Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Thermodynamics:
Absolute Pressure Toe total pressure or absolute pressure is thus the sum of gauge
Gauge Pressure pressure and atmospheric l!ressure: Pabs= P8+ P!tm
Atmosnheric Pressure
The Gibbs phase rule P+F==C+l: Toe number of phases P, Degree of Freedom - F and
Comoonents C
Energy Balance On.t,m - Wn«,cut = AU
equation for a cycle
Enthaluv H = U + PV where U - Internal energy_ P- Pressure V - Volwne
Work Transfer - Wb " f12 6W = f12 PdV = W12•
Closed system.
A) Constant Volume -Wb=O.
B) Constant Pressure 2
Wb= fi2PdV =P 1 dV f = P4V = mP4v
C)
Temperature
Constant
w.., = f1
2
P dV = cft~dV =Cln~ = P1 V1 ln~ = P1 V1 ln~
D) Adiabatic Process: Wb = f12 p dV = C f12v-n dV = C Y2 - n+~n-+:1-n+1 = P2V~==1V1
n = adiabatic index
E) Polytropic Process; Wb= f12PdY= cJtv-n dV = cv2-n+~n-+:1 - n+1 = P2V~==1V1
n - oolvtrooic index
Specefic heat c,,=c.+R
capacities and Gas
constants relationship Cp=Cv+Ru k= c,,/ c,,
Heat transfer - Closed
svstem-
At constant Volume 112-u, = c.,.,,. (T2-T1)
At constant Pressure
h2-h1 = c,,,... (T2-T1)
At constant Wb = (PdV =Cfi2~dV = CJn:='.! = P1 V1 tn:!! = P1 V1 ln!!
Temperature Qt,= V V1 V1 P2
Steady A1,A~ofsueam,m1
flow W1, Wr-tlJalS ftowntc, kg/I
P,,-aboolut,,N/m'
energy v1, v2-specific volume, m'lka
equation u1, 11z-tpeeific inlemal enerzy,J/q
V 1, V;z-velocity,m/1
Z1, Zz-elcYltion above an arbitrary dllum, m
Mass
Balance
Page 29 I 42
Efficiency of reversible
heat engine
1J
rev
&IJ
mu.
=1-(.!?L)
QI rev
=I-Ii_
7i
COP of refrigerator
(COP),.,,•--2L_ [COP..,.J,..•_L
Q, -Q, ; 7j - T,
COP of Heat Pump
/COPH_,J_ . __Ii_
7j -T,
Change in Entropy for any
process
4Q Sd.r
T
Clausius Inequality
If f Iii •0, lbe cycle is revenible,
f 4i < 0, the cycle ia irrevenible and possible
Td.r•dh-vdp
for aa ideal gas, du • c. dT, dh • c. dT, aad ov • RT,
Properties of pure v .. v,+xv11 x = dryness fraction, subscript
substances
u - 11r+xu11 f - saturated liquid, subscript
fg = difference in saturated
h •h,+x hr1
gas aud saturated liquid
3 = 3t+ X St& values.
Applied Thermodynamics:
Volumetric
efficiency of Vapor ... -
Actual volume or gas drawn II evapoouor JJ1C1SUJO lllld
PistoD dlsplacemaa
...,,,_nin,
compression cycle
:. Volume of s•• bandied by lbe compressor
• W·"t(m
3
/1)•(fo'L¾• )x IJ,o1
wbcre w is the refrigerant flow rate,
v 1 i1 the specific volume of the re&igerant at the compretlOI' illlet,
D andl are 1hc diameter and stroke oftbe compreuor.
n is thenwnberorcyli..aderliD lhe«m1pmsor,ancl
N is the r.p.m.
Page 30 I 42
Fluid Mechanics:
Pronerties of Fluids
l .) Mass densltv or Soeciflc mass (ke/m3 )
Al Mass(kg)
~Vokme(mS)
"
p=;_ For Liquids water at 4CIC. p = 100::> ko,'m3
Forgases, iWat 1~atsealevet. p-122ko/m'
2. l Soeclflc weiebt or Wel•bl densltv fN/m'l
J.) Snecific 2ravity or Relative densitv
p.-u,=100::>kQlml
S=~ S= 1 (for water at4oC)
P~1-4fhu,j
S=13.6 ' for ..~-·•
4. l Snecllic volume Im' I k•l
¥ M= Mass(kg)
,i,=;;;
.
~=Vol....,(m')
5.) Newton's Law ofViscositv
r = Shear stress (N/m2)
T = µdy µ = Dynamic Viscosiy (Nslm')
- Rate of shear strail or Velocity gradient (Is)
6. l Ostwald-de Waele Model
Page 31 I 42
.,;
<Pi-Po),.,{)
p,= Inside pressin (Win')
For a liquid jet P. = OU1slde prasscre (Nim')
D = IJiameler al dnll)lel /jet/ bulllle (m)
• = &rnlce lension (Nim)
<Pi-Po)•~
.
For a hollow bubble
<P1-Po)"",i
Page 32 I 42
Buovan9'
l.) Buoyant force (N)
GM =2f"-sc GM=Metacef1richei0ht(m)
1,, = Area momert cl nertia rJ plane cl tloalati:>n about
'°""'Oa>cis(m')
ll=Voi.medliQUiddisplaced bythe portialy"""'°'Oed
body(m')
BG = Distance .,._, Center d buoyancy and Cer<er d
grayily(m)
5,) Metacentric height -Experimental method
•=Al'4fedheel(degae)
GM=.!!.l.x-'- GM= Meta cemic height (m)
w ra,.(8) w, = Wagtt or sma1 mass ffl0Yed on the deck ct lhe ship
(N)
W = Weight d the ,t;p alone 11<0)
X = Distance cl moveme,t of W1 (m)
T=Z,r~
Cllf :.:g
~...J;'lm,
a= Acceleralon due to gav1ty = 9.e1 rrn2
Page 33 I 42
r = Shear stress (N/m 2)
r=-~W Tm.a: = Maximum sheer stress (N/m 2)
r = Radial distance which can vary
from Oto radius of pipe R (m)
D = Diameter of the pipe (m)
L = Length of the pipe (m)
0 = Volume flow rate (m 3/s)
p, and p2 = Pressure intensities at
sections 1 and 2
Ap = Pressure drop (N/m 2 )
F0 =r_x2trRL
b} Velocity distribution
II =-_1_1'.(ty- / )
2µ ax
P age 34 I 42
c) Drop in pressure for a length L ofplates:
12 iiL
t,p = (Pt - p, ) = _£_ - ,2
3.) Power reouired to maintain a laminar flow between two sections 1 and 2:
P=Power{W)
P=(p, -A)xQ pi and p2 = Pressure intensities at
sections 1 and 2 (N/m 2)
0 = Volume flow rate (m 3/s)
4{LV 2
h1=2g0
..
ht= Head loss due to friction (m)
L = Length of pipe (m)
f = !! for Re < 2000 (laminar flow) V = Average velocity of flow (mis)
D = Diameter of pipe (m)
I_
..
o.079
--;:r,:r
6.) Chezy's equation
for 4000 :S Re :S 106 (Turbulent flow}
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81
m/s2
f = Coefficient of friction
hydraulic radius
D = Diameter of pipe (m)
h = (Jii-V,)'
• 2g
Page 35 I 42
b). Head lost due to sudden contraction
k=(f-1)'
enlargement/contraction of pipe (mis)
V0 = Exit Velocity (mis)
where,
k• = Coefficient of bend
koo = Coefficient of obstruction
Area at vena contracta
c, k,r = Coefficient of pipe fittings
Area after contraction
g = Acceleration due to gravity= 9.81
If C, is not known, k = 0.5 mis2
c). Bead lost due to entrance at a pipe
h =o.sv,'
' 2g
v'
h =....!...
0 2g
e). Head lost due to bend In the pipe
h =k,V'
• 2g
I). Head lost due to a pipe fitting
t,.,v'
hfi,=~
g). Head lost due to an obstruction In the pipe
k v'
h,,. =-,,.--
2g
where, k.,.=[--·'--tr
C,(.<-a)
and C, =-• •-
(.< -n)
mJ
L =Thckness(m)
Tw = Walten,)eralu'e
T. Fklidlelnperal\n
R=1;_ , ~=f
(5.67x 10--'WhnZK")
F Raciation Shape factor
km= k (1 ±aT':12)
"'" MeanttlermalCXllWCIMlyfN/rrK)
0
2.) Convection
I
R=-
hA
3.) Radiation
I
R = 11AF(T1 i + T2 2)cr, + T:z)
P age 37 I 42
Stead state conduction
1.) Heat Dow rate (W)
Q = .6.T~naU
a. Hollow Cylinder
r,, l'J = lmerandoulerradi (m)
Ti. To = lmerandoulerswfacetemperatin
L = LenQlllof-(m)
Ta, To = Fudterni:,erallXeoutskleandlnside
l 1, lz.U = Tti:koessdlayerS(m)
k,,lu,lu = ConOJdMtydlayeB1.28003
tb. re = COnvectMt coeffldert al a n b
b) Hollow sphere
P age 38 I 42
d) Composite cylinder with convection
L.eng11lof-(m)
Fklid--and
...... inside
ConvectiYe ooeffldenl at a and b
k, , lu,lu Conducllvity of layers 1,2 and 3
To, T1 Fklid _ . . , . ..-and inside
kA,ke..•kG Thermal conduchities of A,B....G
,.,_,., ,.,
l.A,u ...lA
___
Thickness of the ldab A. B ....G (m)
Alea perpencicua to heat flow of
materials A.B .... G
Page 39 I 42
Fins
m = J(hP/kA)
T-T.. cosh(m(L-x))+(l'l/mJr:)stnh.(m[L-.rl)
T,,-r., cosla(mL)+(l'l/mJr:)sfnh.(mL)
l rtanh(mL)+(ll/mt))
'lftn = ;;;L' l+(h/mk)tanlt(mL) '
Page 40 I 42
at different temperatures
d) Bar connected to two beat sources
T -Ta = e,sinlt(m~.t=~.::tblh(nu")
Q = (8 1 + 82 ) C::!.~; (hPkA)o.s
1
Heat exchangers:
Q = UA!J.T1m
Q = ,cmin(T1 - t 1)
I.) LMID method