circuit as the beside figure, show the following: (a) The
output is zero for an angle of 2𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (𝑉𝐷 Τ𝑉𝑠 ) centered around the zero-crossing points
2𝑉
of the sin-wave input. (b) The average value (dc component) of 𝑣𝑜 is 𝑉𝑜 ≅ 𝑠 − 𝑉𝐷 . (c)
𝜋
The peak current through each diode is (𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝐷 )/𝑅.
Find the fraction (percentage) of each cycle during which 𝑣𝑜 > 0, the value of 𝑉𝑜 , the
peak diode current, and the value of PIV, all for the case in which 𝑣𝑠 is a 12-V (rms)
sinusoid, 𝑉𝐷 = 0.7 𝑉, and R = 100 Ω
8/28/2023 37
Exercise 14 (solution)
rms (Root mean square) of sinusoidal input is 12 V => 𝑉𝑠 = 12 2 (V)
−1 𝑉𝐷 −1 0.7
a) The 𝑣𝑜 = 0 for an angle 𝜃 = 2 × sin = 2 × sin = 4.8𝑜
𝑉𝑆 12 2
2𝑉𝑠 2×12 2
b) The average value (dc component) of 𝑣𝑜 is 𝑉𝑜 ≅ − 𝑉𝐷 = − 0.7 = 10.1 (V)
𝜋 𝜋
c) The peak current through each diode is (𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝐷 )/𝑅 = (12 2 - 0.7)/100 = 163 (mA)
2𝜋−2𝜃
The fraction (percentage) of each cycle during which 𝑣𝑜 > 0: = 97.4%
2𝜋
The value of 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝐷 = 12 × 2 − 0.7 = 16.27 (V)
PIV = 2Vs − 𝑉𝐷 = 2 × 12 2 − 0.7 = 32.2 (V)
8/28/2023 38
4. Some application circuits
using diodes
4.1 Rectifier circuits
• The Bridge Rectifier
8/28/2023 40
Exercise 15 (solution)
• rms (Root mean square) of sinusoidal input is 12V => 𝑉𝑠 = 12 2
a) The average (or dc component) of the output voltage is
2𝑉𝑠 2×12 2
𝑉𝑜 ≅ − 2𝑉𝐷 => 𝑉𝑜 ≅ − 2 × 0.7 = 9.4 (𝑉).
𝜋 𝜋
𝑉𝑠 −2𝑉𝐷 12 2−2×0.7
a) The peak diode current is: = = 156 (𝑚𝐴)
𝑅 100
𝑃𝐼𝑉 = 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝐷 = 12 2 − 0.7 = 16.27 (V)
8/28/2023 41
4. Some application circuits using diodes
4.2 Limiting Circuits
• Limiter/clipper circuits
𝐿− 𝐿+
✓ ≤ 𝑣𝐼 ≤ 𝑣𝑜 = 𝐾𝑣𝐼
𝐾 𝐾
𝐿+
✓ If 𝑣𝐼 > , 𝑣𝑜 is limited to 𝐿+
𝐾
𝐿−
✓ If 𝑣𝐼 < , 𝑣𝑜 is limited to 𝐿−
𝐾 Transfer
characteristic for
a double limiter
circuit
8/28/2023 42
4. Some application circuits using diodes
4.2 Limiting Circuits
• Limiter/clipper circuits
double-anode zener
8/28/2023 43
Exercise 16
Assuming the diodes to be ideal, describe the transfer
characteristic of the circuit shown in the beside figure.
Solution: 𝐷1 𝐷2
8/28/2023 44
4. Some application circuits using diodes
4.3 Clamping Circuits
• The Clamped Capacitor or DC Restorer
A Clamper Circuit is a circuit that adds a DC level to an AC signal. As the DC level gets
shifted, a clamper circuit is called as a Level Shifter. It shifts the waveform to a desired DC
level without changing the shape of the applied signal (but only shifts the amplitude of the
signal).
Types of Clampers: Clamp circuits are categorised by their operation: negative or positive,
and biased or unbiased.
• Positive Clamper
✓ Positive clamper with positive Vb
✓ Positive clamper with negative Vb
• Negative Clamper
✓ Negative clamper with positive Vb
✓ Negative clamper with negative Vb
8/28/2023 45
4. Some application circuits using diodes
4.3 Clamping Circuits
C1
Positive Clamper
Initially when the input is given, the Vi R1 VO
capacitor is not yet charged and the D1
@ t0 the −25 V input signal appears across R1 & D1 (the C is a short at the
first instant). The initial voltage across R1 & D1 causes a voltage spike in the
output. The charge time of C1 through D1 is almost instantaneous, the
duration of the pulse is so short → it has a negligible effect on the output.
@ t1 the D1 is off (as open circuit) → KVL: VO = Vi + VC1 = 50 V. From t1 to t2, C1 has small discharge thru R1
so it has the voltage VC1 about +23 V and the VO drops from +50 V to +48 V.
@ t2 the Vi changes from +25 V to −25 V. The input is now series opposing with the +23 V across C1. This
leaves VO = −25 + 23 = −2 V. D1 is on. From t2 to t3, C1 charges from +23 V to +25 V; VO reaches to 0 volts.
@ t3 the Vi and VC1 (voltage of C1) are again series adding. → VO is again +50 V.
During t3 and t4, C1 discharges 2 V through R1. Then circuit operation from t3 to t4 is the same as it was
from t1 to t2.
8/28/2023 Lecture # 1 - Diodes 46
4. Some application circuits using diodes
4.3 Clamping Circuits
Negative Clamper
Initially when the input is given, the capacitor
is not yet charged and the diode is reverse
biased.
❑ Negative Clamper
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5. Some other types of diodes
5.1 Photo diode
Photo Diode
8/28/2023 51
5. Some other types of diodes
5.2 Light-emitting Diode (LED)
8/28/2023 52