Cytologenetics

Department of histology and

cell biology
 Cell cycle
Definition: cycle means the repetition of
a sequence of events, during a given time
period with the final events terminating
at the same point from which the cycle
has begun.
Purpose of the cycle:
1. process of expansion: to grow in size.
2. process of renewal: to restore the lost
cells.
Stages of the cycle: interphase & mitosis
A) Interphase stage: is a preparatory stage
for the subsequent cell division (mitosis) and
is formed of:
1. G1 phase:
the cell passes
through a gape
period of reset
to prepare for the
commencement
of DNA replication.
2. S phase: the cell doubles the amount of
its genetic material (DNA) by synthesizing
new stands of DNA.
3. G2 phase:
is another gap
period through
which the mother
cell accumulates
large amounts of
proteins &
nutrients to be
sufficient for the
resulting 2 daughter cells coming after
mitosis.
B) Mitosis:
-After DNA replication, the nucleus
contains a doubled amount of
chromatin and its associated proteins.
-Mitosis has 4
consecutive phases,
namely, prophase,
metaphase,
ananphase and
telophase.
N.B:
-DNA is formed of 2 strand, one
complementary to the other, each of them is
formed of macromolecules which are present
in the from of polymers.
- Chromatin is formed of repeating units
(nucleosomes) of DNA.
- s-chromosome: denote the interphase
chromosome which is actually no more than a
DNA molecule.
- d-chromosome: denote the double
chromatin thread seen during the early stages
of cell division.
Endo reduplication:
is a special case of tetraploidy in which
the chromosomes undergo 2 sequential
DNA replications and enter prophase
and metaphase as a cell containing 2 d-
chromosome. It appears more
frequently in leukemia cells.
Type of cell division:
1. Mitosis: in which there is division
in somatic cells.
2. Meiosis: in which there is division
in germ cells (gametes).
3. Simple binary fission (amitosis): in
which simple division occurs in the
cell organoids as mitochondria leads
to 2 another mitochondria.
 Mitosis
- These division occurs in somatic cell
and leads to production of 2 daughter
cells identical to the original cell
(mother cell).
- The cell enters mitosis with 46 d-
chromosomes as the cell enters this
division after DNA replication.
- Mitosis consists of 4 stages:
 1. Prophase stage
1- A pair of centrioles directed to each pole of
the cell.
2- A set of microtubules arises from the side
of the centriole is formed.
These microtubules originating from an area
called microtubule organizing center ( MIC)
at the centrioles and
called interpolar
microtubules as each
set arise from each
pole of the cell.
3. The nucleolus is
disappeared and the
nuclear membrane
is broken up soon.
2. Metaphase stage
- The chromosomes directed to the mid region
of the cell around the equatorial plane.
- Another set of microtubules called
chromosomal microtubules is formed from
chromosomal organs
called kinetochores
which is present in
the centromeres.
- Interdigitation
between
chromosomal and
spindle microtubules
occurs.
-The interdigitation increases and
deepness more and more until all points
come in contact but within limits.
-The spindle microtubules power is
decreased but
chromosomal
microtubules
power is more and
begin to pull on
the kinetochore in
opposing direction
toward the poles
of the cell.
3 different types of microtubule fibers
together form the mitotic spindle.
1. Kinetochore (chromosomal)
microtubules
2. Polar microtubules
3. Astral microtubules are short
microtubules extend out from the
centrosome toward the cell’s periphery.
3. Anaphase stage
- The centromere between the 2 pairs of
chromosomes is divided longitudinally into 2
parts.
- The 2 s-chromosomes separate away from
each other.
- Each set of
s-chromosomes
migrates to each
pole of the cell
with action power
of continuous
microtubules.
4. Telophase stage
- A constriction is formed at the middle of the
elongated cell (at the equatorial plane). These
constriction encircle the cell more and more
to become cleavage furrow.
-Actin filaments present in the cytoplasm
with other cytoplasmic components become
attracted to the edges
of the cleavage furrow
under the cell
membrane.
Cleavage deepness
more and more and
become complete and
the 2 cells become
separated from
each other.
-The nuclear envelope
reformed and nucleolus reappear again.
II. Meiosis
The cells enter meiosis after DNA
replication. Accordingly, each cell has a
complement of 46 d-chromosomes.
This type of division is completed after 2
steps:
The first meiotic division:
It’s know as the reductional division,
each daughter cell acquires 23 d-
chromosomes.
It is formed the 4 stages previously
described for mitosis.
Prophase I:
Leptotene (thread like) stage: at which
the chromosomes become visible as single
thin threads. On these
threads, there are
bead-like areas of
condensed chromatin
called the chromomers
(at this stage each
chromosome consists
of a pair of sister
chromatids).
 Zygotene (paring) stage:
at which a shortening and thickening
activity of the chromosomes continues and
the homologues
begin to synapse.
The points of
contact increase
until all
corresponding
point coincide.
Doing so, each
homologous pair
is termed a
bivalent.
 Pachytene (thickening) stage:
at which the chromosomes continue to
contract, in the
sense that each
d-chromosomes
is formed of 2
S-chromosomes,
the homologous
pairs retermed
tetrads
(quadrevalent).
 Diplotene (appearing double) stage:
at which a repulsion force between the
homologous chromosomes of the bivalent
occurs except at
specific points of
contact called the
chiasmata at which
the genetic crossing
over takes place.
Diplotene is very
short and difficult
to study in humans.
Diakinesis (moving apart) stage:
at which the chiasmata move down the
chromosomes to its end (terminalize) and
the
nucleoli begin
to dissolve
and the
phase is
terminated
by the
dissolution
of the nuclear
envelope.
Metaphase I:
- The spindle elements are formed and
the bivalents are arranged upon the
equatorial plane.
- The homologous
centromeres are
repelled by each
other and are
attached to the
spindle
(continuous)
microtubules.
Anaphase I:
- The bivalents move apart from other and
each of the homologues chromosomes is
seen to consist of 2
s-chromosomes held
together by the
centromere.
-The total number of
chromosomes moving
to either pole of the
cell is 23
d-chromosomes
(46 S-chromosomes).
Telophase I:
is characterized by:
-The completion
of the cleavage
furrow.
-The 2 daughter
cells separate
from each other.
-The nuclear
membrane
reformed.
The second meiotic division:
- This division is greatly analogous to the
ordinary mitosis and some occasions is
referred to as meiotic mitosis.
-The second meiotic division differs
from ordinary mitosis in the following:
1. The cells proceed to division without
prior DNA synthesis.
2. The cells enter the division with a
complement of 23 d-chromosomes.
3. Prophase II is of shorter duration and
no nucleoli are observed.
In female, gametogenesis start as early as
the third month of intrauterine life and by
the seventh month of intrauterine life, the
ovary has its whole number of germ cells
some in leptotene and zygotene stages and
the others (older cells) are in pachytene
and diplotene stages.
At birth all cells are in the diplotene stage
and this stage persistent till the of puberty
and ovulation (a time span that vary from
12 to more than 45 years). In this
prolonged stage of diplotene (is termed
dictyonema) the chromosomes
progressively longer and tenuous.
Barr body
It is a mass of chromatin, small enough (1
um), so it is seen by oil immersion
objective. It is the cytological
manifestation of the inactive X-
chromosome (Xi) in interphase nuclei.
THANK YOU