UNIT – I

1.1 DETERMINANTS: Definition and expansion of determinants of order 2 and 3. Properties of

determinants (nor for examination). Solution of simultaneous equations using Cramer’s rule (in 2 and
3 unknowns)-Simple Problems
1.2 MATRICES: Definition - Singular Matrix, Non-singular Matrix, Ad joint of a matrix and inverse of
a matrix up to 3 × 3 only. Simple problems. Definition – Rank of a matrix. Finding rank of a matrix by
determinant method (matrix of order 3 × 4)
1.3 BINOMIAL THEOREM: Definition of Factorial notation - Definition of Permutation and
Combinations - values of nPr and nCr (results only) (not for examination). Binomial theorem for
positive integral index (statement only) - Expansion - Finding of general term, coefficient of xn and
term independent of x. Simple Problems. Binomial Theorem for rational index up to - 3 (statement
only). Expansion only for - 1, - 2 and - 3.

1.1 DETERMINANTS

Definition:
Determinant is a square arrangement of numbers (real or complex) within two vertical lines.
a1 b1
Example :
a2 b2

Order:
a1 b1
Example
A =: , consisting of two rows and two columns is called a determinant of second order. The
a2 b2
value of the determinant is D = a1b2 – a2b1.
2 –5
Example: Let A =
1 3
| A | = (2) (3) –(1) (– 5)
|A|=6+5
i.e D = 11
Determinant of third order.
a1 b1 c1
The expression a 2 b 2 c 2 consisting of three rows and three columns is called a determinant of
a 3 b 3 c3
third order.
The value of the determinant is obtained by expanding the determinant through any row or column
with proper sign attached starting from a1, the first row first column elements, we will have positive and
negative sign alternately.
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+ – +
1 –1 3
– + –
Example: 0 4 2 expand thorugh first row.
+ – +
11 5 –3

4 2 0 2 0 4
= +1 – (–1) +3
5 –3 11 –3 11 5
= 1 (– 12 – 10) + 1 (0 – 22) + 3 (0 – 44)
= – 22 – 22 – 132
= – 176
Minor of an element:
Minor of an element is a determinant obtained by deleting the row and column in which that element
occurs.
Example:
1 –1 3
0 4 2
11 5 –3

0 2
Minor of –1= = 0 – 22 = –22
11 –3
–1 3
Minor of 0 = = 3 – 15 = –12
5 –3

Co-factor of an element:
Minor of an element with proper sign attached is called co-factor of that element.
Example:
+ – +
3 –2 1
2 0 –3
4 5 11

2 –3
Co −factor of –2 = – = –[(22) + 12]
4 11
= –34
3 1
Co −factor of 0 = +
4 11
= + (33 – 4)
= + 29
Note: The sign for the element aij is (–1)i + j
 Algebra � 3

Properties of determinant:
Property (1):
The value of the determinant is unaltered by changing rows into columns and vice versa.
a1 b1 c1 a1 a2 a3
(i.e) a 2 b2 c 2 = b1 b2 b3
a3 b3 c3 c1 c2 c3

Property (2):
If any two rows or columns of a determinant are interchanged then the value of the determinant is
changed in its sign only.
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
(i.e) a 2 b2 c 2 = – a1 b1 c1
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3

By notation R1 ↔ R2
[Generally the rows and columns are denoted by R1, R2 ...... and C1, C2 ...... respectively]
Property (3):
If any two rows or columns of a determinant are identical or same, then the value of the determinant
is zero.
a1 b1 c1
(i.e) a1 b1 c1 = 0 R1 ≡ R 2
a3 b3 c3
Property (4):
If each element of a row or column of a determinant is multiplied by any constant k ≠ 0, then the
value of the determinant is multiplied by same constant k.
Property (5):
If each element of a row or column is expressed as the sum of two elements then the determinant can
be expressed as the sum of two determinant of the same order.
a1 + d1 b1 + d 2 c1 + d 3
i.e. a 2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3
a1 b1 c1 d1 d2 d3
= a2 b2 c2 + a 2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3

Property (6):
Any determinant is unaltered when each elements of any row or column is added by the
equimultiples of any parallel row or column.
a1 + ka 2 b1 + kb 2 c1 + kc 2
i.e. a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3
a1 b1 c1 ka 2 kb 2 kc 2
= a2 b2 c2 + a 2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3
a1 b1 c1
= a2 b2 c 2 + k(0)
a3 b3 c3
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Property (7):
In a given determinant if two rows or column are identical for a = b, then (a – b) is a factor of the
determinant.
1 1 1
i.e a b c for a = b
a2 b2 c2
1 1 1
= b b c
b2 b2 c2
=0 c1 ≡ c 2
∴ (a – b) is a factor.
Solution of simultaneous equations using Cramer’s rule:
Consider the linear equations
a1x + b1y = c1
a2x + b2y = c2
a1 b1 c1 b1
let D = ; Dx = and
a2 b2 c2 b2
a1 c1 Dx Dy
Dy = , then x = ; y=
a2 c2 D D

Provided Δ ≠ 0.
x, y are unique solutions of the given equations. This method of solving the line equations is called
Cramer’s rule.
Similarly for a set of three simultaneous linear equations in x, y and z.
a1x + b1y + c1z = d1
a2x + b2y + c2z = d2
a3x + b3y + c3z = d3, the solution of the system of equations by Cramer’s rule is given by
Dx Dy Dz
x= ;y = ;and z =
D D D
provided Δ ≠ 0. Where Δ, Δx, Δy and Δz are the determinents formed in the same way as defined
above.
WORKED EXAMPLES
PART – A
x 4
1. Solve = 0.
9 x
Solution:
x 4
= 0 By expanding we have
9 x
x2 – 36 = 0
i.e x2 = 36
∴x=±6
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x 2
2. Solve =0
3x x
Solution:
x 2
=0
x 3x
expand 3x2 – 2x = 0

x (3x – 2) = 0

x=0; 3x – 2 = 0 3x = 2

2
x = 0 or x =
3
1 2 0
3. Find the co-factor of 3 in the determinant –1 3 4 .
Solution: 5 6 7

1 0
Cofactor of 3 = A22 = (–1)2+2
5 7
= (– 1)4 [7 –0]
=+7
1 –2 –1
4. Write down the minor 3 in the determinant 3 4 – 4 = 0.
Solution: 5 0 2

–2 –1
The minor of 3 = =–4–0
0 2
=–4
PART – B
m 2 1
1. Find the value of ‘m’ when 3 4 2 = 0.
Solution: –7 3 0
m 2 1
Given 3 4 2 = 0
–7 3 0
expand along R1, we have
m (0 – 6) – 2 (0 + 14) + 1 (9 + 28) = 0
– 6m – 28 + 37 = 0
– 6m + 9 = 0
– 6m = – 9
6m = 9
9 3
m= =
6 2
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2. Using Cramer’s rule solve 2x – 3y = 5 ; x – 4y = 8.

Solution:
2x – 3y = 5
x – 4y = 8.
2 –3
where D =
1 –4
=–8+3=–5
5 –3 2 5
Dx = and
= D y+=24 = 4
–20
8 –4 1 8
5 –3 2 5
Dx = and D y =
8 –4 1 8 = 16 – 5 = 11
By Cramer’s rule
Dx 4 D y 11 –11
x= = ; y= = =
D –5 D –5 5

x 6 3
3. Find the values of ‘x’ when 1 x 1 = 0.
Solution: –2 4 x
x 6 3
1 x 1 =0
–2 4 x

x (x2 – 4) – 6 (x + 2) + 3 (4 + 2x) = 0
x3 – 4x – 6x – 12 + 12 + 6x = 0
x3 – 4x = 0
x (x2 – 4) = 0
x = 0, x2 – 4 = 0 x2 = 4
x = 0, x = ±2

PART –C
1. Using Cramer’s rule. Solve the following simultaneous equations,
x+y+z=2
2x – y – 2z = – 1
x – 2y – z = 1
Solution:
1 1 1
Let D = 2 –1 –2 = 1 (1 –4) – 1 (– 2 + 2) + 1 (– 4 + 1)
1 –2 –1
= 1 (– 3) – 1 (0) + 1 (– 3)
=–3–3
Δ =–6≠0
 Algebra � 7

2 1 1
D x = –1 –1 –2 = 2 (1 – 4) – 1(1+ 2) + 1(2 + 1)
1 –2 –1
= 2 (–3) – 1 (3) + 1(3)
= – 6 – 3+ 3
Dx = – 6
1 2 1
D y = 2 –1 –2 = 1 (1+ 2) – 2 (–2 + 2) + 1 (2 + 1)
1 1 –1
= 1 (3) – 2 (0) + 1(3)
= 3+ 3
Dy = 6

1 1 2
D z = 2 –1 –1 = 1 (–1 – 2) – 1 (2 + 1) + 2 (– 4 + 1)
1 –2 1
= 1 (–3) – 1 (3) + 2(–3)
= –3 – 3 – 6
D z = –12
Dx –6
x= = =1
D –6
Dy 6 D z –12
y= = = –1 ; z= = =2
D –6 D –6
 x 3
X = [y] = [−2]
z 1
 So the solution x = 3, y = -2, z = 1
Exercise
1) Solve the following system of linear equations by Matrix Inversion Method.
a) 2x – y = 8, 3x + 2y = -2
b) 2x + 3y – z = 9, x + y + z = 9, 3x – y – z = -1
c) x + y + 2z = 1, 3x + 2y + z = 7, 2x + y + 3z = 2
2) A man is appointed in a job with the monthly salary of certain amount and a fixed amount of
annual increment. If his salary was ` 19,800 per month at the end of the first month after 3
years of service and ` 23,400 per month at the end of first month after 9 years of service,
find his starting salary and his annual increment. (Use Matrix inversion method)
3) Four men and 4 women can finish a piece of work jointly in 3 days while 2 men 5 woman
can finish the same work jointly in 4 days. Find the time taken by one man alone and that of
one woman alone to finish the same work by using matrix inversion method.
Gaussian Elimination Method:
This method can be applied even if the co-efficient matrix is singular matrix and rectangular
matrix. It is essentially the method of substitution which we have already seen.
In this method we transform the augmented matrix of the system of linear equations into
row-echelon form and then by back-substitution. Then we get a solution.
Note:
AX = B is a matrix equation involving matrices & it is called as matrix form of the system
of linear equations. Then the matrix [A | B] is called augmented matrix.

Worked Examples
1) Solve the following system of linear equation by Gauss – elimination method.
4x + 3y + 6z = 25, x + 5y + 7z = 13, 2x + 9y + z = 1
Given:
4x + 3y + 6z = 25
x + 5y + 7z = 13
2x + 9y + z = 1
We have to transforming the augmented matrix to echelon form,
We get,
4 3 6 25
 [1 5 7 13]
2 9 1 1

R1 R2

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 1 5 7 13
 [4 3 6 25 ]
2 9 1 1
R2→ R2 – 4R1, R3→ R3 – 2R2
1 5 7 13
 [0 −17 −22 −27 ]
0 −1 −13 −25
R2→ R2 (-1), R3→ R3 (-1)
1 5 7 13
 [0 +17 +22 +27]
0 +1 +13 +25
R3→17R3 - R2
1 5 7 13
 [0 17 22 27 ]
0 0 199 398
The equivalent system is written by using echelon form
x + 5y + 7z =13 ----- (1)
17y + 22z = 27 ----- (2)
199z = 398 ----- (3)
From (3) we get
199z = 398
z = 398/199

Z=2

Sub z value in (2)

(1)  17y + 22(2) = 27
17y + 44 = 27
17y = 27 – 44
17y = -17
y = -17/17

y = -1

Sub: y = -1, z = 2 in (1)

x + 5y + 7z = 13
x + 5 (-1) + 7(2) = 13
x + (-5) +14 = 13
x+9 = 13
x = 13 - 9

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 x=4

So the solution is x = 4, y = -1, z = 2.

2) Solve the following system of linear equation by Gaussian elimination method.

2x - 2y + 3z = 2, x + 2y - z = 3, 3x - y + 2z = 1
Solution:
Given:
2x - 2y + 3z = 2
x + 2y - z = 3
3x - y + 2z = 1
Transforming the augmented matrix to echelon form,
2 −2 3 2
 [1 2 −1 3]
3 −1 2 1

R1 R2

1 2 −1 3
 [2 −2 3 2]
3 −1 2 1
R2→ R2 – 2R1, R3→ R3 – 3R1
1 2 −1 3
 [0 −6 5 −4 ]
0 −7 5 −8
R3→7R2– 6R3
1 2 −1 3
 [ 0 −6 5 −4 ]
0 0 5 20
The equivalent system is written by using echelon form
x + 2y - z = 3 ----- (1)
-6y + 5z = -4 ----- (2)
5z = 20 ----- (3)
From (3) we get, 5z = 20
z = 20/5
Z=4
Sub z value in (2)
-6y + 5(4) = -4
-6y = -4 - 20
-6y = - 24

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 y = -24/-6

y=4

Sub: y = 4, z = 4 in (1)
(1)  x + 2y - z = 3
x + 2 (4) - 4 = 3
x+4 = 3
x = 3-4
x = -1

So the solution x = -1
y=4
z=4

Exercise
1) Solve the following system of linear equation by Gaussian elimination method.

i) 2x + 4y + 6z = 22, 3x + 8y + 5z = 27, -x + y + 2z = 2

ii) 3x - 4y - 2z = 1, x + 2y + z = 2, 2x - 5y - 4z = -1

iii) 3x + 3y - z = 11, 2x - y + 2z = 9, 4x + 3y + 2z = 25

2) A boy is walking along the path y = ax2 + bx + c through the points (-6, 8) (-2, -12) and (3, 8).
He wants to meet his friend at p (7, 60) will he meet his friend?
[Use Gaussian elimination method]
Characteristic Equation of a Matrix:
Consider the linear transformation Y = AX

In general, this transformation transforms a column vector.

x1 y1
x2 y2
X =[ ⋮ ] into another column vector Y = [ ⋮ ] by means of the square matrix A where
xn yn
a11 a12 … a1n
a21 a22 … a2n
A =[ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ]
an1 an2 … ann
If a vector x is transformed into a scalar multiple of the same vector.
i.e. x is transformed into x,
then y = x = AX
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i.e. AX = X
AX = IX,
Where I is the unit matrix of order ‘n’.
AX - I x = 0
(A - I) x = 0
Then the system of equations will have a non-trivial solution, if
| A - I | = 0
This is called the characteristic equation of A.
Worked Examples
1 2
1. Find the characteristic equation of the matrix [ ]
−1 4
Solution:
1 2
Let A = [ ]
−1 4
The characteristic equation of A is | A - I | = 0

] = [1 − 
1 2 1 0 2 ]
A - I =[ ] −[
−1 4 0 1 −1 4 − 
1− 2
| A - I | = | |= 0
−1 4 − 
(1 - ) (4 - ) + 2 = 0
4 -  - 4 + 2 + 2 = 0
2 - 5 + 6 =0
 The required characteristic equation is 2 - 5 + 6 = 0
1 0 0
2. Find the characteristic equation of [0 1 1]
0 0 1
Solution:
1 0 0
Let A = [0 1 1 ]
0 0 1
The characteristic equation of A is | A - I | = 0
1 0 0 1 0 0
|[0 1 1] −  [0 1 0]| = 0
0 0 1 0 0 1
1− 0 0
| 0 1− 1 |= 0
0 0 1−
(1- ) [ (1 - ) (1 - ) ] - 0 = 0
(1 - )3 = 0
-3 + 32 - 3 + 1 = 0
 The required characteristic equation is 3 - 32 + 3 - 1 = 0
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 Exercise
1. Find the characteristic equation of the following matrices:
1 1 1 1
i) [ ] ii) [ ]
3 −1 1 1
−1 3 1 1
iii) [ ] iv) [ ]
−2 4 3 −1
0 1 1
2 −2
v) [ ] vi) [1 0 1]
−2 1
1 1 0
1 1 3 1 1 1
vii) [1 2 1] viii) [1 2 2]
1 1 1 1 2 3
1 0 −2 1 2 3
ix) [2 2 4] x) [0 4 −1]
0 0 2 0 0 1

Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors of a real Matrix:

Eigen values (or) characteristic roots:
Let A = [aij] be a square matrix of order of n.
The characteristic equation of A is | A - I | = 0 . The roots of this equation are called
characteristic roots of the Matrix A. Characteristic roots are also called Eigen values.
Eigen Vector (or) Characteristic Vectors:
Let A = [aij] be a square Matrix of order ‘n’, Let X be any non-zero column vector.
x1
X =[ ⋮ ]
xn
Then this equation AX = X has a non-zero solution of X corresponding to each value of 
is called Eigen Vector or Characteristic Vector (or) latent vector of A.
Worked Examples
a h g
1. Find the Eigen values of [0 b 0]
0 0 c
Solution:
a h g
[
Let A = 0 b 0]
0 0 c
The characteristic equation is | A - I | = 0
a− h g
| 0 b− 0 |= 0
0 0 c−
(a - ) [ (b - ) (c - ) -0 ] - h (0) + g (0) = 0
(a - ) (b - ) (c - ) = 0
= a, b, c

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