LESSON 4

Prepared by: Leslie Ann Tobias, LPT

•Coined by American
physicist and
philosopher Thomas
Kuhn (The Structure of
Scientific Revolutions,
1962)
•A fundamental change in
the basic concepts and
experimental practices of
a scientific discipline
“CHANGE IS HARDEST AT THE
BEGINNING, MESSIEST IN THE
MIDDLE, AND BEST AT THE END.”
A period in Europe in the 18th century when many writers
and thinkers began to question established beliefs, like the
authority of kings or the church, in favor of reason and
scientific proof.
 The shift from a
Geocentric to a
Heliocentric model of the
Universe
Who proposed the
geocentric model?
▪ During ancient times,
Earth was perceived to
be flat.
▪ Early Babylonian,
Chinese, and Egyptian
civilizations believed
that Earth had corners.
Started the idea of the spherical earth

Proved that the earth is spherical

Earth was at the center of the
universe.

Constructed a planetary model based

on the thought that the earth was
spherical.
 Educated his students on the sphericity
of earth but made no justifications.

Measured Circumference:
40,000 Km Estimated the circumference of the
Actual Circumference: earth.
40,075.017 Km around the Equator
40,007.863 Km around the Poles
•Aristotle’s model was patterned
to the model of Eudoxus which
shows that the universe was
spherical and finite.

•He believed that Earth was

stationary and was at the center.
 Developed the Ptolemic System
which is a geocentric model

▪ Claudius Ptolemy tried to explain

it using epicycles.
▪ Ptolemy assumed that planets
revolved on epicycles (small
spheres) that moved around the
deferent (large spheres).
a Greek astronomer who made the
first attempt to create a heliocentric
model of the universe.

a Polish astronomer revived the

heliocentric model of the universe.
He brought society to the Renaissance
world using his own observations of the
planets.
▪ He began to write “De
Revolutionibus Orbium
Coelestium” in 1506 and finished
it in 1530 but did not publish it
until the year of his death in 1543.
▪ The book means “On the
Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres.”
▪ Based on Copernicus, things
will be simpler if you just had
the planets orbiting the Sun and
the moon orbiting the Earth.
▪ The heliocentric model can
clearly explain the retrograde
motion of the planets.
▪ The Copernican model was
still not accepted because the
movement of the Earth cannot
be observed.
▪ It is also unable to explain the
stellar parallax.
▪ The church banned
heliocentric works until
1758.
▪ Galileo Galilei’s
(1564-1642)
telescope made
things more
convincing.
▪ He proved the
Copernican
Hypothesis.
▪ Johannes Kepler (1571-
1630) realized that orbits
didn’t have to be circles, but
elliptical.
▪ In this assumption, the math
fits the motion of the
planets, the Sun, moon, a
lot better using than the
heliocentric model.
 The belief that the living world
was created by God.

Four aspects of creation:

•There was a divine creator.
•Fixity of species.
•The world was about six
thousand years old only.
•A perfect design for species.
Jean-Baptist Lamarck, a zoologist,
noticed that animals are very well
suited to their environment.

He speculated that throughout their

lifetime, animals improved
themselves.
▪ He explained that changes over time occur due to
the Theory of Use and Disuse.
✓ Body parts that are used more grow stronger and
bigger.
✓ Body parts not used will deteriorate.
 Theory of Inheritance of Modified
Characteristics
Lamarck believed that physical changes that
occur in an organism are inherited by its
offspring.
Disproving Lamarck’s
Theory

▪ Organisms cannot force

themselves to adapt.
▪ Acquired characteristics
are not inherited.
What is the theory
proposed by
Charles Darwin?
Charles Robert Darwin
(1809-1882), was a
biologist famously known
for his works on evolution
and the process of natural
selection.

Recognized as the Father

of Evolution
▪ He joined a five-year mapping
expedition with the British army in
1831 headed by Vice-Admiral
Robert Fitzroy, aboard the ship
HMS Beagle.
▪ This voyage allows Charles
Darwin to have access to
hundreds of specimens from
similar-looking species that lived
close to each other but in slightly
different environments.
▪ There were inherent
variations or differences in
populations like the finches
he saw on the island of the
Galapagos.
▪ The different species seemed
to vary according to the
island.
 In the “Origin of Species”,
Darwin introduced the theory of
evolution, which postulated that
populations pass through a
process of natural selection in
which only the fittest would
survive.
▪ Darwin’s book explained how
“Descent Modification” or
“Transformism” works.
▪ In any population of the same
species, one can see a natural
variation in traits.
▪ Over time, small changes in
the environment add up,
favoring some traits over
others.
 1. Variations
There are innate differences in
organisms either observable or
unobservable.
The differences that exist naturally in
the population are also inheritable.

Four Principles of Darwinian:

 2. Inheritance
Favorable traits are passed down
from generation to generation.

Four Principles of Darwinian:

 3. Selective Pressure
Overpopulation can lead to
competition. Organisms with traits
that enable them to get resources will
survive, and those without such traits
will become extinct.

Four Principles of Darwinian:

 4. Survival of the Fittest
If a species can pass to its offspring
a favorable trait, that trait will
continue to thrive and exist in a
population.
Other traits with disadvantages would
diminish and would cause extinction.

Four Principles of Darwinian:

•

•
Variation is acquired.

Variation is inherited.
 SIGMUND FREUD
Sigmund Freud explained how the human
mind works and cures mild mental illness.

He is the Father of Psychoanalysis, and his

main goal is to make the unconscious
conscious.

He also developed a topographical and

structural model of the mind to explain the
sources of human behavior.
▪ Psychoanalysis is defined as a set of
psychological theories and therapeutic
techniques founded in the work and
theories of Sigmund Freud.
▪ The core idea of psychoanalysis is the
belief that all people possess unconscious
thoughts, feelings, desires, and
memories.
▪ Sigmund Freud’s method was unorthodox
– focusing on human sexuality and the evil
nature of man.
▪ Eros and Thanatos (Sex and Aggression)
▪ Freud believed that everything we do
comes from either a sexual drive or an
aggressive drive.
The mind is divided into three
regions:

Conscious Mind
▪ Contains all the thoughts, memories,
feelings, and wishes that we are aware
of at any given moment.
▪ A collection of what you see, hear and
feel.
The mind is divided into three
regions:

Preconscious Mind
▪ Consist of anything that can potentially
be brought into the conscious mind.
▪ They are unrepressed memories that
we extract for a specific purpose at a
specific time.
The mind is divided into three
regions:

Unconscious Mind
▪ Contains all the drives, urges, or
instincts that are outside of awareness.
▪ Storehouse of unacceptable ideas.
a. Ego (reality principle)
b. Super-ego (morality principle)
c. Id (pleasure principle)
ID (Pleasure Principle)
▪ The unconscious part of your personality is
the primitive and instinctual part of the
mind that contains aggressive and sexual
drives and hidden memories.
▪ Always seek to increase pleasure and
decrease pain.
SUPEREGO (Morality Principle)
▪ Operates as a moral conscience that
drives a man to become socially
responsible.
▪ Tells you what is right and wrong, what is
socially acceptable according to morals
and norms.
▪ Comes from the influence of our parents.
EGO (Reality Principle)
▪ It is the realistic part that mediates between
the desire of the id and the superego.
▪ The conscious self.
▪ It can make decisions like an executive
mediator who tries to satisfy both the needs
of the ego and superego, in a realistic way.
 Which of these do you
consider a healthy person?
Justify your answer.
Freud believed that anxiety happens because there
is a conflict between:
1. The ego and id
2. The ego and the superego
3. The ego and reality