Gastroinstestinal peristalsis stops. Why.

- when stress response is activated

- Digestion is suppressed
- So that the body reroute it's resources to trigger fight or flight response
- The CNS shut down the digestion
- By slowing down the contraction of digestive muscles
- Also decreasing secretions for digestion

What is the role of the autonomic nervous system in controlling the heart when the person is in
a supine (laying down on the back) position?

The autonomic nervous system is the involuntary nervous system that controls involuntary
responses such heart rate, breathing rate, sweating, peristalsis and digestion and
vasoconstriction/ vasodilation.

When the body detects the supine position, the vagus nerve of the ANS is stimulated to send
nerve impulses to the atrioventricular node which reduces the rate of contraction of the atria and
ventricles. This lowers the heart rate and the blood pressure, and the body is at rest.

The autonomic nervous system is controlled by all of the following regions EXCEPT:
a. Hypothalamus
b. Brainstem
c. Cerebral cortex (emotional areas)
d. All of the above exert control over the auton...

The brainstem is the stalk-like portion that connects the brain to the spinal cord and to send
messages to the rest of your body to regulate the balance, breathing, heart rate, etc
Hypothalamus controls the ANS, through this, the higher cerebral cortex areas can control the
immune system, and the body’s homeostatic and stress physiology

Briefly describe how the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system alters the rate of the
sinoatrial (SA) node depolarization.

The sinoatrial node is used to establish a wave of depolarization which causes the atria to star
contracting- initiating heartbeat.
The sympathetic nervous system from the cardiovascular control centre is excitatory, releasing
noradrenaline that stimulates the SAN. The nerve impulse stimulates depolarization that
crosses the threshold potential to induce the influx of sodium ions into the cells via the sodium
potassium pump and the diffusion of potassium ions through the voltage gated sodium
channels. This increases the frequency of the signals from the pacemaker region after an action
potential is generated. So the heart beats more quickly. Branches of this sympathetic nerve
also pass into the ventricles, so they also increase the force of contraction.
On the other hand, parasympathetic nervous system is inhibitory, releasing Ach, which inhibits
the SAN, and slows down the heart rate.

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Rest and digestive activities are associated with:
a. cholinergic neurons. ACh
b. muscarinic neurons another type of Ach receptors
c. sympathetic neurons. ------🡪 yes
d. corticospinal neurons. (down the brain stem and into the spinal cord)
e. a and b are correct.

What is the role of the autonomic nervous system in controlling the heart when the person is in
a sitting position?

While in sitting position, the heart rate and the blood pressure remains relatively constant so a
sympathetic nervous response is not generated even though it is tonically innvervated. The
parasympathetic nervous system relaxes the body, decreases the heart rate and reduces the
blood pressure to a near constant.

What is the role of the autonomic nervous system in controlling the heart when the person is in
a standing position?

The autonomic nervous system plays a major role in regulating the heart. It does so by
detecting and responding to blood pressure and blood flow changes throughout the body. When
blood pressure goes down in a standing position, it will send signals through nerves to slow
down the heart rate. This is done by decreasing the activity of vagal nerve fibres on both sides
of the vagus nerve. The heart rate increases when a person stands up, and blood pressure
drops. When standing, your sympathetic nervous system takes over to help you maintain your
blood pressure. Your parasympathetic nervous system relaxes your muscles so that they don't
tense up too much when standing up, which helps with blood flow and circulation.

A) What are the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system and what is the function of each
division?

The autonomic nervous system is further divided to two subdivisions:

- Sympathetic nervous system – controls the fight and flight system by producing
noradrenaline neurotransmitter from adrenergic nerves which travel through the
synapses. This produces a very rapid response in the target organ system- stimulating a
very fast response to a stimulus. When under stress, the sympathetic nervous system
becomes dominant and stimulates the organs to cope with the stress experinced

- Parasympathetic nervous system- produces the acetylcholine neurotransmitter at the

synapses. This gives the “rest and digest” response where the system has an inhibitory
response on the organ systems and restabilizes the functions of tissues after a stressful
stimulus that initiates the sympathetic nervous system.

B) In the autonomic nervous system, which fibers release which neurotransmitters?

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List general responses to increased sympathetic activity and to parasympathetic activity.

Which division of the nervous system consists of nerves and receptors controlling organs and
glands?
a. Central nervous system
b. Peripheral nervous system
c. Somatic nervous system
d. Autonomic ne...

Explain why smoking is a risk factor for heart disease in terms of the autonomic system.

Smoking stimulates the initial decrease of blood pressure and heart rate because of the
influence of nicotine in the body which imitates a parasympathetic tendency in the body. This
change is then identified by the hypothalamus which stimulates the sympathetic nervous system
to increase SAN impulse transmission. The atria and ventricles contract and hence the heart
rate increases along with the blood pressure.

(1) What are the target receptors that bind with the following drugs?
(2) What are the inotropic effects (changes in the force of heart contractions) of the following
drugs on a frog heart in situ?
a. acetylcholine (contracts smooth muscles, dilates blood vessels, increases bodily secretions
and slows heart rate) – nicotinic and muscarinic receptors (PNS)
b. atropine (slows heart rate and decreases salivation) – muscarinic acetylreceptors (PNS)
c. epinephrine (increase cardiac output and glucose levels) – adrenergic receptors (SNS)

Which of the following statements applies to the autonomic nervous system?

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a. The ANS innervates skeletal muscle.
b. The ANS controls the unconscious movement of skeletal muscles.
c. ANS functions are consciously controlled.
d. A single neuron from the spinal cord carries action potentials to effector organs in the ANS.
e. The receptor molecules of the ANS may be muscarinic, nicotinic, or adrenergic

What is the main function of the vagus nerve?

- Responsible for the rest and digest mechanism
- Promotes cardiac relaxation
- Decreases contractibility of the atria
- Reduces conduction speed through the AV node

What happens when the vagus nerve is stimulated?

The vagus nerve is a part of the parasympathetic nerve system, so when stimulated it releases
acetylcholine neurotransmitter which brings about an inhibitory response. Nerve impulses to the
SAN are inhibited, so the heart rate decreases. The baroreceptors are also stimulated which
results in the decrease of blood pressue

What can trigger the vagus nerve?

Stress, pressure- anything that stimulates the sympathetic nervous system

What organs are affected by the vagus nerve? (afferent nerve, brings information to the organs)
Heart, lungs, gut, liver, gut, brain

What are symptoms of vagus nerve damage?

Dizziness, nausea, ringing in the ears, sweating

The enteric nervous system:

a. Has about one-tenth the number of neurons as the spinal cord.
b. Is innervated only by the parasympathetic (but not the sympathetic) branch of the autonomic
nervous system.
c. Contains motor neurons that control the muscles of the gut.
d. All of the above.
e. None of the above.

E. reasons given below

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Where are autonomic integrating centers located?
Hypothalamus, brain stem, spinal cord

Heartbeat, digestion, and other self-regulating bodily functions are governed by which of the
following?
1. somatic nervous system.
2. voluntary nervous system.
3. autonomic nervous system.
4. sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system.
5. central nervous system.

3. ANS- PNS

Explain neurohormonal effects (changes in the body that affects the cardiovascular
homeostasis) on each system & overall effects on body organs.

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Explain how cortisol suppresses immune function.

Inflammation increases the blood flow to the infected area, so the phagocytes can come in and
engulf the pathogen. The cortisol is an anti inflammatory substance that reduces the
concentration of macrophages in that area. So T helper cells will not be activated, will not
stimulate the release of cytokines and so T killer cells will also not be present to completely
destroy the bacteria- so the immune system will be compromised.

Differentiate between SNS (somatic nervous system) and ANS (autonomic nervous system)

SNS
Controls the voluntary movements in the body
Innervates the voluntary skeletal muscles
Sensory stimuli: smell, light, touch, pain, noise,
taste, temperature/ sensory, motor, spinal
Always causes an excitatory response
Releases acetylcholine
Composed of a single neuron between the
CNS and the effector organ
Composed of thick myelinated nerve cells
Branches into spinal and cranial nerves
Function: posture and movement
ANS
Controls the involuntary movements in the
body
Innervated the involuntary smooth muscles,
cardiac muscles and glands
Sensory stimuli: blood pressure, salinity and
pH
The response may be excitatory or inhibitory
Releases acetylcholine, norepinephrine
(noradrenaline)
Composed of two neurons with a single
synapse between the CNS and the effector
organ
Composed of both thick and thin myelinated
nerve cells
Branches into sympathetic and
parasympathetic nerves
Function: secretion and control of metabolism

Identify the components of the autonomic nervous system.

- Sympathetic nervous system
- Parasympathetic nervous system
- Enteric nervous system

Which division of the nervous system is "automatic"? Describe its functions.

The autonomic nervous system (branched from the peripheral nervous system) is automatic and
is subdivided into three branches of sympathetic, parasympathetic and enteric nervous systems.

During the regulation of body temperature, which organ system stimulates vasoconstriction of
blood vessels?
a. Cardiovascular.
b. Skeletal.

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c. Nervous.
d. Muscular.

C. Autonomic nervous system

Which branch of the ANS exerts more Influence on a resting heart?

Parasympathetic nervous system- that stimulates the rest and digest mechanism by releasing
acetylcholine neurotransmitters

Compare and contrast the actions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
Include information about pre- and postganglionic fiber length, origin of fibers, location of
ganglia, effec...

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Describe the general function of the ANS.

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There are two neurotransmitters involved in the ANS List two ways in which the autonomic
nervous system (ANS) influences blood pressure

From the SNS- noradrenaline which

From the PNS- acetylcholine

Which of the following is a major difference between the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and
the somatic nervous system (SNS)?

a. The arrangement of the neurons connecting the CNS to the effector organs is different
between the ANS and the SNS.
b. Efferent neurons exist only in the SNS.
c. Afferent (towards) neurons exist only in the ANS.
d. Afferent information in the ANS is processed in the CNS, but not in the SNS.
e. Efferent impulses are sent to effector organs in the SNS, but not in the ANS.

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There are two neurotransmitters involved in the ANS: ___ and ___. Acetycholine,
norepinephrine
ACh is released from ___ fibers. Postganglionic parasympathetic fibres
NE is released from ___ fibers. Postganglionic sympathetic fibres
All ___ fibers release Ach (both parasympathetic & sympathetic).
Parasympathetic ___ fibers also release ACh. postganglionic
These neurotransmitters will bind to either N ___ or M ___ receptors. Nicotinic, muscarinic
N ___ receptors are located on the cell body of all postganglionic neurons in both the ___ and
___ divisions. Nicotinic, parasympathetic, sympathetic
M receptors are located on the cells of all E ___ organs in the ___ NS as well as ___ glands of
the ___ NS. Effector, SNS, PNS

What is the sensory function of the autonomic nervous system?

What is idiopathic peripheral autonomic neuropathy?

Idiopathic – unknown cause
Neuropathy- damage to nerves results in numbness, tingling, muscle weakness

The autonomic nervous system may cause activation or inhibition, depending on the division
that is active and the target that is affected. (a)(a) True (b)(b) False

Jan 12 6BI05/01

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The diagram below shows the position of some of the cells in the retina of the eye.
(b) The macula is the central part of the retina in the eye.
Macular degeneration is a common cause of blindness. Recent research has shown that macular
degeneration in adult mice can be successfully treated. This involves injecting embryonic stem
cell-derived photoreceptors into their retinas.

(i) Suggest why this sort of treatment might not restore vision in people with macular problems
who have been blind from an early age. (3)

There is a reduced amount of visual stimulation that limits the brain development as there are
reduced interconnections between the ocular dominance columns in the visual cortex. If the subject
has been blind from an early age the columns cannot develop during the critical period. Fewer
synapses are created and hence the brain cannot interpret the visual stimulation properly.

(ii) Suggest why this type of treatment for blindness in humans could be regarded as
controversial. (2)

- There are ethical objections as embryonic stem cells are used

- Ethical objections against researching on animals
- The embryonic cells may differentiate uncontrollably to form cancer cells

(c) A group of scientists proposed to investigate a treatment for people who have been blind from an
early age. This investigation involves kittens having their eyes kept shut immediately after birth. After 12
weeks, their eyes will be opened and stem cells injected into the cerebral hemispheres of their brains.

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These kittens will then be raised for two years in a constant environment and the development of their
retinas will be compared with a control group.

(i) Suggest why the stem cells will be injected into the cerebral hemispheres. (2)
The cerebral cortex is where the visual cortex is found. Injecting stem cells ensures the cells differentiate
into neurons that form more interconnections with the ocular dominance column. They are injected as
there is no other way to insert the stem cells in this particular part of the brain.

(ii) Suggest why the environment should be kept constant in this investigation. (2)

To keep all the other variables constant so that only the stem cells will affect the eye growth

In an investigation into dieting and obesity, mice were fed a restricted quantity of food. It has been found
that the stress of having less food causes the release of the hormone noradrenaline. This causes the
mice to hunt for food. These food-restricted mice will tolerate electric shocks in order to eat.

(a) Suggest why this investigation might be regarded as unacceptable.

- The experiment may be seen as unethical
- As the mice are being exposed to pain from the electrical shocks

Noradrenaline acts by increasing blood flow to the muscles

(i) Suggest how this increase in blood flow is brought about. (2)

- Noradrenaline is a part of the sympathetic nervous system

- And works by increasing the SAN impulse transmission that increases the rate of heart beat
- The sympathetic nervous system also works along with the baroreceptors, so when the heart
rate is increased, there will also be an increase in the blood pressure

(iii) Suggest why this increase in blood flow would be of advantage to the food-restricted mice.
(2)
- More blood will flow to the gut, so more glucose is produced for a higher rate of respiration
- So the extra energy can then the used for hunting for food

(a) Describe two symptoms of Parkinson’s disease. (2)

- Stiffness of muscles
- Shaking of hands
- Problems with balance
- Incomprehensible speech
- Difficulty in swallowing
- Slow movements

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 (b) Patients with Parkinson’s disease have little of the neurotransmitter dopamine in the motor
cortex of their brains. Explain how ‘dopamine agonists’ might be a useful treatment for
Parkinson’s disease. (2)
- The agonists are made to mimic the behavior of dopamine
- A patient with Parkinson’s will not have sufficient dopamine in their body. The dopamine
agonists act as dopamine and bind to the receptors at the synapse
- And trigger action potential that will allow the nerve impulse transmission for mvement

(c) Dopamine is not given to the patients as it is not effective. However, the precursor L-Dopa
(levadopa) can be given to patients. Suggest why L-Dopa might be a useful treatment for patients
with Parkinson’s disease. (3)

- L-Dopa can be converted into dopamine

- And has the ability to pass into the brain through the blood brain barrier which dopamine
molecules themselves cannot due to high polarity
- Hence, the converted dopamine will trigger an action potential which will allow the nerve
impulses to travel through the body
- The symptoms of Parkinson’s will reduce to some extent and the patient’s lifestyle will be more
comfortable

(d) Describe the advantages of deep brain stimulation (DBS) to patients with Parkinson’s disease
who do not respond to treatment with drugs. (3)

- No side effects as no drugs are used

- Better quality of life
- Immediate effect
- To help alleviate the troublesome symptoms

(e) Suggest why the ‘stereotactic frame’ has proved to be so useful in DBS (paragraph 22).
- The stereotactic frame allows less damage
- And any areas of the brain can now be stimulated

(f) Suggest how DBS affects the cell membranes of brain cells (2)

- The electrical impulses created from the DBS is greater than the threshold potential
- So the cells will experience depolarization
- Followed by repolarization and hyperpolarization
- Which will generate an action potential

(g) Explain why patient is able to stay awake during the operation without feeling any associated
pain (2)
- The brain does not have any pain receptors
- And the local anesthetic used would desensitize any nearby pain receptors

(h) Suggest the advantage of the patient being conscious during the operation., (1)

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 Patient could give feedback during the operation

(i) Explain how the experimental model for Parkinson’s disease in monkeys was created (2)

- The neurotoxins will destroy the dopaminergic cells

- In the basal ganglia
- Which will create Parkinson like symptoms in monkeys

(j) The subthalamic nucleus and the external segment of the globus pallidus (Table 1, paragraph 62)
are connected to each other. Suggest why this might be relevant for the DBS treatment of
Parkinson’s disease. (2)

- The globus pallidus could also be related to Parkinson’s

- So both of the area are stimulated with DBS treatment
- And there will be a higher rate of successful treatment as the more damaged area will be
covered

(k) Describe how fMRI can be used to monitor the activity of different areas of the brain (3)

- The fMRI method measures the oxygen uptake of the brain

- Where areas of deoxyhaemoglobin absorbs the radio signals, whereas oxyhaemoglobin does not
- When the blood flow to an area of the brain increases, the oxyhaemoglobin concentrations in
the brain increases
- So the lower the signal of absorption and re-emission, the higher the brain activity

(l) fMRI can produce four images per second. Explain why this is unlikely to monitor the effects of
DBS (2)

- the DBS creates changes in the brain that lasts only a few seconds
- the fMRI produces an image every 0.25 seconds
- so the fMRI will not be fast enough to record the changes

(m) Explain what is meant by the phrase ‘placebo responders’ (2)

- A placebo is a substance taken in an experiment to create a control group, keeping psychological

effects on drugs
- People who are placebo responders, respond to the placebo, even though it has no substantial
effect on the body

(n) Explain what is meant by the ‘causal’ nature of DBS (1)

The effect of the DBS is immediate and observable

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Jan 18 WBI05/01

Thyroxine increases the body´s sensitivity to hormones such as adrenaline. Thyroxine can also inhibit
nerve impulses. Compare the mechanisms used in hormonal and nervous coordination in mammals.(3)

● While both the mechanisms are related to coordination, hormones are chemicals that are
transported through the blood. They have a widespread effect and has a long lasting response
● Nervous impulses are electrical signals carried by neurones. They have a localized effect and has
a short lived effect.

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Cell membranes contain transporter proteins that enable thyroxine to enter the cell. This results in a
change in the activity of transcription factors. Suggest how thyroxine is able to increase the secretion of
adrenaline from cells in the adrenal glands. (4)
● Thyroxine binds to the receptors
● And activates the transcription factors
● This results in the increased protein synthesis
● And so more adrenaline is produced

Explain how calcium ions are involved in synaptic transmission. (3)

● When the nerve impulse reaches the presynaptic neuron

● VGCC open and calcium ions are released
● The signal is received by the presynaptic vesicles in the knob which diffuse with the presynaptic
membrane and release the specific neurotransmitter into the synapse

Suggest two reasons why impulses travel in only one direction across a synapse. (2)

The vesicles containing the neurotransmitters are only present in the presynaptic membrane.
While, the receptors for these specific neurotransmitters are only found in the postsynaptic membrane.

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Using the information in the graphs, compare the effect of acetylcholine at these two synapses. (3)

● For the excitatory response, Ach results in depolarization but causes hyperpolarization for the
inhibitory response.
● The rate of change of membrane potential is higher at the excitatory synapse
● The change in membrane potential is also much more higher in excitatory stage

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Using examples from the article, explain why Parkinson’s disease is thought to result from a combination
of a number of environmental and genetic factors.(4)

● There are multiple different mutations associated with Parkinson's disease

● Such as PARK1 or PARK2
● Or environmental factors such as smoking or caffeine
(fourth point- use an example for the article)

(b) A mutation in the gene coding for alpha-synuclein plays an important role in the development of
Parkinson’s disease.

This mutation affects the activity of NADH CoQ reductase. This enzyme catalyses the transfer of
electrons from reduced NAD (NADH) to the electron transport chain.

Explain why a change in the activity of NADH CoQ reductase may result in the death of neurones. (5)

- NADH CoQ reductase plays a part in the chemiosmosis process, so if there is a change in the
activity of the enzymes, electrons will not be transferred from the NADP to the electron
transport chain
- So hydrogen ions will not be pumped into the inter membrane space
- Via the ATP synthase channels, so energy is not released
- The rate of oxidative phosphorylation in the body decreases
- NADH is not reoxidised by binding to the hydrogen ions
- So the higher concentration of hydrogen ions decreases the pH
- And hence the enzymes will denature, causing the neurons to die

(c) The level of uric acid in the blood stream is considered to affect the chance of developing Parkinson’s
disease

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The blood of patients with and without Parkinson’s is collected and tested for uric acid, the data
obtained is then compared and a correlation is established

- internet
- scientific journals

(e)The motor problems of patients with Parkinson’s disease can be controlled with medication.

A side effect of some of these medications is that nonmotor symptoms of Parkinson’s disease can
become more serious. Many of these nonmotor symptoms can respond to treatment.
Explain how scientists could determine if a treatment reduced the side effects of these medications. (3)

- The changes in the nonmotor attributes in groups receiving the medication and not receiving the
medication
- Using a placebo instead in the control group
- The nonmotor attributes before and after the medication dosage is then compared to deduce
the effectiveness of the drugs

(f) Drugs that are being developed to treat patients with Parkinson’s disease have been tested on
animals.

Some of these drugs, that looked promising when tested on animals, turned out to be ineffective in
treating patients with Parkinson’s disease.

Suggest why some drugs look promising when tested on animals but are ineffective in treating patients
with Parkinson’s disease. (2)

- The animal model may not have the same physiological results as in the human models, so may
not be an accurate representation
- As different organisms react differently to different drugs

(g) Rotigotine is a drug administered to patients using a skin patch. Suggest two advantages of
administering drugs to patients using skin patches. (2)

- Avoids infections from injections

- The quantity of the drug can be given gradually

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(h) The loss of dopaminergic neurones in the substantia nigra results in a change in the balance of
excitatory (sympathetic) and inhibitory (parasympathetic) pathways of the brain (paragraph 24).

Explain why the loss of dopaminergic neurones results in a change in the balance of these pathways.(5)

- As the dopaminergic nerurones are lost, there will be a lower concentration of dopamine in the
synaptic cleft
- To bind to the receptors on the post synaptic membrane
- So depolarization will not occur
- As there isn’t enough influx of sodium channels into the cells from the opening of VGSC
- Threshold potential is not reached, so an action potential is not generated
- And hence, the pathway becomes inhibitory rather than excitatory.

(i) Explain why adeno-associated virus type 2 is ‘particularly efficient in carrying the genetic material to
the neurons affected in Parkinson’s disease’ (3)

- The virus is hollow on the inside and can carry the genetic material
- The protein on the virus bind to the host cell receptors
- And transfer the genetic material to the host cell- successfully infecting them

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