Bernoulli’s Equation

The Bernoulli Equation

• Expresses relation between velocity, pressure and
elevation in a flow field.

• Derived from considering

- forces acting on a fluid element, i.e., apply
Newton's 2nd Law
- energy conservation from steady flow energy
equation
 Assumptions

1. Ideal fluid (inviscid) flow

- hence no shear, u = 0 ( no energy loss)
2. Steady state flow
3. Incompressible flow
4. 1D uniform flow - strictly only along a single
streamline
 Fluid Systems
Starting from the complete energy equation again...
 
Q  W  1 m C22  C12  mg ( z 2  z1 )  m(u2  u1 )  p2V2  p1V1
2
 Fluid Systems
 
Q  W  1 m C22  C12  mg ( z 2  z1 )  m(u2  u1 )  p2V2  p1V1
2
For fluid systems we are not usually interested in the internal energy.
We simplify by removing the internal energy and the heat.
 Fluid Systems
 
Q  W  1 m C22  C12  mg ( z 2  z1 )  m(u2  u1 )  p2V2  p1V1
2
For fluid systems we are not usually interested in the internal energy.
We simplify by removing the internal energy and the heat.


 W  m 1 (C22  C12 )  g ( z 2  z1 )  ( p2 v2  p1v1 )
2

 Fluid Systems
 
Q  W  1 m C22  C12  mg ( z 2  z1 )  m(u2  u1 )  p2V2  p1V1
2

For fluid systems we are not usually interested in the internal energy.
We simplify by removing the internal energy and the heat.


 W  m 1 (C22  C12 )  g ( z 2  z1 )  ( p2 v2  p1v1 )
2

...and in fluids we use density rather than specific volume:
 Fluid Systems
 
Q  W  1 m C22  C12  mg ( z 2  z1 )  m(u2  u1 )  p2V2  p1V1
2
For fluid systems we are not usually interested in the internal energy.
We simplify by removing the internal energy and the heat.


 W  m 1 (C22  C12 )  g ( z 2  z1 )  ( p2 v2  p1v1 )
2

...and in fluids we use density rather than specific volume:

  p p  
 W  m  1 ( C2  C1 )  g( z2  z1 )     
2 2 2 1
2
   2 1  
 Fluid Systems continued
...and if density can be treated as constant (ρ1 = ρ2), we obtain the
SFEE for fluids:
 1 p2  p1 
 W  m  (C2  C1 )  g ( z 2  z1 ) 
2 2

2 2 

 Fluid Systems continued
...and if density can be treated as constant (ρ1 = ρ2), we obtain the
SFEE for fluids:
 1 p2  p1 
 W  m  (C2  C1 )  g ( z 2  z1 ) 
2 2

2 2 

If there is no work input we can say that:

1 p2  p1 
0  m  (C2  C1 )  g ( z 2  z1 ) 
2 2

2 2 

 Fluid Systems continued
...and if density can be treated as constant (ρ1 = ρ2), we obtain the
SFEE for fluids:
 1 p2  p1 
 W  m  ( C2  C1 )  g( z2  z1 ) 
2 2

2 2 

The Mass flow rate m can be cancelled out to give:

1 p2  p1
0 ( C2  C1 )  g( z2  z1 ) 
2 2
2 2
Which says that pressure, kinetic energy and potential energy are
interchangeable. This is Bernoulli’s Equation.
 Bernoulli’s equation
1 p2  p1
0 ( C2  C1 )  g( z2  z1 ) 
2 2
2 2

Or, it can be expressed in different forms:

p  12 C 2  gz  constant ( Pa )

2
p C
  z  constant ( m )
g 2 g
 Physical Significance
p C2
  z  constant ( m)
g 2 g
static + dynamic + elevation = constant = Total head
 
head head
 Physical Significance
p C2
  z  constant ( m )
g 2 g
static + dynamic + elevation = constant = Total head
 
head head

p  12 C 2  gz  constant ( Pa )
static + dynamic + potential = constant = Total
Pressure
  
pressure pressure pressure
 Physical Significance
p C2
  z  constant ( m )
g 2 g
static + dynamic + elevation = constant = Total head
 
head head

p  12 C 2  gz  constant ( Pa )
static + dynamic + potential = constant = Total
Pressure
  
pressure pressure pressure
• Sum of three components (energy) is constant
• Total energy of a fluid particle is constant and conserved.
• For flow of gases, potential energy (gravity) is
relatively small, therefore we can often write:

p  1 C 2  constant ( Pa )
2
Static pressure + dynamic pressure = constant

hence high velocity  low pressure

conversely low velocity  high pressure

Two Examples...
 Bernoulli’s equation example
• Remember Bernoulli’s equation?

P  C  gz  constant
1
2
2

1
2 C  C   g z2  z1   P2  P1   0
2
2
2
1
 Example of Bernoulli’s
Air is being delivered by a fan to a casting process
using some pipework.
The fan delivers flow at 3600 litres per minute down a
210-3 m2 internal area pipe roughness 0.1 mm, 4
metres long, with two sharp 90º bends. The pressure
in the large vessel is 4000 Pa. What is the fan delivery
pressure?

4000 Pa
Fan
Example of Bernoulli’s 4000
Pa
Fan

1
2  C  C  g z 2  z1   P2  P1  0
2
2 1
2

C2 =0 P2 = 4000 Pa
Z1-Z2 = 0

V
C1 = /A = 3600/(60000  210-3)
C1 = 30 ms-1
Example of Bernoulli’s 4000
Pa
Fan

1
2  C  C  g z 2  z1   P2  P1  0
2
2 1
2

C1 = 30 ms-1 C2 = 0 Z1-Z2 = 0 m
P2 = 4000 Pa r = 1.2 kg m-3
So,  0.6C  4000  P1  0
2
1
or
P1  0.6  30  4000
2

P1  3460
 2. Flow Through a Vertical Nozzle

Water flows upwards through a short

convergent pipe, the dimensions of
(2)0.025
0.025
m m
which are given in the figure. (2)

0.3 m
Calculate the pressure difference, p,
between the inlet and outlet of the (1) 0.075 m
pipe when the flow rate, V, of water is
(1) 0.075 m
5x10-3 m3s-1.
(Dimensions (1) and (2) are diameters).
 Flow Through a Vertical Nozzle
(2)0.025
0.025
m m
Want to find: p1 – p2 = ∆p (2)

Given: z2 – z1 = 0.3 m, V = 5x10-3 m3s-1 0.3 m

D1, D2 (1) 0.075 m

(1) 0.075 m

Data: ρwater = 1000 kg m-3

 Flow Through a Vertical Nozzle
(2)0.025
0.025
m m
Want to find: p1 – p2 = ∆p (2)

Given: z2 – z1 = 0.3 m, V = 5x10-3 m3s-1 0.3 m

D1, D2
(1) 0.075 m

(1) 0.075 m
Data: ρwater = 1000 kg m-3

Then we must state our assumptions:

1D, steady state, inviscid and incompressible flow
 Flow Through a Vertical Nozzle
(2)0.025
0.025
m m
Want to find: p1 – p2 = ∆p (2)

Given: z2 – z1 = 0.3 m, V = 5x10-3 m3s-1 0.3 m

D1, D2
(1) 0.075 m

(1) 0.075 m
Data: ρwater = 1000 kg m-3

Then we must state our assumptions:

1D, steady state, inviscid and incompressible flow

Then we apply Bernoulli’s equation to the inlet (1)

and outlet (2) of the pipe
 Flow Through a Vertical Nozzle
Using Bernoulli’s equation:

1 p2  p1 (2)0.025
(2) 0.025
m m
0 ( C  C )  g( z2  z1 ) 
2 2
2 2 1
2 0.3 m

(1) 0.075 m

(1) 0.075 m
 Flow Through a Vertical Nozzle
Using Bernoulli’s equation:

1 p2  p1 (2)0.025
(2) 0.025
m m
0 ( C  C )  g( z2  z1 ) 
2 2
2 2 1
2 0.3 m

Find C1 and C2 from the Continuity

(1) 0.075 m
Equation:
V = C1A1 = C2A2
(1) 0.075 m
 Flow Through a Vertical Nozzle
Using Bernoulli’s equation:

1 p2  p1 (2)0.025
(2) 0.025
m m
0 ( C  C )  g( z2  z1 ) 
2 2
2 2 1
2 0.3 m

Find C1 and C2 from the Continuity

(1) 0.075 m
Equation:
V = C1A1 = C2A2 (1) 0.075 m

V
V
hence C1 = /A1 = 1.13 m s-1
and C2 = /A2 = C1A1/A2 = 10.19 m s-1
 Flow Through a Vertical Nozzle
Using Bernoulli’s equation:

1 p2  p1 (2)0.025
(2) 0.025
m m
0 ( C  C )  g( z2  z1 ) 
2 2
2 2 1
2 0.3 m

1 p2  p1
0 ( 10.9  1.13 )  g  0.3 
2 2
2 2 (1) 0.075 m

(1) 0.075 m
As we are using gauge, P1=0

1 p2
0 ( 10.9  1.13 )  g  0.3 
2 2
2 2
 Flow Through a Vertical Nozzle
Using Bernoulli’s equation:
(2)0.025
(2) 0.025
m m
1 p2
0 ( 10.9  1.13 )  g  0.3 
2 2
2  0.3 m
2

Rearranging:

 
(1) 0.075 m

p2   2 1 ( 1.132  10.92 )  g  0.3 (1) 0.075 m

2
Substituting:
1
p2  1000 ( 1.13  10.9 )  9.81  0.3
2
2 2

Equals
p = -61709 Pa = -62 kPa. So the pressure is
 Flow Through a Vertical Nozzle

Further points: (2)0.025

0.025
(2) m m

Cavitation may occur at the exit 0.3 m

(top)
– point of lowest pressure, highest (1) 0.075 m

velocity (1) 0.075 m

Ambient pressure, temp, saturation

vapour pressure at that p and T
Stagnation Point + Stagnation Pressure
Stagnation Point is a point in the flow field where the
flow velocity is zero
X
X’

Consider the flow of a gas:

Bernoulli’s equation along streamline X’X
Stagnation Point + Stagnation Pressure
Stagnation Point is a point in the flow field where the
flow velocity is zero
X
X’

Consider the flow of a gas:

Bernoulli’s equation along streamline X’X

Total pressure
P  1 C 2 = Total Pressure
2 p static pressure

1 C 2
2
X’
X
Stagnation Point + Stagnation Pressure
Point X is a stagnation point in
the flow field
X
X’
Pressure at X
= stagnation pressure Ps
= Total pressure when V is zero

Total pressure
P  1 C 2 = Total Pressure
2 p static pressure

1 C 2
2
X’
X
Velocity and Flow Rate Measurements
• Accurate, robust and cheap instruments for
measuring velocity and flow rate
- Pitot tube
- Pitot-static tube
- Orifice plate
- Venturi meter

• Pressure or pressure difference, P, is the quantity

actually measured from which velocity and flow rate
can be deduced from Bernoulli's equation.
Differential or U-tube Manometer

• Basic principle of manometry :

dp
  g
dz

p = gh
 U-tube Manometer

U-tube manometer measures the difference between

two unknown static pressures, p = p2- p1


P1 P2

Y’ Y

m
 U-tube Manometer

U-tube manometer measures the difference between

two unknown static pressures, p = p2- p1

Let  = density of fluid in the pipe; P1



m = density of manometer fluid

P2

Y’ Y

m
 U-tube Manometer

U-tube manometer measures the difference between

two unknown static pressures, p = p2- p1

Let  = density of fluid in the pipe; P1



m = density of manometer fluid

P2

Since manometer fluid is at equilibrium,

h
pressures at Y and Y' must be equal
Y’ Y

p1  g ( y  h)  p2  gy   m gh
m
 U-tube Manometer

Using our pressure balance (use h for z)

p1  g ( y  h)  p2  gy   m gh
Rearranging:
p  ( p1  p2 )  (  m   ) gh P1

P2

Y’ Y

m
 U-tube Manometer

Using our pressure balance

p1  g ( y  h)  p2  gy   m gh
Rearranging:
p  ( p1  p2 )  (  m   ) gh P1

P2

p  m 
H   h   1 m
g   
h

Y’ Y

m
 U-tube Manometer

Using our pressure balance

p1  g ( y  h)  p2  gy   m gh
Rearranging:
p  ( p1  p2 )  (  m   ) gh P1

P2

p  m 
H   h   1 m
g   
h
If m >>   p = m gh
Y’ Y

Question: Why is it a common practice to use m

several pressure tappings to measure the
static pressure at a flow cross section ?
 U-tube Manometer

Using our pressure balance

p1  g ( y  h)  p2  gy   m gh
Rearranging:
p  ( p1  p2 )  (  m   ) gh P1

P2

p  m 
H   h   1 m
g   
h
If m >>   p = m gh
Y’ Y

Question: How can you increase the m

sensitivity of measurement of p ?
 Pitot-tube
Assume static pressure is constant at a
cross-section of the flow 2

1
 Pitot-tube
Assume static pressure is constant at a
cross-section of the flow 2

Applying Bernoulli's equation at (1) and 1

(2): 2 2
p1 C1 p C
  z1  2  2  z2
g 2 g g 2 g
 Pitot-tube
Assume static pressure is constant at a
cross-section of the flow 2

Applying Bernoulli's equation at (1) and 1

0
(2): 2 2
p1 C1 p C
  z1  2  2  z2
g 2 g g 2 g

We assume: z1 = z2 and C1= 0 at stagnation point

 Pitot-tube
Assume static pressure is constant at a
cross-section of the flow 2

Applying Bernoulli's equation at (1) and 1

0
(2): 2 2
p1 C1 p C
  z1  2  2  z2
g 2 g g 2 g

We assume: z1 = z2 and C1= 0 at stagnation point

 p1= Ps = stagnation
 Pitot-tube
Assume static pressure is constant at a
cross-section of the flow 2

Applying Bernoulli's equation at (1) and 1

0
(2): 2 2
p1 C1 p C
  z1  2  2  z2
g 2 g g 2 g

We assume: z1 = z2 and C1= 0 at stagnation point

Þp1= Ps = stagnation

Now rearrange:
 p1  p2  2p
C22  2 g    C2 
 g  
Pitot-tube h

 p1  p2  2p
C  2 g 
2
  C2 
2
 g   2

Pressure difference (p1- p2), is

recorded with a U-tube
manometer.

We can also use the equation

from the previous example:
 m 
C  2 gh  1
  
 Pitot-Static tube
Combine pitot and static tubes
into one.
Positions of static tappings (>2) Stagnation
point

are important.
 Pitot-Static tube
Combine pitot and static tubes
into one.
Positions of static tappings (>2) Stagnation
point

are important.

• Velocity calculated as before

• British Standard 1042 devices give 1% error in velocity
for misalignment of the tube with the flow >15o.
• Can be made very small
• Cheap, robust, simple, accurate, close to a point
measurement
• Slow response
Venturi Meter - Volume Flow Rate Measurement

Convergent section diffuser

(nozzle)
throat
Venturi Meter - Volume Flow Rate Measurement

Convergent section diffuser

(nozzle)
throat
Venturi Meter - Volume Flow Rate Measurement
BS 1042 specifies geometry and discharge coefficients

Apply Bernoulli's equation at Convergent section diffuser

(1) entry and (2) throat, and (nozzle)

(2) with Continuity equation throat

Venturi Meter - Volume Flow Rate Measurement
BS 1042 specifies geometry and discharge coefficients

Apply Bernoulli's equation at Convergent section diffuser

(1) entry and (2) throat, and (nozzle)

(2) with Continuity equation throat

1
 2 g h  2
Videal  A1  
  A1 / A2   1
2
Venturi Meter - Volume Flow Rate Measurement
BS 1042 specifies geometry and discharge coefficients

Apply Bernoulli's equation at Convergent section diffuser

(1) entry and (2) throat, and (nozzle)

(2) with Continuity equation throat

1
 2 g h  2
Videal  A1  
  A1 / A2   1
2

Videal  (h)

Vactual  Cd and Cd  0.9

 Other Applications of Venturi Flow
• Atomiser A2
- perfume spray
A
- fuel-air mixing in carburettor 1 P2
P1
- jet pump
• Continuity : A2 < A1 P3
C2 > C1
• Bernoulli : p2 < p1

• If p2 < p3 then suction occurs, fluid (air) from (1) mixes with
and breaks up fluid (liquid) from (3)
• industrial applications ?
 Flow Losses

• Also known as pressure losses, energy losses,

head losses.
• Real fluid u1  u2 and dT= cvdu
• Direct calculation of du is difficult - use
empirical experimental corrections
• We will see more of this later...