BUILDING SYSTEM DESIGN

BUILDING MATERIALS AND ASSEMBLIES

GROUP 4

Building Materials & Construction

1. Materials

Only materials approved by the Commission may be used in defining constructions.

Additional materials may be added to the Compliance Manager.

Partial list of the materials currently available for construction assemblies.

 MATERIAL NAME

The material name is used to select the material for a construction.

 THICKNESS

Some materials, such as three-coat stucco, are defined with a specific thickness
(not editable by the compliance user). The thickness of other materials, such as softwood
used for framing, is selected by the compliance user based on the construction of the
building.

 CONDUCTIVITY

The conductivity of the material is the steady state heat flow per square foot, per
foot of thickness, or per degree Fahrenheit temperature difference. It is used in simulating
the heat flow in the construction.

 COEFFICIENT FOR TEMPERATURE ADJUSTMENT OF CONDUCTIVITY

The conductivity of insulation materials vary with their temperature according to

the coefficient listed. Other materials have a coefficient of zero (0) and their conductivity
does not vary with temperature.
  SPECIFIC HEAT

The specific heat is the amount of heat in British thermal units (Btu) it takes to
raise the temperature of one pound of the material one degree Fahrenheit.

 DENSITY

The density of the material is its weight in pounds per cubic foot.

 R-VALUE PER INCH

The R-value is the resistance to heat flow for a 1-inch thick layer.

2. Construction Assemblies

Constructions are defined by the compliance user for use in defining the building.
For framed constructions there is a framing layer that has parallel paths for the framing
and the cavity between the framing members. The layers that are allowed depend on the
surface type. The compliance manager calculates a winter design U-factor that is
compared to a construction that meets the prescriptive standard. The U-factor is displayed
as an aid to the user. The calculations used in the energy simulation are based on each
individual layer and framing rather than the U-factor.

CONSTRUCTION LAYERS:

All assemblies have a cavity path and a frame path.As assemblies are completed,
the screen displays whether the construction meets the prescriptive requirement for that
component.

 PROPOSED DESIGN

The user defines a construction for each surface type included in the proposed
design. Any variation in insulation R-value, framing size or spacing, interior or exterior
sheathing or interior or exterior finish requires the user to define a different construction.
Insulation R-values are based on manufacturer-rated properties rounded to the nearest
whole R-value. Layers such as sheetrock, wood sheathing, stucco and carpet whose
 properties are not compliance variables are included as generic layers with standard
thickness and properties.

Walls separating the house from an attached unconditioned attic or garage are
modeled as interior walls with unconditioned space as the adjacent zone, which the
compliance manager recognizes as a demising wall. Floors over a garage are modeled as
floor over exterior. The exterior walls, floor, ceiling/roof of the garage are modeled as
part of the unconditioned garage zone.

 STANDARD DESIGN

The compliance software assembles a construction that meets the prescriptive

standards for each user-defined construction or assembly.

 VERIFICATION AND REPORTING

All proposed constructions, including insulation, frame type, frame size, and
exterior finish or exterior condition are listed on the CF1R. Non-standard framing (e.g.,
24” on center wall framing, advanced wall framing) is reported as a special feature.

Selecting the Right Exterior Material for Your Custom Home

1. Architectural Style
The architectural style of your home will narrow down your options for exterior materials
based on what is authentic and appropriate to that particular style.

2. Energy Efficiency
If you are interested in saving on your energy bill, choose materials with the appropriate
insulation properties.

3. Deed Restrictions, Covenants, and HOA Guidelines

In some locations, your selection of exterior design and materials is dictated by a deed
restriction, covenant, or HOA guidelines.

 Deed restrictions are agreements that restrict the use of a piece of real estate that are
contained, unsurprisingly, in the property deed.
 Covenants are legal contracts that spell out what you may and may not do to the exterior
of your home. Covenants are typically found in the HOA terms rather than the property
deed.
 HOA guidelines are put into place to preserve a certain level of uniformity within a
development or community.
 4. Local Building Code

Building codes often restrict materials based on their history of fire-resistance or durability
against prevailing weather or seismic conditions.

5. Weather and Environment

The exterior materials of a home are its first defense against extreme weather events such
as ice and snow, driving rain, or high winds.

6. Impact on Insurance
Insurance companies may have restrictions on the type of material used on the roof and
exterior to mitigate expensive replacement and repair after damage or to limit the spread of fire.

Types of Exterior Materials

1. Stucco
Stucco has been used for centuries and provides a distinct appearance to your home.
Many homes with stucco exteriors are designed for Modern or Mediterranean architectural
styles. Traditional stucco is cement-based plaster containing sand and limestone and is applied to
a mesh screen, wood, or masonry walls in multiple layers. The outermost coat is the desired
final color. Stucco can be painted but adds to the required maintenance of the home.

2. Wood Siding
Wood siding is a beautiful, time-honored exterior material available in a variety of woods
including pine, fir, spruce, redwood, cedar, and cypress. You can also select an engineered wood,
which incorporates real wood but is more durable, pre-treated against termites and rot, as well as
easy and less costly to install. Wood siding creates a timeless, natural appearance.

3. Concrete Fiber
Concrete fiber siding is made of concrete mixed with wood fiber and designed to mimic
real wood. Fiber cement can also be designed to look like stucco or masonry.
Hardicrete, HardiPlank, and HardiBoard are brand names for concrete fiber siding. The
material provides sustainability by limiting deforestation and is exceptionally weatherproof.
However, it is not as recyclable as wood is.

4. Brick
Solid brick imparts a very traditional look to a home. Most solid brick homes have only a
single layer of brick over a wood frame.
 5. Stone and Cast Stone
Incorporating stone into the exterior of your home adds significant dimension and
texture. For a more organic natural look, consider using chop stone. For a cleaner, more modern
aesthetic, go with cut stone.
Cast stone is a faux stone product developed to look like stone at a lower cost. It is easier
to control the shape and color of cast stone, which sometimes makes it an attractive complement
to stone exteriors. Cast stone can last 30 to 50 years.

6. Metal
Metal siding is a versatile material that can be manufactured to appear like any other
siding material. Typically created from steel or aluminum, metal siding comes in a variety of
colors, textures, and shapes.

Selecting the Right Interior Material

Modern day buildings have truly understood the importance of going green and products
are the answer to incorporating reclaimed by-products to create environment-friendly materials
which have a unique aesthetic appeal as well.
Types of Interior Design
1. Coco Tiles
Coco Tiles are made of coconut shells. The tiles come in intricate basket weave or
scalloped designs. The backer panel is made of sustainably harvested wood and finished
with low VOC-resin. The tiles are easily cut and installed using adhesive and nails.
2. Tiles made from Leather Scraps
Epitomizing luxury and elegance, leather has been used for a long time as a
building material for niche interiors owing to the richness and glamorous feel it gives.
These are cheaper and easy to install.
3. Fabric Wall Panels
Fabric panels constitute of a panel of wood that is padded with batting and foam,
covered over with a fabric.
Fabric Wall Panels have an additional advantage over and above the aesthetics
that they provide, as they are capable of controlling reflection and reverberation of sound,
thereby providing an acoustic solution. Fabric wall panels make a room look warm and
cosy.
4. Laser Cut Sheet Metal Panels
They can be installed in an outdoor setting as a shading device, making them not
only functionally viable, but also aesthetical as they can enhance the spatial quality of the
space by casting artistic shadows as the natural light moves through the laser cut patterns.
Other applications include handrail screens, window screens, partitions etc.
5. Bronze Art Tiles
Bronze has been used for over hundreds of years to create timeless pieces of
art and architecture. Bronze Art Tiles brings these qualities into a modern home. They
are impervious to heat and can withstand any kind of weather.
6. Laminated Resin
Laminated Resin is a transparent resin that is formulated to remain water
clear even when it is catalysed. Laminated Resin is not prone to yellowing at all and
is
 extremely easy to use, allowing easy flow and fast air bubble release. It is an ideal
solution for applications that require a glass exterior.
7. Eco Resin
Eco Resin is an environment-friendly resin that is formulated to complement
carbon, fibreglass and other laminating materials. Made out of natural plants and
vegetable extracts, it is clearly a sustainable substitute for polyester resin. It is almost
odourless and can be used safely in almost any working environment.
8. Strand Woven Bamboo Flooring

Hardwoods are vulnerable to weathering and wear and tear. Strand woven bamboo
flooring is much more durable than vertical or horizontal bamboo flooring because the cross-
hatched strands act in correspondence to keep the individual components of the material
intact.
9. Cork Flooring
It is a green resource that is renewable and can be used without contributing to
deforestation. Benefits include aesthetic appeal, good insulation properties, soft texture,
tends to repel pests and dust, and installation is very easy.
10. Resin Wicker
Resin wicker is the man-made version of natural wicker that is made out of a
synthetic material, mostly polyethylene. It is lightweight and easy to move; affordable;
comfortable as it does not have any sharp edges, weather resistant, resistant to pool water
and chlorine, and available in a wide range of styles and colors.

FINISHES
• Finishes are used in the final part of the construction or manufacturing process
• Can protect the element they finish from impact, water, corrosion, frost, abrasion and so
on
• They can be decorative
• They play an important role in regulating indoor temperature and humidity.
• Finishing operations are carried out in the right sequence.
• Care is taken to prevent damage.
• Depending on the type of building project, the methods of finishes varies to consider the
applicable interior and exterior design.
• Before selecting a finish, thought must be given to many factors such as:
• Appearance
• Durability
• Maintenance
• Acoustic criteria
• Fire criteria
• Relationship to mechanical and electrical services
• Changeability
• Cost
• Toxic emissions from interior materials
2 types of Finish for Buildings
1. Applied Finish – a finish which is applied on site
2. Self-Finish/Inherent Finish – a finish which is inherent in the material and does not
have to be specially applied on site.

4 Main Building Components Finishes

1. Floor Finishes
2. Wall Finishes
3. Ceilings Finishes
4. Roof Finishes
Finishing Material
- Used to improve the service and decorative qualities of buildings and structures
- Protects structural members from atmospheric and other effects
- Usually designed for interior and/or exterior finishing

Finishing Materials Proper VS Structural Finishing Materials

1. Finishing Materials Proper – used mainly to form decorative and protective coatings
2. Structural Finishing Materials – also perform the functions of enclosing members and
components of such members
The most important finishing materials are:
1. Natural stone
- Traditional finishing material
- Durable and has an attractive appearance
- Are used for exterior and interior facings on walls and for floor covering (theaters,
hotels, and subway station)
- Used in the form of decorative chips to finish the surfaces of concrete and
reinforced-concrete parts and units
- Products are produced from granite, syenite, gabbro, limestone, marble and
quartzite.
Ceramics – most widely used artificial stone finishing materials. Common in
residential and public buildings for exterior and interior finishes.
2. Glass
- Is a wide field, no limits to the imagination
- Can be finished in many different ways
*Glass milling – a craftsman technique for glass finishing
*The type of glass finishing depends on the intended use
Disadvantage: Glass finishing damage the surface of the glass.
Types of Glass Finishes
1. Frosted Glass
 has a cloudy, foggy appearance
  can be used for conference room walls, exterior windows of an office,
decorative signs on the exterior of building and glass partitions in a restaurant
2. Satin Glass
 almost the same as frosted glass; different appearance.
 looks smooth and silky
 less shiny and more matte in appearance
 can be use for partition walls at banks, glass paneled doors, fitting rooms, and
partitions at car dealerships

3. Reflective Glass
 plain, clear or tinted glass that has a metallic coating on one side
 can act like a one-way mirror
 works on both the interior and exterior buildings
 can be use in stores, tall buildings and small office spaces
4. Tinted Glass
 comes in a rainbow of hues as well as dark hues
 can increase privacy, filters out sunlight and minimizes heat gain
 can be use as part of mural, an accent wall, in an office that gets too much sun
and in a store that gets a lot of sunlight
5. Decorative concrete and mortars
 Used extensively in the factory finishing of structural members for fully
prefabricated buildings
 The use for exterior and interior finishes during construction is unlikely
unlimited
6. Metals
 Used in modern construction mainly for finishing unique buildings and
structures
 Used mainly in the form of small items for finishing the entrances and
interiors of buildings
5 Most Common Metals
1. Aluminum
- has a dull silver finish
- lighter in weight and more affordable
- does not rust but it oxidizes which creates a chalky white residue
- most often used in outdoor furniture

2. Stainless Steel
- found in furniture and fixtures throughout the home
- does not rust, oxidize or corrode and is low-maintenance
- much stronger than aluminum

3. Wrought Iron
- refers to the metal that has been hammered or bent into shape
- corrosion-resistant and durable
- commonly used to make fireplace accessories, outdoor furniture,
pot racks, rustic beds, and more

4. Brass
- a mix of copper and zinc alloys
- can be made in various colors such as red, yellow, gold, bronze
and brown
- typically, corrosion-resistant and antimicrobial

5. Copper
- reddish orange in color
- found on all types of décor and fixtures
 - corrosion-resistant and antimicrobial

5 Common Types of Metal Finishes

1. Antiqued – creates a surface roughness that appears to stand the test of time
2. Brushed – a matte finish
- looks as if it has been smoothed with a paintbrush
- leaves faint brushstrokes mark
3. Hammered – has many small indents adding surface texture
4. Polished – creates a reflective, mirror-like surface
- a common stainless-steel finish
5. Satin – similar to brushed metals but does not have brushstrokes marks
- the sheen is between matte and polished
7. Wood
 Involves the application of a protective layer to bare wood
 Sanding, planning, and scarping can help eliminate surface imperfections by
softening and smoothening the wood
 Decorative plywood, veneer, parquet, chipboard, fiberboard, and such articles
as railings, plinths, and finish casings
 Notable for their excellent appearance and service qualities
 Service life: Increases by treating with wood preservatives and by applying
paint and varnish coatings
8. Wallpapers
 A thick decorative paper applied to walls with glue
 Widely used for interior finishes
 Low cost and labor requirement
9. Plastic
 Characterized by broad range of colors, a variety of product shapes, excellent
sanitary and hygienic qualities, and good corrosion resistance
 Used infrequently for exterior facings (mainly for small structures)
 Service life: Shorter service life than ceramics or glass finishing materials

10. Paint and Varnish

 Intended mainly for painting operations
 Have become widespread in modern construction
 Makes a possible substantial reduction in the labor-intensiveness of finishing
operations and an improvement in the protective and decorative properties of
structure

FLOOR FINISHES
– Is the ultimate top layer of all the flooring layers
Factors to consider when choosing floor finishes
 Type of base
 Room usage
 Degree of comfort required
 Maintenance
 Cost
 Appearance
 Safety
 Individual preference
A good finishing will have the following characteristics:
o Look attractive/beautiful
o Comfortable and safe
o Long lasting and able to prevent high temperature, fungi and chemical corrosion
Here are the types of floor finishes and the materials used:
 Bricks/Pavers
 Stone
 Rendering
 Tiling (ceramic, porcelain, granite, marble)
 Wood floor covering (laminated flooring, wood parquet, engineered wood)
 Terrazzo
 Asphalt
 Rubber
 Linoleum sheet
 Glass floor covering
 Concrete floor covering
 Mosaic floor covering
 Cork floor covering
 Magnesite floor covering
 Vinyl asbestos tiles
 Carpets
WALL FINISHES
- A finish given to walls to enhance the interior and exterior look of the structure
- Provide a decorative skin to conceal building components
Factors to consider when choosing wall finishes
 Room usage
 Degree of comfort required
 Maintenance
 Cost
 Suitability of decoration
 Fire protection
Here are the types of wall finishes and the materials used:
• Plastering
• Tiling
• Skirting
• Wallpaper
• Painting
• Dry Linings
• Molding
• Architraves
• Natural stone
• Ledgestone
• Aluminum cladding
CEILING FINISHES
– Provides a decorative skin to conceal building components
Factors to consider when choosing ceiling finishes
 Type of floor structure
 Appearance
  Durability
 Safety to occupants
 The location of mechanical services/equipment
 Fire resistance
 Life span
 Economy
 Function of the building
 Need for acoustic elements
Here are the types of ceilings finishes and the materials used:
 Plaster Board
 Plaster Board cove molding
 Steel Lathing
 Plastering
 Ceiling linings
 Ceiling tiles
 Spray plaster
 Ceiling papers
 Timber Cladding
 Expanded Polystyrene Tiles
 PVC Cladding
 Ceiling Painting
ROOF FINISHES
Here are the types of roof finishes and the materials used:
 Corrugated steel
 Profiled light aluminum
 Wood shingles
 Concrete tiles
 Clay tiles
 Glazed
 Lightweight metallic
 Synthetic slates/tiles
 Natural slates
 Artificial mineral fiber
 Cement slates
 Titanium-cladding pane
Products
Building products
• pre-fabricated structures used in construction.
• are processed, finished items that are offered for sale.
• they are manufactured combinations of materials and perhaps other products, processed
to create items such as doors, windows, light fittings, cabinets and so on.
• are also assembled in warehouses so the project team only needs to fit them in the building.
• are generally distinguished from ‘materials’ which are raw, unprocessed substances such
as sand, salt, and so on, and from ‘services’ which are activities such
as consultation, maintenance, installation, or sometimes the provision of accommodation.
Advantage: Makes the job of the project team faster and easier while minimizing waste on the
construction site.

BUILDING COMPONENTS
What is substructure and superstructure in building?
The two major components of buildings are the substructure and superstructure. The
substructure is the part of the building that is underneath the ground, while the superstructure is
everything that is above ground.
SUBSTRUCTURE
The purpose of the substructure of a building is to transfer the loads of the superstructure to
the soil that is underneath. This is why the substructure is right against the soil that supports it.
Now, it is important that you spend time working with structural engineers to ensure that all
support beams, columns, and foundations are incorporated properly to ensure that nothing will
collapse within the substructure.
Most of the time, the substructure is made from plain cement concrete or reinforced cement
concrete. Once that is in place, stones, bricks, or additional concrete is added until it all reaches
the plinth level. It is necessary for a damp-proof course to be laid on top, so that moisture
doesn’t penetrate any part of the substructure.
SUPERSTRUCTURE
The superstructure of a building is where people will spend most of their time. This area
includes the first and second floors inside a home and any number of floors in larger buildings.
The superstructure includes beams, columns, finishes, windows, doors, the roof, floors, and
anything else.
The parts of the superstructure are much lengthier than the parts of the substructure. This
shouldn’t be surprising since the superstructure is much larger than the substructure.
In this part, a building has the following components:
Plinth:
The portion of the wall between the ground level and the ground floor level is called
plinth. It is usually of stone masonry. If the foundation is on piles, a plinth beam is cast to
support wall above floor level. At the top of plinth a damp proof course is provided. It is usually
75 mm thick plain concrete course. The function of the plinth is to keep the ground floor above
ground level, free of dampness. Its height is not less than 450 mm. It is required that plinth level
is at least 150 mm above the road level, so that connections to underground drainage system can
be made.
The plinth is that part of between surrounding ground surface and floor space
immediately the above the ground of a building. Plinth resists entry of rainwater and insects
inside the building. General plinth height is 45, 60, 75, 90, 120 cm.
Walls and Columns:
The walls are building blocks of bricks or stones. They divide the building space into
various support space slabs into various beams and rooms. They safely transmit the loads coming
on them from beams and slabs to the foundation. They provide privacy and protection against
heat, cold, rain, noise, dust winds. Walls can be Brick masonry walls and Stone masonry walls.
Columns are vertical members along which beams and slab /roof is supported. The shape of the
columns can be square, rectangular, and circular.
The function of walls and columns is to transfer the load of the structure
vertically downwards to transfer it to foundation. Apart from this wall performs the following
functions also:
 (a) It encloses building area into different compartments and provides privacy.
(b) it provides safety from burglary and insects.
(c) It keeps the building warm in winter and cool in summer.

Sills, Lintels and Chajjas:

A window frame should not be directly placed over masonry. It is placed over 50 mm to
75 mm thick plain concrete course provided over the masonry. This course is called as sill.
Lintels are the R.C.C. or stone beams provided over the door and window openings to transfer
the load transversely so as to see that door or window frame is not stressed unduly. The width of
lintels is equal to the width of wall while thickness to be provided depends upon the opening
size.
Chajja is the projection given outside the wall to protect doors and windows from the
rain. They are usually made with R.C.C. In low cost houses stone slabs are provided as chajjas.
The projection of chajja varies from 600 mm to 800 mm. Sometimes drops are also provided to
chajjas to improve aesthetic look and also to get additional protection from sun and rain.

Doors and Windows:

The function of a door is to give access to different rooms in the building and to deny the
access whenever necessary. Number of doors should be minimum possible.
The size of the door should be of such dimension as will facilitate the movement of the largest
object likely to use the door.
Windows are provided to get light and ventilation in the building. They are located at a
height of 0.75 m to 0.9 m from the floor level. In hot and humid regions, the window area should
be 15 to 20 per cent of the floor area. Another thumb rule used to determine the size and the
number of windows is for every 30 m3 of inside volume there should be 1 m2 window opening.
Doors provide a connecting link between rooms, allowing free movement from to room-to-
room. Windows are opening provides in walls. Doors and windows provide lighting, smooth
sound of outsides places and ventilation. Undoubtedly, both provide security and privacy.
Different buildings have different sizes of doors; for example -Residential area’s doors are
completely different from industrial buildings’ doors. There are different types of doors that
engineers and architecture used in buildings construction.
Considering Material Used
 Wooden Door
 Metal Door
 UPVC Door
Considering the Mechanism & Usage
 Sliding Door
 Composite Door
 Swinging Door
 Revolving Door
 Folding Door
There are also different types of windows such as:
 Fixed
 Pivoted
 Double Hung
 Sliding
 Casement
 Sash
 Louvered
  Metal
 Bay
 Corner window
 Dormer window
 Gable window
 Lantern
 Skylight
Floors:
Floors are the important component of a building. They give working/useful area for the
occupants. The ground floor is prepared by filling brick bats, waste stones, gravel and well
compacted with not less than 100 mm sand layer on its top. A lean concrete of 1 : 4 : 8, 100 mm
thick is laid. On this a damp proof course may be provided. Then floor finishing is done as per
the requirement of the owner.
Cheapest floor finish for a moderate house is with 20 to 25 mm rich mortar course finished
with red oxide. The costliest floor finish is mosaic or marble finishing.
Other floors are usually of R.C.C. finished as per the requirements of the owner.
Roof:
Roof is the top most portion of the building which provide top cover to the building. It
should be leak proof. Sloping roof like tiled and A.C. sheet give leak proof cover easily. But they
do not give provision for the construction of additional floor. Tiled roof give good thermal
protection. Flat roofs give provision for additional floors. Terrace adds to the comfort of
occupants. Water tanks can be easily placed over the flat roofs.
Step, Stairs and Lifts:
Steps give convenient access from ground level to ground floor level. They are required at
doors in the outer wall. 250 to 300 mm wide and 150 mm rise is ideal size for steps. In no case
the size of two consecutive steps be different. Number of steps required depends upon the
difference in the levels of the ground and the floor. Stairs give access from floor to floor. They
should consists of steps of uniform sizes. In all public buildings lifts are to be provided for the
conveniences of old and disabled persons.
In hostels G + 3 floors can be built without lifts, but in residential flats maximum floors
permitted without lifts is only G + 2. Lift is to be located near the entrance. Size of the lift is
decided by the number of users in peak hours. Lifts are available with capacity 4 to 20 persons.
Foundation:
Foundation is the most important part of the building. Building activity starts with digging
the ground for foundation and then building it. It is the lower most part of the building. It
transfers the load of the building to the ground. Its main functions and requirements are:
(a) Distribute the load from the structure to soil evenly and safely.
(b) To anchor the building to the ground so that under lateral loads building will not move.
(c) It prevents the building from overturning due to lateral forces.
(d) It gives level surface for the construction of super structure.
Foundation is the most critical work of building construction. A load of buildings depends
on the foundation which is the strength of buildings. It is one kind of substructure. Foundations
can be divided into two categories such as Shallow and Deep Foundations. The words shallow
and deep indicate as the depth of foundation in the soil. Shallow foundations used for small and
light buildings for e.g. a small or medium size houses, small shopping centers, etc. and deep
foundations used for heavy and large buildings for e.g. tall buildings, huge shopping malls, large
hospitals, and universities, etc. Generally, shallow foundations can be made in depth of as little
as 3ft (1m) and deep foundations made at depth of 60-200ft (20-65m).
 Foundation is one of the essential parts of the structure. It is defined as that part of the
structure that transfers the load from the structure constructed on it as well as its weight over a
large area of soil in such a way that the amount does not exceed the ultimate bearing capacity of
the soil and the settlement of the whole structure remains within a tolerable limit. Foundation is
the part of a structure on which the building stands. The solid ground on which it rests is known
as foundation bed.
Why There are Different Types of Footing
As we know that there are different types of soil, and the bearing capacity of the soil is
different for each type of soil. Depending on the soil profile, size, and load of the structure,
engineers chose different kinds of foundation.
Types of Foundation
In general, all foundations are divided into two categories, - shallow and deep foundations.
The terms Shallow and Deep Foundation refer to the depth of the soil at which it is placed.
Generally, if the width of the foundation is greater than the depth, it is labeled as the “Shallow
Foundation”. If the width is smaller than the depth of the foundation it is called as “Deep
Foundation.” However, deep foundation and shallow foundation can be classified as shown in
the following chart.
The main aspects of different types of foundation, along with their images, are given below.
As economic feasibility is one of the main factors in the type selection, it is also discussed briefly
with each type. To know other factors that affect the range of foundation read: Factors
Considered for Selection of Foundation.
Shallow Foundations
Often called footings, are situated beneath the lowest part of the structure. A footing is
the first constructed element of a structure which is built after excavating the ground. In general,
the depth of a shallow foundation is less than its width.
Shallow foundations are commonly used as they are the most economical foundation
system and are relatively easy to construct. A careful investigation of the foundation site and
detailed information of the subsurface stratum is necessary to design the foundation and avoid
any future degradation of the foundation performance.
Design Requirements
Shallow foundations must meet certain design requirements:
Safety against bearing capacity, i.e., shear strength exceedance of the underlying soil;
Control of the excessive settlements that can be damaging to the overlying structure, or affect
functionality.
As the shallow foundation depth is low and it is economical, it is the most popular type of
foundation for lightweight structures. Several types of shallow foundations are discussed below.
Types of Shallow Foundation are:
 Spread or Isolated Footing;
 Strip Foundation;
 Mat or Raft Foundation;
 Combined Foundation.
1. Isolated Spread Footing
This is the most widely recognized and most straightforward shallow foundation type, as this
is the most economical type. They are typically utilized for shallow establishments to convey and
spread concentrated burdens caused, for instance, by pillars or columns. They are generally used
for ordinary buildings (Typically up to five stories).
 Isolated footing comprises a foundation directly at the base of the segment. Generally,
every section has its footing. They straightforwardly transfer the loads from the column to the
soil. It might be rectangular, square, or roundabout. It can comprise both reinforced or non-
reinforced material. For the non-reinforced footing, however, the stature of the footing has to be
more prominent to give the vital spreading of the load. They should possibly be utilized when it
is sure beyond a shadow of a doubt that no differing settlements will happen under the whole
structure. Spread footings are inadmissible for the orientation of large loads. It is given to lessen
the twisting minutes and shearing powers in their primary areas.
The size of the footing can be roughly calculated by dividing the total load at the column
base by the allowable bearing capacity of the soil.
The followings are the types of spread footing.
 Single pad footing.
 Stepped footing for a column.
 Sloped footing for a column.
 Wall footing without step.
 Stepped footing for walls.
 Grillage foundation.
To decide when to use shallow foundations, it is necessary to know when it is economical.
It is economical when:
 The load of the structure is relatively low.
 Columns are not closely placed.
 The bearing capacity of the soil is high at a shallow depth.

2. Wall Footing or Strip footing

Wall footing is also known as continuous footing. This type is used to distribute loads of
structural or non- structural load-bearing walls to the ground in such a way that the load-bearing
limit of the soil isn't outperformed. It runs along the direction of the wall. The width of the wall
foundation is usually 2-3 times the width of the wall.
The wall footing is a continuous slab strip along the length of the wall. Stone, brick,
reinforced concrete, etc. are used for the construction of wall foundations.
On account of block walls, the footing comprises a few courses of bricks, the least course
being generally double the expansiveness of the wall above.
On account of stone masonry walls, the counterbalances could be 15 cm, with the statues of
the course as 30 cm. Along these lines, the size of footings is marginally more than that of the
block divider footings.
If the heap on the wall is substantial or the soil is of low bearing limit, this reinforced concrete
foundation type can be given.
Wall footing is economical when:
 Loads to be transmitted are of small magnitude.
 It is placed on dense sand and gravel.

3. Combined Footing
The combined footing is very similar to the isolated footing. When the columns of the
structure are carefully placed, or the bearing capacity of the soil is low and their footing overlap
each other, combined footing is provided. It is fundamentally a blend of different footings, which
uses the properties of various balances in a single footing dependent on the necessity of the
structure.
The foundations which are made common to more than one column are called combined
footings. There are different types of combined footing, including slab type, slab and beam type,
rectangular, raft, and strap beam type. They may be square, tee-shaped, or trapezoidal. The main
objective is the uniform distribution of loads under the entire area of footing, for this is necessary
to coincide with the center of gravity of the footing area with the center of gravity of the total
loads.
Combined foundations are economic when:
 The columns are placed close to each other.
 When the column is close to the property line and the isolated footing would cross
the property line or become eccentric.
 Dimensions of one side of the footing are restricted to some lower value.

4. Raft or Mat Foundation

Raft or Mat foundations are used where other shallow or pile foundations are not suitable. It
is also recommended in situations where the bearing capacity of the soil is inadequate, the load
of the structure is to be distributed over a large area or structure is subjected continuously to
shocks or jerks.
Raft foundation consists of a reinforced concrete slab or T-beam slab placed over the entire
area of the structure. In this type, the whole basement floor slab acts as the foundation. The total
load of the structure is spread evenly over the entire area of the structure. This is called raft
because, in this case, the building seems like a vessel that floats on a sea of soil.

Raft foundations are economic when:

 The soil is weak and the load has to be spread over a large area.
 The structure includes a basement.
 Columns are closely placed.
 Other kinds of foundations are not feasible.
 Differential settlement is to be prevented.
Deep Foundations
A deep foundation is a type of foundation which is placed at a greater depth below the
ground surface and transfers structure loads to the earth at depth. The depth to width ratio of
such a foundation is usually greater than 4 to 5.
The construction process of a deep foundation is more complex and more expensive than
shallow foundations. However, when dealing with poor soil conditions at shallow depth, large
design loads, and site constraints, a deep foundation is likely to be the optimum solution.
Several Types of Deep Foundations Are Discussed Below.
Types of Deep Foundation.
The followings are the types of deep foundation.
1. Pile Foundation
Pile is a common type of deep foundation. They are used to reduce cost, and when as per
soil condition considerations, it is desirable to transmit loads to soil strata which are beyond the
reach of shallow foundations.
The followings are the types of pile foundations.
Based on Function or Use
 Sheet Piles
 Load Bearing Piles
  End Bearing Piles
 Friction Piles
 Soil Compactor Piles
Based on Materials and Construction Method
 Timber Piles
 Concrete Piles
 Steel Piles
 Composite Piles
Pile is a slender member with a small cross-sectional area compared to its length. It is used
to transmit foundation loads to a deeper soil or rock strata when the bearing capacity of soil near
the surface is relatively low. Pile transmits load either by skin friction or bearing. Piles are also
used to resist structures against uplift and provide structures stability against lateral and
overturning forces.
Pile foundations are economic when
 Soil with great bearing capacity is at a greater depth.
 When there are chances of construction of irrigation canals in the nearby area.
 When it is very expensive to provide raft or grillage.
 When the foundation is subjected to a heavily concentrated load.
 In marshy places.
 When the topsoil layer is compressible in nature.
 In the case of bridges, when the scouring is more in the river bed.
 It can again be classified based on its material and its mechanism of load transfer or
function. Several types of pile foundations are shown in the following chart.

2. Pier Foundation
Pier is an underground structure that transmits a more massive load, which cannot be carried
by shallow foundations. It is usually shallower than piles. The pier foundation is generally
utilized in multi-story structures. Since the base region is determined by the plan strategy for the
regular establishment, the single pier load test is wiped out. Along these lines, it is increasingly
well known under tight conditions.
Pier foundation is a cylindrical structural member that transfer heavy load from
superstructure to the soil by end bearing. Unlike piles, it can only transfer load by bearing and by
not skin friction.
Pier Foundation is economic when:
 Sound rock strata lie under a decomposed rock layer at the top.
 The topsoil is stiff clay which resists driving the bearing pile.
 When a heavy load is to be transferred to the soil.
Pier foundation has many advantages:
- It has a broad scope of assortment with regards to structure. There are different materials
we can here to build a stylish view, and it stays in our spending limit.
- It sets aside cash and time as it doesn't require broad removal of a ton of cement.
- Bearing limits can increment by under-reaming the base.
- Along with the advantages, it has a few disadvantages as well:
- If one post or dock is harmed, it can prompt critical harm to the general establishment.
- It can be vitality wasteful if not protected appropriately.
- Floors must be intensely, vigorously protected, and shielded from critters.
3. Caisson Foundation
Caisson foundation is a watertight retaining structure used as a bridge pier, construction of
the dam, etc. It is generally used in structures that require foundation beneath a river or similar
water bodies. The reason for choosing the caisson is that it can be floated to the desired location
and then sunk into place.
Caisson foundation is a ready-made hollow cylinder depressed into the soil up to the desired
level and then filled with concrete, which ultimately converts to a foundation. It is mostly used
as bridge piers. Caissons are sensitive to construction procedures and lack construction expertise.
There are several types of caisson foundations.
 Box Caissons.
 Floating Caissons.
 Pneumatic Caissons.
 Open Caissons.
 Sheeted Caissons.
 Excavated Caissons.
Caisson foundations are economic when:
 The pile cap requirement is to be minimized.
 Noise and vibration needed to be reduced.
 It has to be placed beneath water bodies.
 Highly lateral and axial loading capacity is required.

To conclude, the foundation is a structural supporting member that transfers the total load
form slab, beam, column, wall, etc. The main objective of the foundation is to provide
stability to the total structure and safely transfer the total load from the structure to the
soil at an optimum cost.
SOURCES SHALLOW DEEP
FOUNDATION FOUNDATION
1 Definition Foundation which Foundation which
is placed near the is placed at a
surface of the earth greater depth or
or transfers the transfers the loads
loads at shallow to deep strata.
depth.
2 Depth generally about 3 Greater than the
meters or less than shallow foundation.
the footing with.
3 Cost Cheaper more expensive
4 Feasibility easier to construct. More complex
5 Mechanism of load mostly by end rely both on end
transfer bearing. bearing and skin
friction, with few
exceptions like
end- bearing pile.
6 Advantages Construction Foundation can be
materials are provided at a
available, less labor greater depth,
is needed, Provides lateral
construction support and resists
procedure is simple uplift, effective
at an affordable when foundation at
 cost, etc shallow depth is
not possible, can
carry a huge load,
etc.
7 Disadvantages Possibility of a More expensive,
settlement, usually needs skilled
applicable for labors, complex
lightweight construction
structure, weak procedures, can be
against lateral time-consuming
loads, etc. and some types of
deep foundations
are not very
flexible, etc.
8 Types Isolated Pier foundation,
foundation, strip pile foundation,
foundation, caissons etc.
mat foundation,
combined
foundation, etc.

Environmental impact of construction materials

Annually three billion metric tons of raw materials are consumed to manufacture building
materials and products. The building industry is the second largest consumer of raw materials,
after the food industry.
Obtaining and processing materials
Obtaining and processing materials can affect the environment in three main ways:
1. Extraction
2. Processing
3. Transportation
Extraction
This requires heavy plant which consumes energy and produces noise, dust and exhaust
fumes, which leads to climate change. This process also causes a permanent change to the
landscape and stone/aggregate quarrying
Processing
Processing material like iron ore requires energy consuming plant, noise and dust and the
creation of waste product like slag. Air Pollution leads to the greenhouse effect and climate
change.
Transportation
Once processed, the materials will need to be transported to the location which they are
to be used, using petrol and creating exhaust fumes, which in turn causes climate change.

Materials used in construction and their specific environmental problems

Timber
Timber is a renewable material (especially softwood). Relatively low energy used in the
logging and sawing process and high transportation costs.
  Deforestation
 Lost of animal habitat
Metals
Metals are non renewable. Extraction and processing uses huge amounts of energy, causes
air pollution and creates waste products, and changes the landscape.
 Climate change
 Physical disturbance
Concrete
Cement is non renewable. Made from limestone, chalk, clay, aggregate and gypsum.
These raw materials must be mined then processed, which requires a huge amount of energy. It is
estimated that 8% of the total worldwide human generated CO2 originated from cement
production.
 Water pollution
 Air pollution
 Climate change

Embodied energy
The energy required to produce and transport materials is known as the “embodied energy”
MATERIALS ENERGY FOR PRODUCTION
TIMBER 1
BRICKS 4
CEMENT 5
PLASTIC 6
GLASS 14
STEEL 24
ALUMINUM 126
The following charts shows the embodied energy in several common building materials.

REUSE & RECYCLE OFCONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

Introduction
 Construction waste recycling is the separation and recycling of recoverable waste
materials generated during construction and remodeling.
 Construction by nature is not an eco-friendly activity.
Need for Adoption of Proper Methods of Recycling
 It reduces the demand on new resources.
 Cuts down the cost and effort of transport and production.
 Use waste which would otherwise be lost to landfill sites.
Viable Technology on Construction Waste Recycling
• When considering a recyclable material, three major areas need to be taken in to account
are:
 1. Economy
2. Compatibility with other materials
3. Material properties
Commonly Recovered Construction Materials
 Asphalt Paving
 Land Clearing Residuals
 Wood
 Gypsum Wallboard
 Demolished Buildings
 Metals
 Concrete
 Roofing (non-asphalt shingles)
 Bricks
Asphalt Paving
• Asphalt is crushed and recycled back into new asphalt. Recycled asphalt paving can be
used for paved road.
Land Clearing Residuals
• Trees and brush can be recycled as compost or mulch; soil can be reused as fill and cover.
Wood
• Reuse timbers, large dimension lumber, plywood, flooring, molding, lumber longer than
6 feet. Clean untreated wood can be recycled, re-milled into flooring or chipped/ground
to make engineered board or boiler fuel.
Gypsum Wallboard
• Remove and recycle gypsum drywall. Markets include new drywall manufacture, cement
manufacture, and agriculture. Unused drywall can be returned to a supplier, donated, or
sold.
Demolished Buildings
• Reuse large portions of existing structures during demolition, renovation or
redevelopment. Extending the life cycle of existing building stock will conserve
resources, retain cultural resources, reduce waste, and reduce environmental impacts of
new buildings.
Metals
• Common metals include steel, aluminum, and copper. Metals are melted down and
reformed into metal products.
Concrete
• It is crushed, the reinforcement bar is removed, and the material is screened for size.
Market outlets for recycled concrete includes road base, general fill, pavement aggregate,
and drainage media.
Bricks
• Recycle clean bricks by crushing material. Market outlets for recycled bricks include
aggregate, drainage media, and general fill.
Roofing (non-asphalt shingles)
• Reuse sheathing, terracotta, slate, or untreated cedar tiles and other metal materials can
also be recycled.

Benefits of Reusing & Recycling Construction Materials

 Reduces the production of greenhouse gas emissions and other pollutants by reducing
the need to extract raw materials and ship new materials from long distances.
 Conserve landfill space, reduces the need for new landfills and their associated cost.
 Saves energy and reduces the environmental impact of producing new materials.
 Creates employment opportunities and economic activities in recycling industries.
 Saves money and cost of materials.
Barriers in Promoting the Use of Recycled Materials
 Lack of appropriately located recycling facilities.
 Absence of appropriate technology.
 Lack of awareness.
 Poor source separation practices at job sites.
How to get start for it……
 Developing market for recycled products.
 Public education, training and technical assistance.
 Additional policy recommendations.
 Promoting reuse and recycling of construction materials.
REFERENCES:

Building Materials & Construction

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Finishes
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