ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS, AND MIXTURES: AN ATOMIC OVERVIEW

Matter can be classified into three types based on its composition- elements, compounds and
mixtures. Elements and compounds are the two kinds of substances: a substance is a matter whose
composition is fixed. Mixtures are not substances because they have variable composition.

❖ ELEMENT
✓ An element is the simplest type of matter with unique physical and chemical
properties.
✓ It consists of only one kind of atom and therefore, cannot be broken down into
simpler type of matter by any physical or chemical methods.
✓ Each element is unique because the properties of its atoms are unique. Each
element’s atoms are unique to that element.
✓ ATOM is the smallest possible unit of an element.
✓ Several elements occur in molecular form: a molecule is an independent structure
of two or more atoms bound together. Oxygen, for example, occurs in air as
diatomic (two-atom) molecules.

❖ COMPOUND
✓ It consists of two or more different elements that are bonded chemically. That is,
the elements in a compound are not just mixed together: their atoms have joined
in a chemical reaction.
✓ Another defining feature of a compound is that its properties from the properties
of its component elements. For example, soft silvery sodium metal and yellow-

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 green, poisonous chlorine gas are very different from the compound they form-
white, crystalline sodium chloride, common table salt.
✓ Unlike an element, compound can be broken down into smaller substances- its
component elements. For example, an electric current breaks down molten
sodium chloride into metallic sodium and chlorine gas. By definition, this
breakdown is a chemical change, not a physical one.
✓ Compounds can only be converted back to their component elements by breaking
the chemical bonds which hold the atoms together in a compound.

❖ MIXTURES
✓ A mixture consists of two or more substances (elements and/or compounds) that
are physically intermingled.
✓ Unlike compounds, mixtures can be separated into their components by physical
changes.
✓ Some of the examples of physical processes used to separate mixtures include
distillation of crude oil to obtain various fractions for petrol, lubricating oil,
kerosene, diesel, etc.; density differences to extract gold in panning; filtering to
remove solids from swimming pool.
Types of Mixtures
• Homogeneous Mixture (Solution) – No visible parts, same composition throughout, also
called solutions. The particles are individual atoms, ions, or small molecules.
• Heterogeneous Mixture (Colloids & Suspensions) – Visible parts, differing regional
composition. The particles are typically either macromolecules or aggregations of small
molecules that are not large enough to settle out.

Distinction between Mixtures and Compounds

(1) the proportions of the components can vary;
(2) the individual properties of the components are observable; and
(3) the components can be separated by physical means.

BASIC SEPERATION TECHNIQUES

• Filtration separates the components of a mixture on the basis of differences in particle
size. It is used most often to separate a liquid (smaller particles) from a solid (larger
particles).
• Crystallization is based on differences in solubility. The solubility of a substance is the
amount that dissolves in a fixed volume of solvent at a given temperature.

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 • Distillation separates components through differences in volatility, the tendency of a
substance to become a gas.

• Extraction is also based on differences in solubility. In a typical procedure, a natural (often

plant or animal) material is ground in a blender with a solvent that extracts (dissolves)
soluble compound(s) embedded in insoluble material. This extract is separated further by
the addition of a second solvent that does not dissolve in the first. After shaking in a
separatory funnel, some components are extracted into the new solvent.

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 • Chromatography is a third technique based on differences in solubility. The mixture is
dissolved in a gas or liquid called the mobile phase, and the components are separated as
this phase moves over a solid (or viscous liquid) surface called the stationary phase. A
component with low solubility in the stationary phase spends less time there, thus moving
faster than a component that is highly soluble in that phase.

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 MASS LAWS

Mass Conservation
The most fundamental chemical observation of the 18th century was the law of mass
conservation. It states that: The total mass of substance does not change during a chemical
reaction. Antoine Lavoisier, first stated this law on the bases of experiments in which he reacted
Mercury with Oxygen, where the mass of the oxygen plus the mass of mercury equaled the mass
of mercuric oxide formed. Even in complex biochemical change within an organism, such as
metabolism of sugar glucose, which involves many reactions, mass is conserved:
180 g glucose + 192 g oxygen gas 264 carbon dioxide + 108 g water
372 g material before change 372 g material after change
Mass conservation means that, based on all chemical experience, matter cannot be
created nor destroyed.
Definite Composition
Another fundamental chemical observation is summarized as the law of definite
composition. It states that: no matter what is the source, a particular compound is composed of
the same elements in the same parts (fraction) by mass. The fraction by mass (mass fraction) is the
part of the compound’s mass contributed by the element, obtained by:
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑑
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑥 100%
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
Consider calcium carbonate, the major compound in marble. It is composed of the three
elements- calcium, carbon, and oxygen- and each is present in a fixed fraction by mass. The
following results are obtained for the elemental mass composition of 20.0g of calcium carbonate

Analysis by Mass Fraction Percent by

Mass Mass
(parts/1.00
(grams/20.0g) part) (parts/100
parts)

8.0 g calcium 0.40 calcium 40% calcium

2.4 g carbon 0.12 carbon 12% carbon

9.6 g oxygen 0.48 oxygen 48% oxygen

20.0 g 1.00 part 100% by mass

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Sample Problem:
Pitchblende is the most commercially important compound of uranium. Analysis shows
that 84.2 g of pitchblende contains 71.4 g of uranium, with oxygen as the only other element.
How any grams of uranium can be obtained from 102 kg of pitchblende?
Solution:
Finding the mass (kg) of uranium in 102 kg of pitchblende:
Mass (kg)of uranium𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒
Mass (kg) of uranium = mass (kg) pitchblende x mass (kg) pitchblende

71.4 kg uranium
Mass (kg) of uranium = 102 kg pitchblende x 84.2 kg pitchblende = 86.5 kg uranium

Converting mass of uranium from kg to g:

1000g
Mass (g) of uranium = 86.5 kg uranium x 8.65 x 104 g uranium 1 kg
=

Practice problem:
1.1) How many metric tons (t) of oxygen are combined in a sample of pitchblende that
contains 2.3 t of uranium?
1.2) Aluminum oxide has a composition of 52.9% aluminum and 47.1% oxygen by mass. If
16.4 g of aluminum reacts with oxygen to form aluminum oxide, what mass of oxygen
reacts?

Multiple Proportions
Dalton described a phenomenon that occurs when two elements form more than one
compound. His observation is now called the law of multiple proportions. It states that: If
elements A and B react to form two compounds, the different masses of B that combine with a
fixed mass of A can be expressed as a ratio of a small whole numbers.
Consider two compounds that form from carbon and oxygen; for now, let’s call them
carbon oxides II and II. They have different properties. For example, measured at the same
temperature and pressure, the density of carbon oxide I is 1.25 g/L, whereas that of II is 1.98 g/L.
Moreover I is poisonous and flammable but II is not. Analysis show that their compositions by
mass are;
Carbon oxide I: 57.1% oxygen and 42.9% carbon
Carbon oxide II: 72.1% oxygen and 27.3 % carbon
We use the mass percents of oxygen and carbon in each compound to find the masses of these
elements in a 100g of each compound.
Carbon Oxide I Carbon Oxide II
g oxygen/ 100 g compound 57.1 72.7
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 g carbon/ 100 g compound 42.9 27.3
g oxygen/g carbon 57.1 72.7
= 1.33 = 2.66
42.9 27.3

If we divide the grams of oxygen per gram of carbon in II by than of I, we obtain a ratio of small
whole numbers:
𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛
2.66 𝑔 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝐼 2
𝑔
𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 =
1.33 𝑔 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝐼 1
𝑔
The law of multiple proportions tells us that in two compounds of the same elements, the
mass fraction of one element relative to the other changes in increments based on ratios of small
whole numbers.

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 TYPES OF BONDING

❖ IONIC BONDING

✓ Transferring of electrons from one element to another to form.

✓ Bond in which one or more electrons from one atom are removed and attached to
another atom, resulting in positive and negative ions which attract each other.
✓ Ionic compounds are composed of ions, charged particles that form when an atom
(or small group of atoms) gains or loses one or more electrons. The simplest type
of ionic compound is a binary ionic compound, one composed of two elements.
✓ It typically forms when a metal reacts with a non-metal.
✓ If one or more atoms lose electrons and other atoms gain them in order to produce
a noble gas electron configuration, the bond is called an ionic bond.
✓ Each metal atom loses one or more of the electrons and becomes a cation, a
positively charged ion.
✓ Each non-metal atom gains one or more of the electrons lost by the metal atom
and becomes an anion, a negatively charged ion.
✓ In effect, the metal atoms transfer electrons to the non-metal atoms. The resulting
large numbers of cations and anions attract each other and form the ionic
compound.
• Metals lose electrons: elements in Group 1A(1) lose one electron, elements in
Group 2A(2) lose two electrons, and aluminium in Group 3A(3) loses three.
• Non-metals gain electrons: elements in Group 7A(17) gain one electron,
Oxygen and Sulfur in Group 6A(16) gain two, and nitrogen in Group 5A(15)
gains three.

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Typical of ionic bonds are those in the alkali halides such as sodium chloride, NaCl.

Chlorine is in a group of elements having seven electrons in their outer shells. Members of this
group tend to gain one electron, acquiring a charge of -1. Sodium is in another group with
elements having one electron in their outer shells. Members of this group tend to lose that outer
electron, acquiring a charge of +1. Oppositely charged ions are attracted to each other, thus
chlorine Cl- and sodium Na+ form an ionic bond, becoming the molecule sodium chloride.

❖ COVALENT BONDING

✓ Bond in which one or more pairs of electrons are shared by two atoms.
✓ Covalent bonding occurs when two (or more) elements share electrons.
✓ This most commonly occurs when two non-metals bond together. Because both of the
non-metals will want to gain electrons, the elements involved will share electrons in
an effort to fill their valence shells.
✓ Such bonds lead to stable molecules if they share electrons in such a way as to create
a noble gas configuration for each atom.
✓ Example: Diamond is strong because it involves a vast network of covalent bonds
between the carbon atoms in the diamond.

A good example of a covalent bond is that which occurs between two hydrogen atoms.

Atoms of hydrogen (H) have one valence electron in their first electron shell. Since the capacity
of this shell is two electrons, each hydrogen atom will "want" to pick up a second electron.

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In an effort to pick up a second electron, hydrogen atoms will react with nearby hydrogen (H)
atoms to form the compound H2. In this way, both atoms share the stability of a full valence
shell.

Because the hydrogen compound is a combination of equally matched atoms, the atoms will
share each other's single electron, forming one covalent bond.

COVALENT BOND

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NON-POLAR COVALENT BOND

The H2 molecule is a good example of the first type of covalent bond, the nonpolar bond.
Because both atoms in the H2 molecule have an equal attraction (or affinity) for electrons, the
bonding electrons are equally shared by the two atoms, and a nonpolar covalent bond is formed.

POLAR COVALENT BOND

A polar bond is formed when electrons are unequally shared between two atoms. Polar covalent
bonding occurs because one atom has a stronger affinity for electrons than the other (yet not
enough to pull the electrons away completely and form an ion).

In a polar covalent bond, the bonding electrons will spend a greater amount of time around the
atom that has the stronger affinity for electrons. A good example of a polar covalent bond is the
hydrogen-oxygen bond in the water molecule. Oxygen is much more electronegative than
hydrogen, and so the electrons involved in bonding the water molecule spend more time there.

The primary difference between the H-O bond in water and the H-H bond is the degree of
electron sharing.
The large oxygen atom has a stronger affinity for electrons than the small hydrogen atoms.
Because oxygen has a stronger pull on the bonding electrons, it preoccupies their time, and this
leads to unequal sharing and the formation of a polar covalent.

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 PERIODIC TRENDS

Atomic Size
Because it is so difficult to measure atomic size from the nucleus to the outermost edge of
the electron cloud, chemists use other approaches to get consistent measurements of atomic sizes.
One way that chemists define atomic size is by using the atomic radius. The atomic radius is one-
half the distance between the centers of a homonuclear diatomic molecule (a diatomic molecule
means a molecule made of exactly two atoms and homonuclear means both atoms are the same
element).
The trend in the periodic table is that as you move across the Periodic Table from left to
right, the atomic radii decrease. This trend is not as systematic for the transition metals because
other factors come into play.

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Ionic Radii
Due to each atom’s unique ability to lose or gain an electron, periodic trends in ionic radii
are not as ubiquitous as trends in atomic radii across the periodic table. Therefore, trends must be
isolated to specific groups and considered for either cations or anions.
Consider the s- and d-block elements. All metals can lose electrons and form cations. The
alkali and alkali earth metals (groups 1 and 2) form cations which increase in size down each
group; atomic radii behave the same way. Beginning in the d-block of the periodic table, the
ionic radii of the cations do not significantly change across a period. However, the ionic radii do
slightly decrease until group 12, after which the trend continues (Shannon 1976). It is important
to note that metals, not including groups 1 and 2, can have different ionic states, or oxidation
states, (e.g. Fe2+ or Fe3+ for iron) so caution must be employed when generalizing about trends in
ionic radii across the periodic table.
All non-metals (except for the noble gases which do not form ions) form anions which
become larger down a group. For non-metals, a subtle trend of decreasing ionic radii is found
across a pegroup theoryriod (Shannon 1976). Anions are almost always larger than cations,
although there are some exceptions (i.e. fluorides of some alkali metals).

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Electronegativity
Electronegativity is the ability an atom has to attract other electrons. Atoms that have
high electronegativities will attract more electrons and may even steal from other atoms.
• From left to right across a period of elements, electronegativity increases. If the
valence shell of an atom is less than half full, it requires less energy to lose an electron than
to gain one. Conversely, if the valence shell is more than half full, it is easier to pull an
electron into the valence shell than to donate one.
• From top to bottom down a group, electronegativity decreases. This is because atomic
number increases down a group, and thus there is an increased distance between the valence
electrons and nucleus, or a greater atomic radius.
• Important exceptions of the above rules include the noble gases, lanthanides,
and actinides. The noble gases possess a complete valence shell and do not usually attract
electrons. The lanthanides and actinides possess more complicated chemistry that does not
generally follow any trends. Therefore, noble gases, lanthanides, and actinides do not have
electronegativity values.

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 • As for the transition metals, although they have electronegativity values, there is little
variance among them across the period and up and down a group. This is because their
metallic properties affect their ability to attract electrons as easily as the other elements.

Electron Affinity
Energy Change (in kJ) accompanying the addition of 1 mol of electron to 1 mol of gaseous
atoms/ions (Atom(g) + e- → ion-(g)). Electron affinity generally decreases down a group of
elements because each atom is larger than the atom above it (this is the atomic radius trend,
discussed below). This means that an added electron is further away from the atom's nucleus
compared with its position in the smaller atom. With a larger distance between the negatively-
charged electron and the positively-charged nucleus, the force of attraction is relatively weaker.
Therefore, electron affinity decreases. Moving from left to right across a period, atoms become
smaller as the forces of attraction become stronger. This causes the electron to move closer to the
nucleus, thus increasing the electron affinity from left to right across a period.

• Electron affinity increases from left to right within a period. This is caused by the
decrease in atomic radius.

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 • Electron affinity decreases from top to bottom within a group. This is caused by the
increase in atomic radius.

Ionization Energy
Energy requirement for complete removal of 1 mole of electrons from 1 mol of gaseous atoms/ions.

Atom(g) ion+(g) + e-

• The ionization energy of the elements within a period generally increases from left to
right. This is due to valence shell stability.
• The ionization energy of the elements within a group generally decreases from top to
bottom. This is due to electron shielding.
• The noble gases possess very high ionization energies because of their full valence shells
as indicated in the graph. Note that helium has the highest ionization energy of all the
elements.

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 CHEMICAL INORGANIC NOMENCLATURE

Formula Writing of Inorganic Compounds

1. Represent by symbol the fragments of the compound in sequence that they occur in the
given name, write first the cation then the anion
• Enclose the radicals in parenthesis Ex: (Na+) (Cl-)
2. Cross indicate the charges as subscripts (exclude the signs)
Ex: Na1Cl1
3. Omit writing “1” if it is in the subscript
1. Reduce the subscript derived from the cross indication into smallest whole
number
Ex: (Pb4+) (CO3-) Pb2 (CO3)4 Pb(CO3)
• Eliminate the parenthesis of the radical if the subscript is 1

Naming of Inorganic Compounds

• Compounds made of a metal and nonmetal are commonly known as Ionic Compounds,
where the compound name has an ending of –ide. (the cation’s name doesn’t change, the
anion is written after the cation, modified to end in –ide
Ex: Na+ + Cl- = NaCl Sodium Chloride
• Compounds that consist of a nonmetal bonded to a nonmetal are commonly known
as Molecular Compounds, where the element with the positive oxidation state is written
first. In many cases, nonmetals form more than one binary compound, so prefixes are used
to distinguish them.
Ex: CO = carbon monoxide N2O5 =dinitrogen pentoxide
# of 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Atoms

Prefixes Mono- Di- Tri- Tetra- Penta- Hexa- Hepta- Octa- Nona- Deca-

• The transition metals may form more than one ion, thus it is needed to be specified which
particular ion we are talking about. This is indicated by assigning a Roman numeral after
the metal.
• For example, iron can form two common ions, Fe2+ and Fe3+. To distinguish the
difference, Fe2+ would be named iron (II) and Fe3+ would be named iron (III).
Ex: Fe2+ + 2Cl- FeCl2 ; Iron (II) Chloride
• The ion of the transition metal that has the lower charge has the Latin name
ending with -ous and the one with the the higher charge has a Latin name ending
with -ic.
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 Ex: Fe2+ + 2Cl- FeCl2 ; Ferrous Chloride

CLASSIFICATION AND NAMING OF INORGANIC COMPOUNDS

1. OXIDES

OXIDES are binary compounds consisting of oxygen which is the anion and the other element
which can be a metal/non-metal

Metallic oxide: metal + oxide

Examples:
✓ Al2O3 - Aluminum Oxide
✓ Fe2O3 – Iron (III) Oxide
✓ Hg2O - Mercury (I) Oxide

2. BASES

✓ INORGANIC BASES are compounds of metallic element with one or more

hydroxyl groups
✓ Bases are compounds which consist of a metal ion combined with the hydroxide
polyatomic ion (OH). To name a base, name the metal (include the oxidation
number in parentheses if the metal is one which has more than one oxidation
state) followed by the word hydroxide.

Metal Hyroxides: Metal + hydroxide

Examples:
✓ NaOH – sodium hydroxide
✓ Ca(OH)2 – Calcium hydroxide
✓ KOH - potassium hydroxide
✓ Al(OH)3 – aluminum hydroxide
✓ Fe(OH)3 - iron(III) hydroxide
✓ Fe(OH)2 - iron(II) hydroxide

3. ACIDS

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 ✓ An acid is a compound consisting of hydrogen combined with a non-metallic element or
with a polyatomic ion that has a negative oxidation number.
✓ There are several types of acids encountered in chemistry: binary acids, oxygen
containing acids, and organic acids. Their names are well established in traditional
origins and there has been no acceptable systematic scheme for naming these substances.

A. Binary or Non-oxygen Acids

Binary acids consist of hydrogen combined with a non-metal element. Binary acids are named
by using the prefix hydro- followed by the stem name of the non-metal element (the second
element in the formula) with an –ic ending. The name is followed by the word acid.

Examples:
✓ HCl - hydrochloric acid
✓ HBr - hydrobromic acid
✓ HI - hydroiodic acid
✓ H2S - hydrosulfuric acid

B. Oxygen-containing Acids/ Ternary Acid

✓ Oxygen-containing acids consist of three elements: hydrogen, a non-metal, and oxygen.

If there are only two common forms of the acid, suffixes -ous and -ic are used to denote
different oxidation states of the non-metal. Oxygen-containing acids are named by
using the stem name of the non-metal element (the middle element) with an -ous
ending if the element is in its lower oxidation state or an -ic ending if the element is
in its higher oxidation state, followed by the word acid.
✓ Ternary acids consist of a polyatomic ion combined with hydrogen. In general, the “ate”
ending of the polyatomic ion is replaced with the “ic” ending and the word “acid” is
added.
✓ Can have more than three atoms, but they are atoms of only three different elements
(Three elements: H, Non-metal, O)

REMEMBER THIS!!
Ends:
“ate”- ic acid
“ite” – ous acid

NOTE: THERE ARE ALWAYS EXCEPTIONS!

▪ Sulfate- Sulfuric
• Sulfite- Sulfurous
• Phosphate- Phosphoric

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Examples:
✓ HNO2 - nitrous acid (the oxidation number of N = +3)
✓ HNO3 - nitric acid (the oxidation number of N = +5)
(NOTE: Nitrogen only forms these two acids.)
✓ H2SO3 - sulfurous acid (the oxidation number of S = +4)
✓ H2SO4 - sulfuric acid (the oxidation number of S = +6)
(NOTE: These are the most common oxygen acids of sulfur.)
✓ H3PO3 - phosphorous acid (the oxidation state of P = +3)
✓ H3PO4 - phosphoric acid (the oxidation state of P = +5)
(NOTE: These are the most common oxygen acids of phosphorus.)

Sometimes an element may form more than two oxygen-containing acids. In these cases,
additional prefixes hypo- and per- are used. An example of this is chlorine which forms the
acids: HClO, HClO2, HClO3, and HClO4. The most common oxygen acids of chlorine are:
✓ HClO2 which is named chlorous acid
✓ HClO3 which is named chloric acid

In the case of HClO, which contains one atom of oxygen less than chlorous acid, HClO2, (the -
ous ending acid) chlorine has a lower oxidation number and the prefix hypo- is added to the -ous
acid name. This results in the name hypochlorous acid for HClO.

In the case of HClO4, the acid contains one more oxygen than chloric acid, HClO3, (the acid
with the name ending in -ic) chlorine has a higher oxidation number and the prefix per- is added
to the -ic acid name. This results in the name perchloric acid for HClO4.

These names of the oxygen-containing halogen acids are summarized in the following examples:
HClO = hypochlorous acid
HClO2 = chlorous acid
HClO3 = chloric acid
HClO4 = perchloric acid

Similar names are used for the acids formed by bromine and iodine, the two elements that are
found in the same family below chlorine in the periodic table.

HBrO = hypobromous acid

HIO = hypoiodous acid
HBrO3 = bromic acid
HIO3 = iodic acid
HBrO4 = perbromic acid
HIO4 = periodic acid

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 4. SALTS

✓ These are ionic compounds formed between a positive ion from a base and a negative ion
from an acid. They form when the acid and base react and neutralize each other.
✓ Compounds consisting of a metal combined with a non-metal or a negative radical except
(OH-)
✓ All salts are ionic compound
✓ Salts are named simply by giving the names of the positive and negative ions.

Examples:
✓ NaCl - sodium chloride
✓ KNO3 - potassium nitrate
✓ FeCO3 – iron (III) carbonate

Naming of Salts of Oxygen Acids

A salt of an oxygen containing acid results from the reaction of the acid with a metal hydroxide
or an aqueous ammonia solution. These salts consist of a metal or ammonium polyatomic ion
combined with a negative polyatomic ion which contains one or more atoms of oxygen. To name
these compounds, name the metal (be sure to include the oxidation number in parentheses when
needed) followed by the name of the acid polyatomic ion. If the polyatomic ion comes from an
acid that has an -ous ending, then the polyatomic ion name will end with -ite. If the polyatomic
ion comes from an acid that has an -ic ending, then the name of the polyatomic ion ends in -ate.
Prefixes such as hypo- and per- remain as part of the polyatomic ion name.

Examples:

✓ KClO - potassium hypochlorite

✓ KClO2 - potassium chlorite
✓ KClO3 - potassium chlorate
✓ KClO4 - potassium perchlorate
✓ FeSO3 - iron(II) sulfite
✓ Fe2(SO4)3 - iron(III) sulfate

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 PREDICTING AND BALANCING EQUATIONS

Law of Conservation of Mass

• Matter can neither be created nor destroyed
• The Law is also applicable to both physical and chemical change
• The number and type of atoms must be the same for both reactants and products

Predicting Chemical Equation

• Four Major Types of Reaction
1. Combination (Synthesis)
2. Decomposition (Analysis)
3. Single Displacement (Substitution)
4. Double Displacement (Metathesis)
Combination
• Two or more chemical species combine to form a more complex product.
A + B → AB
Example:
Na + Cl2 → NaCl
Decomposition
• A compound is broken into smaller chemical species
AB → A + B
Example:
CaCO3 → CO2 + CaO

Single Displacement
• One element is being displaced from a compound by another element.
A + BC → AC + B

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 Example:
Fe + CuCl2 → FeCl2 + Cu
Double Displacement
• Two compounds exchange bonds or ions to form different compounds.
AB + CD → AD + CB
Example:
H2SO4 + KOH → H2O + K2SO4
Balancing Chemical Equation
• Basic Steps in Balancing Chemical Equations
1. Write the Unbalanced Equation
2. Start Balancing the Equation
3. Apply the Law of Conservation of Mass to get the same number of atoms of every
element on each side of the Equation
4. Once one element is Balanced, proceed to balance another, and another, until all
elements are balanced
Example:
• Tin Oxide is heated with hydrogen gas to form tin metal and water vapor. (a)Write the
balanced equation and (b)identify what reaction occurs in the reaction.
a) Write the balanced equation
SnO2(s) + 2H2(g) → Sn(s) + 2H2O(g)
b) Type of reaction
Single Displacement

Practice Problems:
2.1) When gallium metal is heated in oxygen gas, it melts and forms solid gallium(III) oxide.
(a)Write the Balanced Equation and (b) determine what type of reaction occurs.
a) Write the balanced equation
b) Type of reaction

2.2) When solutions of calcium chloride and sodium phosphate are mixed, solid calcium
phosphate and sodium chlorate remains in the solution (a) Write the Balanced Equation
and (b) determine what type of reaction occurs.
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 a) Write the balanced equation
b) Type of reaction

STOICHIOMETRY OF FORMULAS AND EQUATION

Stoichiometry
“stoy-key-AHM-uh-tree”
STOICHEION – element
METRON – measure
✓ The study of the quantitative aspects of formulas and equations.
✓ We relate the mass of a substance to the number of chemical entities comprising it:
Atoms
Molecules
Ions
Formula units
✓ And apply this relationship to formulas and equations.

THE MOLE (abb. mol)

✓ The SI unit for the amount of substance
✓ The amount of a substance that contains the same number of entities as the number of
atoms in 12 g of carbon-12
✓ 1 mole contains: 6.022 x 1023 entities (AVOGADRO’S NUMBER)
✓ AMEDEO CARLO AVOGADRO- An Italian scientist, most noted for his contribution to
molecular theory know as Avogadro’s law

Examples:
1 mol S – 32.07 g 1 mol NaCl – 58.44 g
1 mol Ca – 40.08 g
1 mol C – 12.01 g
1 mol S – 6.022 x 1023 atoms of S
1 mol Ca – 6.022 x 1023 atoms of Ca
1 mol C – 6.022 x 1023 atoms of C
1 mol H2 O– 18.02 g

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How many H2 O molecules are there in 1 mole of water?
How many NaCl formula units are there in 2 moles of salt?
Interconverting moles, mass and number of entities
no. of grams
• Mass (g) = no. of moles x 1 mol
1 mol
• No. of moles = mass (g) x no. of grams

6.022 x 1023 entities

• No. of entities = no. of moles x 1 mol
1 mol
• No. of moles = no. of entities x
6.022 x 1023 entities

Calculating the Mass and the Number of Atoms in a Given Number of Moles of an Element
1. Sodium chloride is used to treat or prevent sodium loss caused by dehydration and
excessive sweating. How many moles are in 75.37 grams of sodium chloride?

Practice Problem
3.1) Iron is the main component of steel, is the most important metal in industrial society.
How many iron atoms are in 95.8g of iron?

Calculating the Moles and Number of Chemical Entities in a Given Mass of a Compound
1. Nitrogen dioxide is a component of urban smog that forms from gases in car exhaust.
How many molecules
are in 8.92 g of nitrogen
dioxide?

Practice Problem:
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4.1) Fluoride ion is added to drinking water to prevent tooth decay. What is the mass (g) of
sodium fluoride in a liter of water that contains 1.19x 1019 formula units of the compound? (8.30
x 10-4 g NaF)

Mass percent from the chemical formula

For a molecule (or formula unit) of compound:
atoms of X in formula x atomic mass of X (amu)
Mass % of element X = molecular (or formula)mass of compound (amu)

For a mole of compound:

moles of X in formula x molar mass of X (g/mol)
Mass % of element X = mass (g) of 1 mol of compound

Calculating the Mass Percent and Masses of Elements in a Sample of Compound

1. In mammals, lactose (milk sugar) is metabolized to glucose, the key nutrient for
generating chemical potential energy. What is the mass percent of each element in
glucose?

Practice Problem:
5.1) An element consists of 90.51% of an isotope with an atomic mass of 19.992 amu, 0.27%
of an isotope with an atomic mass of 20.994 amu, and 9.22% of an isotope with an atomic mass
of 21.990 amu. What is the atomic weight of the element? (20.18 amu)

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EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULAS

Empirical Formula
The simplest formula for a compound that agrees with the elemental analysis and gives rise to
the smallest set of whole numbers of atoms.
Molecular Formula
The formula of the compound as it exists, it be a multiple of the empirical formula.

Determining an Empirical Formula from amounts of Elements and Masses of elements

1. A sample of an unknown compound contains 0.21 mol of zinc, 0.14 mol of phosphorus,
and 0.56 mol of oxygen. What is the empirical formula and name of the compound?

Practice Problem:
6.1) A compound was analyzed and found to contain 13.5 g Ca, 10.8 g O, and 0.675 g H.
What is the empirical formula and name of the compound?

Determining a Molecular Formula from Elemental Analysis and Molar Mass

molar mass of molecular formula
Whole –number multiple = molar mass of empirical formula

Determining a Molecular Formula from Elemental Analysis and Molar Mass

1. The molecular weight of saccharin, an artificial sweetener, is 183.18 g/mol and the
compound is 45.90% carbon, 2.75% hydrogen, 26.20% oxygen, 17.50% sulfur, and
7.65% nitrogen. What is the molecular formula of saccharin?

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Practice Problem:
7.1) The compound ethylene glycol is often used as an antifreeze. It contains 38.7% carbon,
9.75% hydrogen, and the rest oxygen. The molecular mass of ethylene glycol is 62.07 g/mol.
What is the molecular formula of the compound?

Combustion Apparatus for Determining Formulas of Organic Compounds

Combustion
Write an equation for the complete combustion of each of the following compounds in oxygen:
a.) aniline, C6 H7 N(l)
b.) dimethyl sulfide, C2 H6 S(l)
c.) thiazole, C3 H3 NS(l)
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Determining a Molecular Formula from Combustion Analysis
1. Vitamin C (176.12 g/mol) is a compound of C, H, and O found in many natural sources,
especially citrus fruits. When a 1.000 g sample of vitamin C is burned in a combustion
apparatus, the following data are obtained. What is the molecular formula of Vitamin C?
Mass of carbon dioxide absorber after combustion: 85.35 g
Mass of carbon dioxide absorber before combustion: 83.85 g
Mass of water absorber after combustion: 37.96 g
Mass of water absorber before combustion: 37.55 g

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Calculating Amounts of Reactants and Products
Upon heating, sodium nitride powder decomposes to liquid sodium and gaseous nitrogen. This
reaction serves as a convenient laboratory preparation of pure nitrogen gas.
a. Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction.
b. What number of moles of sodium nitride is required to prepare a 1.00 mol of nitrogen
gas?
c. What mass of nitrogen gas is produces by the decomposition of 2.50 g of sodium nitride?
d. What mass of liquid sodium is produces when 1.75 g of nitrogen gas is prepared?

Limiting Reactants
✓ Reactants that is consumed when a reaction occurs and, therefore, the one that determines
the maximum amount of product that can form
✓ Substance that is totally consumed when the reaction is complete. The amount of product
formed is limited by this reagent, since the reaction cannot proceed without it.
Sample Problem:
1. When 0.100 mol of carbon is burned in a closed vessels with 8.00 g of oxygen, how
many grams of carbon dioxide can form? Which reactant is an excess and how many
grams of it remains after the reaction? (4.40g Carbon dioxide, 4.80g Oxygen in excess)

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Practice Problem:
8.1) How many grams of solid aluminum sulfide can be prepared by the reaction of 10.0 g of
aluminum and 15.0 g of sulfur? How many grams of the nonlimiting reactant are in the excess?

Theoretical Yield
✓ The amount of product calculated from the molar ratio in the balanced equation
Actual Yield
✓ The amount of products actually obtained through experimentation
Percent Yield
✓ The actual yield expressed as a percentage of the theoretical yield
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
% 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = × 100
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑

Sample Problems
1. Marble (calcium carbonate) reacts with hydrochloric acid solution to form calcium
chloride solution, water and carbon dioxide. Find the percent yield of carbon dioxide if
3.65 g is collected when 10.0 g marble reacts (4.40g CO2, 83.0%)

Practice Problem:
9.1) What is the maximum number of grams of B2H6 (g) that can be prepared form 2.650 g of
NaBH4 (s) and 4.560 g of BF3 (g)? The equation for the reaction is:

9.2) If 0.6972 g of B2H6 (g) was isolated, what is the percent yield?

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Molarity (M)
✓ A concentration term expressed as the moles of solute dissolved in 1 L of solution
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑀=
𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛
Sample Problems
1. Calculate the following:
a) Molarity of 500 ml of solution containing 21.1 g of potassium iodide (0.254 M
KI)
b) Amount (mol) of solute in 145.6 L of 0.0850 M sodium cyanide (124 mol NaCN)
c) Amount (mol) of KI in a 84 mL of 0.50 M KI (0.042 mol)

Practice Problem:
10.1) A sample of concentrated nitric acid has a density of 1.41 g/mL and contains 70.0%
HNO3 by mass.
a. What mass (g) of HNO3 is present per liter of solution?
b. What is the molarity of the solution?

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Diluting a Solution/ Dillution
A concentrated solution is converted into a dilute solution by adding solvent, which means the
solution volume increases but the amount (mol) of solute stays the same
𝑴𝒅𝒊𝒍 × 𝑽𝒅𝒊𝒍 = 𝒂𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕 (𝒎𝒐𝒍) = 𝑴𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒄 × 𝑽𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒄

Sample Problems
1. A chemical engineer dilutes a stock solution of sulfuric acid by adding 25.0 m3 of 7.50 M
acid to enough water to make 500 m3. what is the concentration of sulfuric acid in the
diluted solution? (3.68 x 10-2 g/mL soln)

Practice Problem:
11.1) Calculate the following quantities:
a. Molarity of a solution prepared by diluting 37.00 mL of 0.250 M potassium
chloride to 150.00 mL
b. Molarity of a solution prepared by diluting 25.71 mL of 0.0706 M ammonium
sulfate to 500.00 mL
c. Volume (L) of 2.050 M copper(II) nitrate that must be dilutes with water to
prepare 750.0 mL of a 0.8543 M solution

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ANSWER KEY:
Practice Problems:

Page 6:
1.1) 0.41 t oxygen
1.2) 14.6 g

Page 23:
2.1a.) 4Ga + 3O2 2Ga2O3
2.1b) Combination Reaction
2.2a) 3CaCl2 + 2Na3PO4 Ca3(PO4) + 6NaCl
2.2b) Double Displacement

Page 25:
3.1) 1.04 x 1024 atoms Fe
Page 26:
4.1) 8.30 x 10-4 g NaF
5.1) 20.18 amu
Page 27:
6.1) Ca(OH)2, Calcium hydroxide
Page 28:
7.1) C2H6O2
Page 31:
8.1) 27.8 g Al2S3, 1.6 Al
9.1) 3𝑁𝑎𝐵𝐻4 (𝑠) + 4𝐵𝐹3 (𝑔) → 3𝑁𝑎𝐵𝐹4 (𝑠) + 2𝐵2 𝐻6 (𝑔)
9.2) (Limiting reactant: BF3, 74.95%)

Page 32:
10.1a) 987 g HNO3/L
10.1b) 15.7 M HNO3

Page 33:
11.1a) 0.0617 M KCl
11.1b) 0.00363 M (NH4)2SO4
11.1c) 0.312 L Cu(NO3)2

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