By SREENATH V R

WELDING

➢ Welding is the process of joining similar or dissimilar metals with or without the
application of heat and pressure

➢ Three zones in welding process are

1. Base metal

2. Heat affected zone (HAZ)

3. Weld metal

➢ HAZ is within the base metal with a

different microstructure since it is

subjected to elevated temperature.

HAZ depends on

1) rate of heat input and cooling 2) temperature to which zone is raised

WELDING TERMINOLOGY
 WELDING TERMINOLOGY

➢ Parent Metal: Metal to be joined or surfaced by welding, braze welding or brazing.

➢ Filler Metal: Metal added during welding, braze welding, brazing or surfacing.

➢ Weld Metal: All metal melted during the making of a weld and retained in the
weld.

➢ Heat Affected Zone (HAZ):The part of the parent metal metallurgically affected by
the weld or thermal cutting heat, but not melted.

➢ Fusion Line: Boundary between the weld metal and the HAZ in a fusion weld. This is
a non-standard term for weld junction.

➢ Weld Zone: Zone containing the weld metal and the HAZ.

➢ Weld Face: The surface of a fusion weld exposed on the side from which the weld
has been made.
 WELDING TERMINOLOGY

➢ Weld root: Point at which two pieces to be joined by welding are nearest

➢ Toe weld: Junction between weld face and base metal

➢ Weld pass: The metal melted or deposited during one passage of an electrode,
torch or blowpipe

➢ Excess Weld Metal: Weld metal lying outside the plane joining the toes

➢ Weld bead: Bead is metal added during a single pass of welding. It appears as a
separate material from base material

➢ Crater: Depression in weld metal pool at point where arc strikes base metal plate

➢ Deposition rate: Rate at which the weld metal is deposited per unit time expressed
in kg/hr
➢ Types of welding process
 ARC WELDING

➢ Principle of arc welding

1. An arc is established between two conductors of electricity, cathode and anode

when they are touched to establish flow of current and then separated by small
distance

2. The arc is sustained via electronic discharge through ionized gas column called
plasma between two electrodes. The potential difference between two
electrodes should be high enough to sustain the arc in the air gap.

3. Larger the air gap higher the potential difference required and if he air gap is too
high then the arc extinguishes

4. Duty cycle is time for which transformer will be used under normal loading
conditions
 ARC WELDING

𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡,𝐻𝑚

➢ 𝑀𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝜂𝑚 =
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡,𝐻𝑎

𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡, 𝐻𝑚 = 𝑚 ∗ 𝐶𝑝 ∗ Δ𝑇 + 𝑚𝐿 (𝑖𝑛 𝐽/𝑚𝑚3 )

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 ∗ 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡, 𝐻𝑎 = 𝜂𝐻𝑇 ∗ 𝐻𝑠 (in J/𝑚𝑚3 )

𝐻𝑠 = (𝑉 ∗ 𝐼)/(𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑑)

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐼 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑉 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜂 𝑇 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

𝜂𝑇 𝜂𝑚
𝐻𝑠 𝐻𝑎 𝐻𝑚
➢ Arc length voltage, V= A+Bl

Where V is voltage, L is arc length and A,B are constants

➢ Arc length is distance between tip of electrode

to adjacent surface of weld pool

➢ Arc length voltage is the voltage between the end of

the wire and the workpiece

𝑂𝐶𝑉
𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒, 𝑉 = 𝑂𝐶𝑉 − 𝐼
𝑆𝐶𝐶

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑂𝐶𝑉 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆𝐶𝐶 𝑖𝑠 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡

➢ Short circuit current is current which flow when we touch workpiece by electrode.
This is the current required for arc generation

➢ Open circuit voltage is amount of voltage required to produce arc under no load
condition
 FLAT POSITION WELDING

➢ Also referred to as a “downhand” position, the flat position weld is the easiest. The

metals to be joined are placed flat, and the welder passes the electric arc over

them, moving across the workpiece in a horizontal direction. The joint’s top side is

welded together allowing the molten material to move downward into its edges or

groove
 HORIZONTAL POSITION WELDING

➢ The horizontal position is considered an out-of-position weld. Along with the vertical

and overhead, the horizontal position can be more challenging to perform and

require a higher level of skill. The weld axis is horizontal. However the position

executed depends on the type of weld

 VERTICAL POSITION WELDING

➢ For a vertical position weld, both the weld and plate will lie vertically. One of the

major problems when performing this weld is the molten metal flowing downward

and piling up. Welding in a downhill or upward vertical position can prevent this

issue
 OVERHEAD POSITION WELDING

➢ The overhead position weld is the most difficult position to work in. The welding will

be performed with the two pieces of metal above the welder, and the welder will

have to angle him or herself and the equipment to reach the joints
BUTT JOINT WELDING
 BUTT JOINT WELDING

➢ These types of welding joints form when the two metal pieces are placed end to

end together in the same plane surface, it is known as butt joint welding. In

welding, this is the most common type of joint. Usually, butt joint welding is used for

the fabrication of structures, welding pipes, valves, fittings, and others. Well, it is

simple to prepare, and there are many variations that can be applied to obtain

the desired result. These variations include such as angles, the width of the gap,

groove shape, root, and weld size.

 LAP JOINT WELDING

➢ It is basically a modification of butt welding, in which the two metal plates are placed in an

overlapping position that is on top of each other, it is known as lap joint welding. The lap joint

welding is applied for welding two metal plates that are different in their thickness. In this,

welding can be done on both sides of the plates for greater strength. It is widely used in the

combined electron beam, laser beam, and resistance spot welding. Lap joints are rarely used

on thick materials, and most of the time also used for sheet metal. While doing lap joint welding,

you will face some drawbacks. Those are lamellar tearing or corrosion due to the overlapping

metals.
 EDGE JOINT WELDING

➢ This is quite similar to the lap joint. In this, both the metal plate surfaces are placed together, that

they are adjacent and generally parallel in position at the point of welding. It is known as edge

joint welding. It is formed by bending both plates at an angle. In edge joint welding, the same

edge of two plates is welded. However, this is not a very strong joint because the weld does not

fully penetrate the joint thickness

 TEE JOINT WELDING

➢ It is formed, when the two metal plates are intersected to an angle of 90° with one plate is lie on

the center of the other plate like a “T” shape. It is known as tee joint welding
 CORNER JOINT WELDING

➢ It is almost similar to the tee joint welding, the only difference is that in the position of the metal

plates. As compared to the tee joint, plates are placed in the middle, whereas in the corner

joint, both the plates meet in either an open or closed way to form a shape like “L”. These joints

are some of the common types in the industries of sheet metals, such as in the manufacture of

boxes, frames, and other applications.

 SELECTION OF WELDING ELECTRODES

➢ Tensile strength of the required weld ➢ Penetration required.

➢ Metal thickness.
➢ Welding position
➢ The experience of the welder.
➢ Type of joint
➢ The specifications and service

➢ Type of base metal Condition

➢ Base metal composition.

➢ Electrode diameter

➢ The rate of deposit the weld metal.

➢ The type of current used.

 CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRODES

➢ E – indicates electrode for arc welding.

➢ The first two (or three) digits – indicate tensile strength (the resistance of the
material to forces trying to pull it apart) in thousands of pounds per square inch of
the deposited metal.

➢ The third (or fourth) digit – indicates the position of the weld. 0 indicates the
classification is not used; 1 is for all positions; 2 is for flat and horizontal positions
only; 3 is for flat position only.

➢ The fourth (or fifth) digit – indicates the type of electrode coating and the type of
power supply used; alternating or direct current, straight or reverse polarity.

➢ The types of coating, welding current, and polarity position designated by the
fourth (or fifth) identifying digit of the electrode classification are listed in table
CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRODES
 DIFFERENT ELECTRODE POLARITY

➢ DC, electrode positive

1. Shallow penetration

2. Two-third heat generation at electrode and remaining

at work piece

3. High metal deposition rate

4. Thin work pieces are welded

5. Easier to build a stable arc

6. Severe arc blow

 DIFFERENT ELECTRODE POLARITY

➢ DC, electrode negative

1. Deep penetration

2. Two-third heat generation at workpiece and remaining at electrode

3. Low metal deposition rate

4. Thin work pieces are welded

5. Easier to build a stable arc

6. Severe arc blow

 DIFFERENT ELECTRODE POLARITY

➢ AC

1. Intermediate penetration

2. Equal heat generation at workpiece and at electrode

3. Intermediate metal deposition rate

4. Work pieces with intermediate thickness are welded

5. Difficult to build a stable arc

6. Insignificant arc blow

 FUNCTION OF ELECTRODES COATINGS

➢ Improving the arc stability by providing certain chemicals which have this ability by
ionizing the path of the arc

➢ Provide a protective gaseous atmosphere to prevent oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen

picks up by the molten metal.

➢ Protective slag over hot metal

➢ Provide flux, which helps to remove oxides and other impurities from the molten metals

➢ Reduce spatter of weld metal – when coating burns off slower than the core.

➢ Acts as deoxidizer

➢ Slow down the cooling rate of the weld (due to the protective layer of slag) to prevent
hardening.

➢ Coatings are normally insulators of electricity and so prevent the use of electrodes in
narrow grooves etc.
 TYPES OF ELECTRODES COATINGS

➢ Mineral

Mineral products which act on fusion characteristics, contribute to the protection

from the surrounding atmosphere of the drops and the weld pool by breaking up into
a gaseous emission under the influence of the arc heat and constituting a slag.
Physical-chemical characteristics have a major influence on the operational
characteristics of the electrode.

➢ Metal

Metal products which by being combined with metal resulting from the fusion of the
electrode core. This makes it possible to adjust the analysis of the weld metal to
obtain properties equivalent to those of the steel used in the welded joint
 TYPES OF ELECTRODES COATINGS

➢ Rutile electrode: The rutile type electrodes present the best properties in use: very
good arc stability, transfer of metal in fine drops which generally results in a low
level of spatters and lower fume emission than the basic electrodes and a very
easy restart from cold. However, by its nature, this slag influences the content of
residual elements in the deposited metal

➢ Basic or low hydrogen coating: The basic electrode coating is made up of

calcium carbonates and fluorite. This coated electrodes must satisfy the required
mechanical properties of the steels which it is intended to weld. A basic electrode
must be designed so that the diffusible hydrogen content in the deposited metal is
as low as possible to avoid any risk of crack in welds
 TYPES OF ELECTRODES COATINGS

➢ Cellulose electrode coating: The cellulosic electrode coating is made up of

organic materials mostly cellulose. Cellulosic electrode coating is identical as rutile.
But, the basic difference is the percentage of Titanium dioxide (Tio2) is less in the
cellulosic coating. When cellulosic burns, it results is the evolution of a mixture of
hydrogen and carbon monoxide. These gases provide a protective shield to the
molten base metal. Since the rate of evolution of hydrogen gas is high there is a
danger of hydrogen embrittlement of the base metal

➢ Iron oxide electrode coating: The electrode coated with iron oxide improves arc
behaviour, bead appearance; helps increase the metal deposition rate and arc
travel speed. During welding evolution of hydrogen gas is less as compared with
the cellulosic coated electrode. Also it as low penetration and good look weld
penetration.
 GAS WELDING

➢ Gas welding is the process of using heat generated from burning a fuel gas (like
acetylene) to cut and/or join metals together
 GAS WELDING

➢ When metals are welded using gas welding equipment, fuel gases are mixed with
oxygen to produce a concentrated flame at a high temperature. This flame
directly strikes a weld area and melts the materials

➢ The melted section of each piece of metal forms something called a melt or weld
pool where the liquid metals diffuse into one another and, once cooled, form a
strong joint

➢ Most commonly, oxygen is mixed with gases like acetylene, hydrogen, propylene,
butane, and others

➢ The most commonly used gas welding fuel gas is acetylene

 MAIN PARTS OF GAS WELDING

➢ A fuel cylinder: One of the most important parts of a gas welding system is the fuel gas.
This is usually stored in a cylinder of some kind. The cylinder is sealed and is made from
heavy-gauge steel to prevent the compressed fuel from weakening the cylinder. These
cylinders are usually painted a Maroon color.

➢ An oxygen cylinder: Another critical component of a gas welding system is a constant

supply of pure oxygen. The oxygen cylinder holds the compressed oxygen required for
the weld. Both the oxygen and fuel cylinders are made to withstand the pressure from
the respective gases. These are usually, but not always, painted black.

➢ Pressure regulator: As both the fuel and oxygen gases are stored at high pressure, some
method is required to reduce the pressure for safe use during the welding process. This is
where a pressure regulator comes in. Typically this device helps supply oxygen at a
steady pressure of between 70 and 130 kN/m2, and the gas supply at between 7 and
103 kN/m2.
 MAIN PARTS OF GAS WELDING

➢ Control valves: Both gases have their separate control valves. A control valve is
used to control the amount of gas being released from the cylinder. Control valves
are also crucial for controlling the fuel to oxygen ratio.

➢ Mixer chamber: This device is used to safely mix the fuel and oxidant. The control
valves are used to regulate the flow of gases from the cylinder to the mixer
chamber.

➢ Welding torch: This is the “output end" of the gas welding gear. This usually
contains the mixer chamber and the control values too. At the other end of the
torch is a nozzle where the fuel-oxygen mixture is burnt together for ease of
application by the welder
 ADVANTAGES OF GAS WELDING

➢ It can be used to join many different types of metal: - Gas welding can be used to

weld ferrous and non-ferrous metals together

➢ It does not require the use of electricity

➢ The initial required capital for gas welding is very low when compared to other

forms of welding

➢ Gas welding doesn’t require highly specialized labor

➢ The whole setup for gas welding is relatively easy to pick up and move around
 DISADVANTAGES OF GAS WELDING

➢ Not suitable for thick sections.

➢ Gas welding tends to provide a low surface finish. This means its welds usually need

post-weld finishing if aesthetics are important.

➢ Cannot be used for high-strength steel. This is because, but in its very nature, the

heated zone can affect the mechanical properties of the parent metals.

➢ The slow rate of heating and metal joining compared to other forms of welding.

➢ Cannot reach the temperatures of arc welding

➢ Doesn’t have a dedicated flux shielding system. This can result in some very serious

weld defects.
 APPLICATIONS OF GAS WELDING

➢ Repair works

➢ Fabrication of sheet metal: Thin to medium sheet metals are easily weld using gas

welding.

➢ Aircraft industry: Oxy-Acetylene welding is commonly used in joining various

aircraft parts.

➢ Automotive industry: Used to weld parts of the frame and the chassis.

➢ Joining High carbon Steel

FLAMES IN GAS WELDING
 NEUTRAL FLAMES IN GAS WELDING

➢ The neutral flame contains a one-to-one ratio of acetylene and oxygen. It

receives additional oxygen from the air & provides complete combustion. It is
generally preferred for welding. The neutral flame has a clear, well-defined,
luminous cone to indicate that combustion is complete and produces a hissing
sound.

➢ There are two clearly defined regions of neutral flame.

1. The inner region has a shiny cone that is blue-white in color

2. There is a light blue envelope or sheath around it.

➢ During the combustion of acetylene large quantity of water is produced, to

evaporate this water, a large amount of heat is carried away
 NEUTRAL FLAMES IN GAS WELDING

➢ It is used for ferrous and nonferrous metals strictly prohibited for zinc alloys. For
example, brass because zinc is present in brass, it will get evaporated.

➢ It can be used for high melting point materials

➢ Neutral welding flame is commonly used to weld-Mild Steel, Stainless Steel, Cast
Iron, Copper, Aluminum
 OXIDISING FLAMES IN GAS WELDING

➢ Here excess amount of oxygen is present. Due to the presence of the excess amount of
oxygen, complete combustion of acetylene is taking place. The temperature of the flame is
maximum than any other flames.

➢ Uses:

1. Because of higher average temperature, it can be used for high melting point materials.

2. Oxidizing flame is used to weld metal like copper (Cu). It is not suitable for highly reactive
metals like Al, Mn, etc., because of an excess supply of oxygen there is a possibility of
oxidation.

3. It can be used for joining the brass workpiece.

 CARBURIZING FLAMES IN GAS WELDING

➢ Excess supply of acetylene

➢ Because of less supply of oxygen, combustion is incomplete.

➢ Temperature generated in the flame is less

➢ Because of lower average temperature, high melting point metals cannot be

joined. Because of un‐burnt carbon present in flame, this carbon may absorb by
the iron during the joining of ferrous metals and increase the brittleness and
reduce toughness. So it should not be used for the joining of ferrous materials.

➢ This is mostly used for high carbon steel

 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW)

➢ Arc is generated by touching tip of coated electrode with workpiece and

withdrawing to distance sufficient enough to maintain the arc

➢ Electrodes are in the shape of stick, hence it is also called stick welding

➢ Heat generated melts portion of tip of electrode, coating and base metal and the
weld formed after solidification contains all the three constituents

➢ Electrode coating provides a shielding gas to protect weld area from oxygen in
the environment

➢ Current maybe AC or DC

➢ Used for sheet metal welding

➢ Temperature in the core of arc ranges from 6000-7000 in degree celsius

SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW)
 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW)

➢ Non-consumable tungsten electrode used to generate the arc

➢ Used to weld aluminium and magnesium alloys

➢ Molten weld pool protected by inert gas atmosphere.

➢ Nitrogen shield is preferred while welding copper

➢ Except aluminium and magnesium all other material are welded by DCSP

➢ AC current used for welding aluminium and magnesium alloys

➢ Used for wide range of thickness of sheets but it is highly suitable for thin sheets

➢ Provides high quality weld and surface finish

➢ Used in aerospace and automobile industries

 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW)

➢
 METAL INERT GAS WELDING (MIG)

➢ Also known as gas metal arc welding

➢ Shielded by inert gas and consumable wire is fed through a nozzle

➢ DCRP is used for welding all materials

➢ High thickness material can be welded

➢ Used for welding both ferrous and non-ferrous metal in metal fabrication industry

➢ Welding operation is economical and can be used by less skilled personnels

➢ Used for welding stainless steel, aluminium, copper, nickel alloys in aircraft and
automobile industries
 METAL INERT GAS WELDING (MIG)

➢
 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW)

➢ Weld arc shielded by granular flux consisting of silica, manganese oxide, calcium
fluoride and other components

➢ Flux fed into weld zone by gravity through nozzle

➢ Flux covers molten metal and prevents spatter, act as thermal insulator promoting
more heat into work piece

➢ Gravity fed flux limits the usage of weld to a flat or horizontal position

➢ Variety of carbon and alloy steels are welded

➢ Quality of weld is high with good toughness, ductility and uniformity

➢ Extensively used in joints in thick plates pressure vessel, ships, bridges, nuclear
reactors and also in welding LPG cylinders
 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW)

➢
 RESISTANCE WELDING (RW)

➢ Heat required for welding produced by means of electrical resistance across two
components to be joined

➢ Total resistance is sum of resistance of electrodes, electrode-workpiece contact

resistance, resistance of individual parts, workpiece contact resistance

➢ Heat generated in resistance welding is given by

𝐻 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡

Where H is heat generated in joules

I is current in amperes

R is resistance in ohms

t is time of current flow in seconds

 ATOMIC HYDROGEN WELDING (AHW)

➢ Atomic Hydrogen Welding ( AHW ) thermo-chemical is a welding process in which welding is done using the
arc produced between two tungsten electrodes and hydrogen gas provided by a hydrogen gas cylinder.

➢ It is named atomic hydrogen welding because the arc disassociates the hydrogen into atomic form. This
process is also known as atomic arc welding.

➢ In this welding process, a high temperature of 3400 to 4000°C is obtained by using electric arc and hydrogen
gas.

➢ Tungsten and most of the refractory metal can be weld using the high temperature of this welding process.

➢ Hydrogen gas has two functions in this welding process, the first one is to provide a heating effect. Also, the
molten metal produced while welding is surrounded by a shield produced by hydrogen gas, and in this way,
hydrogen gas acts as a shielding gas for the molten metal.

➢ The main difference between the atomic hydrogen process welding and TIG welding is that in the TIG welding
process the arc is formed between the electrode and base metal while in the AHW the arc is formed between
two electrodes.
ATOMIC HYDROGEN WELDING (AHW)
 ATOMIC HYDROGEN WELDING (AHW)

➢ At first, when the AC power supply is powered and the two electrodes are brought near to
each other, an arc will be created between these two electrodes, and these electrodes are
instantaneously separated by a small distance of nearly 1.5 mm. The electrodes are separated
slightly to maintain a stable arc between the electrodes. The heat produced by the arc can be
controlled by varying the distance between the electrodes.

➢ Also, the hydrogen gas will be supplied by the hydrogen gas cylinder to the electrodes. This
hydrogen gas will provide shielding which will surround the arc produced by the electrodes.

➢ Hydrogen will be supplied from the cylinder and will come out from the nozzle present around
the electrodes. This hydrogen gas will act as a shielding gas which means it will protect the
welding joint from the atmospheric gases and will ensure the quality of the welding joint to be
good.
 ATOMIC HYDROGEN WELDING (AHW)

➢ If atmospheric gas like oxygen comes near the welding process it combines with hydrogen to
form water and quickly evaporates due to the heat of the welding process and prevents the
formation of metal oxide. Hydrogen shielding will also protect the welding joint from
contamination by atmospheric gases like carbon, nitrogen or oxygen.

➢ Also, when the arc will come in contact with the jet of hydrogen gas, the hydrogen gas which is
in the diatomic form will deionize into H+ single ions and absorbs heat from the arc. Hydrogen
gas gets deionized when it is placed at more than 6000 C near the arc. The amount of heat
absorbed by the hydrogen atoms will be equal to the bond energy between the two hydrogen
atoms when in diatomic form

➢ When this deionized H+ ions will come near the workpiece and hit the surface of the base
metal, they will cool down and will combine with other H+ ions. But when two H+ ions combine,
suddenly a large amount of heat will be liberated
 THERMIT WELDING (TW)

➢ Thermit welding is a chemical welding process in which an exothermic chemical

reaction is used to supply the essential heat energy. That reaction involves the
burning of Thermit, which is a mixture of fine aluminum powder and iron oxide in
the ratio of about 1:3 by weight.

➢ Although a temperature of 3000°C may be attained as a result of the reaction,

preheating of the Thermit mixture up to about 1300°C is essential in order to start
the reaction.

➢ Aluminum has greater affinity to react with oxygen; it reacts with ferric oxide to
liberate pure iron and slag of aluminum oxide. Aluminum oxide floats on top of
molten metal pool in the form of slag and pure iron (steel) settled below, because
of large difference in densities
THERMIT WELDING (TW)
 THERMIT WELDING (TW)

➢ Application and Uses of Thermit Welding:

a. Thermit welding is traditionally used for the welding of very thick and heavy plates.

b. Thermit welding is used in joining rail roads, pipes and thick steel sections.

c. Thermit welding is also used in repairing heavy castings and gears.

d. Thermit welding is suitable to weld large sections such as locomotive rails, ship hulls

etc

e. Thermit welding is used for welding cables made of copper

 THERMIT WELDING (TW)

➢ Advantages of Thermit Welding:

1. Thermit welding is a simple and fast process of joining similar or dissimilar metals.

2. This process is cheap, as no costly power supply is required.

3. This process can be used at the places where power supply is not available.

➢ Disadvantages of Thermit Welding:

1. Thermit welding is essentially used for ferrous metal parts of heavy sections.

2. It is uneconomical for welding cheap metals and light parts.

 WELDING DEFECTS

1. Porosity: Caused by entrapment of gas bubbles by freezing dendrites during

cooling of the weld pool. These are generally in shape of spheres

➢ Porosity can be random or concentrated in some regions

➢ Porosity can be avoided by

a. Proper selection of electrodes and filler metals

b. Preheating weld area or increase in heat input

c. Proper cleaning of weld zone

d. Reducing weld speeds to give time for gas to escape

 WELDING DEFECTS

2. Slag inclusion: Caused by compounds such as oxides, fluxes and electrode

coating material which are trapped in weld zone.

➢ Can also be caused by contaminants in atmosphere

➢ It can be avoided by

1. Cleaning the weld surface

2. Providing shield gas

3. Permitting sufficient space for proper reactions in weld metal pool

 WELDING DEFECTS

3. Incomplete fusion and penetration: Caused by insufficient heat and high welding

speed

➢ Also caused by lack of depth in weld joint

➢ Can be avoided by

1. Raising temperature of base metal

2. Cleaning weld area and providing shield gas

3. Increasing heat input and reducing weld speed

4. Changing joint design

 WELDING DEFECTS

4. Undercut: Melting or burning away of metals at toe of weld resulting in stress and

reduction in fatigue strength leading to premature failure of weld. It is generally

caused by excess welding speed, excessive heat generation, improper selection

of electrodes etc

5. Incomplete fusion: Adjacent layer of weld metal do not fuse together causing a

poor weld. This can be caused either by lack of sufficient temperature to melt the

base metal or due to formation of oxides at weld surface

6. Overlapping: Protrusion of weld metal beyond root of weld caused by low

welding speed and excess weld current leading to over melting.

 WELDING DEFECTS

7. Cracks: Caused by temperature gradients leading to thermal stress. Can be

prevented by controlling operating parameters, joint design, preheating of base
metal and avoiding rapid cooling of weld

8. Lamellar tear: Step like crack in base metal oriented parallel to plate. This is
caused by tensile stresses in thickness direction, low quality and base metal and
weld impurities

9. Surface damage: Occur due to weld spatter leading to deposition of metal at

surface and also due to electrode touching base metal outside the weld zone.
Can be avoided by proper welding techniques

10. Weld spatter: Caused by high welding current and low welding speed and arc
blow
 SOLDERING BRAZING

➢ Melting point of temperature is less  Melting point of temperature is more

than 430 degree Celsius and less than than 430 degree Celsius and less than
melting point of base material melting point of base material

➢ Filler material is alloy of lead and tin is  Filler metal is alloy of zinc, copper and
called solder silver is called spelter

➢ Strength is less compared to brazing  Strength is more

➢ Used in electronic industry  Used for leak proof joints

➢ Filler metal melts at low temperature  Filler metal is placed at or between

➢ Solders have high wetting capability the surfaces to be joined

and low surface tension  The space to be filled is done by

➢ Heat sources for soldering are capillary action

soldering iron, torches etc

 TOOLS IN FOUNDRY

➢ Hand riddle: Hand riddle consists of a screen of standard circular wire mesh
equipped with circular wooden frame. It is generally used for cleaning the sand for
removing foreign material such as nails, shot metal, splinters of wood etc. from it.
Even power operated riddles are available for riddling large volume of sand

➢ Shovel: Shovel consists of an steel pan fitted with a long wooden handle. It is used
in mixing, tempering and conditioning the foundry sand by hand. It is also used for
moving and transforming the molding sand to the container and molding box or
flask. It should always be kept clean

➢ Rammer: Rammers are required for striking the molding sand mass in the molding
box to pack or compact it uniformly all around the pattern. The common forms of
rammers used in ramming are hand rammer, peen rammer, floor rammer and
pneumatic rammer which are briefly described as
 TOOLS IN FOUNDRY

1. Hand rammer: It is generally made of wood or metal. It is small and one end of which
carries a wedge type construction, called peen and the other end possesses a solid
cylindrical shape known as butt. It is used for ramming the sand in bench molding work

2. Peen rammer: It has a wedge-shaped construction formed at the bottom of a metallic

rod. It is generally used in packing the molding sand in pockets and comers

3. Floor rammer: It consists of a long steel bar carrying a peen at one end and a flat
portion on the other. It is a heavier and larger in comparison to hand rammer. Its
specific use is in floor molding for ramming the sand for larger molds. Due to its large
length, the molder can operate it in standing position

4. Pneumatic rammers: They save considerable time and labor and are used for making
large molds
 TOOLS IN FOUNDRY

➢ Sprue pin: Sprue pin is a tapered rod of wood or iron which is placed or pushed in
cope to join mold cavity while the molding sand in the cope is being rammed.
Later its withdrawal from cope produce a vertical hole in molding sand, called
sprue through which the molten metal is poured into the mould using gating
system. It helps to make a passage for pouring molten metal in mold through
gating system

➢ Strike off bar: Strike off bar is a flat bar having straight edge and is made of wood
or iron. It is used to strike off or remove the excess sand from the top of a molding
box after completion of ramming thereby making its surface plane and smooth. Its
one edge is made beveled and the other end is kept perfectly smooth and plane
 TOOLS IN FOUNDRY

➢ Mallet: Mallet is similar to a wooden hammer and is generally as used in carpentry

or sheet metal shops. In molding shop, it is used for driving the draw spike into the
pattern and then rapping it for separation from the mould surfaces so that pattern
can be easily withdrawn leaving the mold cavity without damaging the mold
surfaces

➢ Draw spike: Draw spike is a tapered steel rod having a loop or ring at its one end
and a sharp point at the other. It may have screw threads on the end to engage
metal pattern for it withdrawal from the mold. It is used for driven into pattern
which is embedded in the molding sand and raps the pattern to get separated
from the pattern and finally draws out it from the mold cavity
 TOOLS IN FOUNDRY

➢ Vent rod: Vent rod is a thin spiked steel rod or wire carrying a pointed edge at one
end and a wooden handle or a bent loop at the other. After ramming and striking
off the excess sand it is utilized to pierce series of small holes in the molding sand in
the cope portion. The series of pierced small holes are called vents holes which
allow the exit or escape of steam and gases during pouring mold and solidifying of
the molten metal for getting a sound casting.

➢ Lifters: Lifters are also known as cleaners or finishing tool which are made of thin
sections of steel of various length and width with one end bent at right angle. They
are used for cleaning, repairing and finishing the bottom and sides of deep and
narrow openings in mold cavity after withdrawal of pattern. They are also used for
removing loose sand from mold cavity
 TOOLS IN FOUNDRY

➢ Trowels: Trowels are utilized for finishing flat surfaces and joints and partings lines of the
mold. They consist of metal blade made of iron and are equipped with a wooden
handle. The common metal blade shapes of trowels may be pointed or contoured or
rectangular oriented. The trowels are basically employed for smoothing or slicking the
surfaces of molds. They may also be used to cut in-gates and repair the mold surfaces.

➢ Slicks: Slicks are also recognized as small double ended mold finishing tool which are
generally used for repairing and finishing the mold surfaces and their edges after
withdrawal of the pattern. The commonly used slicks are of the types of heart and leaf,
square and heart, spoon and bead and heart and spoon. The nomenclatures of the
slicks are largely due to their shapes

➢ Bellows: Bellows gun is hand operated leather made device equipped with compressed
air jet to blow or pump air when operated. It is used to blow away the loose or unwanted
sand from the surfaces of mold cavities.
 TOOLS IN FOUNDRY

➢ Smoothers: According to their use and shape they are given different names. They
are also known as finishing tools which are commonly used for repairing and
finishing flat and round surfaces, round or square corners and edges of molds.

➢ Swab: Swab is a small hemp fiber brush used for moistening the edges of sand
mould, which are in contact with the pattern surface before withdrawing the
pattern. It is used for sweeping away the molding sand from the mold surface and
pattern. It is also used for coating the liquid blacking on the mold faces in dry sand
molds.

➢ Spirit level: Spirit level is used by molder to check whether the sand bed or molding
box is horizontal or not.

➢ Gate cutter: Gate cutter is a small shaped piece of sheet metal commonly used
to cut runners and feeding gates for connecting sprue hole with the mold cavity
IMPORTANT TERMS IN CASTING
 IMPORTANT TERMS IN CASTING

➢ FLASK:- The Flask is the box that contains the moulding aggregate.

➢ Pattern:-It is the replica of the final object to be made with some modification.

➢ Parting Line:-This is dividing line b/w two parts of flask that makes the sand moulds.

➢ Bottom board:- This is normally made of wood which is used to support the one
end of the flask.

➢ Facing sand:- The Small amount of carbonaceous sand material sprinkled on the
internal mould surface of cavity to give better surface finish to the casting.

➢ Moulding Sand:- It is Freshly Prepare refractory use for making the mould cavity.

➢ Backing Sand:- It is the bulk of the sand used to back up the facing sand & to fill up
the volume of the flask
 IMPORTANT TERMS IN CASTING

➢ Pouring basin:- A Small Funnel Shaped Cavity at the top of mould in to inch the molten
metal is poured.

➢ Core:- A core is used in Casting and moulding Process to produce internal hollow cavities
in final product.

➢ Sprue:- It is Vertical Cavity in the moulds to flow the molten metal from the pouring basin.

➢ Runner:- The pass way in the parting line through which molten metal regulated before
they reach to mould cavity.

➢ Chills:- Chills are metallic object which are placed in mould to increase the cooling rate
of the casting.

➢ Chaplet:- It is used to support core inside the mould cavity to take core of it’s own weight

➢ Riser :- It is reservoir of molten metal provided in casting show that metal can flow back
into the more cavity there is a reduction in volume of metal due to solidification
 COMPOSITION OF MOULDING SAND

➢ Composition of moulding sand include

1. Silica-70 to 85%

2. Clay-10 to 20%

3. Water-3 to 6%

4. Additive-1 to 6%

➢ Some of the additives used include

a. Wood flour/saw dust-used in casting process to improve green strength and

collapsibility

b. Starch and dextrin- improve resistance to deformation of mould and improve skin
hardness of mould
 COMPOSITION AND TYPES OF MOULDING SAND

c. Iron oxide and aluminium oxide-Improves hard strength

d. Coal dust/silica flour-used to improve surface finish and resistance to metal

penetration, this also increases fluidity of moulding sand

➢ Types of moulding sand

1. Green sand: Sand containing 2 to 6% of moisture

2. Dry sand: moisture available in moulding sand evaporates because of high

temperature of molten metal leaving behind dry sand

3. Parting sand: Parting sand is used to prevent the sticking of green sand to the
pattern and also to allow the sand on the parting surface of the cope and drag
to separate without clinging
 COMPOSITION AND TYPES OF MOULDING SAND

4. Facing sand: The face of the mould is formed by facing sand. Facing sand is
used directly next to the surface of the pattern and it comes in direct contact
with the molten metal, when the molten metal is poured into the mould. It
possesses high strength and refractoriness as it comes in contact with the molten
metal.

5. Core sand: The sand which is used to make core is called core sand. It is also
called as oil sand. It is a mixture of silica sand and core oil. Core oil is a mixture of
linseed oil, resin, light mineral oil and other binding materials

6. Loam sand: It is a type of moulding sand in which 50 % of clay is present. It is

mixture of sand and clay and water is present in such a quantity, to make it a thin
plastic paste. It is used in large castings.
 PROPERTIES OF MOULDING SAND

1. Refractoriness: ability of moulding sand to withstand high temperature.

2. Green strength: should have enough moisture that impart strength to retain the
shape

3. Dry strength: Strength to withstand the forces after losing the moisture content
when molten metal is poured into cavity

4. Hot strength: strength to retain the shape of cavity after the elimination of
moisture

5. Grain fineness number (GFN): average grain size distribution of moulding sand.
Greater the number finer the grain

6. Flowability: Ability of sand to flow under ramming force

 PROPERTIES OF MOULDING SAND

7. Permeability: gas evolving capability of moulding sand

𝑉𝐻
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑦 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟, 𝑃𝑛 =
𝑃𝐴𝑇

V is volume of air passing through the specimen

H is height of standard specimen

P is pressure of air passing through specimen

A is area of cross section of cylinder

T time required to pass through specimen

By adding water upto 8% permebility increases beyond which it start decreasing

 PROPERTIES OF MOULDING SAND

8. Collapsibility: Ability of moulding sand to offer resistance against contraction of

casting material

9. Adhesiveness: bond formation between two different material eg: between

moulding sand and moulding flask

10. Cohesiveness: Bond formation between 2 similar materials

11. Toughness: Ability to resist impact and shock loads. While casting this property
helps in withstand the force which arises when molten metal is poured.
 PATTERNS IN SAND CASTING

➢ Single piece pattern: These are the simplest and least expensive types of pattern. The
pattern is made of a single piece and expected to lie entirely either in the drag or cope.
These are used where the casting is simple. It is good to use single piece pattern in small
scale production and Prototype development

➢ Split pattern: Many patterns cannot be made in one piece. For example, a sphere
pattern cannot remove from mold cavity if it is a single

piece pattern. The split pattern has two halves aligned

properly by using dowel pins. These are the widely used types

of a pattern where it is hard to withdraw casting from the mold.

Split patterns used for large casting and when the depth of

casting is high
 PATTERNS IN SAND CASTING

➢ Match plate pattern: Match plate pattern is a split pattern. Cope and drag areas
are on the opposite faces of metallic plate. This metallic plate is termed as Match
Plate. This type of pattern requires very less hard work and gives very high output.
Because the gates and runners are also on the match plate. This is used in various
manufacturing industries. This is very expensive and gives accuracy as well as high
yield. This pattern is widely used for casting metals like aluminium.
 PATTERNS IN SAND CASTING

➢ Gated pattern: Gated types of patterns are used to make multiple components
inside the single mold. Gated pattern is nothing but the pattern consisting of one
or more patterns. For joining different patterns gates are used. These are loose
patterns where gates and runners have already attached. These patterns are very
expensive. Due to their high cost they are used for creating small castings. These
small castings further are used in molding machines as well as in mass producing
processes
 PATTERNS IN SAND CASTING

➢ Sweep pattern: In sweep pattern we make use of wooden board. This wooden
board of proper size is to be rotated about one edge to shape the cavity as
circular or rotational symmetry. Sweep pattern is often used when we have to
create casting in very short interval of time. Molds of extensive symmetrical casting
can be made easily with the help of sweep pattern. Sweep pattern consists of
three parts spindle, base and sweep which is

wooden board. Spindle is directed in vertical

direction and base is attached with sand.

 PATTERNS IN SAND CASTING

➢ Loose piece pattern: It is very difficult to remove one piece of solid pattern which is
above or below the parting plane having projections from the mold. With the help
of loose piece types of patterns projections can be made by loose pieces. It
requires skilled labor work as well as it is very expensive. There is one disadvantage
of this loose piece pattern is that their shifting can be done due to ramming
process
 ALLOWANCES IN SAND CASTING

➢ Shrinkage allowance: During cooling of material shrinkage takes place in all three
stages (liquid shrinkage, solidification shrinkage and solid shrinkage) due to
increase in density. Shrinkage in first two stages is known as liquid shrinkage which
can be compensated by providing riser, but the solid shrinkage in third stage can
only be compensated by providing shrinkage allowance and it is commonly
measured in mm/m.

➢ Draft allowance: Allowance provided to facilitate easy removal of mould. It is also

known as taper allowance
 ALLOWANCES IN SAND CASTING
➢ Machining allowance: As we know that the product of a casting process gives very poor
surface finish, hence the surface of final product of casting will be rough. But we need a
product which is polished and have good surface finish. So to obtain good surface finish, the
final product of casting is machined with the processes like turning or grinding to improve
the surface finish. This machining after the casting process causes a significant loss of
material from the mold part. To compensate this loss, machining or finishing allowances are
given in the pattern of casting. This allowance is added together with basic size of pattern. It
ranges from lower than 2 mm to 15 mm based on size and material of the part.

➢ The amount of allowance added to the pattern is based on,

a) Material used

b) Machining processes used

c) Requirement of accuracy.

d) Molding methods used.

 ALLOWANCES IN SAND CASTING

➢ Distortion or camber allowance: When the metal is in cooling process, stress is developed
in the solid metal due to uneven metal thickness in the casting process. This stress may
cause distortion or bending in the casting. To avoid this bending or distortion in casting,
camber is provided in the opposite direction so that when bending occurs due to
uneven thickness of metal, casting becomes straight. This change in pattern shape to
compensate bending while casting is known as Bending Allowances

➢ Rapping allowance: When the pattern is to be removed from the sand of casting , the
pattern will have to be shaken slightly to remove it from the sand and this will cause a
slight increase in dimension of casting. To compensate this increase in dimension of
casting, the patterns are made slightly smaller from casting. This change in dimension of
pattern is known as shaking or rapping allowances. It is negative in nature
 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

1. Linear measurements

a. Non precision measurements

i. Steel rule: Line measuring device also known as scale and most commonly used.
Scale can be 150mm, 300mm, 600mm and 1000mm long

ii. Calipers: Device used to measure distance between two opposite faces. Tip is
adjusted to fit across the points to be measured and distance between the tips is
measured by a measuring tool. Main types of caliper used are

➢ Inside calliper

➢ Outside calliper
 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

o
Inside Caliper Outside Caliper
Inside callipers are used to measure Outside callipers are used to
an object's inside dimensions. measure an object's external size.
The thickness and the outside
The diameter of the hold and the
diameter of the objects are
distance between the surfaces are
measured using the outside
measured using the inside calipers.
callipers
 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

c. Divider: used for measuring, transferring off distances and consist of two straight
adjustable legs. It is used for accurate transfer of dimensions and for scribing lines
on surfaces
 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

d. Telescopic gauge: measuring tool with spring loaded plunges to accurately

measure inner diameter of the hole
 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

d. Depth gauge: Can be used to measure the depth of slot, hole or any other
object
 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

b. Precision instruments

➢ Micrometer: Used to measure internal and external measurements

 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

b. Precision instruments

➢ Vernier calliper: Used to measure internal and external measurements and depth
 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

b. Precision instruments

➢ Vernier Height gauge: Used to take vertical measurements

 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

b. Precision instruments

➢ Slip gauge: A gauge block is a block of metal or ceramic with two opposing faces
ground precisely flat and parallel, a precise distance apart. They are a system
used for producing precision lengths

➢ If two slip gauges are twisted together, they adhere due to molecular attraction
and atmospheric pressure. This process is known as wringing
 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

b. Precision instruments

➢ Comparator: Comparator works on the principle of indicating the difference in size

between standard and work to be measured using some pointer on a scale. It
does not measure actual dimension but it measures deviation from the standard
specimen.
 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

2. Angular measurements

a. Non Precision instruments:

➢ Protractor

➢ Adjustable bevel or sliding T bevel: A sliding T bevel, also known as a bevel gauge
or false square is an adjustable gauge for setting and transferring angles
 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

➢ Try square: Tool used for marking and checking ninety degree angles
 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

➢ Combination square set: Tool used for measuring both angle and lengths
 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

b. Precision instruments:

➢ Bevel protractor: A bevel protractor is a graduated circular protractor with one

pivoted arm; used for measuring or marking off angles. Sometimes Vernier scales
are attached to give more precise readings, The bevel protractor is used to
establish and test angles to very close tolerances

It can read upto 1/12 degrees

 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

b. Precision instruments:

➢ Sine bar: A sine bar has a precise ground body with 2 rollers at the end, when
placed on a surface its top edge will be parallel to the ground and when it makes
an angle its one of the edges will be tilted enabling the user to calculate the
angle.
 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

b. Precision instruments:

➢ Angle gauges: Wedged shape components like slip gauges with faces finished
enabling them to wring together in combinations
 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

b. Precision instruments:

➢ Spirit level: A spirit level, bubble level, or simply a level, is an instrument designed to
indicate whether a surface is horizontal or vertical
 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

b. Precision instruments:

➢ Clinometer: An inclinometer or clinometer is an instrument used for measuring

angles of slope, elevation, or depression of an object with respect to gravity's
direction
 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

There are two methods for performing dimensional measurements: direct measurement and
indirect measurement.

➢ With direct measurements, measuring instruments such as Vernier calipers, micrometers,

and coordinate measuring machines are used to measure the dimensions of the target
directly. These measurements are also known as absolute measurements. Measurements
can be performed over a wide range specified by the scale of the measuring
instrument, but there is also the chance that the measurement will be wrong due to
erroneous readings of the scale.

➢ With indirect measurements, the dimensions are measured using measuring instruments
such as dial gauges that look at the difference between targets and reference devices
such as gauge blocks and ring gauges. These are also known as comparative
measurements due to the fact that a comparison is performed using an object with
standard dimensions
INVESTMENT CASTING
 INVESTMENT CASTING

➢ Also called lost wax process

➢ Pattern is made by injecting polystyrene or wax into metal die in shape of pattern and pattern is
dipped into slurry of refractory material and coated repeatedly to increase the thickness

➢ Then pattern is heated to remove wax and the liquid metal is poured into pattern

➢ Cast is removed after solidification

➢ Advantages:

1. High dimensional accuracy and geometric accuracy;

2. High surface roughness;

3. It can cast complex castings, and cast alloys are not restricted.

➢ Disadvantages: complicated procedures and high cost

➢ Applications: It is suitable for the production of small parts with complex shapes, high precision
requirements, or other processing that is difficult to perform, such as turbine engine blades.
 DIE CASTING

➢ Cold chamber casting

 DIE CASTING

➢ Hot chamber casting

 DIE CASTING

➢ Commonly used in the manufacturing industry, die casting is a casting process that
involves forcing molten metal through the cavity of a pre-shaped mold. Base metals
such as zinc, aluminum, copper, magnesium and lead are first heated until they
achieve a molten state. The newly molten metal is then forced into a pre-shaped
mold using pressure. Once the molten metal has cooled and hardened, it’s removed
from the mold.

➢ The defining characteristic of hot-chamber die casting is that metal is heated inside
the casting machine rather than a separate machine or furnace. Also known as
goose-neck machines, hot-chamber casting machines feature a built-in furnace in
which metal is heated to achieve a molten state. They use a hydraulic-powered piston
that forces molten metal out of the furnace and into the die. Hot-chamber die casting
is a relatively fast process, with a typical cycle lasting just 15 to 20 minutes. While not
suitable for metals with a high melting point, it’s ideal for zinc alloys, tin alloys and lead
alloys.
 DIE CASTING

➢ Cold-chamber die casting still requires the use of molten metal that’s forced into a
mold. The difference between these two processes is that hot-chamber die casting
heats metal inside the casting machine, whereas cold-chamber die casting involves
heating metal in a separate furnace and then transferring the newly molten metal into
the casting machine.

➢ With cold-chamber die casting, metal is first heated to achieve a molten state in a
separate furnace. The molten metal is then transported to the casting machine where
it’s fed into the machine’s chamber. The machine uses a pressurized plunger to force
the molten metal into the cavity of the mold.

➢ Certain types of metals — those with a high melting point — can only be processed
using cold-chamber die casting. The high temperatures required to achieve a molten
state for metals such as aluminum, magnesium and copper means a separate furnace
must be used
 DIE CASTING
➢ Advantages:

1. The metal liquid is subjected to high pressure and the flow rate is fast during die casting.

2. Good product quality, stable size and good interchangeability.

3. High production efficiency and die casting molds can be used for many times.

4. It is suitable for mass production with good economic benefits.

➢ Disadvantages:

1. The casting is prone to produce fine pores and shrinkage.

2. The die-casting parts have low plasticity and should not work under impact load and vibration.

3. When die casting of high melting point alloy, the life of the mold is low, which affects the
expansion of die casting production.

➢ Applications: Die castings were first applied in the automotive industry and the instrument
industry, and then gradually expanded to various industries, such as agricultural machinery,
machine tool industry, electronics industry, national defense industry, computers, medical
equipment, clocks, cameras and daily hardware.
 GRAVITY DIE CASTING

➢ Die and cores (where applicable) sprayed with mould coat. Mould heated using gas
burners and die lubricant sprayed on.
 GRAVITY DIE CASTING

➢ Die parts assembled and clamped, and metal poured into runner
 GRAVITY DIE CASTING

➢ Die set opened and casting ejected, fettled and heat treated where necessary. Die
set cooled by air or water (when necessary) and die lubricant applied before
reassembly
 SLUSH CASTING

➢ Slush casting process is a type of permanent mold casting process in which hollow
castings are manufactured.

➢ In slush process, the molten metal is poured in the metal mold and it is allowed to cool
for a very short time such that only outer surface metal gets solidified.

➢ The excess molten metal is then poured out of the hollow shell.

➢ And finally, the hollow casting is obtained when the halves of mold are separated
 SLUSH CASTING

➢ The advantages of slush casting are mentioned below.

1. Slush Casting method is cheaper as compared to other casting methods.

2. The main advantage of slush casting is that it produces hollow castings which are
light in weight.

3. Use of molten metal is also less as the components are hollow.

4. The die used in slush casting process is simple and of low cost.

5. Accurate outer geometry can be obtained on the casted components by using this
process.

6. Good surface finish is also obtained

 SLUSH CASTING
➢ The disadvantages of slush casting process are mentioned below.

1. Slush casting process is suitable for metals which have lower melting temperatures.

2. In order to pour out the molten metals, the mechanical turning mechanism is required.

3. Slush casting is suitable for manufacturing the small quantity of castings.

4. Strength and other mechanical properties of the casting components are difficult to control in this
process.

5. The internal geometry of the casting cannot be controlled by using slush casting process

➢ The applications of slush casting are mentioned below.

1. Slush casting process is used for manufacturing the components which are hollow (for example,
toys, lamp bases, statues, etc)

2. Slush process is also used for making some decorative coatings to improve the appearance of
casted components
 CENTRIFUGAL CASTING

➢ Centrifugal casting is a process that delivers components of high material soundness

➢ The centrifugal casting process steps begin with molten metal being poured into a
preheated, spinning die. The die may be oriented either on a vertical or horizontal axis
depending on the configuration of the desired part.

➢ By spinning a mold while the molten metal is poured into it, centrifugal force acts to
distribute the molten metal in the mold at pressures approaching 100 times the force
of gravity. The combination of this applied pressure and the engineering mechanics of
controlled solidification and secondary refining produces components of superior
quality.

➢ Directional solidification, starting from the outer face in contact with the metal mold,
realizes a sound cast metal quality, free of cavity and inclusions. The centrifugal force
produces a hollow cylindrical product with no wall thickness variations
 CENTRIFUGAL CASTING

➢ Centrifugal casting is a process that delivers components of high material soundness

➢ The centrifugal casting process steps begin with molten metal being poured into a
preheated, spinning die. The die may be oriented either on a vertical or horizontal axis
depending on the configuration of the desired part.

➢ By spinning a mold while the molten metal is poured into it, centrifugal force acts to
distribute the molten metal in the mold at pressures approaching 100 times the force
of gravity. The combination of this applied pressure and the engineering mechanics of
controlled solidification and secondary refining produces components of superior
quality.

➢ Directional solidification, starting from the outer face in contact with the metal mold,
realizes a sound cast metal quality, free of cavity and inclusions. The centrifugal force
produces a hollow cylindrical product with no wall thickness variations
CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
 GAUGES

a. Plug gauge: Plug gauges, in some cases called pin gauges, are metrology tools
whose purpose is to gage the inside diameters of holes that have been drilled or
machined into a manufactured part, component, or assembly.

➢ Plug gauges are available in several different types. These include:

1. Go plug gauges

2. No-go plug gauges

3. Combination go/no-go plug gauges

➢ A go plug gauge is designed to test the minimum dimensional limit of the hole (i.e.
the lower tolerance of the hole’s diameter) which represents the maximum
amount of remaining material on the part or workpiece.
 GAUGES

For an acceptance condition, the go plug gauge should fit in the hole. If the go plug
gauge will not fit into the hole in the workpiece, then that is an indication that the
hole’s diameter is too small (an insufficient amount of material has been removed
from the workpiece) and the part needs to be rejected.

➢ For a no-go plug gauge, its purpose is to validate the maximum dimensional limit
of the hole (the upper tolerance of the hole’s diameter) which corresponds to the
minimum acceptable amount of material remaining on the part or workpiece. For
the part to be accepted, the no-go plug gauge should not fit into the hole. If the
no-go plug gauge did not fit into the hole, then this is an indication that the hole’s
diameter Is below the upper limit and the part can be accepted (provided that
the go plug gauge did fit into the hole)
 GAUGES

If however, the no-go plug gauge fits into the hole, then that is an indication that the
hole’s diameter is too large (i.e. beyond the upper tolerance limit that was specified),
meaning that too much material was removed during the machining operation, and
therefore the part must be rejected.

b. Ring gauge:

Ring gauges are metrology tools that are used for gaging the outer diameters of pins,
shafts, splines, fasteners, dowels, studs, and other machined cylindrical parts.
 GAUGES

These gauges are typically cylindrical in shape and are fabricated from a stable
material (usually tool steel) with a highly precise (very high-tolerance) bore in their
center that functions as the gauge for the outer diameter of the parts.

➢ There are three primary types of ring gauges from the functional perspective:

1. Go ring gauges

2. No-go ring gauges

3. Master or set ring gauges: Master ring gauges, also called set ring gauges, are
used for the mastering of other metering instruments. These gauges may be used
to set other measuring instruments such as bore gauges or internal micrometers,
for example, by providing a measurement standard or reference standard for
calibration purposes
 GAUGES

Snap gauge
Ring gauge

c. Snap gauge: Snap gauges, sometimes called gap gauges, are metrology tools
that are used to gage the diameter or thickness of a part or material. Snap
gauges can be used for checking dimensions on both cylindrical and non-
cylindrical parts whereas ring gauges are for cylindrical parts only.
 GAUGES

d. Screw pitch gauge: Screw pitch gauge/ Thread pitch gauge is designed to
check the pitch of the thread by matching the strips with the teeth of any
workpiece. The Screw pitch gauge made up of a set of blades as shown above.
Each blade will be shaped with the threads shapes with different pitch values,
and the corresponding pitch value will be stamped permanently on the blade
itself

Screw pitch gauge

 GAUGES

e. Feeler gauge: It is also known as a thickness gauge. Feeler gauges are often
used to measure the clearance between the components. These gauges are
excellent for the measurement of narrow slots, measuring clearance, determining
small spacing, and determining the fit between mating parts

Feeler gauge
 GAUGES

f. Standard wire gauge: Wire gauge is a measurement of wire diameter

Standard wire gauge