CH03 ElectricPowerSystemConceptsforTelecommunicationEngineers v1 RevIUGDic15IBVFeb16ASE160218-4IBV

Electric Power System Concepts for
Telecommunication Engineers
Authors: ASE, IUG, MASF, IBV,

JSM
Spain, 3rd October 2015

Legend:
XX Reference to other section or chapter.
Real Telecommunication Networks for Smart Grids 3
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 3. ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEM CONCEPTS FOR TELECOMMUNICATION ENGINEERS......6

1 HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS.........................................................6
1.1 BACKGROUND.........................................................................................................................................................7
1.2 ORIGINS..................................................................................................................................................................7
1.3 EXPANSION OF ELECTRIFICATION...........................................................................................................................9
1.4 CURRENT SITUATION............................................................................................................................................10
2 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF ELECTRICITY.........................................................................................10
2.1 ELECTRIC CHARGE AND CURRENT........................................................................................................................11
2.2 VOLTAGE..............................................................................................................................................................11
2.3 DC AND AC SYSTEMS..........................................................................................................................................12
2.4 IMPEDANCE ELEMENTS.........................................................................................................................................13
2.4.1 Phasors.......................................................................................................................................................13
2.4.2 Resistance...................................................................................................................................................14
2.4.3 Reactance...................................................................................................................................................14
2.4.4 Load and impedance...................................................................................................................................15
2.5 POWER..................................................................................................................................................................16
2.6 ENERGY................................................................................................................................................................17
3 STRUCTURE OF ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS..........................................................................................18
3.1 POWER GENERATION............................................................................................................................................19
3.2 TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS......................................................................................................................................20
3.3 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS.......................................................................................................................................20
3.4 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM ELEMENTS.......................................................................................................................21
3.4.1 Substations..................................................................................................................................................21
3.4.1.1 Primary Substations.................................................................................................................................................21
3.4.1.2 Secondary Substations.............................................................................................................................................22
3.4.1.2.1 Indoor secondary substations....................................................................................................................2423
3.4.1.2.2 Outdoor secondary substations.....................................................................................................................25
3.4.2 Distribution power lines.............................................................................................................................25
3.4.2.1 Medium Voltage lines..............................................................................................................................................25
3.4.2.1.1 Overhead lines...............................................................................................................................................26
3.4.2.1.2 Underground lines.........................................................................................................................................26
3.4.2.2 Low Voltage lines....................................................................................................................................................28
3.5 COMPONENTS OF SYSTEM ELEMENTS...................................................................................................................29
3.5.1 MV / LV transformers.................................................................................................................................29
3.5.2 Switchgear..................................................................................................................................................31
3.5.3 Circuit Breakers and Switches...................................................................................................................32
3.5.4 Bushings / Insulators..................................................................................................................................33
3.5.5 Fuses...........................................................................................................................................................34
4 OPERATIONS OF POWER SYSTEMS..............................................................................................................34
5 REFERENCES........................................................................................................................................................37
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Figures
Figure 1 – Simple electric DC circuit.................................................................................................................................12

Figure 2 – AC electricity waveform...................................................................................................................................13
Figure 3 – Phasor concept..................................................................................................................................................14
Figure 4 – Voltage, current and power relationship...........................................................................................................17
Figure 5 – Specific purpose power subsystems..................................................................................................................18
Figure 6 – Components of a full electric power system.....................................................................................................19
Figure 7 – Primary substation.............................................................................................................................................22
Figure 8 – Transformer in a primary substation.................................................................................................................22
Figure 9 – Functional structure of a primary substation.....................................................................................................22
Figure 10 – Secondary substation electrical scheme..........................................................................................................23
Figure 11 – Stand-alone shelter with overhead MV power lines.......................................................................................24
Figure 12 – Stand-alone shelter with underground MV power lines.................................................................................24
Figure 13 – Padmount secondary substation (“transformer”)............................................................................................24
Figure 14 – Components in a underground secondary substation......................................................................................24
Figure 15 – Access to an underground secondary substation.............................................................................................24
Figure 16 –Secondary substations integrated in buildings.................................................................................................24
Figure 17 – Secondary substation on an H structure..........................................................................................................25
Figure 18 – Secondary substation on a pole.......................................................................................................................25
Figure 19 – Structure of a secondary substation on a pole.................................................................................................25
Figure 20 – XLPE insulated ACSR conductor...................................................................................................................26
Figure 21 – General structure of an underground cable.....................................................................................................27
Figure 22 – XLPE insulated cable......................................................................................................................................27
Figure 23 – Three-core cable..........................................................................................................................................2827
Figure 24 – Sample European urban LV grid....................................................................................................................28
Figure 25 – Flush-mounted LV cabinets............................................................................................................................28
Figure 26 – LV distribution cabinet connectivity diagrams...............................................................................................28
Figure 27 – Three-phase transformer.................................................................................................................................30
Figure 28 – Masonry switchgear........................................................................................................................................31
Figure 29 – Metal-enclosed switchgear..........................................................................................................................3231
Figure 30 – Metal-clad switchgear.....................................................................................................................................32
Figure 31 – Air insulated switchgears................................................................................................................................32
Figure 32 – SF6 insulated switchgears................................................................................................................................32
Figure 33 – Air to oil bushing type....................................................................................................................................33
Figure 34 – Fuse.................................................................................................................................................................34
Tables
Table 1 – Fundamental units of electrical measurement......................................................................................................8
Table 2 – Main features of European LV networks [30]....................................................................................................29
Table 3 – Main MV / LV transformer parameters.............................................................................................................31
Table 4 – Types of bushings according to the insulating media on ends...........................................................................33
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CHAPTER 3. Electric Power System Concepts for Telecommunication

Engineers
Quote (pending).
Quote’s author
Readers will usually have a stronger background in either telecommunications or power systems, so
this chapter is intended for audiences without a deep understanding of the latter. This chapter will
give a general view of useful topics in the area of power systems and electric grid operations, from
the perspective of a telecommunications engineer whose expertise does not lie in the field of
kilovolts and megawatts. This chapter complements chapter 2, which focuses on elements of
telecommunication networks and describes associated concepts.
Topics covered in this chapter, along with chapters 1 and 2, are fundamental information to
understand the following chapters and to grasp the basics of the energy networks that are becoming
Smart Grids. Readers will also be better positioned to appreciate the benefits of PLC as a
technology, which naturally blends and lends itself to provide data communication services over
electric transmission and distribution networks – as described in detail in chapter 7.
Section 1 provides notions on the historic evolution and development of electric grids, and section 2
will introduce the main magnitudes concepts usually found in the deployment and operations of
power systems. Section 3 will discuss the structure of electric systems today – from the power
generation, to the final customers in Low Voltage; this section is specially detailed, as this
infrastructure plays a fundamental role in the contents of chapters 7 and 9. Finally, section 4 will
explain electric power systems operations.
[1] HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS
Although advanced power systems as we know them today may seem as large, modern “sentient”
entities that have only recently been deployed, the fact is that the theoretical foundations on which
they are built were laid centuries ago and many of the fundamental elements with which they are
still designed would be familiar to researchers and engineers who lived in the second half of the
nineteenth century. In order to better frame the view on the power systems structure that is to be
presented in section 3, a brief history of the development of electric power systems will be
introduced in the following subsections.
[1.1] Background
Electricity use has dramatically changed daily the life and the activities of people for the past 150
years. Before the advent of public electric grids, houses were lit with fossil-fuel burning fire, food
was cooled in iceboxes -or thanks to naturally cold locations- and rooms were warmed by wood or
coal stoves.
Mankind has been naturally exposed to manifestations of electromagnetism since the very
beginning, but only with organized civilization curiosity began about electric and magnetic
phenomena. All known ancient civilizations (Egypt, China, Scandinavia, Mesoamerica, etc. [11])
developed an archaic, primitive understanding of electromagnetism mainly for immediately usable
purposes (e.g. the invention of compass in China around year 200 BC, which was later used for
navigation), up to the Greeks that studied its properties with more detail. In fact, most of the terms
related to electromagnetism still in use today have their origin in Greek words.
It is with the generalization of trade among European and Asian nations and the development of
navigation skills that the knowledge of magnetic properties of materials starts being common
among European scholars at the end of the Middle Ages. As an example, consider the letter Peter
Peregrinus wrote to a friend around 1269, in which he describes his knowledge of magnetical
properties of materials and the many uses that he sees associated to them [12].
Italian physician Gerolamo Cardano is usually credited with being the first person to distinguish
between electrical and magnetic forces in 1550 [13]. However, a systematic analysis and theoretical
study of the fundamentals of electromagnetism was not possible until the basics of scientific method
started to be established, and basic mathematical tools were developed to allow description of the
relationships between different magnitudes. It was possibly William Gilbert -with his De magnete
magneticisque corporibus [14] book published in 1600- who started providing systematic
experimental results and discussion of concepts related to static electricity; his work exercised large
influence on researchers during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Robert Boyle in 1675
theorized that the electric forces of attraction and repulsion could act across the vacuum [15], and
around that date the first successful initiatives took place that harnessed and controlled the forces
and material properties of electromagnetism, giving birth to the widespread use of electrification
and its applications.
[1.2] Origins
The first element that would be recognized today as part of current power systems was developed in
the second half of the seventeenth century. The electrostatic generator was invented by German
physicist Otto von Guericke [16] and, for the following decades, this machine was perfected by
others so as to become a basic instrument in the research of the new science of electricity that was
to grow exponentially during the eighteenth century.
Stefen Gray, a British scientist, showed through a series of experiments in 1729 that there is
different electric conductivity among insulators and conductors; he introduced the concept of
electricity flow. Frenchman C. F. du Fay further experimented on Gray’s findings and theorized that
there would be two kinds of electrical fluids; this would later be reused by Benjamin Franklin to
define positive and negative electrical charges. Franklin’s discovery that lightning was in fact just a
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form of electricity inspired further experiments and, more importantly, paved the way for the
theoretical research and analysis that is the basis of modern electrical technology.
Scientists born in the seventeenth century like Charles A. Coulomb (1736-1806), Luigi Galvani
(1737-1798), Alessandro Volta (1745-1827), André M. Ampère (1775-1836), Hans C. Oersted
(1777-1851), Karl F. Gauss (1777-1855), Georg S. Ohm (1789-1857) and Michael Faraday (1791-
1867) can be considered the founding fathers of electromagnetic theory; they all give names to
fundamental units of electrical measurement (see Table 1).
Unit / System Quantity name

Coulomb coulomb (C) / SI Electric charge (Q)
Volta volt (V) / SI Electric potential (V)
Ampère ampere (A) / SI Electric current (I)
Oersted oersted (Oe) / CGS Magnetic field strength (H)
Gauss gauss (G or Gs) / CGS Magnetic flux density (B)
Ohm ohm (Ω) / SI Electrical resistance (R)
Faraday farad (F) / SI Electrical capacitance (C)
Table 1 – Fundamental units of electrical measurement.
In parallel, practical applications for electricity such as the transmission of intelligence through
conductive wires started to be trialed [17] during the last decades of the century. The first battery
was developed in 1800 by Alessandro Volta [18].
In the first half of the nineteenth century more fundamental additions were made to the knowledge
about electricity and magnetism: the intimate relation between both was proven by Oersted and
Ampere by the beginning of the 1820’s [19]. Also by that time George Green proposed the first
mathematical theory of electromagnetism [20], which was later the foundation for the work of
Maxwell.
By the 1830’s and 1840’s true pioneers such as Ohm, Faraday, Weber and Gauss achieved success
in ordering the relation of different magnitudes among them through mathematical formulae.
However, the developments that could finally tightly join the theory and practice of electricity
would be left for later. Around the mid-XIX century, Fleeming Jenkin’s work and above all James
C. Maxwell’s Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism (compiled in 1864-1873) were published.
Thanks to Maxwell’s genius, the full meaning of the work of the scientists and experimenters for
the previous 150 years became clear, all magnitudes concepts were clearly identified, measurable
and related through mathematical equations, and calculations would be made with a certainty that
was only reserved at the time for mechanics. Oliver Heaviside few years later devised vector
calculus to express Maxwell’s equations in a simpler form; he introduced the terms impedance and
inductance, among others.
Gustav R. Kirchhoff defined his circuit laws before 1850 [21]. Some years later the principle of the
dynamo was perfected [22] (the principle of its reversibility, since initially it was used as a motor,
was discovered so that it could serve as a generator of electricity): the idea of generating and
delivering electricity started to be seen as possible. Around 1870, the first electric light systems
were installed that consisted of individual DC (Direct Current; see section 2) dynamos that fed arc
lamps for outdoor and single-home lighting. By 1879 electricity was sold by the California Electric
Light Company in San Francisco (USA), which produced only enough electricity to power 21
Brush arc light lamps [23].
Thomas A. Edison patented the first long-lasting incandescent light bulb around 1880 and
developed the idea of using a single dynamo (generator) to power a multiplicity of bulbs. The
Edison Electric Illuminating Company constructed the first DC generating station in 1881, driven
by a steam turbine, and in 1882 it successfully fed a voltage of around 110 V to some 400 bulbs in
New York. This kind of DC system was adopted in other places; however the invention of the
transformer in 1883-84 [24] was going to prove the advantages of AC (Alternating Current)
systems, since they allowed raising the voltage to conveniently reduce line losses over long
distances. The process was not, however, exempt of controversy [25].
It was for Nikola Tesla to pioneer the generation, transmission, and use of AC electricity. He first
demonstrated his inventions at a large scale at the hydro development of Niagara Falls in 1896; he
also used electricity to bring indoor lighting to homes and to power industrial machines. He
established in his classic 1888 paper “A New System of Alternate Current Motors and
Transformers” the foundations of current large-scale power systems. It can be said that, since then
the major change in electric power systems has not been conceptual but only on system complexity:
the main ideas still remain of locating generators at some distance from load centers and linking
them by high-voltage transmission, and then using transformers to lower the voltage ultimately
delivered to customers.
On August 1891 three-phase current was transmitted over 175 km from a hydro power station to the
International Expo at Frankfurt [26]. The AC line frequency, a critical design parameter that allows
for important economies of scale if normalized, was later decided to be 60 Hz in some countries
while others adopted 50 Hz. This is a difference that still exists today.
Voltages of 150 kV were already in place by 1910 and the first 245 kV line was put into service in
1922 [27].
[1.3] Expansion of electrification
It was soon obvious that interconnecting diverse small power systems would bring advantages from
the perspective of enhancing reliability and reducing necessary reserve capacity. In 1925, the
United Kingdom received and accepted the conclusion of a committee that proposed the creation of
a Central Electricity Board (CEB) to link the most efficient power stations with consumers via a
“national gridiron” [28]. Such a grid would use 132 kV to interconnect power companies on a three-
phase AC system at 50 Hz. The concept of national -and later continental- scale power grids was
then born, and it is still in use today.
Between the turn of the twentieth century and the Second World War, electric utility capacity and
generation greatly increased so that electrification reached global levels. European countries that
exercised colonial rule over large areas of the world started electrification in those areas. Technical
improvements on the efficiency of generators and transformers allowed for further increases in
transmission voltage levels, so residential prices fell dramatically and power progressively became
a commodity, a trend that was mostly kept during the second half of the century. As a reference,
although not yet universally available in 1932, 66 % of US homes already used electricity [27].
In the 1970’s, the experience with deregulation of other industries started to slowly change the
heavily regulated and monopolistic landscape of utilities globally. The creation of wholesale
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electric markets and the obligation of transmission line owners to allow generation companies
“open access” to their networks meant important restructuring so that vertically integrated
monopolies started evolving towards generation, transmission and distribution operators, separately.
[1.4] Current situation
From a high level perspective, it could be said that power systems in different parts of the world
have converged over the past century towards a similar structure and configuration (i.e. large
systems that include generation, transmission and distribution sections to supply the needs of the
end-customers). One driver for this convergence is the benefit of economies of scale. However,
stemming from the fact that the power industry had very competitive origins and a geographically
dispersed nature, that fact is that still today electricity systems and their industry sector are not
homogeneous from a technical, economical or regulatory perspective. Generic targets for power
system designers have been to deploy systems that are reliable, durable, resilient, easily maintained,
efficient and economic; but there are many technical alternatives to achieve those same objectives.
Thus within the same country differences usually exist between regions, among areas served by
different companies or even areas served by the same company (which may be the merger of
formerly different groups). Although electricity signal frequencies are one of two values worldwide
(50 Hz or 60 Hz), voltage standards differ for three-phase Low Voltage systems (e.g. 120 or 240 V
in North America and some other countries, 230 V in Europe and many other countries, various
other voltages elsewhere) and there are dozens of different voltages standards in use worldwide
above 1000 V (transmission and distribution) [29].
From a regulation perspective, some power systems throughout the world are still operated as
government monopolies and others as independent transmission or distribution operators moving
power for regulated (or not) fees, charged to (possibly) merchant generators that operate on a
wholesale, usually regulated market. Thus there are parts of the world in which the deregulation and
privatization of the industry has completely changed the industry landscape in the last few decades,
while in other, more tightly regulated parts, the impact is yet to be seen.
1[2] FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF ELECTRICITY
The American National Academy of Engineering [1] reckons electricity is “the workhorse of the
modern world” and that, as the greatest invention of the past 150 years, more than half the major
engineering achievements that we enjoy today would not have been possible without the
widespread electrification that occurred in the 20th century [2].
Electricity is critical to the daily lives of most of the world’s population. However, the physical
foundations of electricity -that ultimately are behind the complex processes that bring electric
power to homes, businesses, offices and factories- are not evident to many people [3].
Several concepts will be introduced in this section, which are needed to understand how the electric
power system infrastructure works. The main specific magnitudesunits that define and support
electricity and its applications will be discussed, and finally related to the common concepts of
power and energy.
1.1[2.1] Electric charge and current
Electric charge or just “charge” is a fundamental property of all matter around us, and because
usually all electricity treatises usually begin by assuming its existence, it is also one that remains
slightly obscure. It could be defined in simple terms as the property that causes particles to
experience a force when placed near other similar (“charged”) particles. This force has historically
been characterized and measured as a field (force per unit of charge), and more specifically an
electromagnetic field, which is considered to be one of the four fundamental forces interactions of
nature (the others being weak interaction, strong interaction and gravitation [4]). The
electromagnetic field, physically produced by charged particles, affects the behavior of other
charged particles (exercising a force). The electromagnetic field extends indefinitely throughout
space and describes electromagnetic interactions.
Charge is generally understood to be quantized, i.e. there is a specific amount of charge that is
considered the smallest unit: the elementary charge or charge carried by a proton, equal to
1.602×10−19 Coulombs. All charged particles exhibit charge in multiples of the elementary charge.
Further, charge and in general electromagnetic force show either an attractive or repulsive behavior
(unlike gravity, which is always attractive). So by convention the concepts of “positive” and
“negative” charges are used, meaning charged particles of the same sign repel each other, while
charged particles of different signs attract each other.
The study of charges that are not moving is referred to as electrostatics, but it is not what we find in
electric power systems; in practice, power systems are always based on the movement of charges
through conductors. For any given point in space, the amount of charge that moves through that
point per unit of time is defined as electric current. Current is a measure of the flow of charge
measured in amperes, so that one coulomb per second equals one ampere. As an analogy that is
usually made, current would be equivalent in electrical terms to the rate of water flow through a
pipe, which in the electricity world would represent a cable or power line.
1.2[2.2] Voltage
From the previous section, at a given instant in time a local concentration of charges will have a
tendency to spread out if they are of the same sign. Charges will be pressed to move in the same
way that, following with the analogy, pressure difference forces water in a pipe. More specifically,
the concept indicates the potential energy of each of the charges, understood in a similar way to the
potential energy of an object at a certain elevation, such that it represents the work that needed to be
done to locate the object at the elevation, or in our case the work to place the charges in their
current position, overcoming the attractive and repulsive forces of other charges.
It is important to realize that the charge depends exclusively on the particle itself, while the
potential energy as defined above depends on a charge’s location with respect to another reference
location. This potential is formally known as electric potential difference, electric potential or
electric tension, but in common language it is referred to as voltage.
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A more rigorous definition of voltage would be to describe it as electric potential energy per unit
charge. It thus means that the electric potential is a per unit charge quantity, not to be confused
with the electric potential energy itself.
Similarly to the previous analogy of potential energy of an elevated object, the reference of electric
potential can be chosen at any location, so the difference in voltage is the quantity that is physically
meaningful. The voltage difference Uab between point a (represented by position vector r a -a
mathematical construct defined by an amplitude and an angle with respect to a reference point-) and
point b (represented by position vector r b) is the work needed to be done, per unit charge, against
the electric field E to move the charge from point a to point b. Mathematically this is expressed as
the line integral of the electric field along that path.
rb
U ab =∫ E·dr
ra
Voltage is measured in volts; one volt being one newton per coulomb (electric field) multiplied by
one meter (distance). In power systems engineering, the unit kilovolt is usually found.
1.3[2.3] DC and AC systems
When, in the simple circuit in Figure 1, voltage is a constant value V and current is unidirectional
also with a constant value I, the system is usually referred to as “direct current” (DC).
Simple electric DC circuit scheme.X

Figure 1 – Simple electric DC circuit.
When the voltage source actually changes its V value with time so that it would be more adequately
described as v(t), usually the system is referred to as “alternating current” (AC). In power systems
the variation with time usually follows a sine wave shape.
v ( t )=√ ❑ Vsin ( 2 π f s t )
where fs represents the system frequency (called line frequency or power frequency in electric
grids) in hertz. It is obvious that, for the sine shape voltage source defined above, the voltage level
at the terminals changes from a maximum of √ ❑V volts to a minimum of √ ❑ –V volts. This
practically means that the terminal with the higher potential will alternatively be one or the other.
So, the charges will find themselves flowing in one direction half of the time, and in the opposite
direction the rest of the time. Positive and negative terminals in the sense they could be defined for
DC make no more sense; now it could be said that the “polarity” of the voltage source changes over
one full period of the sinusoid.
Voltages and current are both represented by sinusoids. The parameters typically associated with
sines can be used for AC circuit characterization (see Figure 2).
AC sinusoid waveform with representative parameters.X

Figure 2 – AC electricity waveform.
The maximum value of the waveform is termed “amplitude”. Thus both voltage amplitudes and
current amplitudes will be found in power systems. The amplitude of the AC voltage in a standard
230 V outlet is 325 V. The “230 V” always refers, by convention, to the root mean square (rms)
value of the voltage (it represents the equivalent DC voltage value that would perform the same
amount of work). In the case of perfect sinusoids, the rms value is equal to the amplitude value
divided by the square root of two. When talking about DC systems, amplitude and rms value are
obviously the same.
Frequency, a well-known parameter for telecommunications engineers (telecommunications used

the generalizations of electromagnetic signals in any frequency), describes the rate at which
current / voltage waveforms oscillate. It is measured in number of cycles per unit of time, the most
usualits unit being the “hertz” (Hz) that represents the inverse of a second. In large power systems
today the frequency is a fundamental parameter that has to be kept very accurate and stable
throughout the entire system. Two normalized values are used worldwide: 50 Hz and 60 Hz.
The period of time it takes for an AC waveform to perform one full cycle and return to its original
value with its original slope is the inverse of the frequency value and it is simply termed the
“period”. The phase angle (or simply “phase”) of a sinusoid is a measure of when the waveform
crosses zero relative to a previously established time reference. Phase is expressed as a fraction of
the AC cycle and measured in radians (ranging from -π to +π).
Most power systems today are AC, although DC power is also employed in some parts of the world
for transmission at very high voltages over long distances [9]; as of recently there has been renewed
interest and debate on the use of DC for large scale transmission grids. The discussion is also fed by
the fact that many electric and electronic loads are today powered from DC sources needing to
convert energy from AC public grids.
1.4[2.4] Impedance elements
The necessary elements to understand the fundamental concept of impedance will be introduced in
sequence and finally put together in coherent formulation at the end. In short, impedance is the
parameter that applied toof the loads , that fixes the relationship between voltages and currents.
1.4.1[2.4.1] Phasors
In the conditions set forth up to now, the frequency of all voltage and current waveforms is the
same, and the amplitudes are directly related to the rms values by a √2√ ❑ factor, so each sinusoid
is uniquely explained by its rms value and its phase angle. Thus we can represent these sinusoids in
the form of phasors (i.e. “phase vectors”), which are vectors that can be more easily used than the
sinusoids they represent. An example of phasors is graphically shown in Figure 3.
Parallel representation of sinusoid and phasor equivalent.X

Figure 3 – Phasor concept.
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A voltage phasor V or a current phasor I is represented as a vector with its magnitude equal to the
rms values of V and I, and an angle equal to 0 and – φ respectively.
In order to operate with them, phasors can thus be represented in the exponential form Ye jθ, where
Y represents the magnitude and θ the phase of the phasor. In complex numbering notation,they,
they would be expressed as Ya+jYb. Y would either represent V or I.
1.4.2[2.4.2] Resistance
In a DC circuit, resistance is the magnitude that relates voltage and current. Since voltage represents
the pressure difference between charges, and current is the rate of flow of those charges, it is
immediate to follow that a certain voltage causes a proportional current to flow. While flowing,
charges will encounter obstacles in their path. So for a given voltage, a higher resistance will mean
the flow of current is low, while a lower resistance implies a larger flow of current. This is
expressed as Ohm’s law, which is fundamental for circuit analysis.
V
I=
R
In a simple circuit (Figure 1) where there is a voltage source (battery) of constant value V
(measured in volts) connected to a resistance of value R (measured in ohms, one ohm being one volt
per ampere), there will be a current of I amperes flowing from the voltage source terminal with the
higher electric potential (positive terminal) to the one with the lower electric potential (negative
terminal). Theoretically, in the case of a resistance with infinite value there would be no current
(this is called open circuit) and in the case of an ideal resistance with zero value there would be an
infinite flow of current for a non-zero V value (this is called a short circuit).
In the case of power grid design, materials with high resistance properties (i.e. insulators) become
fundamental for the target of obtaining low conductivities and keeping current flows safely
contained. Ceramics and plastics are used extensively as insulating materials.
1.4.3[2.4.3] Reactance
The resistance value R shown up to now has been the representation of an ideal ohmic element (a
resistor) with a real and constant value. This allowed for in-phase voltage and current sinusoids,
which is usually not the case with many elements of power systems. We focus now on the general
situation for AC systems.
Any flow of charges due to an existing electric field actually generates a different, complementary
field termed as “magnetic”, so more intense currents imply more intense magnetic fields too.
Changing currents (the case in AC systems) generate varying magnetic fields, and it is this variation
of electric current that in turn “induces” an electric voltage opposite to the changing current.
Induced voltages are proportional to the rate of change (i.e. first derivative) of currents.
di( t)
v ( t )=L
dt
Hence, an ideal element could theoretically be defined that would only represent the above effect of
induced magnetic field and associated opposite voltage (such element is termed an “inductor”). If
such element is connected to the already defined AC voltage source, the current flowing through the
inductor would be the integral of a sine waveform, which is a cosine with a negative sign, or
equivalently a sine that is shifted –π/2 radians along the time axis. In power systems engineering it
is usually said that the current waveform across an inductor lags behind the voltage waveform.
A magnitude called inductive reactance (XL) can be defined based on the above, which represents
the quotient of the amplitudes of the voltage sine waveform and the current shifted-sine waveform
(obviously, as a ratio between voltage and current, it is measured in ohms). Inductive reactance then
is a measure of the impediment to the flow of currents that are caused by induced electromagnetic
fields. For a given inductor of value L, inductive reactance is directly proportional to frequency.
Similarly to the concept induced voltage, it can be shown that the time rate of change of magnetic
fields induces electric fields.
1
v ( t )=
C
∫ i ( t ) dt
So for an ideal element that would only represent the effect of induced electric field, which we
would call a capacitor, that connects to the already defined AC voltage source, the current flowing
through the inductor would be the first derivative of a sine waveform, which is a cosine or
equivalently a sine that is shifted +π/2 radians along the time axis. In power systems engineering it
is usually said that the current waveform across a capacitor leads the voltage waveform.
A magnitude called capacitive reactance (XC) can be defined based on the above, which represents
the quotient of the amplitudes of the voltage sine waveform and the current shifted-sine waveform
(obviously, as a ratio between voltage and current, it is measured in ohms). For a given capacitor of
value C, capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to frequency.
An interesting, intuitive way to understand the difference between inductive and capacitive
reactance would be to say that the current through an inductor is “busy” (i.e. it lags the voltage)
storing energy in a magnetic field, while the voltage across the capacitor is “busy” (i.e. it lags the
current) storing energy in an electric field [5].
1.4.4[2.4.4] Load and impedance
As a result of the elements described up to now, it would be immediate to conclude that, still trying
to give a general relation between V and I, we could define a magnitude called impedance, which
would represent, in the complex plane, the obstacle / impediment that a certain load poses to the
flow of current through it for a given voltage. Impedance would thus have two components: a real
component called resistance as defined in section 2.4.2 and an imaginary component called
reactance as defined in section 2.4.3, which would add up all the effects of inductive and capacitive
reactances. Impedance is of course also measured in ohms, and in our example Z = R + jX.
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Z=V / I
Impedance is a fundamental concept for power systems engineering and also for
telecommunications, since it provides the most generic way of representing the electromagnetic
energy which flows through a certain system, relating the two main magnitudes of voltage and
current.
In electrical terms the concept “load” is normally used as a substitute of impedance, to define a
combination of resistors, capacitors and inductors as per the above definitions. If the AC voltage
source employed in the examples above would be connected to a generic load that simultaneously
presents resistive, inductive and capacitive behaviour, we would normally find a current in the
circuit that may lead or lag behind the voltage by any phase between –π/2 and +π/2.
In the case of power systems, usually transmission and distribution lines present overall inductive
reactance. This means that the current lags behind the voltage waveform so, in order to compensate
this undesirable effect, capacitive reactances (e.g. usually banks of capacitors) are connected to the
lines so that the total reactance approaches zero. This is termed line compensation. In real
transmission lines, the longer the power line the higher the value L of its equivalent inductor model,
so one of the reasons by which DC is again attracting interest for transmission at very high voltages
over long distances is that at zero frequency the reactance is always zero, independently of the value
of L [9].
1.5[2.5] Power
Power represents, in its general definition, the rate at which energy is flowing or work is being
done. If we recall (see 2.1) that current is the amount of charge that flows per unit of time, and
voltage was defined (see 2.2) as electric potential energy per unit of charge, we can easily see that
multiplying both magnitudes would cancel “charge” and provide energy per unit of time, i.e. power
(or, more precisely, instantaneous power).
P=VI
In the previous example of a DC system, the power that is being delivered to the resistor (that it
then dissipates) at any time is constant.
2
P=I R
For AC systems the power depends heavily on the load (impedance). The general case can be
studied considering the instantaneous power as the product of voltage and current. The
instantaneous power delivered at any time t is a sinusoid waveform that is double the system
frequency, shifted along the y axis.
p(t )= √2V sin(2πf s t )⋅√ 2I sin(2πf s t )=VI−VI cos[ 2π(2f s )t ]
The instantaneous power is analysed under the following specific “power” concepts (see also Figure
4):
 Real power (sometimes called “active power” or just “power”). The real component of the
instaneous power. Real power is measured in watts (W).
 Reactive power. The imaginary component of the instaneous power. Reactive power is
measured in volt-amperes reactive (VAr).
 Apparent power. The magnitude of the instantaneous power. So in an AC system the value of
the apparent power would be V*I (i.e. the product of rms voltage and rms current). Apparent
power is always greater than or equal to real and reactive power, and is measured in volt-
amperes (VA).
Graphs of voltage, current and power, and their relationship.X

Figure 4 – Voltage, current and power relationship.
Real power in an electric system represents the average value of instantaneous power and is power
that actually does work. Reactive power is power in the system that is moving back and forth and
does not do useful work; in fact, this reactive power has the effect of causing power losses in the
system. Apparent power value is used to thermally rate electrical devices normally present in power
systems (conductors, transformers etc.).
The objective of a transmission or distribution system is to maximize the power transferred, i.e. to
minimize the losses. The first source of losses is the resistive part of power line impedances. The
lower the resistive part of the impedance, the lower the losses. For a purely resistive value, the
average dissipated power is I2R. Hence, losses in a transmission line can be reduced by increasing
the transmission voltage, which then allows the current to be reduced proportionally and the power
dissipation to be reduced with the square of the current decrease. This explains why long
transmission lines employ high voltage. One of the drawbacks, however, is the need to keep larger
clearances to maintain safety.
The other loss source is the reactive power. A term called cosφ, power factor of the load, is defined.
The power factor should ideally be equal to 1, and it has a very important effect on the values of
real and reactive powers. For two systems delivering the same amount of real (active) power, the
system with the lower power factor will have higher circulating currents due to power that returns to
the source and hence higher losses This is why utilities generally try to maintain power factors close
to 1 (voltage and current almost in phase) so that most of the power that is flowing is doing “useful
work”. The way to achieve this when loads are typically inductive is through capacitor banks that
are normally connected near the large inductive loads (e.g. long power lines) to compensate their
reactive power.
1.6[2.6] Energy
Once electromagnetism is defined on the basis of a fundamental property of matter such as electric
charge, which has the capacity of driving forces on other charged particles, it is only natural to
introduce the concept of field and others that are traditional in physics: power as discussed in 2.5
and also energy and work.
Energy is the ability to perform work. Energy cannot be created or destroyed but can be converted
from one form to another [6]. Electrical energy is usually measured in kilowatthours (kWh) so the
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relation between power and energy is immediately seen as the integral function of power with
respect to time.
Electricity is a so-called “secondary” energy source, sometimes referred to as an “energy carrier”:

customers get electricity from the conversion of other (traditional) energy generation sources. These
sources of energy are called primary energy sources. Energy sources used to make electricity can be
renewable or not. Most usual forms of energy that usually end up being converted to electric energy
are sun radiation (e.g. photovoltaics), wind, nuclear, potential (e.g. water stored in dams that then
falls from a higher to lower elevations) and heat (e.g. burning of any kind of fuel that stores
chemical energy and then heats water that moves through a turbine).
When reaching final customers, electricity usually undergoes another conversion that allows for it
to be presented for useful purposes: charging electric batteries or powering electric motors that will
ultimately be used to perform work in the form of motion, lighting, air or water heating through
resistors that dissipate electric energy, etc.
In the area of power system engineering, energy is not measured in joules (i.e. watt-seconds) but in
watt-hours (Wh) and for larger values it is expressed in kWh, MWh, GWh and TWh (e.g., a 100
watt lightbulb consumes 2,400 Wh -or 2.4 kWh- of energy in 24 hours).
2[3] STRUCTURE OF ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS
A detailed knowledge of the structure of electric power systems is necessary to fully understand the
purpose, principles and challenges of Smart Grid technologies. This section discusses the major
parts and main elements of such systems.
systems that include generation, transmission and distribution sections to supply the needs of the
formerly different groups). Although electricity signal frequencies are one of two values worldwide
(50 Hz or 60 Hz), voltage standards differ for three-phase Low Voltage systems (e.g. 120 or 240 V
in North America and some other countries, 230 V in Europe and many other countries, various
other voltages elsewhere) and there are dozens of different voltages standards in use worldwide
above 1000 V (transmission and distribution) [29].
From a general perspective [7], when an electric power system is mentioned, the meaning an
electric power system is usually intended understood as to be one of the very large networks that
link power plants (large or small) to loads, by means of an electric grid that may span be as large a
wholes a continent, such as the whole of Europe or North America. A power system thus typically
extends from a power plant right up to the lamps or sockets inside customers’ premises. These are
sometimes referred to as full power systems (with all the known generation, transmission,
distribution and consumption blocks in chapter 1) since they are autonomous; their operation does
not require feeding points from other electricity sources, and the electric energy produced in the
system is supplied to loads in that same system.
Smaller power systems could be made of part or sections of a larger, full system. Examples are
shown in Figure 5, which shows several elements (breaker, cable, motor), which operate together
and are connected to a power supplying network.
Simple power subsystems connected to the power grid: motor, generator,

etc.X
Figure 5 – Specific purpose power subsystems.
The subsystem represented in Figure 5 a and b could be one of the final users of the electric energy
of a full power system. The subsystem represented in Figure 5 c could be one of the small power
plants working as distributed generation. Most power systems like the ones shown in Figure 5
operate only when connected to the mains. Power systems that are supplied by an external
electricity source or that produce (by conversion from other sources) electricity and convey it to a
larger grid are sometimes called partial power systems.
The power systems that are of interest for our purposes are the large scale, full Power Systems that
span large distances and have been configured over the course of decades by power companies.
These are made up of three main segments: generation, transmission (sometimes called transport)
and distribution as in Figure 6.
Generation is the production of electricity at power stations or “generating units” where a form of
primary energy is converted into electricity. Transmission is the network that moves power from
one part of a country or a region to another. It is usually a well-interconnected infrastructure in
which multiple power lines link different substations -which change voltage levels-, offering
enhanced redundancy. Distribution finally delivers the power (we could say locally when compared
to the Transmission system) to the final loads (a majority of which are supplied at low voltage) via
intermediate steps at which the voltage is converted down (transformed) to lower levels. The
distribution system ends up at the energy consumption points or “loads” where power is used for its
final purpose.
Full electric power system scheme from generation to consumers, including

substations, power lines, transformers and reference to the grid segments’
names.X
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Figure 6 – Components of a full electric power system.
systems that include generation, transmission and distribution segments to supply the needs of the
different utilities). Although electricity signal frequencies are one of two values worldwide (50 Hz
or 60 Hz), voltage standards differ for three-phase Low Voltage systems (e.g. 120 or 240 V in North
America and some other countries, 230 V in Europe and many other countries, various other
voltages elsewhere) and there are dozens of different voltages standards in use worldwide above
1000 V (transmission and distribution) [29].
In the following sections the main parts of the power system will be discussed, with special
emphasis on the Distribution segment where the most challenging part of the Smart Grid is.
2.1[3.1] Power generation
Power plants convert the energy stored in the fuel (mainly coal, oil, natural gas, enriched uranium)
or renewable energies (water, wind, solar, etc.) into electric energy.
Conventional modern generators produce electricity at a frequency that is a multiple of the rotation
speed of the machine. Voltage is usually no more than 6 to 40 kV. The power output is determined
by the amount of steam driving the turbine, which depends mainly on the boiler. The voltage of that
power is determined by the current in the rotating winding (i.e. the rotor) of the synchronous
generator. The output is taken from the fixed winding (i.e. the stator). The voltage is stepped up by
a transformer, normally to a much higher voltage. At that high voltage, the generator connects to the
grid in a substation.
Traditional power plants generate AC power from synchronous generators that provide 3-phase
electric power, such that the voltage source is actually a combination of three AC voltage sources
derived from the generator with their respective voltage phasors separated by phase angles of 120 º
degrees. Wind turbines and mini hydro units normally employ asynchronous generators, in which
the waveform of the generated voltage is not necessarily synchronized with the rotation of the
generator.
Distributed Generation (DG) on the other side refers to generation that connects into the distribution
system, as opposed to conventional centralized power generation systems. EPRI [8] defines
distributed generation as the “utilization of small (0 to 5 MW), modular power generation
technologies dispersed throughout a utility’s distribution system in order to reduce T&D
[transmission and distribution] loading or load growth and thereby defer the upgrade of T&D
facilities, reduce system losses, improve power quality, and reliability”. Small size generators are
constantly improving in terms of cost and efficiency, becoming closer to the performance of large
power plants.
2.2[3.2] Transmission systems
Power from generation plants is carried firstly through transmission systems, which consist of
transmission lines that carry electric power at various voltage levels. A transmission system
corresponds to a networked, meshed topology infrastructure, connecting generation and substations
together into a grid that usually is defined at 100 kV or more. The electricity flows over high
voltage transmission lines to a series of substations where the voltage is stepped down by
transformers to levels appropriate for distribution systems.
Preferred AC rms Vvoltage levels are internationally standardised in IEC 60038:2009 “IEC
standard voltages” as:
 362 kV or 420 kV, 420 kV or 550 kV, 800 kV, 1100 kV or 1200 kV highest voltages for three-
phase systems having a highest voltage for equipment exceeding 245 kV.
 66 (alternatively, 69) kV, 110 (alternatively, 115) kV or 132 (alternatively, 138) kV, 220
(alternatively, 230) kV nominal voltages for three-phase systems having a nominal voltage
above 35 kV and not exceeding 230 kVLow Voltage (LV) below or equal to 1kV.
 11 (alternatively, 10) kV, 22 (alternatively, 20) kV, 33 (alternatively, 30) kV or 35 kV nominal
voltages for three-phase systems having a nominal voltage above 1 kV and not exceeding 35
kV. There is a separate set of values specific for North American practice.
 In the case of systems having a nominal voltage between 100 V and 1000 V inclusive, 230/400
V is standard for three-phase, four-wire systems (50 Hz or 60 Hz) and also 120/208 V for 60
Hz. For three-wire systems, 230 V between phases is standard for 50 Hz and 240 V for 60 Hz.
For single-phase three-wire systems at 60 Hz, 120/240 V is standard.
Although not explicitly mentioned in IEC 60038:2009, Low Voltage (LV) is defined as “a set of
voltage levels used for the distribution of electricity and whose upper limit is generally accepted to
be 1 000 V for alternating current” [IEV 601-01-26], while High Voltage (HV) is either “the set of
voltage levels in excess of low voltage” or “the set of upper voltage levels used in power systems for
bulk transmission of electricity” [IEV 601-01-27]. Medium Voltage (MV) as a concept is not used
in some countries (e.g. UK, Australia...), it is “any set of voltage levels lying between low and high
voltage” [IEV 601-01-28] and the problem to define it is that the actual boundary between medium-
and high-voltage levels depend on local practices. Setting it at 35 kV is a good compromise based
on IEC 60038 standard voltages.

 Medium Voltage (MV) below or equal to 35 kV.
 High Voltage (HV) below or equal to 230 kV.
 Extra High Voltage (EHV) below or equal to 800kV.
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Overhead transmission lines are used in open areas such as interconnections between cities or along
wide roads within the city. In congested areas within cities, underground cables are used for electric
energy transmission. The underground transmission system is environmentally preferable but has a
significantly higher cost.
Transmission lines are deployed with three wires along with a ground wire. Virtually all AC
transmission systems are 3-phase transmission systems.
2.3[3.3] Distribution systems
This subsection describes the elements and structure of Distribution systems, the final and most
capillary part of a power system. Voltage levels of 132, 66 or 45 kV are usual HV levels that can be
found in (European) distribution networks. Voltages below that (e.g. 20, 15, 11 kV...) are
commonly found in MV distribution networks. Distribution levels below 1 kV are within what is
known as LV.
MV topologies can be classified in three groups:
 Radial topology. Radial lines are used to connect primary substations with secondary
substations (SS’s), and the SS’s among them. These MV lines or “feeders” can be used
exclusively for one SS, or can be used to reach several of them. Radial systems keep central
control of all the SS’s. These radial topologies show a tree-shaped configuration when they
grow in complexity; they are less expensive topology to develop, operate and maintain but also
less reliable.
 Ring topology. This is a fault-tolerant topology to overcome the weakness of radial topology
when there is a disconnection of one element of the MV line that interrupts electricity service
(outage) in the rest of the connected substations. A ring topology is an improved evolution of
the radial topology, connecting substations to other MV lines to create redundancy.
Independently of the physical configuration, the grid is always operated radially, but on the
event of a failure in a feeder, other elements are maneuvered to reconfigure the grid in such a
way that outages are avoided.
 Networked topology. Networked topology consists of primary and secondary substations

connected through multiple MV lines to provide a variety of distribution alternatives. Thus, the
reconfiguration options to overcome faults are multiple, and in the event of failure, alternative
solutions may be found to reroute electricity.
LV distribution systems (voltage levels below 1 kV) can be single-phase or three-phase. In Europe,
they are usually three-phase, 230 V / 400 V systems (i.e. each phase has an rms voltage of 230 V
and the rms voltage between two phases is 400 V) or three-phase, 120 V / 208 V [31].
LV grids present more complex and heterogeneous topologies than MV grids. The exact topology
of LV systems depends on the extension and specific features of the service area, the type, number
and density of points of supply (loads), country- and utility-specific operating procedures, range of
options in international standards, etc. A SS typically supplies electricity to one or several LV lines,
with one or multiple MV to LV transformers at the same site. LV topology is typically radial,
having multiple branches that connect to extended feeders, but there are also cases of networked
grids, and even ring or dual-fed configurations in LV networks. LV lines are typically shorter than
MV lines, and their characteristics are different depending on the service area.
2.4[3.4] Distribution system elements
2.4.1[3.4.1] Substations
2.4.1.1[3.4.1.1] Primary Substations
A primary substation (Figure 7) transforms voltage from HV to MV by means of transformers

(Figure 8). It basically consists of a complex set of circuit breaking, voltage transforming and
control equipment arranged to direct the flow of electrical power.
Transformation may take place in several stages and at several substations in sequence, starting at
the subtransmission system and then progressively reduced to the voltage required for
transformation at SS’s.
Photograph of a primary substation.X

Figure 7 – Primary substation.
Photograph of a transformer in a primary substation.X

Figure 8 – Transformer in a primary substation.
A substation that has a step-down transformer will decrease the voltage while increasing the current
for domestic and commercial distribution.
The functions of a primary substation can be gathered into three categories:
 Safety. It separates those parts where an electrical fault can take place from the rest of the
system.
 Operation. It minimizes energy losses and also allows separating parts of the network to
perform the necessary maintenance functions on the equipment, or to install new equipment.
 Interconnection. It allows interconnection of different electrical networks with diverse voltages,

or interconnection of several lines with the same voltage level.
Primary substations are designed for several specific functions such as regulating voltage to
compensate for system changes, switching transmission and distribution circuits, providing
lightning protection, measuring power quality and other parameters, hosting communication,
protection and control devices, controlling reactive power, providing automatic disconnection of
circuits experiencing faults, etc.
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A primary substation will contain line termination structures, switchgear, transformer(s), elements
for surge protection and grounding, and electronic systems for protection, control, metering etc.
Other devices such as capacitors and voltage regulators are also usually located in these premises.
Pieces of equipment are usually connected to each other through conductor buses or cables. Figure
9 represents the functional structure of a primary substation.
Photograph with indications of the functions in a primary substation.X

Figure 9 – Functional structure of a primary substation.
Primary substations may be located in different places, depending on topology and the needs for
each case. They may be fenced above ground, located in special-purpose buildings, or underground,
as the summary of their typical construction types.
2.4.1.2[3.4.1.2] Secondary Substations
Secondary Substations (SS’s) are those premises at the end of MV networks where electricity is
transformed to LV (<1 kV). Stemming from the SS’s, LV grids are deployed to reach the
customers, thus SS’s are located close to the end-users. In Europe, SS’s normally supply at LV an
area corresponding to a radius of approximately 300 metres from the SS. North and Central
American systems of distribution consist of an MV network from which numerous (small) MV/LV
transformers each supply one or several consumers, by direct service cable (or line) from the SS
transformer location.
SS transformers reduce voltage to levels that are then distributed to residential, commercial, and
small and medium industrial customers. Figure 10 shows a general electrical scheme of an SS.
Scheme of the components and their functions in a secondary substation.X

Figure 10 – Secondary substation electrical scheme.
The main parts of a SS are:
 MV lines. These are the power lines supporting specific voltages and currents that originate
from primary substations and deliver electricity to SS’s.
 Switchgear or MV panels. They are the interface between MV lines and transformer(s). They
serve two main purposes: protection (to connect, disconnect and protect the transformer) and
line interconnection (to guarantee continuity and allow for operation of MV feeders). Old
switchgears were air insulated. Modern switchgears use some sort of gaseous dielectric medium
today (most common is sulphur hexafluoride, SF 6, due to its high dielectric strength and
properties).
 Transformer. The device that reduces the voltage from MV levels (2.4 - 35 kV) to LV.
 LV switchboard. It is the element located beyond the transformer, connected to its secondary
winding, which divides the total power in a number of LV feeders. It is usually a large single
panel, frame or assembly of panels, comprised of 4 horizontal bars (for the 3 phases and the
neutral) and several vertical bars, one per feeder. The LV switchboard can have switches,
overcurrent and other protective devices.
 LV feeders. These are the power lines supporting specific voltages and currents that deliver
electric energy to customers. Usually several LV lines come out of a single SS, which then
provide electric service to buildings and premises around.
SS’s may be located in different places depending on the electrical topology of the grid and the
needs in each case. They can be classified into two main groups according to the location of the MV
/ LV transformer:
 Indoor, either in shelters or underground.
 Outdoor, usually with overhead transformers on poles or similar.
2.4.1.2.1[3.4.1.2.1] Indoor secondary substations
The most common indoor locations where secondary substation may be found are:
 Stand-alone shelters. In this case, MV lines may reach the SS either overhead or underground,
as shown in Figure 11 and Figure 12. In both cases, internal structures are very similar (the only
differences are at the MV lines entry point and its supporting elements). A special case would
be the so-called compact SS’s, or the padmount transformers. These are usually large cabinets
installed in publicly accessible areas, which comprise all different operational modules (MV,
LV and transformer) within a single isolated and compact structure (see Figure 13).
Photograph of a stand-alone shelter secondary substation with overhead

power lines.X
Figure 11 – Stand-alone shelter with overhead MV power lines.
Photograph of a stand-alone shelter secondary substation with underground

power lines.X
Figure 12 – Stand-alone shelter with underground MV power lines.
Photograph of a padmount secondary substation, showing also the internal

composition.X
Figure 13 – Padmount secondary substation (“transformer”).
 Underground. These SS’s are fed by underground MV cables. Figure 14 and Figure 15 represent
its common appearance.
Scheme with the components of a secondary substation.X
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Figure 14 – Components in a underground secondary substation.
XPhotograph of the access to an underground secondary substation.

Figure 15 – Access to an underground secondary substation.
 Integrated as part of larger commercial or residential buildings. Secondary substations belong to

the building itself and are usually located on the lowest floors inside a building, at ground level
or at the basement (see Figure 16). The structure and operation are the same than previous cases.
Photograph of a secondary substation integrated in a building.X

Figure 16 –Secondary substations integrated in buildings.
In general, indoor SS’s comprise the following elements:
 Enclosure. The protected place where all the SS elements are located. It may either be a
building, a prefabricated shelter, etc.
 Transformer(s), switchgear and LV switchboard. Described in 3.5.
 Grounding. It is common to find two grounds, one for MV and the other one for LV. The MV
grounding connects to MV cables shield and metallic parts of every element in the transformer
tank, switchgear and LV switchboard enclosures. LV grounding connects to the LV neutral.
Hazardous situations may arise from this ground separation.
2.4.1.2.2[3.4.1.2.2] Outdoor secondary substations
This type of SS is typical in rural and suburban areas in Europe, and especially in the US. The
outstanding representative element of these secondary substations is the transformer itself. Common
outdoors locations are:
 On a structure. Figure 17 shows an example of this kind of SS.
Photograph of a secondary substation on an H structure.X

Figure 17 – Secondary substation on an H structure.
 On a pole. Figure 18 shows an example of this kind of SS. The structure of the elements in such
a SS is represented in Figure 19.
Photograph of a secondary substation on a pole.X

Figure 18 – Secondary substation on a pole.
Scheme of a secondary substation on a pole, with description of its

elements.X
Figure 19 – Structure of a secondary substation on a pole.
2.4.2[3.4.2] Distribution power lines
2.4.2.1[3.4.2.1] Medium Voltage lines
MV lines are the elements that carry electric power in the MV distribution grid. Cables must be
selected to safely provide adequate electric power with continuous operation, in a distribution
system that can withstand overload conditions and / or unexpected demand.
There is a wide variety of cables and many classifications may be done. For instance, they can be
classified according to the material of the conductor part. The most widely used are aluminium and
copper. The most electrically conductive metal in nature after silver is copper; aluminium on the
other side is lighter and cheaper. Another classification may consider the section of the cable.
Depending of the power carried the section of the cables varies: higher power requires higher larger
sections. The bundling is also important; there are two possibilities: single core and three core
cables. Three core cables have three conductors in the same cable, one conductor for each phase
inside. Single core cables have one phase conductor for each cable; therefore three cables are
necessary for each MV line. Single core cables are preferred for long stretches. Finally, the most
common and straight-forward classification is referred to the location where the cables are laid:
overhead or underground.
2.4.2.1.1[3.4.2.1.1] Overhead lines
Overhead lines are laid on poles. These poles can be made of wood, steel, concrete or fibreglass.
Different configurations can be found: one circuit per pole or more than one circuit.
Overhead lines are normally classified according to the conductor. Most conductors are aluminium
or copper. Today, utilities use aluminium for almost all new overhead installations as aluminium is
lighter and less expensive for a given current carrying capacity. However, copper was the first metal
used to transport electricity and many copper overhead lines are still in service.
There are two major categories of overhead conductors: homogeneous and non-homogeneous. The
first category includes copper, AAC (All Aluminium Conductor) and AAAC (All Aluminium Alloy
Conductor). The second category includes more types, the usual ones are ACSR (Aluminium
Conductor Steel Reinforced), ACAR (Aluminium Conductor Alloy Reinforced), ACSS
(Aluminium conductors steel supported) or AACSR (Aluminium Alloy Conductor Steel
Reinforced). The use of steel greatly increases the mechanical properties (strength) of the cable.
The wire can be insulated or not insulated. The bare-wired (un-insulated) is the most common type
of line used in overhead power lines. Covered wires are AAC, AAAC or ACSR conductors covered
with polyethylene (PE) or cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE, see Figure 20). Because the lines are
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insulated, there is little chance of damage from vegetation or wildlife, so they exhibit improved
reliability.
Photograph of a XLPE insulated ACSR conductor.X

Figure 20 – XLPE insulated ACSR conductor.
2.4.2.1.2[3.4.2.1.2] Underground lines
Underground lines are hidden from view, considered to be safer as there are fewer opportunities for
accidental contact, and statistically more reliable as there are fewer interruptions and lower
maintenance cost. The installation cost however is significantly higher than in overhead lines.
In general, the structure of an underground cable (see Figure 21) is made of the following parts
(from inner to outer layers): conductor, conductor shield, insulation, insulation shield, neutral or
shield and jacket.
Scheme of the general structure of an underground cable.X

Figure 21 – General structure of an underground cable.
 Conductor. It is the element that carries electrical current, made of aluminium or copper. The
conductor can be solid or stranded. Solid ones show better conductivity and are less expensive.
However, stranded conductors present improved mechanical flexibility and durability.
 Conductor shield. It surrounds and covers the conductor. It provides for a smooth, radial electric
field within the insulation. Without this shield, the electric field gradient would concentrate at
the interface between the conductor and the insulation; the increased localised stress could
adversely affect the insulation.
 Insulation. It is made of nonconductive material, and allows cables with small diameters to
support conductors at significant voltage. According to the insulation, the cables can be Paper
Insulated Lead Covered (PILC), or synthetic: different materials may be used as insulator such
as Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), PE, XLPE or EPR (see Figure 22).
Photograph of a XLPE insulated cable.X

Figure 22 – XLPE insulated cable.
 Insulation shield. It surrounds and covers the insulation. As with the conductor shield, the
insulation shield evens out the electric field at the interface between the insulation and the
neutral / shield. The insulation shield is easily strippable in order to be terminated and spliced.
Its materials are similar to those of the conductor shield.
 Neutral or shield (sheath). The shield is the metallic barrier that surrounds and covers the
insulation shield. The neutral or shield holds the outside of the cable at ground potential and
provides a path for return current and also for fault current. The shield protects the cable from
lightning strikes and from current from other fault sources. It can be built with wires or tapes.
Copper is the conductor used as the aluminum corrodes too quickly to perform well in this
function.
 Jacket: it is the outer cover of the cable. Its purpose is to protect all inner elements from
mechanical damage, chemicals, moisture and exposure to harmful environmental conditions.
Most jackets are made of extrudable plastics. PVC and PE are the most common materials
today.
Underground cables can be single-core or three-core (each core –see Figure 23- with its own
insulation and shield, but sharing the outer jacket). Both types can have armoured layers over the
insulation to provide the cable with additional mechanical protection.
Photograph of a three core cable.X

Figure 23 – Three-core cable.
2.4.2.2[3.4.2.2] Low Voltage lines
LV lines are the elements that carry electric power in the LV distribution grid, bringing electric
energy from SS’s to individual LV customers. In European countries the LV grid is usually a larger
infrastructure than the MV grid, and the average failure affects less customers. This means it is
more difficult for utilities to justify investments on mapping, documenting and correctly managing
the entire LV infrastructure. Thus, it is not unusual to find gaps in utilities’ records with respect to
the exact route specific LV lines follow, or which customers connect to each of the LV lines that
depend on a SS, or even which phase every LV customer is connected to.
Usually in European SS’s the output from a transformer is connected to LV busbars via a switch, or
simply through isolating links. LV busbars are usually 4- to 12-way LV 3-phase 4-wire distribution
fuse boards, or moulded-case circuit-breaker boards. They control and protect outgoing 4-core LV
lines (i.e. “feeders”). In densely-loaded areas, a standard size of LV line is laid to form an LV grid,
e.g. with one cable along each pavement and 2-, 3- or 4-way link boxes located in manholes at
street corners, where two or more cables cross. Links are inserted in such a way that LV lines form
radial circuits from the SS with open-ended branches (see Figure 24).
Diagram of a sample LV grid with radial branched LV line operation, by

removing phase links.X
Figure 24 – Sample European urban LV grid.
Link boxes are installed underground, but it is also usual to find free-standing LV distribution
pillars, placed above ground at certain points in the grid, or LV distribution cabinets. These
weather-proof cabinets are installed either against a wall or, where possible, flush-mounted in the
wall (see Figure 25).
Flush-mounted LV cabinets photo.X

Figure 25 – Flush-mounted LV cabinets.
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30 Chapter 3
Where a link box or LV distribution cabinet unites an LV line from one SS with that from a
neighbouring SS, the phase links are omitted or replaced by fuses, but the neutral link remains in
place (see Figure 26).
LV distribution cabinet diagrams.X

Figure 26 – LV distribution cabinet connectivity diagrams.
LV distribution cabinets located at the entrance of buildings and houses are also the elements that
usually delimit the edge of utility grid, such that LV infrastructure beyond the cabinet is the
ownership and responsibiliy of customers. Part of this infrastructure is usually the place where
electricity meters are located. Modern buildings have a specific sheltered room to concentrate the
meters of all customers in a single place. These electrical rooms host the general breaker that can
isolate the customer installation from the LV grid, a general busbar with fuses that protect the
individual customer circuits, all the meters and the individual supply lines that go to customers.
North and Central American practice differs fundamentally from that in Europe, since utilities’s LV
grids are practically nonexistent. The distribution is effectively carried out at MV, such that the MV
grid is, in fact, a 3-phase 4-wire system from which single-phase distribution networks (phase and
neutral conductors) supply numerous single-phase transformers, the secondary windings of which
are center-tapped to produce LV single-phase 3-wire supplies. Each SS (MV/LV transformer)
normally supplies one or several premises directly from the transformer position by radial service
cable(s) or by overhead line(s). Many other systems exist in the Americas, but the one described is
the most common.
Similarly to MV lines, the LV lines are basically divided into overhead and underground. However
materials, dimensions, etc. differ greatly for various types of cables, even more so that for MV.
LV overhead lines use either bare conductors supported on glass / ceramic insulators, or an aerial
bundled cable system. Both bare conductors and bundled cables can actually be laid outdoor on
poles or wall mounted. The number of conductors may be anywhere between two (one phase
conductor and a combined earth / neutral conductor) up to as many as six (three phases, separate
neutral and earth plus street lighting). Conducting material is usually either aluminium or copper
(the former is preferred).
Medium to large-sized towns and cities have underground cable distribution systems. These also
show a typical structure of conductor that is insulated with the same materials discussed for MV,
and protected by an outer PVC jacket. Underground cables can be found inside utility tunnels, laid
in ducts or tubes, or directly buried in pits or trenches.
Table 2 summarises the main features of European LV grids.
Feature High density residential area Low density residential area

Underground or integrated in
Type of SS Stand-alone shelter or pole
building
Transformers per SS 1-4 1
Average number of LV customers
150 – 300 5 – 100
per SS
LV feeders per SS 4 – 20 1–6
Average length of LV lines 100 m 300 m
Type of LV line Underground Overhead
Table 2 – Main features of European LV networks [30].
2.5[3.5] Components of system elements
[3.5.1] MV / LV tTransformers
Transformers reduce the voltage of an electric utility power line to lower voltages or viceversa.
They are used in different parts of the electric power system, such as generation, transmission and
distribution, but this section focuses in MV / LV transformers due to their interest for the Smart
Grid.
MV / LV transformers or distribution transformers reduce the voltage of an electric utility power

distribution line (2.4 - 35 kV) to lower voltages (120 - 480 volts) suitable for customer equipment.
The transformer primary is the winding that draws power and the transformer secondary winding
delivers power.
Basically, a transformer consists of two primary components: a core made of magnetically

permeable material and conductors made of a low resistance material such as copper or aluminium.
The conductors are wound around the core at differing ratios, transforming current from one voltage
to another. This process requires a liquid insulation material (or air for smaller transformers) to cool
and insulate.
In general, the MV / LV transformers can be classified according to cooling technology or

connection type.
The cCooling technology refers to the technology that is used to cool the transformer. According to
the coolant, the transformers can be classified into liquid-immersed or dry-type.:
Liquid-immersed. It is a transformer in which the core and coils are immersed in an insulating
liquid that is often a highly-refined mineral oil.
Dry-type: a transformer in which the core and coils are in a gaseous or dry compound in order to
minimize environmental contamination and fire hazard.
In terms of connection type, transformers are usually connected to one or three MV phases (see
Figure 27; two-phase transformers also exist, but they are less common).
Photograph of a three-phase transformer.X

Figure 27 – Three-phase transformer.
Typical parameters of the MV / LV transformers are shown in the following table:
Parameter Comments
kVA ratings kilovolt-ampere (KVA): a measure of apparent power of the output rating of
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32 Chapter 3
the transformer. Standard distribution transformer ratings range from 5 to

2,500 kVA.
Voltage ratings Primary voltage: the voltage at the primary winding of the distribution
transformer. Ratings from 2.4 to 35 kV.
Secondary voltage: the voltage at the secondary of the distribution
transformer. Ratings from 120 to 480 V.
Frequency 50 or 60 Hz.
Connection Single-phase primary connections: Grounded Wye Connection.

Single-phase Secondary connections: two, three or four secondary bushings.
Three-phase: Ungrounded Wye–Grounded Wye, Grounded Wye–Delta,
Grounded Wye–Grounded Wye, Three-Phase Secondary Connections–Delta,
Three-Phase Secondary Connections–Wye.
Sound level The audible noise generated with the transformer energized at rated voltage.
Temperature limits The maximum temperature average winding rise over a specified ambient air
temperature at rated kVA in order to operate the transformer.
Table 3 – Main MV / LV transformer parameters.
2.5.1[3.5.2] Switchgear
Usually the term switchgear is referred to a complex device which purpose is to protect / isolate and
interconnect different elements such as feeders and transformers. It is a general term covering
switching and interrupting devices and their combination with associated control, metering,
protective and regulating devices, and also assemblies of these devices with associated
interconnections, accessories, enclosures and supporting structures.
Switchgear can be classified according to their design and the insulation material.
Taking into account the design there are different types of switchgears:
 Masonry switchgear. This type of switchgear (Figure 28) is a space closed by masonry walls
in three of each sides and grounded metal barriers in its front side. These barriers can be
removed. The barriers allow internal access for maintenance tasks. Inside the switchgear
there are the medium voltage cables, its corresponding bushings, fuses, breakers and
supporting elements. The insulator element is simply the air. This type is now considered
obsolete and is being replaced gradually by modern ones.
Photograph of masonry switchgear.X

Figure 28 – Masonry switchgear.
 Prefabricated switchgear. This switchgear is provided already built from factory. The
interconnection between equipment and the cabling is done while it is installed in the secondary
substation. This type of switchgear could be further divided [32] into:
o Metal-enclosed switchgear (see Figure 29). All the equipment are placed inside a metal case
or housing, normally grounded.
Photograph of a metal enclosed switchgear.X

Figure 29 – Metal-enclosed switchgear.
o Metal-Clad switchgear (see Figure 30). This is a specific type of metal-enclosed switchgear,
in which major parts of the primary circuit are completely enclosed by grounded metal
barriers that have no openings between compartments, all live parts are enclosed within
grounded metal compartments and primary bus conductors and connections are covered
with insulating material throughout (see Figure x).
Photograph of a metal-clad switchgear.X

Figure 30 – Metal-clad switchgear.
In terms of insulating material there are different types of switchgears:
 Air insulated switchgear (see Figure 31). The air is the insulating substance. They can be
prefabricated switchgear or masonry.
Photograph of an air insulated switchgear.X

Figure 31 – Air insulated switchgears.
 Gas (SF6) insulated switchgear (see Figure 32). This is an evolution from the prefabricated air
insulated switchgear. Air is replaced by sulphur hexafluoride gas. It is a non-toxic, inert,
insulating and cooling gas of high dielectric strength and thermal stability. This results in
considerable space and weight savings, and improvements in the operational safety.
Photograph of a SF6 switchgear.X

Figure 32 – SF6 insulated switchgears.
The main components of switchgear are switches, breakers and bushings.
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34 Chapter 3
2.5.2[3.5.3] Circuit Breakers and Switches
Circuit breakers and switches are similar devices. According to the IEV [REF 441-14-20], a circuit-
breaker is a “mechanical switching device, capable of making, carrying and breaking currents
under normal circuit conditions and also making, carrying for a specified duration and breaking
currents under specified abnormal circuit conditions such as those of short circuit”. The circuit
breaker consists of power contacts with arc clearing capability and associated control and auxiliary
circuits for closing and tripping the breaker under the required conditions.
The switch [REF 441-14-10] provides similar functions to the circuit breaker, but cannot break
short-circuit currents.
Both circuit breakers and switches have a similar physical principle: they interrupt current during a
zero-crossing of the signal (i.e. a 50 / 60 Hz sinusoidal waveform at a certain voltage level). When a
switch is opened, an arc is created. Each half cycle, the AC current momentarily stops as the current
is reversing directions. During this period, when the current is changing, the arc is not conducting
and starts to de-ionize. If the dielectric strength builds up faster than the recovery voltage, the arc
finishes and finally the circuit is opened.
Depending on the operation, switching can be divided into manual or automatic (by adding a motor
actuator and controller).
Depending on the insulator used, there are air pressured, vacuum, oil and SF 6 models. SF6 based
switches and breakers are replacing all others, which have been used in the industry for decades.
With their superior dielectric and arc interruption properties the vacuum and SF 6 switching devices
have also improved user and environmental safety.
2.5.3[3.5.4] Bushings / Insulators
A bushing is defined by IEV [REF 471-02-01] as a “device that enables one or several conductors
to pass through a partition such as a wall or a tank, and insulate the conductors from it”.
According to note 2 of the definition, bushings may be of many different types (liquid, gas,
impregnated paper, ceramic, glass, resin...). The general purpose of a bushing is to transmit
electrical power in or out of enclosures of an electrical apparatus such as transformers, circuit
breakers, shunt reactors, power capacitors etc.
One way to classify bushings (example in Figure 33) refers to the insulating media at the ends of the
bushing (see Table 4).
Type Application example
Air to oil Bushing between atmospheric air and any oil-filled apparatus.
Air to air Crossing buildings, normally from outdoor to indoor conditions.
Oil to oil Bushing between PILC cables and oil-filled apparatus.
Air to SF6 Used in SF6-insulated circuit breakers.

SF6 to oil Transitions between SF6 circuit breakers and and PILC cables.
Table 4 – Types of bushings according to the insulating media on ends.
Photograph of an air to oil bushing type.X

Figure 33 – Air to oil bushing type.
According to its construction, there are two types of bushings: the solid type and the condenser
type. The solid-type bushing is typically made with a central conductor and porcelain or epoxy
insulators at either end and is used primarily at the lower voltages through 25 kV. The condenser-
type bushing uses the principles of insulation by capacitance; therefore the radial dimension that is
required is smaller. The capacitance-graded bushing is generally used for all voltage ratings above
25 kV.
2.5.4[3.5.5] Fuses
Fuses (see Figure 34) are one of the oldest and most simple protective devices. IEV [REF 441-18-
01] defines a fuse as “a device that by the fusing of one or more of its specially designed and
proportioned components, opens the circuit in which it is inserted by breaking the current when this
exceeds a given value for a sufficient time”.
Photograph of a MV fuse.X
Figure 34 – Fuse.
When the current flowing through the fuse exceeds a predetermined value, the heat produced by the
current in the fusible link melts the link and interrupts the current. Since the current must last long
enough for the link to melt, fuses have inherently a time delay. Fuses are relatively economical
devices, they do not need any auxiliary devices such as instrument transformers and relays, they are
reliable, and available in a large range of sizes. Their one disadvantage is that they are destroyed in
the process of opening the circuit, and then they must be replaced. MV fuses can be found in many
locations: along with breakers, transformers, MV lines, etc.
There are four quantities that are important for a particular fuse application:
 Maximum Rated Voltage. It is the highest nominal system voltage at which the fuse can be
used.
 Maximum Continuous Current. It is the maximum rms current the fuse should be able to carry
indefinitely.
 Maximum Interrupting Current. It is the largest current the fuse is capable of interrupting.
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36 Chapter 3
 Time Response. This is given by the time-current characteristic.
3[4] OPERATIONS OF POWER SYSTEMS
Electricity generation, transmission, distribution and supply are heavily affected by the fact that
production and consumption need to be always in instantaneous balance. This justifies the real-time
nature of the system operation to deliver an “always-on” service. Whenever there is a mismatch
between supply and demand in a large system, the overall dynamic balance may be compromised
with negative consequences for the delivery of electricity across large areas. The operation of the
power system intends to deliver the needed electricity to the consumers, keeping the system stable
and protected, within all existing constraints. The instability of the system manifests itself with
voltage and frequency values outside allowable bounds.
The management of a power system is a combination of planning, delivery, operation, and

maintenance. These processes have a short term and a long term component. Some of these
activities, when studied in detail, are very specific to power systems, while some others are more
general. In any case, aAs the system consists of the generation, transmission, distribution and
supply domains, those activities will have their expression in all of them; furthermore, there are
some of them that need to be coordinated among all the domains.
There are two functions that can be considered transversal to all the grid management areas:
protection and control. These two functions act in hierarchically organized systems that have
different vision levels of the whole power system. The operation itself is a combination of
automated or semi-automated control, and actions requiring direct human (system operator)
intervention. This operation is clearly assisted by all the electromechanical elements developed and
installed during the life of the electrical grid, but clearly enhanced withthrough the support of
ICT’s:
 Protection. The protection function of protection intends to ensure the general safety of the
system and, its elements and the people working in it. Protection schemes must act immediately
(“real-time”) whenever there is a condition that might cause personal injuries or equipment
damage. This faulty condition is detected and located based on voltage and current
measurements, but also of some other secondary parameters. A fundamental part of the
operation of a power system is to quickly detect and clear faults. Protection cannot avoid
disturbances in the system, but can minimize the consequences through rapid, secure and
selective disconnection of the faulty equipment, and automatic reclosing for supply recovering
in case of transient failures.
 Control. Power system operators manage their grids from UCC’sa control centers. Many types
of different control centersUCC’s exist, and some of them specifically deal with different
domains of the grid. Most of The the routine operations of a well-designed system should not
require any human intervention. However, reality often departs from ideal conditions and a
certain degree of manual operations are usually needed. In order to prepare for it, in normal
operating conditions, the collection of operating data is very useful to analyse system
performance for planning processes and contingency analysis. This is usually made
automatically.
The objective of supplying the quantity of power needed in the system is a task for the power
generation domain of the system. In the traditional monopolistic environment of utilities before the
progressive liberalization deregulation of electricity related activities, vertically integrated utilities
controlled all the power system domains and knew when, where and how much electricity was
going to be needed. As they controlled the bulk generation assets, the scheduling of energy
production was a relatively easy task. Even if the different generation sources have different
constraints (different generation costs -different cost to keep them operational, different costs of
having them inactive, etc.-, different time-to-produce limitations –no source can be instantaneous-,
etc.) the production could be easily scheduled as all the data was available for the utility. The “unit
commitment” assigns a production rate and temporal slot some time in advance to the real need; the
“reserves”, i.e., the generation units that must remain available in case of contingencies need also to
be planned, and have costs, as the must be ready to provide their electricity in a short period of time.
After the deregulationliberalization, matters become a bit more challenging as generation enters a
free-market situation, where typically energy producers are independent entities that offer their
production capacity and get it awarded. There is usually a bidding process for this wholesale
energy, and a price assigned to the different generation sources.
The target of grid voltage and frequency stability starts at energy generation as well. The traditional
conversion of energy into electricity (hydro, fuel, nuclear, etc.) involves mechanical elements.
Imagine the case of steam, water or gas flow in a turbine; the control of the mechanical power has
an effect on the rotational speed of the turbine, and consequently in the frequency of the 50 / 60 Hz
electricity signal (as it may logically be assumed). If the speed is higher, the frequency is higher as
well; and the other way around. However, the effects on the frequency do not only come from the
“fuel” of the turbine, but of the load connected to the system; if the load is high, the turbine will
tend to be slower and the frequency lower. This effect need to be compensated on the generator side
with more “fuel” if the load is higher, or the contrary, to keep the frequency where it needs to be.
The other effect to be controlled is the one related with voltage level. Loads are not only active
(real, that was the cause of the effect on frequency), but also reactive as a consequence of the nature
of some of the load types. If the consumption of reactive power is high, the generator output power
will decrease. Keeping reactive consumption low maximizes the real power in the system.
However, if the grid (transmission and distribution) does not compensate this situation, the
generator needs to compensate it with the current in the rotor.
Once the generation produces energyelectricity, itthe electricity needs to be carried to consumption
end-points. The transmission grid is instrumental in this process connecting this production capacity
with the different consumption areas. The power lines must support the electricity transported, and
must achieve this considering the physical limitations of the transmission power lines (thermal and
stability constraints, dynamic over time), that need to be matched with the plant from where the
electricity needs to be carried. The availability of the line, the tolerances in their transmission
capacity, and the losses they add to the system are factors to consider. This grid segment also has a
role in the control of the reactive part of the load, as it can help to compensate it with VAR
components (inductors, capacitors and semiconductor switches) deployed and activated in the grid.
The challenge of transmission grid segment is enlarged with the market liberalization, as the
network capacity expansion must be coordinated with new actors that may build new generation
plants that eventually will need to get connected to the grid with a proper infrastructure.
Distribution grid has a challenging role as well, possibly due to the fact that is the most extended
component of the power system, and because every electrical distribution system is unique.
Distribution systems, closer to the customers are the first ones to control the power quality (the
voltage and frequency parameters we mentioned). They need to engage with the control of voltage
Authors
38 Chapter 3
regulation (the percentage change in secondary voltage from the unloaded to full-load conditions),
power factor (the control of the reactive component of the load), frequency and harmonics (the
quality of the electricity signal measured as the number of harmonics of the 50 / 60 Hz fundamental
frequency, due to the growing presence of solid-state switching devices in the loads), and voltage
unbalance in multi-phase systems (caused by the different loads and consumption in the different
phases of the transformers).
Power system maintenance is aligned with the need to keep the grid continuously operational now
(reactive maintenance) and tomorrow (preventive maintenance). This discipline is not conceptually
different to its instantiation in other businesses. The use of ICT’s is relevant as a way to collect and
perform this maintenance more effectively controlling parameters of the different elements of the
system that may give indications of latent problems or early problems due to any degradation.
The last process that should be mentioned is system planning. System planning starts with the
understanding of the load needs (during the times of the day, the days of the year and the
projections in the coming years), and the identification of the geography where they are located. But
not only this: system planning affects all system components, and has a short and a long-termrange
vision. Long-term vision requires a system model, and considers the load requirements mentioned,
the changes they will involve in the existing system (new power lines, substations; enlargements of
the existing infrastructure –feeders, transmission capacity, etc.-), and all the constraints (economic
and others), to develop scenarios and adapt to them. Short-term vision is more aligned with the
detailed analysis of the infrastructure; in the distribution grid segment this is translated into different
studies to analyse the grid itself: voltage drop (to identify the weak points of the grid),
sectionalizing study (with the objective of minimizing outages, sectionalizing device locations are
studied), conductor analysis (to see if the existing ones are adequate from the voltage drop
perspective) and power factor correction (installing compensating elements in the grid) among
others.
The fact that the power system is the “largest and most complex machine” on earth becomes evident
if one considers its different, complex components along with its extension and capillarity.
Notwithstanding this complexity, the power system delivers an “always-on” service.
4[5] REFERENCES
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Authors
40 Chapter 3
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[REF 441-14-20] IEV, International Electrotechnical Vocabulary.

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Electric Power System Concepts for

Authors: ASE, IUG, MASF, IBV,

Spain, 3rd October 2015

CHAPTER 3. ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEM CONCEPTS FOR TELECOMMUNICATION ENGINEERS......6

Figure 1 – Simple electric DC circuit.................................................................................................................................12

CHAPTER 3. Electric Power System Concepts for Telecommunication

[1] HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS

Unit / System Quantity name

[1.3] Expansion of electrification

[1.4] Current situation

1[2] FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF ELECTRICITY

1.1[2.1] Electric charge and current

1.3[2.3] DC and AC systems

Simple electric DC circuit scheme.X

AC sinusoid waveform with representative parameters.X

Frequency, a well-known parameter for telecommunications engineers (telecommunications used

1.4[2.4] Impedance elements

Parallel representation of sinusoid and phasor equivalent.X

1.4.4[2.4.4] Load and impedance

p(t )= √2V sin(2πf s t )⋅√ 2I sin(2πf s t )=VI−VI cos[ 2π(2f s )t ]

Graphs of voltage, current and power, and their relationship.X

Electricity is a so-called “secondary” energy source, sometimes referred to as an “energy carrier”:

2[3] STRUCTURE OF ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS

Simple power subsystems connected to the power grid: motor, generator,

Full electric power system scheme from generation to consumers, including

Figure 6 – Components of a full electric power system.

2.1[3.1] Power generation

2.2[3.2] Transmission systems

2.3[3.3] Distribution systems

MV topologies can be classified in three groups:

 Networked topology. Networked topology consists of primary and secondary substations

2.4[3.4] Distribution system elements

2.4.1.1[3.4.1.1] Primary Substations

A primary substation (Figure 7) transforms voltage from HV to MV by means of transformers

Photograph of a primary substation.X

Photograph of a transformer in a primary substation.X

The functions of a primary substation can be gathered into three categories:

 Interconnection. It allows interconnection of different electrical networks with diverse voltages,

Photograph with indications of the functions in a primary substation.X

2.4.1.2[3.4.1.2] Secondary Substations

Scheme of the components and their functions in a secondary substation.X

The main parts of a SS are:

 Indoor, either in shelters or underground.

 Outdoor, usually with overhead transformers on poles or similar.

2.4.1.2.1[3.4.1.2.1] Indoor secondary substations

Photograph of a stand-alone shelter secondary substation with overhead

Photograph of a stand-alone shelter secondary substation with underground

Photograph of a padmount secondary substation, showing also the internal

Scheme with the components of a secondary substation.X

Figure 14 – Components in a underground secondary substation.

XPhotograph of the access to an underground secondary substation.

 Integrated as part of larger commercial or residential buildings. Secondary substations belong to

Photograph of a secondary substation integrated in a building.X

In general, indoor SS’s comprise the following elements:

 Transformer(s), switchgear and LV switchboard. Described in 3.5.

2.4.1.2.2[3.4.1.2.2] Outdoor secondary substations

 On a structure. Figure 17 shows an example of this kind of SS.

Photograph of a secondary substation on an H structure.X

Photograph of a secondary substation on a pole.X

Scheme of a secondary substation on a pole, with description of its

2.4.2[3.4.2] Distribution power lines

2.4.2.1[3.4.2.1] Medium Voltage lines