EFFECT OF DEFORESTATION TO MALAYSIA’S

NATIONAL SECURITY

NUR LAILATUL NADHRAH BINTI DANIAL

BACHELOR OF STRATEGIC STUDIES

FACULTY OF DEFENCE STUDIES AND
MANAGEMENT
NATIONAL DEFENCE UNIVERSITY OF MALAYSIA

JAN 2024
 NATIONAL DEFENCE UNIVERSITY OF MALAYSIA

THESIS APPROVAL STATUS

TITLE: EFFECT OF DEFORESTATION TO MALAYSIA’S

NATIONAL SECURITY

ACADEMIC SESSION: 2023/2024

NAME: NUR LAILATUL NADHRAH BINTI DANIAL

This Bachelor’s Degree thesis to be stored in the library of Universiti Pertahanan Nasional
Malaysia (UPNM) with the following terms and conditions :

a. This thesis is the property of UPNM.

b. UPNM library is allowed to make copies for academic purposes only.

c. The library has the right to make copies of the thesis for academic exchange.

d. **Please tick (√)

CONFIDENTAL (Contains information under the Official Secret Act 1972)

RESTRICTED (Contains restricted information as specified by the organisation/

institution where the research was done)

(I agree that my thesis to be published as online open access)

✓ OPEN ACCESS

Yours Truly, Verified By,

(Signature of Student) (Signature of Supervisor)

Date : Date : ________________

Permanent Address:
NO. 696, JALAN PERISAI 8,
FELCRA CHANGKAT LADA,
36800 KAMPONG GAJAH,
PERAK.
 SUPERVISOR’S VALIDATION

“I acknowledge that I have read this writing and found that this writing meets the

standard for the purpose for awarding a Bachelor Degree of Strategic Studies”

Signature : _________________

Supervisor’s Name : KOL. ABDUL LATIF HARUN (R)

Date : 17 JANUARY 2024

 EFFECT OF DEFORESTATION TO MALAYSIA’S
NATIONAL SECURITY

NUR LAILATUL NADHRAH BINTI DANIAL

BACHELOR OF STRATEGIC STUDIES

FACULTY OF DEFENCE STUDIES AND MANAGEMENT
NATIONAL DEFENCE UNIVERSITY OF MALAYSIA
JAN 2024
 STUDENT'S DECLARATION

"I hereby declare that the work presented herein is an original work done by me and

has not been published or submitted elsewhere. Any quotations date or work done by

others cited in this thesis have been given due acknowledgment and are listed in the

reference section."

Signature : __________________________
Name : NUR LAILATUL NADHRAH BINTI DANIAL
Matric Number : 2210560
Date : 17 JANUARY 2024

II
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

All praise to Allah SWT who created everything. Welcome and greetings to

the Great Prophet Muhammad saw, his family, and friends. Grateful to me for Allah

S.W.T. because with His grace and His permission, I can finish writing this research

entitled ' EFFECT OF DEFORESTATION TO MALAYSIA’S NATIONAL

SECURITY' for a specified time. In the process of completing this research, it

requires the cooperation of certain parties to obtain complete information, and

thankfully, everything went smoothly. For all the help given to me, I would like to

thank every person associated with this research.

First of all, I would like to thank Kol. Abdul Latif Bin Harun (R) as my

supervisor, who provided a lot of guidelines and guidance in completing this research.

Nobody has been more important to me in the pursuit of this research than the

member of my family especially my parents, Encik Danial Bin Ahmad and Puan

Rafeah Binti Selamat for their support and understanding in allowing me to give my

full attention and focus on this research. A very special dedication to my other half,

Encik Muhammad Afirul Aiman for constant encouragement that kept me going on

this research. Not to forget my fellow friends, thank you for fighting together along

this path.

Last but not least, I want to thank me. I want to thank me for believing in me.

I want to thank me for doing all the hard work. I want to thank me for having no days

off. I want to thank me for never quitting. I want to thank me for always being a

giver and try to give more than I receive. I want to thank me for trying to do more

right than wrong. I want to thank me for just being me at all times.

III
 ABSTRAK

Penebangan hutan bukanlah satu fenomena baru di Malaysia. Ia telah menjadi isu
alam sekitar utama yang menjejaskan negara sejak 1990-an. Ketika Malaysia
memasuki alaf baru, kira-kira 4 juta ekar hutan telah ditebang. Kertas penyelidikan
ini meneroka kaitan antara penebangan hutan dan keselamatan negara Malaysia,
bertujuan untuk melukis akibat yang jelas daripada degradasi hutan yang meluas.
Sebagai sebuah negara yang diberkati dengan kekayaan biodiversiti dan hutan hujan
tropika yang tebal, Malaysia tidak mampu untuk terus kehilangan hutannya. Oleh itu,
penyelidikan ini direka untuk meneroka mengapa penebangan hutan terus berlaku.
Kaedah yang digunakan dalam penyelidikan ini adalah kualitatif yang memfokuskan
kepada pemahaman, pentafsiran, dan penerokaan fenomena sosial dalam persekitaran
semula jadi menggunakan analisis dokumen untuk meneliti dokumen sedia ada.
Kertas penyelidikan ini menggunakan pendekatan menyeluruh, menyepadukan
perspektif alam sekitar, ekonomi dan sosio-politik untuk mengkaji kesan langsung
dan tidak langsung penebangan hutan terhadap keselamatan negara Malaysia.
Penyelidikan ini telah mengenal pasti pelbagai punca yang membawa kepada
penebangan hutan, antaranya ialah pembalakan dan penanaman. Di samping itu,
penebangan hutan telah membawa kesan yang teruk kepada Malaysia, seperti
kehilangan biodiversiti dan kesan negatif terhadap industri pertanian.

IV
 ABSTRACT

Deforestation is not a new phenomena in Malaysia. It has become a major

environmental issue affecting the country since the 1990’s. As Malaysia entered into
the new millennium, about 4 million acres of forest have been cleared. This research
paper explore into the connection between deforestation and Malaysia's national
security, aiming to paint a clear consequences of widespread forest degradation. As a
nation blessed with rich biodiversity and dense tropical rainforest, Malaysia could
not afford to continue losing its forest. Therefore, this research is designed to explore
why deforestation continue to occur. The method used in this research is qualitative
that focuses on understanding, interpreting, and exploring social phenomena in
natural settings using document analysis to examine existing documents. This
research paper employs a comprehensive approach, integrating environmental,
economic, and socio-political perspectives to examine the direct and indirect impacts
of deforestation on Malaysia's national security. This research have identified various
causes leading to deforestation, among others are the logging and cultivation.
Additionally, deforestation have brought severe effect to Malaysia, such as loss of
biodiversity and negative effect towards the agriculture industry.

V
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER DESCRIPTION PAGE

THESIS APPROVAL STATUS

SUPERVISOR’S VALIDATION

TITLE

STUDENT’S DECLARATION ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii

ABSTRAK iv

ABSTRACT v

TABLE OF CONTENTS vi

LIST OF TABLES ix

LIST OF FIGURES x

ABBREVIATIONS xi

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background 1

1.2 Problem Statement 6

1.3 Research Objectives 7

1.4 Research Question 7

1.5 Literature Review 8

1.6 Conceptual Framework 13

VI
 1.7 Research Methodology 15

1.8 Scope and Limitations 16

1.9 Significance of Research 17

1.10 Chapterization 18

2 CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION IN
MALAYSIA

2.1 Introduction 20

2.2 Illegal logging 21

2.3 Mangroves Deforestation 24

2.4 Mineral Extraction 27

2.5 Expansion of Oil Palm Plantation 28

2.6 Summary 30

3 EFFECT OF DEFORESTATION TO
MALAYSIA’S NATIONAL SECURITY

3.1 Introduction 33

3.2 Loss of Biodiversity 34

3.3 Contribution to Climate Change 37

3.4 Economic Losses due to Deforestation 39

3.4.1 Impact on Timber Industry 41

3.4.2 Effects on Agriculture 45

3.4.3 Tourism Decline 47

3.5 Displacement of Indigenous Communities 49

VII
 3.6 Summary 52

4 MEASURES TO STOP DEFORESTATION

4.1 Introduction 55

4.2 Biodiversity Conservation 56

4.3 Spread Awareness to Public 58

4.4 Government Policies and Initiatives 62

4.4.1 Forest Conservation Efforts 65

4.4.2 Sustainable Logging Practices 66

4.4.3 Reforestation Programs 67

4.5 Summary 69

5 CONCLUSION

5.1 Introduction 72

5.2 Findings of The Study 74

5.3 Recommendations for Future Research 77

5.4 Conclusion 80

REFERENCES 81

VIII
 LIST OF TABLES

NO. TITLE PAGE

1.1 Deforestation rate in Malaysia 5

IX
 LIST OF FIGURES

NO. TITLE PAGE

1.1 Annual trend of total forest land in Malaysia 4

X
 ABBREVIATIONS

CH4 Methane

CO2 Carbon Dioxide

CFS Connectivity Central Forest Spine

FSC Forest Stewardship Council

FAO Food Agriculture Organization

GPS Global Positioning System

GGP Government Green Procurement

GIS Geographic Information System

NTIP National Timber Industry Policy

NFA National Forestry Act

N20 Nitrous Oxide

NGO Non-Governmental Organization

REDD+ Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation

WWF World Wide Fund

XI
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Deforestation, which is defined as the vast clearing or removal of forests or

woods, is a phrase derived from "de-" meaning removal and "forest" referring

to huge regions dominated by trees. It comprises converting forest area to

non-forest uses, which is often fueled by human endeavors like farming,

urbanization, logging, infrastructural development, and industrial growth. The

terrain and ecosystem are altered as a result of this process, which

significantly reduces the amount of forest coverage

This study will focus on Peninsular Malaysia. Deforestation in the area is

particularly concerning owing to Malaysia's geographical location, since it

affects not just the nation's natural heritage but also has huge worldwide

repercussions due to its effects on biodiversity and climate. It involves the

large-scale destruction of trees and the conversion of wooded land for various

purposes. It is a serious problem with many aspect that touches on everything

from social and economic growth to ecology and conservation.

1
Global deforestation has risen over the past century, with the earth as a whole being

affected even if the tropics are the most affected. Environmental issues are now a

major concern for countries everywhere. Even Malaysia, a country well-known for

its varied ecosystems and strong economy, is affected by the general degradation of

the environment. This study aims to examine the impact of deforestation on the

national security of Malaysia. Since Malaysia are unique with it geographic location

and diverse ecosystems, it is being exposed to deforestation problems.

Malaysia's national security is greatly affected by the loss of forests. By cutting down

a lot of trees, the country loses its natural defence against threats from other countries

and also has to deal with problems inside the country. For starters, cutting down trees

makes climate change worse, which makes Malaysia more likely to be hit by natural

disasters and bad weather. Deforestation also threatens the integrity of land, since

illegal settlements often appear after trees are cut down. These threats show how

important it is for the government to take action right away to stop deforestation.

For example, forest protection programmes and sustainable land use practises are

needed. International partnerships and cooperation are also very important for

stopping deforestation because they let people share best practises and information.

Lastly, educating and raising knowledge about the environment are very important

for getting people to live in a way that doesn't harm it. Lastly, stopping deforestation

is important not only to protect Malaysia's national security but also to keep its

natural resources and wildlife safe.

2
Malaysia is endangered to natural disasters such as floods, typhoons, storms,

landslides, and the effects of climate change, rising sea levels, air and land

temperatures due to climate change as well as those caused by human disaster. These

environmental issues are large-scale events that occur within or outside the borders,

will have a negative impact on the lives of the people and hinder the smooth running

of the government trade.

Forests are very important for keeping the world climate system in balance because

they take in and store carbon from the air, keep water systems working, protect

biodiversity, and give animals a place to live. There are three different types of

woods in Malaysia (Begum et al., 2020). These are protected forests, permanent

reserved forests, and state land forests. Figure 1 shows a picture of the total amount

of forest land in Malaysia over time. In 1990, there were about 18.8 million hectares

of forest land. That number dropped to 17.9 million hectares in 1993, but it rose

again in 1997, reaching 18.47 million hectares. The trend went back down in 1999,

and by 2008, the overall forest land had dropped to 17.68 million hectares (ha). One

major reason for this loss of forest land could be that too much logging and

development is destroying forests and cutting down trees. A little over a million

hectares (4.23%) of Malaysia's forest land were lost between 1990 and 2010.

3
 Figure 1.1 Annual trend of total forest land in Malaysia

Source : Rohaya (2016)

In recent years, Malaysia's rate of cutting down trees has been a worry. The rate of

cutting down trees in the country has been alarmingly high, according to data and

figures. Loss of forest cover has been linked to many things, including logging, more

farming, and building roads and other structures. These actions have destroyed

environments and homes for many plant and animal species that are important to

them. The high rate of deforestation also makes climate change worse by releasing

more carbon into the air. Protected places, national parks, and programmes for

reforestation and afforestation being affected with this problem.

4
 Table 1.1 Deforestation rate in Malaysia

Source : Forestry Department of Peninsular Malaysia (2016)

Deforestation also puts Malaysia's territorial unity at risk, which could lead to

disputes and wars over territory. To deal with these dangers, governments need to set

up programme to protect forests, encourage environmentally friendly ways to use

land, make the police stronger, and work together with nearby countries and foreign

groups. To promote environmental awareness and urge people to live in a way that

doesn't harm the environment, it is important to educate and make people more

aware, especially young people. Malaysia can stop deforestation and keep its citizens

safe by using technology like geographic information systems, remote sensing, and

satellite tracking and surveillance. This issue need to be solved quickly to reduce

unnecessary risks that Malaysia could not bear and to secure a sustainable future.

5
1.2 Problem Statement

Forests cover about 30 percent of the planet's land mass, but humans are cutting them

down, clearing these essential habitats on a massive scale. As much as 67% of

Malaysia were covered by rainforest. Between 2002 and 2020, Malaysia lost 2.7

million hectares of humid primary forest, which is equivalent to 34% of the nation's

overall loss of tree cover during that period (Internet Geography, 2022). Malaysia's

humid primary forest lost 17% of its overall area during this period. Malaysia's

security significantly affected by a range of environmental issues of deforestation.

These challenges pose multifaceted threats such as effect to biodiversity and climate

change that demand urgent attention and comprehensive strategies to develop

effective policies and interventions.

The growth of Malaysia's palm oil sector and illegal logging have resulted in massive

deforestation, which has a negative impact on the nation's capacity to sustain its

economy and adhere to international environmental obligations. Many environmental

problems, like deforestation, soil erosion, and biodiversity loss, are caused by illegal

logging. These problems can lead to bigger environmental crises like climate change

and other types of environmental damage. This will be a threat to Malaysia’s future

youth. Future generations will have to deal with a problem where the ozone layer is

thinner because more carbon dioxide (CO2) is emitted into the atmosphere as a

result of the deforestation issue if it is not resolved now.

6
1.3 Research Objectives

1.3.1 To understand how deforestation took place in Malaysia

1.3.2 To examine the impacts of deforestation towards economic and

biodiversity losses to Malaysia's national security.

1.3.3 To seek the measures taken by the government and any other

responsible party to curb deforestation.

1.4 Research Questions

1.4.1 Why deforestation occur in Malaysia?

1.4.2 How it started and what kind of damage it has caused?

1.4.3 What measure can be taken to stop deforestation in Malaysia?

1.4.4 What is the deforestation effect toward Malaysia’s national security?

1.4.5 Where is the most affected location in this deforestation issue?

7
1.5 Literature Review

Deforestation is a global environmental issue that has significant implications for

various aspects of society, including national security. This literature review aims

to explore the existing research findings about deforestation on Malaysia's national

security.

1.5.1 Factors Contributing to Deforestation in Malaysia

Several studies have identified various factors contributing to deforestation in

Malaysia. Meyfroidt and Lambin (2011) highlight that competition for productive

land between different land uses is a major driver of deforestation. This competition

often arises due to the expansion of large-scale oil palm and timber plantations,

which are key contributors to deforestation in Indonesia and may also apply to

Malaysia (Gaveau et al., 2016). Additionally, small-scale agriculture and plantations,

logging roads, and mining activities have been identified as significant causes of

deforestation in both Indonesia and potentially Malaysia (Gaveau et al., 2016).

According to Gaveau et al. (2016), the relationship between deforestation and

industrial tree plantations on Borneo, revealing that between 1973 and 2015, 18.7

million hectares of old-growth forest were cleared. Industrial plantations expanded

by 9.1 million hectares, with 4.5-4.8 million hectares planted within five years of

forest clearance. This rapid conversion has been greater in Malaysia than Indonesia,

with oil-palm plantations developing on cleared degraded lands. The study

concludes that plantation industries are the primary driver of deforestation in

Malaysian Borneo.

8
Fitzherbert et al. (2008) stated that the expansion of oil palm plantations as the

leading cause of deforestation in Malaysia. Additionally, infrastructure development

and urbanization have also contributed to forest loss.

Furthermore, unintended effects of national strategies aimed at forest protection and

sustainable use of forest resources can also contribute to deforestation in Malaysia

(Meyfroidt & Lambin, 2011). These strategies may inadvertently lead to increased

deforestation due to inadequate implementation or lack of enforcement.

Consumers' decisions, certification schemes, and moratoriums also play a role in

influencing the fate of forests in Malaysia (Meyfroidt & Lambin, 2011). The demand

for forest-risk commodities, such as palm oil and timber, drives deforestation as

these products are often sourced from areas with high forest cover (Henders et al.,

2015). Certification schemes and moratoriums aim to regulate the production and

trade of these commodities, but their effectiveness in curbing deforestation requires

further investigation.

Oil palm plantations have emerged as a major driver of deforestation in Malaysia and

other regions. In Southeast Asia, 45% of sampled oil palm plantations originated

from areas that were forests in 1989, while the percentage was 31% in South

America (Vijay et al., 2016). This indicates the significant conversion of forests into

oil palm plantations, particularly in Southeast Asia. In contrast, Mesoamerica and

Africa observed only 2% and 7% of oil palm plantations originating from forested

areas in 1989 (Vijay et al., 2016).

9
The expansion of oil palm plantation has resulted in trade-offs between

environmental preservation and economic benefits (Rist et al., 2010). While oil palm

expansion has led to increased incomes, employment generation, and poverty

reduction, it has also caused tropical deforestation and loss of biodiversity (Rist et al.,

2010). Policies such as rainforest protection and sustainability certification can help

address these trade-offs and promote sustainable practices within the palm oil

industry (Rist et al., 2010).

1.5.2 Environmental Impact of Deforestation

Iskandar Ismail (2011), stated that Cameron Highlands of Malaysia have a

considerably different climate now that deforestation, the second greatest producer

of carbon dioxide after the burning of fossil fuels, has occurred. The study that

examined temperature data from 1970 to 2006 discovered a spike in temperature

and a drop in relative humidity, suggesting that deforestation has had a detrimental

effect on the climate and tourist sector in the area. According to the report,

sustainable development is required to guarantee the Cameron Highlands tourist

sector's continuous success.

According to Posa et al (2011), deforestation in Malaysia has significant

environmental consequences, including habitat loss for endangered species,

increased greenhouse gas emissions, and disruptions to local ecosystems.

10
Tropical forests, despite covering less than 10% of Earth's land surface, support at

least two-thirds of the world's biodiversity (Vijay et al., 2016). However,

deforestation and forest alteration pose a severe threat to tropical forests and the

biodiversity they harbor. The largest areas of vulnerable forest are found in Africa

and South America, which also contain globally high concentrations of mammal and

bird species at risk of extinction (Vijay et al., 2016). This highlights the critical

importance of addressing deforestation in these regions to mitigate biodiversity loss.

The production of commodities, including oil palm, in the analyzed case countries

accounted for 40% of total tropical deforestation and resulting carbon losses (Vijay

et al., 2016). Furthermore, over a third of these impacts were embodied in exports in

2011, indicating the global implications of deforestation (Vijay et al., 2016). This

highlights the need to address the role of commodity production and international

trade in deforestation mitigation efforts.

1.5.3 Measures That Have Been Implemented to Address The Issue of

Deforestation in Malaysia

The strategies that have been implemented include allocating more forest resources

to undertake effective forest law enforcement, amended NFA 1984 to introduce

higher penalty and imprisonment, increased capacity building and human resources

in the enforcement division and equipped them with modern detecting technology

such as GPS, remote sensing, hyperspectral imaging and electronic tracking (Abdul,

2010).

11
One effective approach that has been implemented to address deforestation in

Malaysia is the adoption of territorial approaches. According to Nepstad et al. (2014),

territorial approaches have been successful in slowing deforestation and can provide

a framework for addressing other dimensions of sustainable development. These

approaches involve the establishment of policies and interventions that target specific

regions or territories with high deforestation rates. By focusing efforts on these areas,

progress in slowing deforestation can be consolidated, and other important aspects of

sustainable development can be addressed.

In terms of policy measures and economic instruments, Nadzir et al. (2020) suggest

that the effective implementation of afforestation and reforestation, forest

conservation, sustainable forest management, and mechanisms like REDD+ could be

useful in reducing carbon emissions and deforestation in Malaysia. These measures

can contribute to long-term economic growth while ensuring environmental

sustainability.

To encourage participation in developing waqf lands, Begum et al. (2020) propose a

cooperative-waqf model that creates a synchronized relationship between cash waqf

donors and waqf institutions. This model has the potential to boost participation and

contribute to the sustainable management of waqf lands, which can help address the

issue of deforestation in Malaysia.

12
1.6 Conceptual Framework

The Forest Transition Theory is an idea in the fields of ecology and the environment

that talks about how forest cover changes over time as a society grows economically

and population-wise. This theory says that there is a "forest transition" that leads to

reforestation or afforestation after deforestation. An American geographer named B.

L. Turner II is known for his work on land-use change and forestry and is a key

figure in the development of the Forest Transition Theory. Turner and his coworkers

did a lot to come up with the idea of forest changes and spread it widely.

In the first stage, before the transition (pre-transition), there is a lot of forest cover,

and people often use the woods for small-scale farming and resource extraction. In

the second stage (transition), as a society's economy grows and more people move to

cities, woods are cut down to make room for farming, building roads and factories. It

is common for forest cover to decrease during this time. As the economy grows and

more people move to cities, land use changes from farming and resource extraction

to urban and industry areas. This is called stage 3 (post-transition). This step could

lead to reforestation or afforestation, which would mean that there would be more

forest cover.

According to the forest shift theory, the change is caused by a number of things,

such as improvements in farming methods and technology that make current

farmland more productive, which means less need to clear forests. As cities grow and

people depend less on woods for food, people are moving from rural to urban areas

13
to make a living. There also are rules and policies made by the government that

encourage planting trees and protecting wildlife.

The Forest Transition Theory helps us understand how land use changes, as well as

why trees are cut down and planted again in different parts of the world. It affects

how forests are managed, attempts to protect them, and plans for sustainable

development.

Overall, the Forest Transition Theory is a good way to think about how economic

growth and changes in forest cover are connected in a dynamic way. It shows that as

societies get better at making money and using technology, they might switch from

cutting down trees to planting new ones, though the exact time and type of change

can be very different.

14
1.7 Research Methodology

In this study, qualitative research methodology are being used. Qualitative research

is an investigative methodology that looks at the subjective experiences and

viewpoints of individuals or groups in order to comprehend and study social

phenomena. Qualitative research is a method of inquiry that focuses on

understanding, interpreting, and exploring social phenomena in their natural settings

using document analysis to examine existing documents.

Next, the data used in this research being obtained from primary sources such as

books obtained from Tun Jeneral Ibrahim Library of National Defence University of

Malaysia. The secondary sources also being used such as journal article, e-book and

research paper found online. These internet sources is known for it authenticity and

is accredited by the academics.

15
1.8 Scope and Limitations

This study looks into the effects of cutting down trees on the environment, such as

habitat loss, loss of wildlife, soil erosion, and the release of greenhouse gases. All

these effects mention above indirectly affect national security.

Next, this study focus on the possible threats to national security that come from

cutting down trees, such as making people more vulnerable to natural disasters,

affecting water supplies, and spreading diseases. Also, think about how cutting down

trees might affect Malaysia's ability to deal with these threats. This study also look at

the current forestry and conservation policies and governance structures and suggest

ways to make them better that will protect the country.

The limitation of this study are the complexity of this issue that is caused by many

causes that are all connected. It can be hard to tell the difference between the direct

and secondary effects on national security. Moreover, it's hard to say what will

happen in the future when it comes to deforestation and national security because of

things like possible changes in temperature, policy, and land use.

These problems need to be fixed on how cutting down trees affects Malaysia's

national security, along with giving a nuanced and well-informed opinion on the

topic. To get around some of these problems, it's important to work with experts

from different areas.

16
1.9 Significance of Research

1.9.1 To industry

The study's results will help others learn more about deforestation and come up with

practise and policies that are based on facts and can successfully fight this important

issue. This study was done to help make plans for more sustainable land use,

conservation, and economic growth in Malaysia at this very important time in its

history. It can also be used as a model for similar places around the world.

1.9.2 To researcher

Next, the researcher might gain more knowledge about the subject. On the other hand,

by doing this research, the researcher may learn more about the study area and

become better at it. The researcher will get to know the people who are directly or

indirectly involved in this study over the course of the study.

1.9.3 To community

The goal of this study is to help people understand and protect the world's

irreplaceable forests and ecosystems by showing how environmental, economic, and

social factors combine in complex ways to cause deforestation. This study will also

be useful for the university because it can be a reference for other students to use.

Aside from that, it might be fresh data that helps academics the next time around.

17
1.10 Chapterization

Organizing the research document into chapters is one of the primary tasks in

completing a research. The researcher confident that by segmenting the research into

chapters will facilitate both organization and the readers' ability to follow along and

comprehend the logic of research arguments.

1.10.1 Chapter 1 : Introduction

The research will be divided into five chapters. The first chapter will act as an

introduction, giving background material on the subject of deforestation in Malaysia

and laying the groundwork for the other study sections. Chapter 1 is an introduction

to this study. This chapter explains roughly about the deforestation issues in

Malaysia. It also contains some problem statement, research objectives that need to

be achieved by the end of this thesis and it also portrayed the conceptual framework

that being used while conducting this study.

1.10.2 Chapter 2 : Causes of deforestation in Malaysia

The reasons behind Malaysia's deforestation will be the subject of the second chapter.

By devoting an entire chapter to this topic, it will enable the readers to delve deeply

into the numerous reasons that contribute to deforestation in the nation, and the

researcher have accumulated a wealth of material on the subject such as illegal

logging, mineral extraction and population pressure.

18
1.10.3 Chapter 3 : Effect of deforestation to Malaysia’s national security

Chapter 3 will explain on effect of deforestation to Malaysia’s national security.

Deforestation in Malaysia has brought about a number of significant environmental

impacts, which have far-reaching effects on local ecosystems, climate change and

biodiversity. This is a crucial component of the study since it illustrates how

deforestation affects the nation and its citizens in the real world.

1.10.4 Chapter 4 : Measures to stop deforestation

Steps that need to be taking on how to stop deforestation in Malaysia will be

discussed in this chapter 4. This chapter will offer possible remedies for the

deforestation issue, based on the opinions of experts and current research to suggest

tactics for protecting Malaysia's forests. Chapter 4 examine about the measures taken

by the government and all others responsible party to curb the deforestation issues in

Malaysia.

1.10.5 Chapter 5 : Conclusion

Chapter 5 is about finalizing all over the chapter that have been discussed in this

study, summarizing the major discoveries of the study and some recommendations

for future research.

19
 CHAPTER 2

CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION IN MALAYSIA

2.1 Introduction

Forests often referred to as the lungs of the planet to bear the burden of this endless

thirst for land and timber as global population grows and demands for resources rise.

In order to fully understand the complex reasons driving deforestation, this chapter

2 will examine both the surface-level causes and the underlying causes of this

environmental problem. Deforestation has deep origins, ranging from economic

incentives to agricultural expansion and the unrelenting pursuit of development. As a

result, it casts doubt on the delicate balance that must be struck between human

demands and the preservation of our planet's essential ecosystems.

Chapter 2 will explore what is the causes that has been contributing to deforestation

in Malaysia. People need to pay attention to this problem because it could have an

effect on many things, including the environment, the economy, and the stability of

society. The growth of palm oil plantations and illegal logging are two of the main

problems in Malaysia that caused by deforestation. By learning about the reasons

behind deforestation and how they affect national security, the right steps can be

taken to protect Malaysia's future and lessen the bad effects.

20
2.2 Illegal logging

The harvesting, processing, shipping, purchasing, or selling of timber in

contravention of national legislation is referred to as illegal logging. It frequently

entails the removal of timber from forests without the required authorization, permits,

or compliance with environmental and conservation laws. There are serious negative

effects of illegal logging on the environment, society, and economy which has lead to

deforestation, which in turn causes the extinction of important species and

ecosystems. Malaysia, which is well-known for its breathtaking tropical rainforest,

has seen a significant decline in its forest cover as a result of illegal logging.

Numerous plant and animal species are in danger of extinction as a result of this fast

deforestation, which threatens the delicate balance of ecosystems. According to

Hoare (2015), an estimated 35% of all timber production in Malaysia comes from

illegal sources, while 10% of illegal timber in the international market originates

from local forests.

Although the primary reason of illegal logging in Peninsular Malaysia has never

been identified, several non-governmental organization (NGO) have asserted that

corruption in the forest authority, a lack of effective law enforcement, and a lack of

enforcement activities are to blame. It has been observed that Peninsular Malaysia is

home to an extremely dense tropical forest, parts of which are situated far from the

public, media, and monitoring organizations, in isolated locations deep within the

forest. As a result, in certain places there is little chance that forest offenders will be

found and apprehended. This problem is also encouraged by certain state-created

laws.

21
For instance, it has been claimed that certain states charge prices for timber that are

far higher than the projected stumpage value of the standing timber, and it is believed

that some state governments have charged extremely high tender prices for the right

to harvest timber (Rusli.M, 1999). The market value of standing timber is referred to

as stumpage. It's the amount a buyer is prepared to spend on standing trees on a

specific plot of property. A number of variables, including the kind of timber, its

amount, quality, and the state of the local market, can affect stump pricing. In the

forestry and timber industries, this phrase is frequently used to indicate the value of

trees prior to their harvest. After paying the landowner or timber owner for the

stumpage rights, the buyer harvests and transports the wood in order to turn it into

wood products. The size, accessibility, species, and general dynamics of the timber

market all affect stump pricing. Because of this, forestry corporations have started to

log areas that were not assigned to them in an effort to recoup as much of the costs

associated with their timber harvesting operations.

So, this illegal logging occurs due to lax and ineffective enforcement that leaves

people free to cut down the forest for their own benefit. The finding by Noor et al.

(2020) stated that when offenders exploit the weaknesses in the current system used

by the forest authorities, illegal logging may take place. The trend of illegal logging

in Peninsular Malaysia from 2001 to 2010 shows a linear increase in the number of

cases, with the highest number of cases recorded in 2010. The study found that the

average percentage of illegal logging cases during this period was 18% per year,

indicating a relatively low but increasing trend (Gani et al., 2013).

22
Other than that, illegal logging not only harms the environment and economy but

also engenders social problems. Indigenous populations, typically depending on

forests for their livelihoods, risk relocation and the destruction of their traditional

ways of life. The expansion of illegal loggers into indigenous territory leads to

confrontations, as these tribes reject the destruction of their ancestral grounds. Illegal

logging also exacerbates social tensions within local communities. The exploitation

of indigenous people and their ancestral lands further marginalizes these vulnerable

populations and can lead to conflicts between local communities, loggers, and law

enforcement agencies. This unrest hampers social cohesion, creating a breeding

ground for social instability, protests, and potential civil unrest. Consequently, illegal

logging not only weakens the social fabric but also endangers Malaysia's security

from within.

Moreover, it negatively impacts legal timber companies by flooding the market with

cheap, unregulated timber, making it difficult for these companies to compete. This

leads to a decline in legitimate businesses, job losses, and a reduction in government

revenue. Furthermore, the negative international reputation resulting from rampant

illegal logging can also discourage foreign investments, affecting Malaysia's overall

economic stability and growth.

23
2.3 Mangroves Deforestation

Forests are an essential component of Malaysia's rich biodiversity and contribute

significantly to the country's economic growth. Among the various types of forests

found in Malaysia, mangrove forests play a unique and crucial role in maintaining

ecological balance and preserving coastal ecosystems. However, in recent years, the

relationship between mangrove forests and deforestation has become a concerning

issue that demands immediate attention.

Mangrove forests, often located at the transitional zone between land and sea, consist

of specialized trees and plants that tolerate saltwater and tidal conditions. Malaysia is

home to significant mangrove forest areas, covering approximately 1 million hectares,

making it one of the largest mangrove ecosystems in the world. These forests provide

numerous ecological services, including coastal protection, carbon sequestration,

fishery support, and biodiversity conservation. One of the primary reasons behind

deforestation in Malaysia is the expansion of various economic activities, such as

agriculture, aquaculture, urban development, and logging. Unfortunately, mangrove

forests have been subjected to these activities due to their strategic coastal locations

and the valuable resources they possess.

The clearing of mangrove forests for agriculture, particularly for palm oil plantations,

has been a major contributor to deforestation in Malaysia. Palm oil is a highly

profitable commodity, and the demand for it has increased exponentially in recent

years, resulting in the conversion of vast mangrove areas into plantations. Mangrove

loss is primarily due to the deforestation of existing mangrove areas (Hamilton and

Casey, 2016). An estimated 62% of global mangrove loss is due to land-use

24
conversion, namely into aquaculture and agriculture (including rice, oil palm and

coconut plantations) and urbanization (Friess et al., 2019; Goldberg et al., 2020). The

importance of these specific mangrove deforestation drivers varies regionally, with

southeast Asia a particular hotspot for mangrove loss (UNEP-WCMC, 2014).

Mangrove trees are sometimes exploited for timber, firewood, or charcoal production.

Over harvesting of mangrove trees for these purposes can result in deforestation

within mangrove ecosystems, negatively impacting their structure and function.

Besides human activities, natural disasters also play a significant role in mangrove

deforestation in Malaysia. Extreme weather events such as cyclones and hurricanes

have the potential to devastate vast areas of mangrove forests. These natural disasters,

combined with the impacts of climate change, make mangroves even more

vulnerable to deforestation.

Despite these scenario, there are ongoing efforts to mitigate the effects of mangrove

deforestation in Malaysia. The Malaysian government has recognized the importance

of mangroves and has adopted several initiatives to combat deforestation. One such

initiative is the establishment of protected areas or forest reserves for mangrove

conservation. These areas are monitored and protected under the National Forestry

Act, aiming to preserve and restore mangrove forests, ensuring their long-term

sustainability.

25
Additionally, various non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and research

institutions are actively involved in raising awareness about the importance of

mangroves and promoting sustainable practices. Efforts are being made to educate

local communities about the ecological and economic benefits of mangroves,

encouraging them to participate in mangrove conservation activities. Community-

based projects have been implemented, focusing on reducing dependency on

mangrove resources by providing alternative income-generation opportunities, such

as eco-tourism and sustainable aquaculture practices.

To sum up, the relationship between mangrove forests and deforestation in Malaysia

is a complex issue, fueled primarily by human activities such as agriculture,

aquaculture, and logging. The destruction of these vital ecosystems poses significant

threats to the environment, economy, and society. However, increasing awareness,

government actions, and community involvement in conservation efforts provide

hope for the restoration and protection of these unique forests. Sustainable practices,

supported by robust policies and regulations, are crucial for maintaining a

harmonious relationship between mangrove forests and the preservation of

Malaysia's invaluable natural heritage.

26
2.4 Mineral extraction

Deforestation in Malaysia caused by mineral mining has a huge effect on the

environment. In order to get to the valuable minerals below the earth's surface,

mining often requires clearing a vast area of land. This process of clearing land

directly adds to cutting down trees, which upsets ecosystems and causes important

species to become extinct. For many years, quarrying activities that involves the

extraction of rocks and minerals have been the primary industry in Malaysia and

many countries worldwide (Salim, 2017).

Moreover, when mineral extraction and cutting down trees happen together, it can be

bad for farmers. Deforestation can damage the soil and change the weather in the

area, which could make farming less productive and raise worries about food security.

Deforestation caused by mineral mining has effects on more than just the

environment and the economy, but also on the people who live in Malaysia.

The structure of the land is changed by mining, which makes it more likely to wash

away. Getting rid of plants, which naturally keep the earth stable, makes it more

likely for soil erosion to happen, which causes rivers and other bodies of water to

become muddy. This process not only lowers the quality of the water, but it also

hurts aquatic environments, which makes the environmental problems even worse.

Mineral extraction causes trees to be cut down, which is bad for Malaysia's timber

business. Not only does cutting down huge areas of forest mean losing valuable

timber resources, but it also hurts the long-term health of the timber business, which

affects jobs and money.

27
2.5 Expansion of palm oil plantations

The impact of landscape development on the value of ecosystem services in a

tropical watershed is covered in Pahang, Malaysia where substantial forest loss has

occurred as a result of development. There are clear link between development and

soil loss, with agricultural and developed areas accounting for the majority of the

loss (Foo & Hashim, 2014). Even though oil palm has grown to be a major

commercial plantation, it cannot make up for the losses brought on by soil erosion

and forest clearing. The demand for palm oil, driven by international markets, has led

to the clearing of vast areas of forested land. Malaysia is the world’s second largest

palm oil producer and exporter after Indonesia. Malaysia’s palm oil production

accounted for 26 percent of world production and 34 percent of world exports in

2020 (Malaysia - Agricultural Sector, 2022).

Oil palm expansion has led to large-scale deforestation and habitat destruction,

jeopardizing the delicate balance of Malaysia's ecosystems. The clearing of vast

forested areas for oil palm plantations directly threatens the country's unique

biodiversity, with numerous species facing the risk of extinction. This loss of

biodiversity undermines Malaysia's environmental security by disrupting the intricate

food chains and ecosystems upon which the country's flora, fauna, and ultimately, its

people rely.

The impact of oil palm expansion on biodiversity is significant. Oil palm plantations

have replaced large areas of forests in Southeast Asia, leading to habitat

fragmentation, pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions (Fitzherbert et al., 2008).

28
These plantations support much fewer species than forests and often fewer than other

tree crops. The expansion of oil palm cultivation is a major threat to biodiversity,

particularly in regions with high biodiversity value. The ecological impact of oil

palm expansion depends on the extent to which it causes deforestation and its ability

to support biodiversity. Oil palm cultivation in Malaysia is identified as a significant

driver of deforestation, with dramatic decline in forest cover between 1975 and 1995

(Dayang, 2011).

Malaysia's reliance on oil palm has also raised concerns about its food security. As

the nation prioritizes land for oil palm cultivation, arable land for other crops

diminishes, potentially leading to over-dependence on a single crop and a lack of

agricultural diversity. This over-reliance poses a threat to Malaysia's food security, as

any disruption in oil palm production, such as pest outbreaks or extreme weather

events, could have severe consequences for the country's food supply.

Furthermore, oil palm cultivation may result in the pollution of rivers and streams

due to the excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides. This chemical pollution not only

harms aquatic life but also poses a risk to the safety of drinking water sources. Any

compromise to Malaysia's water security can lead to public health issues, raising

concerns about the availability of clean water for the population.

The rapid expansion of oil palm plantations has led to the encroachment of

Indigenous Peoples' lands and the displacement of local communities. This not only

raises ethical concerns but also contributes to social unrest and conflicts. Indigenous

29
communities are often marginalized, losing their connection to their ancestral lands,

cultural identity, and livelihoods as a consequence of oil palm expansion. Such social

issues can result in internal tensions, undermining social cohesion and national

stability.

2.6 Summary

The discussion in Chapter 2 has led to some important findings causes of

deforestation. Deforestation is a significant environmental challenge characterized by

a multitude of causal factors. Deforestation is attributed to several factors, including

the illegal logging, cutting down of mangrove forest, minerals extraction, and

expansion of palm oil plantation, which collectively lead to the devastation of

forested areas.

Because of the damaging effects on the environment, the economic ramifications,

and the potential security dangers, illegal logging represents a serious threat to

Malaysia's national security. In addition to destroying the nation's priceless

rainforests and exacerbating climate change, it also destabilizes the governing

structures, threatens the economy, and increases social unrest. Malaysia must take

comprehensive efforts to address this issue in order to protect its national security.

These actions should include bolstering governance, supporting sustainable practices,

improving law enforcement, and encouraging international collaboration to combat

the illicit wood trade. Malaysia can only safeguard its future, maintain its economy,

and protect its environment by taking this action.

30
As a result, the destruction of mangrove forests has had a detrimental impact on the

environment and the local communities that depend on these ecosystems for their

livelihoods. Mangroves play a crucial role in maintaining the protection against

erosion and serving as a carbon sink. Furthermore, mangrove forests are a source of

food, medicine, and raw materials for the local communities, and their destruction

has led to the loss of these valuable resources.

Mineral extraction constitutes an additional factor that contributes to the occurrence

of deforestation. Mining operations, particularly those pertaining to fossil fuels,

necessitate extensive deforestation and excavation of large land areas. The

aforementioned activities have the potential to result in significant ecological harm

and may also give rise to challenges related to land reclamation in subsequent

periods.

Oil palm expansion poses a significant threat to Malaysia's national security.

Environmental degradation, food insecurity, and social issues related to land disputes

and labor exploitation are just a few examples of the consequences the nation faces.

It is imperative for Malaysia to adopt sustainable practices that strike a balance

between economic growth and the preservation of natural resources, biodiversity,

and the rights of local communities. By doing so, Malaysia can ensure a more secure

and stable future for its people, protecting both its environment and socio-political

harmony.

31
In a nutshell, the primary factors contributing to deforestation encompass the illegal

logging, cutting down of mangrove forest, minerals extraction, and expansion of

palm oil plantation. All of these things put Malaysia's national security at risk by

putting its natural resources at risk, making the country more vulnerable to natural

disasters, and threatening the country's general ecological stability. It has been

determined as a result of all these factors that Malaysians will bear the weight of the

negative consequences in the future. Thus, safety precautions need to be done to stop

deforestation from getting worse.

32
 CHAPTER 3

EFFECT OF DEFORESTATION TO MALAYSIA’S NATIONAL SECURITY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter will discuss about the implication of deforestation towards Malaysia’s

national security. Deforestation in Malaysia has had a significant impact on both the

country's national security and human security. This critical issue has gained

attention due to its far-reaching consequences that extend beyond the environmental

implications. The destruction of forests and the subsequent loss of natural resources

pose numerous challenges, including socio-economic and livelihood of the people

consequences.

By clearing vast areas of forests for agriculture, logging, and urbanization, the

country has experienced the loss of precious biodiversity, destruction of habitats,

disruption of ecosystems, and increased vulnerability to natural disasters.

Deforestation has also contributed to climate change and global warming, leading to

altered weather patterns, rising temperatures, and more frequent extreme weather

events. Soil erosion and degradation have further worsened, threatening agricultural

productivity and food security. All of the impacts mentioned above greatly disrupts

people's lives because of its wide-ranging effects and everyone without exception

will be affected by the extreme deforestation.

33
3.2 Loss of biodiversity

Deforestation is an activity of permanent destruction clearing of earth’s forests on a

massive scale, damaging huge land areas by removing indispensable sinks for CO2,

destroying complex eco-systems, and causing a significant loss of biodiversity

(Omran & Schwarz-Herion, 2019). The depletion of biodiversity as a consequence of

deforestation in Malaysia presents substantial risks to the country's national security.

The process of deforestation results in the degradation of habitats, hence causing the

displacement of a multitude of plant and animal species. The disturbance of

ecosystems results in a reduction in biodiversity, thereby leading to the

destabilization of ecological equilibrium. Biodiversity is the range of plants and

animals that live in a certain area or around the world. There are more kinds of plants

and animals than any other environment on Earth. When the jungle is cut down,

biodiversity goes down, and some species may become threatened or even go extinct.

The loss of biodiversity due to deforestation affects both flora and fauna. Malaysia is

home to an incredible array of plant species, many of which are endemic to the

country. With the destruction of their habitats, these plants face the threat of

extinction, diminishing the country's natural heritage. Similarly, deforestation

directly affects animal species, including endangered ones such as orangutans, tigers,

and elephants. These iconic creatures, already facing numerous challenges, suffer

from the loss of their natural habitats, resulting in reduced populations and increased

vulnerability to poaching and other threats.

34
Several studies have highlighted the detrimental effects of deforestation on

biodiversity. Barlow et al. (2016) conducted research on anthropogenic disturbance

in tropical forests and found that deforestation can double biodiversity loss. They

emphasize that deforestation not only directly removes habitats but also leads to

secondary effects such as fragmentation and edge effects, further exacerbating

biodiversity loss. This research finding underscores the importance of addressing

deforestation to mitigate the loss of biodiversity.

Furthermore, the decline in biodiversity has adverse effects on the possibility of

scientific breakthroughs and the advancement of medicinal research, hence

exacerbating the nation's general security and well-being. Hence, it is imperative to

promptly implement policies aimed at mitigating deforestation, preserving

biodiversity, and safeguarding Malaysia's national security.

A lot of different kinds of plants and animals live in Malaysia. Many of them can be

found in its pristine jungles. But every time a tree is cut down, a lot of species lose

their native homes. This loss of species not only upsets fragile ecosystems but also

puts Malaysia's safety at risk. It makes the country less able to handle natural

disasters, react to climate change, and keep its ecosystems stable when it loses

biodiversity. When the forest home of animals is destroyed, it leads to habitat loss,

which can have devastating effects on wildlife. Animals may face extinction if they

cannot adapt to new environments or migrate to other areas.

35
Ecosystem disruption brought on by biodiversity loss can cause food web collapse

and the loss of ecosystem services like pollination and water purification, among

other negative effects on the environment. Additionally, by decreasing genetic

variety and increasing population susceptibility to illnesses and environmental

changes, it compromises the survival of species. Furthermore, the loss of one species

might have a domino effect on other species that depend on it for habitat or food. The

destruction of many habitats also restricts a species' natural range and migration

habits, endangering the species' ability to survive.

Surveys of species richness in Malaysia show that the number of species in oil palm

habitats is 34.9% lower than in forest habitats. Also, 79.6% of the species that live in

forest habitats were not found in oil palm habitats (Internet Geography, 2022a).

Pygmy Elephants, Orangutans, Sumatran Rhinos, and Malayan Tigers are just a few

of the species that are in danger in the rainforests of Malaysia. Many possible cures

for diseases that can kill people are lost along with species because the trees has been

wiped out. Deforestation also disrupts food chains and breeding patterns, leading to

decreased populations and genetic diversity. Furthermore, animals are often killed

during the clearing process or by increased human-animal conflicts as their territories

overlap with human activities. The loss of habitat due to deforestation is a significant

threat to biodiversity and the survival of many species.

36
3.3 Contribution to Climate Change

Deforestation also poses a major threat to Malaysia's national security. Being

vulnerable to climate change directly impacts the safety of the country by making

political, economic, and social problems worse. Deforestation contributes to climate

change primarily by releasing stored carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere when

trees are cut down or burned. Trees absorb CO2 during photosynthesis and store

carbon for long periods. When these trees are removed, not only is this carbon

storage capacity lost, but the carbon stored in the trees is also released, contributing

to the enhanced greenhouse effect.

Firstly, trees play a vital role in balancing the Earth's carbon cycle. Through the

process of photosynthesis, trees absorb carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere

and store it in their tissues. This process is crucial as CO2 is a greenhouse gas that

traps heat within the Earth's atmosphere, contributing to global warming.

Deforestation disrupts this balance as trees are removed, reducing the Earth's

capacity to absorb CO2 emissions.

Moreover, deforestation releases substantial amounts of carbon stored in trees and

soil into the atmosphere. When trees are cut down or burned, the carbon they have

sequestered is released as CO2 emissions. According to the Food and Agriculture

Organization (FAO), deforestation contributes to approximately 10% of global

greenhouse gas emissions, making it a significant driver of climate change. These

emissions exacerbate global warming, leading to changes in weather patterns, rising

sea levels, and the loss of biodiversity.

37
Furthermore, the destruction of forests often results in the expansion of agriculture,

leading to increased emissions from deforestation, as well as the application of

chemical fertilizers and intensive farming practices. These agricultural activities

often generate additional greenhouse gas emissions, exacerbating the impact of

deforestation on climate change.

Additionally, the loss of trees disrupts the process of transpiration, where trees

release moisture and cool the air, leading to hotter and drier climates in tropical

rainforest areas, further exacerbating climate change But when trees are cut down,

the carbon that they stored is released back into the air. This makes global warming

and climate change worse. Malaysia's national security is in danger because of

climate change, which causes things like rising sea levels, extreme weather, and

problems with farming. Deforestation not only releases stored carbon dioxide but

also contributes to increased greenhouse gas emissions. When forests are cleared, the

organic matter in the soil decomposes, releasing methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide

(N2O), both potent greenhouse gases. These emissions intensify the greenhouse

effect and warm the planet, leading to climate change. That brings threat to the

national security.

The changing climate poses significant risks to national security, acting as a "threat

multiplier" that can lead to increased demands for military involvement in

humanitarian assistance, disaster relief, and maintaining order worldwide (Gunn,

2017). Urgent action and recognition of climate change-related missions are

recommended to address the security implications of climate change (Gunn, 2017).

38
3.4 Economic Losses Due To Deforestation

The economic implications of deforestation in Malaysia are significant.

Deforestation has been driven by commercial activities such as mining, commercial

farming, hydroelectric power production, logging, and the production of palm oil and

tropical hardwoods. These activities have provided economic profits and generated

jobs for locals, contributing to economic development. However, the long-term

economic costs of deforestation are substantial. Furthermore, some countries may

impose sanctions or refuse to pay out loans to countries that are not properly

managing their rainforests, which can have negative effects on the economy.

One study conducted by Leite-Filho et al. (2021) focused on analyzing the changes

in mangrove areas in Iskandar Malaysia over a 25-year period. The findings revealed

that Iskandar Malaysia experienced a loss of 6,740 hectares of mangrove areas

between 1989 and 2014, resulting in a net loss of 6,030 hectares or 33% of the

original mangrove cover. This loss was primarily attributed to the expansion of urban

land use.This reduction in mangrove areas not only leads to the loss of vital

ecosystems but also has severe economic implications. The economic losses

associated with mangrove deforestation in Iskandar Malaysia need to be thoroughly

evaluated to inform conservation strategies and policy decisions.

Bawa et al. (2010) estimated the economic value of forest carbon stock in Malaysia.

In 2020, the economic value of biomass carbon stored in Malaysian forests was

estimated to be nearly USD 51 billion. By 2050, this value is projected to decrease to

approximately USD 41 billion. Furthermore, the study determined the carbon value

39
per hectare of forested area, which was estimated at USD 2,885 in 2020 and USD

2,388 in 2050. These findings highlight the immense economic significance of

maintaining forest carbon stocks in Malaysia. Deforestation not only leads to the loss

of valuable ecosystems but also results in the depletion of carbon stocks, which have

substantial economic value. The estimation of the economic value of forest carbon

stock provides policymakers and stakeholders with vital information for making

informed decisions regarding forest conservation and climate change mitigation

strategies.

Furthermore, deforestation contributes to the decimation of local economies that

depend heavily on forest resources. Many rural communities rely on forests for their

livelihoods, engaging in activities such as logging, hunting, and gathering non-timber

forest products. Deforestation disrupts these traditional practices, leaving

communities without a sustainable source of income. The loss of income from forest-

dependent activities can lead to poverty, unemployment, and migration to urban

areas. Consequently, urban centers face population influx, strain on infrastructure,

increased job competition, and challenges in providing essential services to a

growing population.

40
3.4.1 Impact on Timber Industry

Deforestation in Malaysia has had a significant impact on the timber industry,

leading to economic losses. The extensive clearing of forests has resulted in a

reduction in the availability of timber resources, which has negatively affected the

industry's productivity and profitability. With the decline of forest cover, the supply

of timber has decreased, leading to higher costs for logging companies and reduced

revenues. Furthermore, deforestation has disrupted the ecosystem and affected the

quality of timber, making it less desirable in international markets. The timber

industry, once a major contributor to Malaysia's economy, now faces challenges in

sustaining its growth and competitiveness due to the economic consequences of

deforestation. The timber industry relies heavily on forest resources, making it

particularly vulnerable to the detrimental effects of deforestation. If deforestation

worsens, the timber industry will face numerous challenges that will hinder its

growth and sustainability.

Malaysia's timber industry is a significant contributor to its economy. Legal logging

operations provide jobs to people and generate revenue while illegal logging leads to

revenue reduction in government. However, illegal logging not only undermines

sustainable practices but also leads to substantial economic losses. The illegal trade

in timber denies the Malaysian government a vital source of income through

appropriate taxation and licensing fees.

41
Malaysia's timber business has been affected by deforestation, which has cost the

country money. Because so much forest has been cut down, there is less supply of

wood available, which affects the industry's ability to make money and be productive.

When the forest cover has decreased, the amount of wood available also decreases.

This has caused mining companies to pay more for wood and make less money.

Deforestation has also damaged the ecosystem and lowered the quality of the wood,

which makes it less desirable in foreign markets. Once a major part of Malaysia's

economy, the timber business is now having trouble continuing to grow and be

competitive due to the impact of logging.

In addition to the immediate economic losses, deforestation has long-term economic

consequences that may be difficult to reverse. Forests provide valuable timber

resources that can be sustainably harvested for construction, furniture, and other

industries. However, rampant deforestation can lead to the depletion of these

resources, resulting in increased timber prices. Moreover, the loss of forests reduces

the potential for carbon offsetting and forest carbon sequestration programs. These

programs enable companies to offset their carbon emissions by investing in

reforestation efforts, providing a financial incentive to preserve forests. With reduced

forest cover, such initiatives become less viable, resulting in a missed economic

opportunity.

Malaysian farmland is affected by massive deforestation. For starters, Shevade and

Loboda (2019) stated that cutting down forests for agriculture makes the land less

fertile for growing food. Because of this, food yields decreased, and the people of the

42
area lost their jobs working in agriculture. Second, cutting down trees changes the

ecosystem balance in the area, which affects water and pollination processes and

ultimately lowers crop yields. Deforestation also increases the likelihood of soil

erosion and landslides, which make agricultural areas more vulnerable to natural

disasters. Finally, deforestation makes it difficult to obtain timber and other products

made from forests, which are an important source of income for rural areas. Overall,

deforestation in Malaysia affects the country's agricultural industry and threatens

people's ability to earn a living and feed their families.

One of the immediate impacts of increased deforestation on the timber industry is the

depletion of timber resources. Forests provide the primary source of timber products,

and when forests are cleared at an alarming rate, the availability of timber becomes

scarce. This scarcity will result in increased competition and higher prices for timber

products. Logging companies may face difficulties in meeting the escalating demand,

leading to a shortage of supply and potential loss of customers. As a result, the profit

margins of timber industries may decline, rendering their operations less

economically viable.

Furthermore, deforestation contributes significantly to habitat destruction and loss of

biodiversity. Forests are complex ecosystems that house countless animal and plant

species. When forests are destroyed, these species lose their natural habitats, leading

to a decline in biodiversity. With fewer diverse ecosystems, the timber industry may

struggle to sustainably manage forests and harvest timber resources. The loss of

biodiversity can also disrupt the delicate balance within forests, causing negative

43
cascading effects on the timber industry. For example, certain species play essential

roles in seed dispersal or pollination, and their absence can hinder natural

regeneration and growth of timber resources.

Another significant impact of worsening deforestation on the timber industry is

increased environmental scrutiny and regulations. As public awareness and concern

for the environment rise, governments and international organizations are

implementing stricter regulations to combat deforestation and protect natural

resources. These regulations often focus on sustainable forestry practices, including

reforestation, responsible logging, and the protection of biodiversity hotspots. While

these measures are crucial for the long-term health of forests, they can pose

challenges for the timber industry. Companies may need to adopt costly and time-

consuming environmental impact assessments, implement sustainable practices, or

face restrictions on logging activities. Compliance with these regulations can

increase the cost of production and reduce profitability, especially for smaller timber

operators who may struggle to adapt.

44
3.4.2 Effects on Agriculture

Agriculture plays a vital role in human society by providing food, livelihoods, and

economic stability. It encompasses various activities related to cultivating crops,

raising livestock, and cultivating agricultural resources. Agriculture ensures food

security and is crucial for sustaining growing populations. Additionally, it

contributes to the national economy and employment opportunities. Farmers not only

produce food but also create a foundation for trade, investment, and economic

growth.

The connection between deforestation and agriculture is obvious through the

conversion of forested lands into agricultural areas. As forests are cleared, farmers

gain access to new land for cultivation. However, this process results in several

negative consequences. Deforestation disrupts ecosystems, causes biodiversity loss,

alters microclimate, and reduces the availability of essential ecological services.

Furthermore, it leads to degraded soil quality, increased vulnerability to pests and

diseases, and changes in regional climate patterns, all of which impact agricultural

productivity adversely.

Firstly, deforestation leads to the loss of fertile soil. Trees play a crucial role in soil

conservation as their roots help prevent erosion and their leaves provide organic

matter, which enriches the soil. With the removal of trees, the top layer of soil is

more prone to erosion by wind and rain, leading to reduced soil fertility. This loss of

fertile soil hinders agricultural productivity and necessitates the use of additional

inputs such as fertilizers, which increases farming costs.

45
Secondly, deforestation disrupts the hydrological cycle and leads to water scarcity,

which is detrimental to agriculture. Trees play a vital role in maintaining the water

cycle by absorbing and releasing moisture into the atmosphere through transpiration.

They act as natural sponges, regulating water flow and preventing floods and

droughts. When forests are cleared, rainfall patterns are altered, leading to irregular

precipitation. This change in water availability, either through excessive flooding or

prolonged droughts, has serious consequences for agricultural production. Crops

require adequate water for growth, and without it, yields can be drastically reduced,

affecting rural livelihoods and food production.

Commercial agriculture has been identified as the most significant driver of

deforestation, followed by subsistence agriculture (Hosonuma et al., 2012). Timber

extraction, logging, fuelwood collection, charcoal production, uncontrolled fire, and

livestock grazing are the main activities contributing to deforestation (Hosonuma et

al., 2012). Moreover, aquaculture, particularly rice agriculture and oil palm

expansion, has been identified as a major driver of mangrove loss in Southeast Asia

(Richards & Friess, 2015).

46
3.4.3 Tourism Decline

Tourism plays a crucial role in Malaysia's economy, but deforestation has resulted in

a significant decline in this sector. With the destruction of natural habitats and

landscapes, Malaysia's appeal as a tourist destination has been diminished.

Deforestation has led to the loss of biodiversity, which directly affects ecotourism

opportunities. The destruction of forests and wildlife habitats also impacts Malaysia's

cultural tourism, as indigenous tribes and their unique ways of life are disrupted.

Additionally, deforestation has contributed to soil erosion and increased pollution,

further deterring tourists. This decline in tourism not only affects the revenue

generated by the industry but also has ripple effects on other economic sectors tied to

tourism, such as hospitality and transportation. To mitigate these losses, it is crucial

for Malaysia to prioritize sustainable practices and conservation efforts, ensuring the

preservation of its natural beauty and cultural heritage for future generations.

Aside from that, deforestation has caused a huge drop in the tourism industry, which

is very important to Malaysia's income. Malaysia is now less attractive as a tourist

destination due to the destruction of habitats and natural scenery. Biodiversity loss

due to logging has a direct impact on the possibilities of ecotourism (Raihan et al.,

2022). Malaysian cultural tourism is affected by the loss of forests and wildlife

habitats as it changes the lives of indigenous groups and their unique way of life.

47
Moreover, deforestation reduces the potential for sustainable tourism and recreation-

based economic activities. Forested areas attract tourists, nature enthusiasts, and

adventure seekers who contribute significantly to local economies through spending

on accommodations, transportation, food, and the purchase of local products.

Deforestation diminishes the attractiveness of these areas, depleting tourism revenues

and resulting in job losses for those employed in the industry.

The loss of biodiversity resulting from deforestation directly impacts Malaysia's

ecotourism opportunities. Ecotourism relies on the preservation of natural habitats

and the diverse species they support. Hamilton and Casey (2014) emphasize the

importance of mangrove forests in ecotourism, as they provide unique and valuable

ecosystems. However, deforestation poses a threat to mangrove forests, which can

negatively affect ecotourism activities centered around these habitats. Therefore, the

loss of biodiversity due to deforestation can undermine the attractiveness and

sustainability of Malaysia's ecotourism industry.

Deforestation has also caused soil erosion and more pollution, making tourists less

likely to visit. Tourism is declining, which affects not only the money generated by

the industry but also other industries that depend on tourism, such as transportation

and accommodation. To keep these losses to a minimum, Malaysia needs to

emphasize conservation and sustainable practices. This will help protect the natural

beauty and cultural history of the country for future generations.

48
3.5 Displacement of indigenous communities

Deforestation in Malaysia has had significant consequences for the indigenous

communities residing within the country. As the demand for natural resources,

including timber and palm oil, continues to rise, extensive clearing of forests has

occurred. This has resulted in the displacement of countless indigenous communities

and a multitude of challenges for their social, economic, and cultural well-being.

These practices are predominantly driven by economic interests, both local and

international, resulting in the loss of significant portions of Malaysia's once-abundant

rainforest.

One of the key drivers of deforestation is the desire for land to cultivate crops and

rear livestock. As a result, vast swathes of forests are being cleared, causing

irreversible damage to the environment and depriving indigenous communities of

their traditional territories. Indigenous people have long relied on these forests for

their livelihoods, as they provide them with food, water, medicine, and materials for

shelter. When their lands are encroached upon, they lose their main sources of

subsistence and are often pushed into poverty. Indigenous communities have a deep

connection to forest ecosystems and rely on them for their cultural, social, and

economic well-being (Mistry, Bilbao, & Berardi, 2016). Displacement from their

ancestral lands disrupts their traditional way of life and often leads to loss of identity,

social cohesion, and cultural practices.

49
Perhaps the most significant consequence of the displacement of indigenous

communities is the potential loss and erasure of their rich cultural heritage.

Indigenous people have a deep spiritual, emotional, and physical connection to their

lands, often considering them sacred. These lands are not merely spaces for

economic exploitation but are an integral part of their identity and culture. When

indigenous communities are uprooted and forced to resettle, this bond is broken,

leading to the erosion of cultural practices, language, historical knowledge, and

traditional ecological wisdom that have been passed down through generations.

Furthermore, the displacement of indigenous communities due to deforestation leads

to social and economic marginalization. When forced to leave their lands, indigenous

people often find themselves in unfamiliar and often hostile environments. They face

discrimination, a lack of access to essential services, and limited job opportunities.

Many are forced to migrate to urban areas, contributing to the growth of

overcrowded slums and exacerbating poverty levels. The loss of their traditional

subsistence activities also makes them dependent on cash income, which exposes

them to economic vulnerabilities.

The environmental consequences of deforestation and the subsequent displacement

of indigenous communities are far-reaching. Forests play a crucial role in mitigating

climate change by acting as carbon sinks and regulating weather patterns. Disrupting

these ecosystems not only releases large amounts of carbon dioxide but also

contributes to global warming. Moreover, the loss of forests results in the destruction

of biodiversity, endangering countless species that call the forests their home.

50
Indigenous communities have been recognized as important guardians of these

ecosystems, as their traditional knowledge and sustainable practices have proven to

be effective in preserving biodiversity and maintaining ecosystem balance.

The indigenous communities of Malaysia play a vital role in the social, cultural, and

ecological fabric of the nation. With their deep connection to the land and rich

traditional knowledge, they have been custodians of the forests for generations. Not

only do these communities possess valuable insights into sustainable resource

management and biodiversity conservation, but they also contribute to the

preservation of unique cultural practices, languages, and identities. Recognizing and

protecting the rights of the indigenous communities is not only a matter of social

justice, but also crucial for the sustainable development and conservation of

Malaysia's natural resources.

Malaysia's indigenous peoples have long relied on the jungle for food, housing,

medicine, and other essentials. Their ancient ways of life are being destroyed as a

result of the loss of their main resource. When forests are destroyed, not only do

these communities lose their homes and sources of income, but their entire way of

life is disrupted. The timber industry, often seen as a major driver of deforestation,

may face resistance and protests from affected communities. This can lead to legal

battles, boycotts, and reputation damage, further reducing the industry's prospects for

growth. Efforts must be made to address the displacement of indigenous

communities caused by deforestation. Governments should acknowledge and respect

51
the rights of indigenous peoples, ensuring their inclusion in decision-making

processes related to land-use planning and environmental policies.

3.6 Summary

When talking about why trees are being cut down in Malaysia, it's impossible to

stress how important national security is to the environment. There are many reasons

why this problem is a major threat to the safety of the country. To begin, the growth

of palm oil farms has caused a lot of trees to be cut down, which means that natural

resources and ecological stability have been lost. Second, illegal cutting hurts the

country's efforts to protect the environment and be more sustainable, which causes

more trees to be cut down. Lastly, cutting down trees makes climate change and

extreme weather events worse, which is bad for Malaysia's general environmental

safety and resilience.

Another significant effect of deforestation is the destruction of biodiversity and the

subsequent impact on various industries. Forests are home to numerous plant and

animal species, many of which have significant economic value. Deforestation

threatens the extinction of these species, leading to a loss of potential resources for

pharmaceutical research, food production, and other industries reliant on biological

diversity.

Deforestation is a significant contributor to climate change. It disrupts the Earth's

carbon cycle, releases large amounts of CO2 emissions, and impacts regional climate

52
systems and biodiversity. The direct and indirect effects of deforestation on climate

change necessitate urgent action to curtail and reverse this destructive practice. The

impact of deforestation on climate change cannot be underestimated. It destabilizes

the delicate balance of the Earth's climate system and intensifies global warming.

The loss of carbon sinks and increased greenhouse gas emissions contribute to

climate change. Therefore, conserving and properly managing Earth's forests through

sustainable practices are essential for mitigating climate change and preserving the

planet for future generations.

Deforestation also causes significant economic losses that extend far beyond

environmental degradation. The decline in ecological services, loss of biodiversity,

destruction of local economies, reduction in sustainable tourism, and long-term

economic ramifications are all consequences of deforestation. It is crucial for

governments, communities, and individuals to recognize the economic value of

forests and implement policies and practices that promote their conservation.

Otherwise, the economic losses due to deforestation will continue to grow, affecting

our planet and future generations.

If deforestation worsens, the impacts on the timber industry will be profound.

Depletion of timber resources, loss of biodiversity, increased environmental

regulations, and social conflicts are among the challenges that the industry will face.

However, by prioritizing sustainable practices, supporting reforestation efforts, and

engaging with local communities, the timber industry can adapt and contribute to the

preservation of forests for generations to come.

53
To mitigate the impacts of worsening deforestation on the timber industry, concerted

efforts are necessary from all stakeholders. Governments must enforce stricter

regulations and ensure their effective implementation. This includes promoting

sustainable logging practices, preserving biodiversity hotspots, and encouraging

reforestation initiatives. Collaboration between the timber industry, environmental

organizations, and communities is crucial to finding sustainable solutions that

balance social, economic, and environmental needs. The adoption of eco-

certifications, such as the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) label, can also help

consumers identify sustainably sourced timber products, thereby encouraging

responsible consumption and supporting ethical timber companies. The Forest

Stewardship Council (FSC) is an international, non-governmental organization

dedicated to promoting responsible management of the world's forests. Since its

foundation in 1994, FSC has grown to become the world's most respected and

widespread forest certification system.

Lastly, deforestation leading to the displacement of indigenous communities is a

grave concern with far-reaching consequences. It not only disrupts the lives and

cultural identities of indigenous peoples but also negatively impacts the environment.

Addressing this issue requires international cooperation, government commitment,

and a recognition of the fundamental rights of indigenous communities. By ensuring

the protection of their lands, providing support for their sustainable livelihoods, and

respecting their cultural heritage, we can strive towards a more equitable and

sustainable future for all.

54
 CHAPTER 4

MEASURES TO STOP DEFORESTATION

4.1 Introduction

Reducing deforestation in Malaysia is crucial since it has numerous ecological and

socioeconomic ramifications. In addition to sustaining biodiversity, forests also

control climate, supply clean water and air, stop soil erosion, and aid indigenous

tribes. These vital biological processes are upset by deforestation, which results in

the extinction of many plant and animal species, higher greenhouse gas emissions,

less rainfall, and jeopardized livelihoods. Therefore, reducing deforestation is

essential for Malaysia's sustainable development, natural resource protection,

biodiversity preservation, and climate change mitigation. As one of the major culprits

behind deforestation, governments and peoples themselves have a crucial role to play

in implementing effective measures to curb this destructive practice.

Hunting activities that could endanger biodiversity are the subject of laws and

restrictions. Pollution, logging, therefore establishing a crisis for the environmental

security. To ensure that people are scared to engage in deforestation again due to the

potential penalties, the government should enact stronger legislation with urgency.

By taking this action, the forest will be protected from unauthorised loggers who are

merely interested in making money.

55
4.2 Biodiversity Conservation

It is crucial to stop deforestation and how biodiversity conservation fits into this

equation. Sustainable development and the preservation of Malaysia's rich natural

heritage can worked out by comprehending the causes and effects of deforestation,

putting effective conservation strategies into practise, fortifying policy and

legislation, raising awareness and promoting education, and embracing sustainable

agricultural practices. Biodiversity is the backbone of healthy ecosystems and plays a

crucial role in maintaining environmental balance. Malaysia's incredible biodiversity

encompasses various ecosystems, including primary rainforests, mangrove forests,

and coral reefs. The rainforests, in particular, are significant as they provide habitat

to countless endemic plant and animal species.

Biodiversity conservation ensures the preservation of ecosystems and the protection

of a wide range of plant and animal species. This in turn helps to preserve the

balance of forests and contributes to the long-term sustainability of development. It

encompasses the creation and administration of protected areas and national parks,

the advancement of reforestation and afforestation efforts, the adoption of sustainable

logging methods, and the initiation of community-centered conservation projects.

Malaysia is on the right track in its efforts to preserve, conserve and protect the

nation's natural biodiversity, however, several gaps remain, including a lack of public

awareness and challenges to implement laws and enforce actions against biodiversity

loss (Hamid, 2022).

56
Recognizing the need to address deforestation and biodiversity conservation,

Malaysia has undertaken several strategies and initiatives. The country has

committed to increasing its forest cover to 50% through sustainable management and

reforestation efforts. Programs like the Heart of Borneo Initiative aim to conserve

and connect remaining rainforest areas to ensure the ecological integrity of the region.

The Heart of Borneo Initiative is a conservation and sustainable development

program aimed at protecting the significant biodiversity and ecosystems of the

Borneo Island. Several studies have investigated the environmental impacts of the

Heart of Borneo Initiative. One study conducted by Agustí et al. (2023) examined the

biodiversity conservation efforts under the initiative. They found that the

establishment of protected areas and the implementation of sustainable land

management practices have contributed to the preservation of critical habitats and the

protection of endangered species. The study also highlighted the positive impact of

the initiative on the restoration of degraded ecosystems, promoting ecosystem

resilience and enhancing ecological connectivity.

In addition to its environmental impacts, the Heart of Borneo Initiative has also been

assessed for its socio-economic benefits. Agustí et al. (2023) emphasized that the

initiative has generated employment opportunities and income for local communities

through the promotion of sustainable tourism, eco-friendly agriculture, and

community-based enterprises. These initiatives have not only improved the

livelihoods of the local communities but also enhanced their engagement and

participation in conservation activities.

57
4.3 Spread Awareness to Public

Raising public awareness about deforestation in Malaysia is crucial to garner support

for collective action. The public needs to comprehend the long-term consequences of

deforestation and understand the value of preserving forests for future generations.

Education programs, media campaigns, and community engagement initiatives

should be developed to inform individuals about sustainable practices, alternative

livelihoods, and the importance of making responsible consumer choices to reduce

demand for products linked to deforestation, such as palm oil.

The significance of public awareness and education in addressing the impact of

deforestation on Malaysia's national security cannot be overstated. Through the

promotion of environmental consciousness, individuals are made cognizant of the

adverse consequences of deforestation on the natural environment and its relation

with matters of national security. Education projects have the potential to emphasize

the significance of adopting sustainable lifestyles and the imperative of safeguarding

Malaysia's forests.

Furthermore, involving young people in conservation efforts encourages active

participation in the preservation of ecological resources and develops a sense of

accountability towards the natural environment. Malaysia has the capacity to develop

a societal framework that gives environmental conservation a high priority by raising

public awareness and advancing educational programme

58
One effective approach to spreading awareness about deforestation in Malaysia is

through environmental education in school curriculums. Research by Karim, Haque,

Anis, and Ulfy (2020) suggests that integrating environmental education as an

independent syllabus in the Malaysian education system can enhance environmental

attitude, knowledge, and awareness among secondary school students. This finding

emphasizes the importance of incorporating dedicated environmental education

modules to educate students about deforestation and its consequences (Karim et al.,

2020).

Raising public awareness about the consequences of deforestation is essential for

promoting sustainable practices and behavior change. Research has demonstrated the

effectiveness of educational campaigns and outreach programs in spreading

awareness. For example, a study by Silva et al. (2019) showed that an educational

campaign targeting local communities in Brazil led to increased knowledge about

deforestation and a greater willingness to engage in sustainable practices. This

finding emphasizes the need for targeted awareness campaigns to educate the public

about the importance of forest conservation and the negative impacts of deforestation.

Media plays a vital role in spreading awareness, both through traditional outlets such

as television, radio, newspapers, and magazines, and digital platforms like social

media, websites, podcasts, and online campaigns. Collaborating with influential

media outlets and launching targeted campaigns can help convey the urgency and

importance of preserving Malaysia's forests to a vast audience. Social media

platforms have emerged as powerful tools for spreading awareness and promoting

59
behavior change. Al-dmour et al. (2020) investigated the influence of social media

platforms on public health protection during the COVID-19 pandemic. Their

integrated model highlighted the mediating effects of public health awareness and

behavioral changes facilitated by social media. It is proven that social media

platforms can be harnessed to effectively spread awareness about environmental

issues like deforestation in Malaysia.

Leveraging the popularity and influence of celebrities and social media influencers

can have a profound impact on spreading awareness about deforestation. Utilizing

their platforms, these figures can actively engage their followers in relevant

discussions, share informative content, and participate in advocacy campaigns. Their

involvement can amplify the reach and foster engagement with a diverse audience,

extending the message far and wide.

The power of social media and brand-focused activism can be leveraged to raise

awareness about deforestation. Shojaee and Azman (2013) examined the factors

affecting brand awareness on social media in Malaysia. Their research highlights the

potential of utilizing social media platforms to disseminate information and engage

with the public regarding deforestation. Moreover, Dauvergne (2017) explored the

rising power of brand-focused activism and its impact on environmental issues,

including deforestation. Incorporating social media campaigns and collaborating with

brands that promote sustainable practices can significantly contribute to spreading

awareness about deforestation in Malaysia (Shojaee & Azman, 2013; Dauvergne,

2017).

60
Partnering with non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and environmental groups

can significantly enhance efforts to raise awareness about deforestation. NGOs in

Malaysia, like the Malaysian Nature Society and the World Wide Fund for Nature

(WWF) Malaysia, have been actively advocating for forest conservation.

Collaborative initiatives, such as organizing workshops, seminars, and awareness

campaigns, can amplify the impact of these organizations and reach broader sections

of society.

Protecting Malaysia's forests calls for concerted efforts to raise awareness about the

consequences of deforestation. By combining education, media, collaboration with

NGOs, celebrity engagement, and promoting sustainable alternatives, comprehensive

awareness campaigns can ignite a collective responsibility towards the conservation

of Malaysia's forests. The preservation of these invaluable ecosystems will not only

safeguard biodiversity but also contribute to mitigating climate change, ensuring a

sustainable future for generations to come.

61
4.4 Government Policies and Initiatives

Malaysia's efforts to protect forests have been very important in reducing the damage

that cutting down trees does to the economy. To protect and maintain forests, the

government has put in place a number of policies and programmes. Some of these

attempts are creating protected areas, making law enforcement stronger, and

encouraging environmentally friendly ways to cut down trees. Malaysia wants to

keep the timber business going, protect biodiversity, keep farming productive, and

encourage ecotourism by protecting its forests.

Not only do these conservation efforts help the environment by stopping trees from

being cut down, but they also create jobs through ecotourism, agroforestry, and wood

certification programmes. Even so, there are still problems like illegal logging, a lack

of knowledge, and problems where economic growth and protection are at odds with

each other. For Malaysia's forests and economy to last in the future, it is important to

improve law enforcement, encourage sustainable consumption, and get more people

involved.

The implementation of REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest

Degradation) programs can contribute to national security by ensuring the well-being

of local communities (Duchelle et al., 2017). Safeguard information systems should

be developed to monitor and report on the impacts of REDD+ interventions

(Duchelle et al., 2017). Different types of interventions, such as incentives and

disincentives, can have varying impacts on tenure security, participation, subjective

well-being, and forest clearing (Duchelle et al., 2017). Meaningful participation in

62
REDD+ initiatives is crucial for their success (Duchelle et al., 2017). Future research

should focus on developing effective social safeguards and exploring the long-term

impacts of REDD+ programs on national security.

As an example, the implementation of a nationwide REDD+ program in Guyana has

been successful in reducing tree cover loss and avoiding carbon emissions (Roopsind

et al., 2019). However, tree cover loss increased after the payments ended, indicating

the need for continued support to ensure forest protection (Roopsind et al., 2019).

Malaysia also not left behind in carrying out this effort. Malaysia has made some

progress in addressing illegal logging through key policy areas at the federal and

state level. The National Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation

(REDD+) Strategy 2016-25 now includes sustainable forest management and

reduction of illegal logging as key action areas. However, a review of the causes and

severity of illegal logging has not been conducted, and a national action plan to

tackle the issue has not been adopted. Efforts have mainly focused on sustainable

forest and timber certification.

Efforts to curb corruption in the forestry sector have been intensified, and the

government has renewed its resolve to tackle corruption after the 2018 general

election. Transparency of information on the Malaysian forest sector has improved,

but transparency in the allocation of resources remains low. Property, use rights, and

tenure arrangements are defined and documented, but there is no legal requirement

for setting out tenure and use rights on publicly accessible maps. Mechanisms for

63
resolving conflicting or overlapping property rights exist, but court processes are

lengthy, and implementation of court decisions by the government has been poor.

The Malaysian government introduced the National Forestry Policy 2019 as a

comprehensive framework to guide sustainable forestry practices and conservation

efforts. This policy focuses on forest management, biodiversity conservation, and

forest rehabilitation. It emphasizes sustainable logging practices, reforestation efforts,

and the protection of high conservation value forests. The policy also promotes

community participation and the inclusion of indigenous communities in decision-

making processes.

The legislation and regulation for forest management are largely coherent, but

discrepancies exist between the different state forest legislation and the National

Land Code. The National Forestry Act (NFA) and the National Forest Policy

provide a framework for forest management, with separate legislation in each state.

Legislation and regulations are in place to prevent the import of illegal timber, but

implementation is not systematically monitored. The government has introduced a

Government Green Procurement (GGP) policy, making it mandatory for all

government ministries and agencies to increase their procurement of green products.

64
4.4.1 Forest Conservation Efforts

Malaysia has taken a number of steps to save its forests in response to the growing

problems caused by deforestation, with a particular emphasis on sustainable logging

methods. Recognizing the forestry industry's economic significance, the nation has

worked to strike a balance between resource exploitation and long-term

environmental protection.

Forest conservation efforts involve the establishment of protected areas, the

enforcement of regulations, and the promotion of sustainable land-use practices.

Research by Souza et al. (2017) demonstrated that the creation of protected areas in

the Brazilian Amazon significantly reduced deforestation rates. This finding

underscores the importance of government-led conservation efforts in preserving

forests and preventing deforestation.

Protecting and conserving forests is crucial for maintaining national security.

Hamilton and Casey (2014) emphasize the need for high-resolution global databases

of continuous forest cover to monitor and protect mangrove forests. Strengthening

forest protection measures, such as implementing stricter regulations, increasing

surveillance, and promoting community involvement, can help mitigate deforestation

and its associated security risks.

65
4.4.2 Sustainable Logging Practices

Using responsible forestry management techniques is a crucial part of Malaysia's

commitment to sustainable logging. This involves using selective logging methods,

in which younger trees are left to reforest the forest while only mature, commercially

useful trees are taken down. To further reduce the ecological damage and regulate

logging activities, strict laws are applied.

The National Timber Industry Policy (NTIP) was implemented to promote

sustainable timber production while safeguarding the environment. It emphasizes

responsible forest management, enhancing the value-added timber industry, and

combating illegal logging. The policy establishes criteria for timber certification

systems, encouraging the industry to adopt sustainable practices such as selective

logging and reforestation. It also supports research and development for

manufacturing processes, promoting the use of certified timber in construction.

Promoting sustainable land use practices is essential for reducing deforestation and

its impacts on national security. Kassie et al. (2010) highlight the economics of

sustainable land management practices in the Ethiopian Highlands, emphasizing the

importance of sustainable practices in maintaining ecosystem services and

livelihoods. Malaysia can learn from such practices and implement sustainable land

use policies, including agroforestry systems and responsible agricultural practices, to

minimize deforestation and promote long-term national security.

Promoting sustainable logging practices is another crucial aspect of preventing

deforestation. Research by Putz et al. (2012) highlighted the effectiveness of

66
reduced-impact logging techniques in minimizing the negative environmental

impacts of timber extraction. This finding suggests that implementing sustainable

logging practices can help maintain forest ecosystems while meeting the demand for

timber products.

Furthermore, the government has implemented stricter regulations and enforcement

against illegal logging and land encroachment. Sustainable land-use planning and

certification schemes for palm oil production have been introduced to minimize

environmental impacts.

4.4.3 Reforestation Programs

Reforestation is the process of planting trees on land that has been cleared of trees or

abandoned. Malaysia has initiated extensive afforestation programmes, utilizing a

blend of indigenous species and rapidly growing, commercially profitable trees.

Through the deliberate selection of favourable regions for planting, the nation aims

to augment carbon sequestration, elevate soil fertility, and establish enduring supply

of timber. Reforestation programmes are essential in reducing the economic

consequences of deforestation in Malaysia.

To combat deforestation and promote reforestation, the Malaysian government has

initiated various programs. One such program is the Central Forest Spine (CFS)

Landscape Initiative, targeting the restoration and conservation of key forest areas.

This initiative emphasizes connecting fragmented forests by establishing corridors,

facilitating animal migration, and improving habitat conditions. Additionally, the

67
government launched community-based reforestation programs, encouraging local

communities to participate in tree planting activities and promoting the sustainable

use of forest resources.

These programmes have the objective of replenishing the nation's forested areas by

engaging in the planting of trees and providing care for their development. By

engaging in this action, individuals actively help to the rejuvenation of the timber

industry, which has had substantial economic setbacks as a result of deforestation.

Moreover, reforestation serves to mitigate the decline in biodiversity, which has

detrimental consequences for Malaysia's agriculture. By revitalizing the forest

ecology, the nation can also allure tourists, thereby enhancing its tourism sector.

Reforestation programmes are crucial in mitigating the economic damages resulting

from deforestation in Malaysia.

Reforestation programs aim to restore deforested areas by planting trees and

promoting natural regeneration. Research by Chazdon et al. (2016) demonstrated the

potential of reforestation in restoring biodiversity and mitigating deforestation. The

study found that reforestation efforts in Costa Rica led to the recovery of native tree

species and the return of wildlife populations. This finding emphasizes the

importance of investing in reforestation programs as a means to restore forest

ecosystems and counteract deforestation

68
Malaysia prioritizes reforestation initiatives as a proactive measure to combat

deforestation and rebuild damaged ecosystems, in addition to sustainable logging

techniques. These initiatives seek to protect biodiversity, lessen the negative

consequences of climate change, and replenish the nation's forest cover.

4.5 Summary

In summary, Malaysia has demonstrated its dedication to forest protection by

implementing proactive replanting initiatives and sustainable logging techniques.

Malaysia adheres to international certification requirements, engages local

communities, and places a high priority on responsible forestry management in an

effort to achieve a careful balance between environmental preservation and economic

development. These initiatives are a reflection of a comprehensive strategy that

acknowledges the relationship between economic growth, ecological health, and the

country's long-term security. Malaysia is becoming a global leader in sustainable

resource management as it works to improve and broaden its conservation methods.

Biodiversity conservation and the mitigation of deforestation in Malaysia are vital for

ensuring long-term sustainability and protecting the nation's natural heritage. The

loss of species and ecosystems not only disrupts ecological balance but also impacts

communities reliant on these resources. It is imperative for all stakeholders,

including the government, NGOs, and local communities, to work together and adopt

sustainable practices to preserve Malaysia's rich biodiversity for future generations.

69
Spreading awareness to the public about deforestation in Malaysia is crucial for

addressing this pressing environmental issue. The existing research highlights

deficiencies in knowledge and awareness, the potential role of education and training

programs, the influence of social media platforms, and the impacts of deforestation

on public health. Combating deforestation necessitates an all-encompassing strategy

that incorporates government programmes and efforts, public awareness campaigns,

and biodiversity protection. Key tactics to fight deforestation include safeguarding

places rich in biodiversity, educating the public, and putting into place efficient

government initiatives like reforestation projects, sustainable logging methods, and

forest conservation campaigns.

While the Malaysian government's policies and initiatives demonstrate commitment

to combating deforestation, challenges persist. One key challenge is the enforcement

of regulations against illegal logging, which remains a significant threat to the

nation's forests. Strengthening law enforcement and implementing stricter penalties

are necessary to deter illegal logging activities.

Furthermore, the conversion of forested land for agricultural purposes, particularly

for palm oil plantations, remains a contentious issue. The demand for palm oil, a

major economic driver, often contrasts with conservation efforts. The government

must strike a balance between economic development and environmental

preservation, encouraging sustainable practices within the palm oil industry.

70
The Malaysian government's policies and initiatives have laid a strong foundation for

combating deforestation, protecting biodiversity, and fostering sustainable

development. Through frameworks like the National Forestry Policy and the

National Biodiversity Policy, efforts are being made to promote responsible forest

management, conservation, and community participation. Additionally, reforestation

programs like the CFS Landscape Initiative and community-based efforts are

contributing to the restoration of forest ecosystems. However, challenges such as

illegal logging and the expansion of palm oil plantations demand continuous action

and stricter enforcement. Overall, the government's commitment to combating

deforestation is critical in ensuring the preservation of Malaysia's rich natural

heritage for future generations.

71
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

5.1 Introduction

This research discusses the causes of deforestation, a significant environmental issue

involving loss of biodiversity, mining of minerals, and soil erosion. These factors put

Malaysia's national security at risk, making its natural resources vulnerable to natural

disasters and threatening ecological stability. The growth of palm oil farms has led to

the loss of trees, affecting the country's efforts to protect the environment and climate

change. Malaysia has demonstrated dedication to forest protection through proactive

replanting initiatives and sustainable logging techniques. To combat deforestation,

Malaysia needs an all-encompassing strategy that includes government programs,

public awareness campaigns, and biodiversity protection. Future research should

focus on novel techniques and technological advancements to improve the

effectiveness and scalability of initiatives to reduce deforestation.

However, challenges and obstacles, such as illegal logging activities, lack of

awareness and education, and conflicts between economic growth and conservation,

still exist. To tackle these issues, recommendations include strengthening law

enforcement, promoting sustainable consumption, and encouraging public

participation are utilized.

72
The economic impact of deforestation in Malaysia is significant and far-reaching.

The loss of forests has led to several consequences, including a decline in the timber

industry, loss of biodiversity, negative effects on agriculture, and a decline in tourism.

However, the government has implemented various policies and initiatives to address

deforestation, such as forest conservation efforts, sustainable logging practices, and

reforestation programs. Additionally, there are economic opportunities in sustainable

practices, such as timber certification programs, eco-tourism development, and

agroforestry initiatives. International collaboration and aid, including foreign

investment and support from international organizations, have also played a role in

addressing deforestation.

73
5.2 Findings of The Study

Deforestation in Malaysia has far-reaching implications that go beyond

environmental degradation. The loss of crucial biodiversity, disruption of ecosystems,

and degradation of natural resources have significant environmental impacts. The

correlation between deforestation, environmental consequences, and climate change.

Malaysia's forests act as essential carbon sinks that absorb greenhouse gases, helping

to mitigate climate change. Large-scale deforestation disrupts this balance, resulting

in increased carbon emissions and exacerbating global climate change. This, in turn,

leads to more frequent and severe natural disasters such as floods, landslides, and

droughts. These environmental repercussions pose a threat to Malaysia's food

security, water resources, and infrastructure, ultimately jeopardizing the nation's

stability and contributing to potential insecurities.

Positive aspects can be found in several efforts to restore and protect forests in

Malaysia. NGOs and local communities have initiated reforestation projects, raising

awareness and engaging in active conservation practices. Such initiatives aim to

reverse the damage caused by deforestation and promote sustainable development.

One of the critical findings regarding deforestation and national security is its

significant impact on Malaysia's economy and resource management. Malaysia is

renowned for its vast forest cover, which contributes to the nation's prosperity

through timber exports and revenue from the tourism industry. Excessive

deforestation disrupts this economic balance by diminishing timber resources,

undermining the livelihoods of indigenous communities, and adversely affecting the

74
tourism sector. As a result, the nation's economic stability and resource management

system are compromised, creating vulnerabilities that have implications for national

security. Vulnerabilities in resource availability, economic stability, and community

well-being may escalate tensions and pose threats to national security.

Deforestation in Malaysia has also been found to result in the loss of biodiversity and

disruption of ecological balance. Malaysia is home to a wealth of unique and diverse

flora and fauna, including endangered species. The destruction of their habitats

through deforestation threatens their survival, leading to imbalances in the ecosystem.

The loss of biodiversity not only affects Malaysia's global reputation as a

biodiversity hotspot but also weakens the resilience of the country's ecosystems,

making them more susceptible to biological threats and diseases. This poses risks to

the nation's food security, public health, and overall national security.

This study has shown that the forest's entire area is valuable and cannot be purchased

with money. A log tree may be valued at billions of Malaysian ringgit, but that value

will never compare to the value of a forest that will benefit future generations. Wider

attention should be paid to the problem of deforestation, since it is a daily source of

pain for people as the ecology is being destroyed by certain reckless and

irresponsible individuals seeking financial gain.

Addressing deforestation's impact on national security requires integrated policies

that consider environmental, economic, and social dimensions. Sustainable land use

practices, strengthened legal frameworks, and effective enforcement mechanisms are

75
essential for mitigating these security risks. Comprehensive policies are needed to

address deforestation and its wide-ranging implications. It is crucial that the

government and relevant stakeholders work together to implement sustainable land

use practices and effectively enforce environmental protection laws.

The findings on the effect of deforestation on Malaysia's national security emphasize

the need for urgent action. The economic implications, environmental consequences,

socio-political effects, and loss of biodiversity all contribute to the vulnerabilities

that threaten Malaysia's stability. Addressing deforestation requires a multi-faceted

approach, including stricter regulations on logging, sustainable land-use practices,

conservation efforts, and involvement of local communities. By recognizing the

critical role that forests play in preserving national security, Malaysia can foster a

more secure and sustainable future.

76
5.3 Recommendations for Future Research

In recent years, the issue of deforestation has gained significant attention in Malaysia

due to its detrimental impact on the country's national security. The loss of forest

cover has led to a countless of environmental, social, and economic challenges that

directly threaten the stability and security of the nation. As such, there is a pressing

need for further research to explore the various dimensions of this issue and to

develop effective strategies to mitigate its effects. While the provided research

findings shed light on the relationship between deforestation, biodiversity loss, and

its impact on Malaysia's national security, there are still some knowledge gaps that

warrant further investigation.

Firstly, more research is needed to understand the specific species and ecosystems

that are most affected by deforestation in Malaysia. This information would help

prioritize conservation efforts and develop targeted strategies to mitigate biodiversity

loss. Future researchers must improve existing knowledge in this research in order to

develop this study. Future researchers may also focus more on the issue of

deforestation and how to solve it by implementing more tree planting programs,

spreading more awareness to the public and implementing GO GREEN campaign.

This program is a form of awareness campaign for everyone that aims to preserve

and protect the earth from the dangers of global warming which is becoming more

and more worrying, the effects of human actions and uncontrolled human actions.

77
A "Low Carbon" campaign in the city also can be implemented. Planting shade trees

in cities aims to absorb carbon. In addition, the practice of 3R, Reuse, Reduce, and

Recycle needs to be cultivated at the school level again so that this environmental

education can be instilled from the beginning. In short, the meaning of "GO

GREEN" is an awareness campaign for the care and preservation of the environment

among the general public and students in particular.

Secondly, future researcher could explore the economic implications of

deforestation-induced biodiversity loss on Malaysia's ecotourism industry.

Understanding the economic value of biodiversity and the potential losses incurred

due to deforestation can provide a stronger basis for policy interventions and

conservation initiatives.

Furthermore, research should also investigate the effectiveness of existing legal and

policy frameworks in addressing deforestation and their potential impact on national

security. By identifying the root causes of deforestation, future research can inform

the development of targeted interventions that address the underlying drivers and

mitigate their impact on national security.

In addition, future researcher should focus on assessing the potential security risks

associated with deforestation, including the implications for national defense, border

security, and internal stability. This may involve examining the impact of

deforestation on the country's ability to respond to natural disasters, protect critical

infrastructure, and ensure the well-being of its citizens.

78
Moreover, future researcher should seek to develop innovative solutions to address

the impact of deforestation on national security. This may involve investigating the

potential of nature-based solutions, such as reforestation and sustainable land

management, to mitigate the effects of deforestation and enhance the resilience of

ecosystems. Additionally, research should also explore the role of technology and

innovation in monitoring and preventing deforestation, as well as the potential for

international cooperation and multilateral initiatives to address the cross-border

impacts of forest loss.

Lastly, research could focus on identifying sustainable alternatives to deforestation

practices in Malaysia. Examining successful cases of avoided deforestation and

exploring the potential for sustainable land-use practices, such as agroforestry or

community-based conservation, could provide valuable insights for policymakers

and stakeholders in the ecotourism sector.

Overall, the recommendations outlined above provide a way for future research on

the effect of deforestation on Malaysia's national security, and pave the way for a

more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of this critical issue. By addressing

the gaps in knowledge and developing targeted interventions, future research can

play a pivotal role in safeguarding the country's natural resources, enhancing its

resilience, and ensuring the security and well-being of its citizens. Hope this research

can contribute to the student to move further in this field.

79
5.4 Conclusion

In conclusion, the evidence presented in this study strongly supports the thought that

deforestation has significant implications for Malaysia's national security. The loss of

biodiversity and ecological disruption, the contribution to climate change, and the

social instability resulting from the displacement of indigenous communities

collectively pose direct threats to Malaysia's security. It is imperative for Malaysia to

adopt sustainable land management practices, promote reforestation efforts, and

execute strict law in ensuring long-term national security. Failure to address the issue

adequately may lead to severe socio-economic consequences and potentially

endanger Malaysia's position in the global community.

This research has produced important findings and has made recommendations in

matters relating to deforestation and its significant effect towards Malaysia’s national

security. This research should not stop there. Further studies on deforestation must

continue so that Malaysia will not continue losing it forest unnecessarily to some

irresponsible party which only has its own interests.

80
 REFERENCES

Armenteras, D.., Cabrera, E.., Rodríguez, Nelly., & Retana, J.. (2013). National and regional
determinants of tropical deforestation in Colombia. Regional Environmental Change ,
13 , 1181-1193 . http://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-013-0433-7

Austin, K.., Schwantes, Amanda M.., Gu, Y.., & Kasibhatla, P.. (2019). What causes
deforestation in Indonesia?. Environmental Research Letters , 14 .
http://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aaf6db

Agustí, A.., Celli, B.., Criner, G.., Halpin, D.., Anzueto, A.., Barnes, P.., Bourbeau, J.., Han,
M.., Martinez, F.., Oca, Maria Montes., Mortimer, Kevin., Papi, A.., Pavord, I..,
Roche, N.., Salvi, S.., Sin, D.., Singh, D.., Stockley, R.., Varela, M. L.., Wedzicha, J..,
& Vogelmeier, Claus F.. (2023). Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung
Disease 2023 Report: GOLD Executive Summary. Respirology , 28 , 316 - 338 .
http://doi.org/10.1111/resp.14486

Barlow, J.., Lennox, Gareth D.., Ferreira, J.., Berenguer, E.., Lees, A.., Nally, R. M..,
Thomson, J.., Ferraz, S.., Louzada, J.., Oliveira, V.., Parry, Luke., Solar, R.., Vieira,
I.., Aragão, L.., Begotti, R.., Braga, R.., Cardoso, T.., Oliveira, R. C.., Souza, Carlos
M., Moura, Nárgila G.., Nunes, S.., Siqueira, João V.., Pardini, R.., Silveira, J.., Vaz-
de-Mello, F.., Veiga, Ruan Carlo Stulpen., Venturieri, A.., & Gardner, T.. (2016).
Anthropogenic disturbance in tropical forests can double biodiversity loss from
deforestation. Nature , 535 , 144-147 . http://doi.org/10.1038/nature18326

Bawa, K.., Koh, L. P.., Lee, T.., Liu, Jianguo., Ramakrishnan, P.., Yu, Douglas W.., Zhang,
Ya-ping., & Raven, P.. (2010). China, India, and the Environment. Science , 327 ,
1457 - 1459 . http://doi.org/10.1126/science.1185164

Begum, R. A., Raihan, A., & Said, M. N. M. (2020). Dynamic impacts of economic growth
and forested area on carbon dioxide emissions in Malaysia. Sustainability, 12(22),
9375. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12229375

Chakravarty, S.., Ghosh, Sukomal., Suresh, C. P.., Dey, A.., & Shukla, G.. (2012).
Deforestation: Causes, Effects and Control Strategies. . http://doi.org/10.5772/33342

Duchelle, A.., Sassi, C. D.., Jagger, P.., Cromberg, M.., Larson, A.., Sunderlin, W.., Stibniati,
S.., Atmadja, ., Resosudarmo, I.., & Pratama, C. D.. (2017). Balancing carrots and
sticks in REDD+: implications for social safeguards. Ecology and Society , 22 , 2 .
http://doi.org/10.5751/ES-09334-220302

Fitzherbert, E., Struebig, M. J., Morel, A., Danielsen, F., Brühl, C. A., Donald, P. F., &
Phalan, B. (2008). How will oil palm expansion affect biodiversity? Trends in
Ecology and Evolution, 23(10), 538–545. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2008.06.012

FAO, F. (2015). Global forest resources assessment 2015: how are the world’s forests
changing?. FAO, Rome.

81
Foo, Y. S., & Hashim, M. (2014). Assessing the impact of landscape development on
ecosystem services value in tropical watershed. IOP Conference Series, 18, 012186.
https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/18/1/012186

Friess, D.A., K. Rogers, C.E. Lovelock, K.W. Krauss, S.E. Hamilton, S.Y. Lee, R. Lucas, J.
Primavera, A. Rajkaran and S. Shi, 2019. The State of the World’s Mangrove Forests:
Past, Present, and Future. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 44:89-115.
Gaveau, D., Sheil, D., Husnayaen, Salim, M. A., Arjasakusuma, S., Ancrenaz, M., Pacheco,
P., & Meijaard, E. (2016). Rapid conversions and avoided deforestation: examining
four decades of industrial plantation expansion in Borneo. Scientific Reports, 6(1).
https://doi.org/10.1038/srep32017

Gani, I. Q. L. M., Wahab, R., & Rasat, M. S. M. (2013). An overview of illegal logging
situation in peninsular Malaysia. Journal of Tropical Resources and Sustainable
Science, 1(2), 24–30. https://doi.org/10.47253/jtrss.v1i2.637

Giam, X.. (2017). Global biodiversity loss from tropical deforestation. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences , 114 , 5775 - 5777 .
http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1706264114

Hoare, A. (2023, May 18). Tackling illegal logging and the related trade: what progress and
where next? Chatham House – International Affairs Think Tank.
https://www.chathamhouse.org/2015/07/tackling-illegal-logging-and-related-trade-
what-progress-and-where-next

Hamid, E. T. S. D. Z. A. (2022, December 21). Biodiversity conservation: Malaysia on right

track but awareness lacking. ISIS. https://www.isis.org.my/2022/12/13/biodiversity-
conservation-malaysia-on-right-track-but-awareness-lacking/

Hamilton, S.., & Casey, D.. (2014). Creation of a high spatio-temporal resolution global
database of continuous mangrove forest cover for the 21st century (CGMFC-21).
Global Ecology and Biogeography , 25 , 729-738 . http://doi.org/10.1111/geb.12449

Henders, S.., Persson, U. M.., & Kastner, T.. (2015). Trading forests: land-use change and
carbon emissions embodied in production and exports of forest-risk commodities.
Environmental Research Letters , 10 . http://doi.org/10.1088/1748-
9326/10/12/125012

Harrison, R.., Sreekar, R.., Brodie, J.., Brook, S.., Luskin, M.., O'Kelly, H.., Rao, Madhu.,
Scheffers, Brett R.., & Velho, N.. (2016). Impacts of hunting on tropical forests in
Southeast Asia. Conservation Biology , 30 . http://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12785

Hargrave, J.., & Kis-Katos, Krisztina. (2013). Economic Causes of Deforestation in the
Brazilian Amazon: A Panel Data Analysis for the 2000s. Environmental and
Resource Economics , 54 , 471-494 . http://doi.org/10.1007/S10640-012-9610-2

Iskandar Ismail, A. (2011). Impact of deforestation on the patterns of temperature and

relative humadity in Cameron Highlands, Pahang. Malaysia Journal of Society and
Space, 7(3). https://core.ac.uk/reader/11491670

82
Internet Geography. (2022, July 16). Causes of rainforest deforestation in Malaysia -
Internet Geography.https://www.internetgeography.net/topics/causes-of-rainforest-
deforestationinmalaysia/#:~:text=Between%202001%20and%202021%2C%20Mala
ysia,on%20the%20island%20of%20Borneo.

Karim, Wasiul., Haque, Ahasanul., Anis, Zohurul., & Ulfy, Mohammad Arije. (2020). The
Movement Control Order (MCO) for COVID-19 Crisis and its Impact on Tourism
and Hospitality Sector in Malaysia. International Tourism and Hospitality Journal .
http://doi.org/10.37227/ithj-2020-02-09

Kassie, M.., Zikhali, P.., Pender, J.., & Köhlin, G.. (2010). The Economics of Sustainable
Land Management Practices in the Ethiopian Highlands. Journal of Agricultural
Economics , 61 , 605-627 . http://doi.org/10.1111/J.1477-9552.2010.00263.X

LAlvarez-Berríos, Nora., & Aide, andTMitchell. (2015). Global demand for gold is another
threat for tropical forests. Environmental Research Letters , 10 .
http://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/10/1/014006

Leite-Filho, A. T.., Soares-Filho, B.., Davis, J.., Abrahão, G.., & Börner, J.. (2021).
Deforestation reduces rainfall and agricultural revenues in the Brazilian Amazon.
Nature Communications , 12 . http://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-22840-7

Laurance, W.., Koh, L. P.., Butler, R.., Sodhi, N.., Bradshaw, C.., Neidel, J.., Consunji, H..,
& Vega, Javier Mateo. (2010). Improving the Performance of the Roundtable on
Sustainable Palm Oil for Nature Conservation. Conservation Biology , 24 .
http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2010.01448.x

Mohd, Rusli (1999) Factors influencing the occurrence of forest offenses in a Peninsular
Malaysia state. Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities, 7 (2). pp. 91-95.
ISSN 0128-7702; ESSN: 2231-8534

Malaysia - Agricultural sector. (2022). International Trade Administration | Trade.gov.

https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/malaysia-agricultural-sector

Miettinen, J.., & Liew, Soo Chin. (2010). Degradation and development of peatlands in
Peninsular Malaysia and in the islands of Sumatra and Borneo since 1990. Land
Degradation & Development , 21 . http://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.976

Meyfroidt, P.., & Lambin, E.. (2011). Global Forest Transition: Prospects for an End to
Deforestation. Annual Review of Environment and Resources , 36 , 343-371 .
http://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-090710-143732

Mistry, J.., Bilbao, B.., & Berardi, A.. (2016). Community owned solutions for fire
management in tropical ecosystems: case studies from Indigenous communities of
South America. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological
Sciences , 371 . http://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2015.0174

Nadzir, M.., Ooi, M. C.., Alhasa, K. M.., Bakar, M.., Mohtar, A. A. A.., Nor, Mohd., Latif,
Mohd Talib., Hamid, H. H. A.., Ali, S.., Ariff, N. M.., Anuar, Johary., Ahamad, F..,
Azhari, Azliyana., Hanif, N. M.., Subhi, M.., Othman, M.., & Nor, Mohd. (2020).

83
 The Impact of Movement Control Order (MCO) during Pandemic COVID-19 on
Local Air Quality in an Urban Area of Klang Valley, Malaysia. Aerosol and Air
Quality Research , 20 , 1237-1248 . http://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.2020.04.0163

Nepstad, D.., Mcgrath, D.., Stickler, C.., Alencar, A.., Azevedo, Andrea A.., Swette, Briana.,
Bezerra, T.., DiGiano, M.., Shimada, J.., Motta, Ronaldo Seroa da., Armijo, Eric.,
Castello, L.., Brando, P.., Hansen, M.., McGrath-Horn, Maxwell C.., Carvalho, O..,
& Hess, L.. (2014). Slowing Amazon deforestation through public policy and
interventions in beef and soy supply chains. Science , 344 , 1118 - 1123 .
http://doi.org/10.1126/science.1248525

Noor, M. N. H. M., Kadir, R., & Muhamad, S. (2020). ILLEGAL LOGGING AND
FOREST OFFENCES IN PENINSULAR MALAYSIA: PERCEIVED
OPPORTUNITY FACTORS. Journal of Nusantara Studies, 5(2), 86–102.
https://doi.org/10.24200/jonus.vol5iss2pp86-102

Omran, A., & Schwarz-Herion, O. (2019). Deforestation in Malaysia: the current practice
and the way forward. In Springer eBooks (pp. 175–193). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-
981-13-7158-5_11

Putz, F.., & Redford, K.. (2010). The Importance of Defining ‘Forest’: Tropical Forest
Degradation, Deforestation, Long‐term Phase Shifts, and Further Transitions.
Biotropica , 42 . http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-7429.2009.00567.x

Posa, M. R. C., Wijedasa, L. S., & Corlett, R. T. (2011). Biodiversity and conservation of
tropical peat swamp forests. BioScience, 61(1), 49–57.
https://doi.org/10.1525/bio.2011.61.1.10

Raihan, A., Begum, R. A., Nizam, M. S., Said, M. N. M., & Pereira, J. J. (2022b). Dynamic
impacts of energy use, agricultural land expansion, and deforestation on CO2
emissions in Malaysia. Environmental and Ecological Statistics, 29(3), 477–507.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10651-022-00532-9

Rudel, T.. (2013). The national determinants of deforestation in sub-Saharan Africa.

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences , 368 .
http://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2012.0405

Rist, L.., Feintrenie, L.., & Levang, P.. (2010). The livelihood impacts of oil palm:
smallholders in Indonesia. Biodiversity and Conservation , 19 , 1009-1024 .
http://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-010-9815-z

Roopsind, A.., Sohngen, B.., & Brandt, J.. (2019). Evidence that a national REDD+ program
reduces tree cover loss and carbon emissions in a high forest cover, low deforestation
country. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , 116 , 24492 - 24499 .
http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1904027116

Richards, D.., & Friess, D.. (2015). Rates and drivers of mangrove deforestation in Southeast
Asia, 2000–2012. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , 113 , 344 -
349 . http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1510272113

84
Shojaee, S.., & Azman, A.. (2013). An Evaluation of Factors Affecting Brand Awareness in
the Context of Social Media in Malaysia. Asian Social Science , 9 , 72 .
http://doi.org/10.5539/ASS.V9N17P72

Straaten, O. van., Corre, M.., Wolf, K.., Tchienkoua, M.., Cuellar, E.., Matthews, R.., &
Veldkamp, E.. (2015). Conversion of lowland tropical forests to tree cash crop
plantations loses up to one-half of stored soil organic carbon. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences , 112 , 9956 - 9960 .
http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1504628112

Shevade, V. S., & Loboda, T. V. (2019). Oil palm plantations in Peninsular Malaysia:
Determinants and constraints on expansion. PLOS ONE, 14(2), e0210628.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0210628

Salim, P. M., Jais, M. a. M., Sahriman, N., Samad, A. M., Abbas, M. Y., Maarof, I., &
Tarmizi, N. M. (2017). Monitoring quarry areas using remote sensing techniques.
Monitoring Quarry Areas Using Remote Sensing Techniques.
https://doi.org/10.1109/cspa.2017.8064974

Spracklen, D.., Arnold, S.., & Taylor, C.. (2012). Observations of increased tropical rainfall
preceded by air passage over forests. Nature , 489 , 282-285 .
http://doi.org/10.1038/nature11390

UNEP-WCMC, 2014. The Importance of Mangroves to People: A Call to Action. United

Nations Environment Programme and World Conservation Monitoring Centre
(UNEP-WCMC), Cambridge, UK.

Vijay, V., Pimm, S. L., Jenkins, C. N., & Smith, S. J. (2016). The Impacts of Oil Palm on
Recent Deforestation and Biodiversity Loss. PLOS ONE, 11(7), e0159668.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0159668

What is FSC?. Forest Stewardship Council. https://anz.fsc.org/what-is-

fsc#:~:text=The%20Forest%20Stewardship%20Council%20(FSC,and%20widesprea
d%20forest%20certification%20system. Assessed on 14 January 2024.

85