RESERVIOR ENGINEERING PRACTICE QUESTIONS

Question One

With the help of a phase envelop diagram, explain the following reservoir fluid types.

(i) Black Oils

(ii) Volatile Oils

(iii) Condensate (Retrograde Gas)

(iv) Wet Gas (Rich Gas)

(v) Dry Gas (4 marks each)

Question Two

Discuss the classification and composition of crude oil. (20 marks)

Question Three

(a) Discuss reserves nomenclature as recommended by Society of petroleum Engineers (SPE).

(10 marks)

(b) Explain any five unconventional hydrocarbon resources. (10 marks)

Question Four

(a) Name the Reservoir Types at points A, B, C and D. (4 marks)

(b) Describe the Phase Composition from Point A to A1. (3 marks)

(c) Describe the Phase Composition from Point A to A2. (3 marks)

(d) Describe the Phase Composition from Point B to B4. (3 marks)

(e) Describe the Phase Composition from Point C to C2. (3 marks)

(f) Describe the Phase Composition for Point D. (4 marks)

Question Five

(a) Discuss the diagenetic processes that occur from deposition of sediments until deep burial.

(10 marks)

(b) Explain how any five of the diagenetic processes affect reservoir quality (porosity and permeability.
(10 marks)

Question Six

Explain the following reservoir concepts; (2 marks each)

(a) Critical gas saturation

(b) Dry gas reservoir

(f) Overburden pressure

(g) Gas compressibility factor

(c) Solution gas drive

(d) Secondary gas cap

(e) Residual gas saturation

(h) Interfacial tension

(i) Productivity index

(j) Drainage process

Question Seven

(a) An Oil Field has acreage of 650 acres. The oil bearing region has an average thickness of 30 ft. The
following rock properties are known:

Effective Porosity: 15%

Water Saturation: 25%

Oil formation volume factor: 1.306 rbbl/STB

Calculate:

(i) The initial oil in place. (3 marks)

(ii) The volume of oil that can be recovered if the recovery factor is 42%. (3 marks)

(b) State three (3) means of recovering this initial 42%. (3 marks)

(c) Discuss in detail two (2) secondary oil recovery methods that can be used to recover the remaining 58%. (3
marks each)

(d) What do you understand by the terms drainage and imbibition? (2 marks each)

Solutions;

Question One

Types of Reservoir Fluids

The reservoir can produce different types of fluids. Each different fluid type has characteristics that petroleum
engineers need to be aware of in order to produce the reservoir efficiently. Generally the reservoir fluid types
are classified into 5 separate categories from a phase diagram. They are:

1. Black Oil

2. Volatile Oil

3. Gas Condensate

4. Wet Gas

5. Dry Gas

The fluid type can be identified by the shape of it’s phase diagram and the position of it’s critical point relative
to the reservoir temperature. In the following figures, we assume that the reservoir pressure declines at a
constant temperature (isothermal condition).

1. Black Oil

The figure below shows the pressure decline of a black oil reservoir on a phase diagram. The vertical line
from point 1 to point 3 represents the reservoir pressure decline path at a constant temperature. The pressure
and temperature of a separator at the surface is also shown in the diagram.
For a black oil reservoir, the initial pressure at point 1 is much larger than the bubble point pressure. When
reservoir pressure is above the bubble point (between point 1 and point 2), we call this
the Undersaturated reservoir state. Undersaturated implies that the oil can absorb more gas if more gas became
present in the reservoir. When the pressure hits the bubble point line at point 2, the first bubble of gas forms.
Below point 2, gas starts to evolve out of the oil into the reservoir. We call this the saturated reservoir state.
Saturated implies that the oil cannot absorb more gas if more gas became present in the reservoir. As the
pressure declines further to point 3, more gas evolves out of the oil into the reservoir. At point 3, the reservoir
pressure can no longer push the fluids to the surface under its current state. At the surface separator condition,
more gas evolves out of the oil. For black oil reservoirs, a large percentage of the oil phase is recovered at the
surface.

2. Volatile Oil

The figure below show the pressure decline of a volatile oil reservoir on a phase diagram.

A volatile oil reservoir starts out like a black oil reservoir with the initial reservoir pressure lying above the
bubble point line. However for a volatile oil, the initial pressure is much closer to the bubble point pressure.
This is because a volatile oil reservoir contains more lighter hydrocarbon components than the black oil
reservoir, thus the phase diagram shifts up and to the left. Further, the quality lines are closer together. This
means that a small reduction of pressure below the bubble point line will release a large quantity of gas. For a
volatile oil reservoir, more gas is produced at the surface because more solution gas evolves out of the oil. This
lead to less liquid recovery as indicated in the phase diagram above. The dividing line between volatile oils and
black oils are somewhat arbitrary. But it should be clear that volatile oils produce a higher quantity of gas than
black oils.

3. Gas Condensate

The figure below shows the pressure decline of a gas condensate oil reservoir on a phase diagram:
A gas condensate reservoir is identified by its temperature. The reservoir temperature falls between the critical
point temperature and the cricondentherm. As pressure declines below the dew point line, the heavier
hydrocarbons fall out in the reservoir as liquid. This liquid more or less is immobile and blocks the pore space
near the wellbore. Thus less gas is produced because the liquid partially blocks the gas flow. Liquid continues to
form in the reservoir as long as the pressure is within the retrograde region. As pressure falls below the
retrograde region, the liquid re-vaporizes into gas. This type of reservoir is pretty bizarre, but it can be
explained by a phase diagram.

4. Wet Gas

The figure below shows the pressure decline of a wet gas reservoir on a phase diagram:

A wet gas reservoir has a reservoir temperature above the cricondentherm. As the pressure declines, the
reservoir never enters into the two-phase region. This means liquid will never drop out in the reservoir and it
will only contain gas over its producing life. However, liquid will form at surface separator conditions as shown
in the figure above. That is why they call it “wet” gas because condensate drops out of the gas at the surface.
 5. Dry Gas

A dry gas is primarily pure methane and the phase diagram is short and condensed. As the reservoir pressure
declines, the pressure depletion path never enters the two-phase region. Further, the pressure and temperature at
surface conditions falls outside of the two-phase region. This means that the fluid stays in the gas phase at
reservoir and surface conditions. A dry gas reservoir is simply a gas reservoir and is the easiest reservoir to
model analytically.

Question Two

Composition of Crude Oil

Crude oil is a complex liquid mixture composed of a vast number of hydrocarbon compounds. These
compounds primarily consist of carbon (C) and hydrogen (H), with varying proportions. Additionally, small
amounts of other organic compounds containing sulfur, oxygen, nitrogen, and trace metals like vanadium,
nickel, iron, and copper are also present. The main classes of hydrocarbons found in crude oil are as follows:

1. Paraffins (or Alkanes):

o General Formula: CnH2n+2 (where n is a whole number, usually from 1 to 20).

o Paraffins can be either straight-chain or branched molecules.

o Examples: Methane, ethane, propane, butane, isobutane, pentane, hexane, and more.

o State: They can exist as gases or liquids at room temperature, depending on the specific
molecule.

2. Olefins (Alkenes):

o General Formula: CnH2n (where n is a whole number, usually from 1 to 20).

o Olefins contain one carbon-carbon double bond.

o Examples: Ethylene, butene, isobutene, and others.

o State: They can be either liquids or gases.

 3. Naphthenes (Cycloalkanes):

o General Formula: CnH2n (where n is a whole number, usually from 1 to 20).

o Naphthenes have ringed structures with one or more rings.

o The carbon atoms in these rings are connected by single bonds.

o Examples: Cyclohexane, methyl cyclopentane, and similar compounds.

o State: Typically liquids at room temperature.

4. Aromatics:

o General Formula: C₆H₅-Y (where Y is a longer, straight molecule that connects to the benzene
ring).

o Aromatics have ringed structures with one or more rings.

o The rings contain six carbon atoms with alternating double and single bonds between them.

o Examples: Compounds related in structure to benzene.

o State: Typically liquids.

Classification of Crude Oils

Crude oil is classified based on both physical and chemical characteristics. Here are the primary
classifications:

1. Light Crude Oil:

o Has a lower density and is easier to pump and transport.

o Contains a higher proportion of lighter hydrocarbons.

o Often yields more valuable products like gasoline and jet fuel.

2. Medium Crude Oil:

o Falls between light and heavy crude oil in terms of density.

o Used for a variety of purposes, including diesel fuel and heating oil.

3. Heavy Crude Oil:

o Has a higher density and is more challenging to handle.

o Contains a higher proportion of heavier hydrocarbons.

o Used for industrial processes and as a feedstock for asphalt and lubricants.
Question Three

(a) Reserves Nomenclature as Recommended by SPE

The Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE) provides standardized definitions for petroleum reserves and
resources. These definitions allow for consistent comparison of quantities worldwide. Here are the key terms
related to reserves:

1. Proved Reserves (1P):

o Definition: Proved reserves represent hydrocarbons with a 90% certainty of commercial

extraction using existing technology.

o These reserves are typically recoverable from existing wells.

o Significance: Proved reserves are the most reliable and economically viable.

2. Probable Reserves (2P):

o Definition: Probable reserves have a 50% certainty of commercial extraction with existing
technology.

o These reserves may require additional drilling or development.

o Significance: Probable reserves add potential future production.

3. Possible Reserves (3P):

o Definition: Possible reserves have a 10% certainty of commercial extraction with existing
technology.

o These reserves are considered speculative and face significant uncertainties.

o Significance: Possible reserves represent additional upside potential.

4. Contingent Resources:

o Definition: Contingent resources are estimated quantities potentially recoverable from known
accumulations.

o However, they are not currently considered commercially recoverable.

o Significance: Contingent resources may become reserves under favorable conditions.

5. Remaining Reserves:

o Definition: Remaining reserves include all remaining hydrocarbons in a field.

o These are the resources beyond the proved, probable, and possible categories.

o Significance: Remaining reserves account for future discoveries and improved recovery
techniques.
(b) Unconventional Hydrocarbon Resources

Unconventional hydrocarbons differ from conventional ones due to their unique geology, extraction methods,
and reservoir characteristics. Here are five types of unconventional resources:

1. Shale Gas:

o Description: Shale gas is trapped within fine-grained sedimentary rocks (shale).

o Extraction: Horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing (fracking) are used to release gas from
the shale matrix.

o Significance: Shale gas has transformed global energy markets.

2. Tight Oil (Shale Oil):

o Description: Tight oil is found in low-permeability reservoirs (tight sandstones or shales).

o Extraction: Similar to shale gas, hydraulic fracturing is essential for tight oil production.

o Significance: Tight oil contributes to increased oil production.

3. Coalbed Methane (CBM):

o Description: CBM is natural gas adsorbed onto coal particles.

o Extraction: Wells are drilled into coal seams, and water is pumped out to release the gas.

o Significance: CBM provides an alternative gas source.

4. Oil Sands (Tar Sands):

o Description: Oil sands contain heavy crude oil mixed with sand, clay, and water.

o Extraction: Surface mining or in-situ methods (e.g., steam-assisted gravity drainage) are used.

o Significance: Oil sands are abundant but require energy-intensive extraction.

5. Gas Hydrates:

o Description: Gas hydrates consist of methane trapped in ice-like structures.

o Occurrence: Found in permafrost regions and deep ocean sediments.

o Significance: Gas hydrates hold immense potential but pose technical challenges.

Question Four

A; Single phase gas Reservoir

B; Gas condensate Reservoir

C; Undersaturated oil Reservoir

D; Saturated oil Reservoir

Consider a reservoir containing the fluid of Fig. 1.4 initially at 300°F and 3700 psia, point A. Since this point
lies outside the two-phase region and to the right of the critical point, the fluid is originally in a one-phase gas
state. Since the fluid remaining in the reservoir during production remains at 300°F, it is evident that it will
remain in the single-phase or gaseous state as the pressure declines along path.

Furthermore, the composition of the produced well fluids will not change as the reservoir is depleted. This is
true for any accumulation with this hydrocarbon composition where the reservoir temperature exceeds the
cricondentherm, or maximum two-phase temperature (250°F for the present example).

Although the fluid left in the reservoir remains in one phase, the fluid produced through the wellbore and into
surface separators, although the same composition, may enter the two-phase region owing to the temperature
decline, as along line. This accounts for the production of condensate liquid at the surface from a single-phase
gas phase in the reservoir.

Of course, if the cricondentherm of a fluid is below approximately 50°F, then only gas will exist on the surface
at usual ambient temperatures, and the production will be called dry gas. Nevertheless, even dry gas may
contain valuable liquid fractions that can be removed by low-temperature separation.

Next, consider a reservoir containing the same fluid of Fig. 1.4 but at a temperature of 180°F and an initial
pressure of 3300 psia, point B. Here the fluid is also initially in the one-phase gas state, because the reservoir
temperature exceeds the critical-point temperature. As pressure declines due to production, the composition of
the produced fluid will be the same as reservoir A and will remain constant until the dew-point pressure is
reached at 2700 psia, point B1.

Below this pressure, a liquid condenses out of the reservoir fluid as a dew. This type of reservoir is commonly
called a dew-point or a gas-condensate reservoir. This condensation leaves the gas phase with a lower liquid
content. The condensed liquid remains immobile at low concentrations. Thus the gas produced at the surface
will have a lower liquid content, and the producing gas-oil ratio therefore rises. This process of retrograde
condensation continues until a point of maximum liquid volume is reached, 10% at 2250 psia, point B2.

The term retrograde is used because generally vaporization, rather than condensation, occurs during isothermal
expansion. After the dew point is reached, because the composition of the produced fluid changes, the
composition of the remaining reservoir fluid also changes, and the phase envelope begins to shift. The phase
diagram of Fig. 1.4 represents one and only one hydrocarbon mixture. Unfortunately, this shift is toward the
right and further aggravates the retrograde liquid loss within the pores of the reservoir rock.
Neglecting for the moment this shift in the phase diagram, for qualitative purposes, vaporization of the
retrograde liquid occurs from B2 to the abandonment pressure B3. This revaporization aids liquid recovery and
may be evidenced by decreasing gas-oil ratios on the surface. The overall retrograde loss will evidently be
greater (1) for lower reservoir temperatures, (2) for higher abandonment pressures, and (3) for greater shift of
the phase diagram to the right—the latter being a property of the hydrocarbon system. The retrograde liquid in
the reservoir at any time is composed of mostly methane and ethane by volume, and so it is much larger than the
volume of stable liquid that could be obtained from it at atmospheric temperature and pressure. The
composition of this retrograde liquid is changing as pressure declines so that 4% retrograde liquid volume at, for
example, 750 psia might contain as much surface condensate as 6% retrograde liquid volume at 2250 psia.

If the initial reservoir fluid composition is found at 2900 psia and 75°F, point C, the reservoir would be in a
one-phase state, now called liquid, because the temperature is below the critical-point temperature. This is
called a bubble-point (or black-oil or solution-gas) reservoir. As pressure declines during production, the
bubble-point pressure will be reached, in this case at 2550 psia, point C1.

Below this pressure, bubbles, or a free-gas phase, will appear. When the free gas saturation is sufficiently large,
gas flows to the wellbore in ever increasing quantities. Because surface facilities limit the gas production rate,
the oil flow rate declines, and when the oil rate is no longer economic, much unrecovered oil remains in the
reservoir.

Finally, if the initial hydrocarbon mixture occurred at 2000 psia and 150°F, point D, it would be a two-phase
reservoir, consisting of a liquid or oil zone overlain by a gas zone or cap. Because the composition of the gas
and oil zones are entirely different from each other, they may be represented separately by individual phase
diagrams that bear little relation to each other or to the composite. The liquid or oil zone will be at its bubble
point and will be produced as a bubble-point reservoir modified by the presence of the gas cap.

Question Five

Diagenesis refers to the processes that alter sedimentary rocks after deposition but before they undergo
metamorphism or lithification (conversion into solid rock).

(a) Diagenetic Processes

1. Compaction:

o Description: Compaction occurs due to the weight of overlying sediments. It reduces pore space
by squeezing grains closer together.

o Effect: Compaction decreases porosity and permeability, making the rock denser and less
porous.

2. Cementation:

o Description: Cementation involves the precipitation of minerals (such as quartz, calcite, or clay)
in pore spaces.

o Effect: Cementation can occlude pores, reducing both porosity and permeability.

3. Dissolution:

o Description: Dissolution is the removal of minerals from the rock matrix by water.
 o Effect: Dissolution can enhance porosity by creating larger interconnected pores, but it may also
weaken the rock.

4. Authigenesis:

o Description: Authigenesis refers to the formation of new minerals within the rock during
diagenesis.

o Effect: Authigenic minerals can either enhance or reduce porosity and permeability, depending
on their type and distribution.

5. Recrystallization:

o Description: Recrystallization involves the rearrangement of mineral crystals without changing

the overall composition.

o Effect: It can modify pore structure and affect permeability.

(b) Impact on Reservoir Quality

1. Quartz Cementation:

o Effect: Excessive quartz cementation reduces porosity and permeability in sandstone reservoirs.

o Example: Tight sandstones with abundant quartz cement have low reservoir quality.

2. Clay Mineral Cementation:

o Effect: Clay minerals (e.g., illite) can fill pore spaces, reducing porosity and permeability.

o Example: Shale reservoirs often suffer from clay cementation.

3. Carbonate Cementation:

o Effect: Carbonate minerals (e.g., calcite) can precipitate in pore spaces, affecting porosity and
permeability.

o Example: Carbonate reservoirs may experience cementation due to calcite.

4. Compaction:

o Effect: Compaction decreases porosity and permeability, especially in fine-grained rocks.

o Example: Overburden pressure during burial leads to compaction.

5. Dissolution of Feldspar and Carbonate:

o Effect: Dissolution enlarges pores, improving porosity and permeability.

o Example: Acid fluids during diagenesis can dissolve feldspar and carbonate cement.

Question Six

 Critical Gas Saturation (Sgc):

It represents the minimum saturation of gas required for gas mobility within the reservoir. When the reservoir
pressure falls below the bubble-point pressure, gas evolves from the oil phase. Initially, the gas remains
immobile. However, once its saturation exceeds the critical gas saturation, gas begins to flow.

 Dry Gas Reservoir:

A dry gas reservoir primarily contains natural gas (methane) without any significant liquid hydrocarbons (such
as oil or condensate).These reservoirs are characterized by low liquid content and high gas saturation. Dry gas
reservoirs are often found in tight formations or unconventional formations.

 Overburden Pressure:

Overburden pressure refers to the weight of the rock and fluids (such as water and hydrocarbons) above a
specific depth within the Earth’s crust. It plays a critical role in maintaining reservoir pressure and influencing
rock compaction and deformation.

 Gas Compressibility Factor:

The gas compressibility factor, denoted as Z, quantifies the deviation of real gases from ideal behavior. It
accounts for gas density changes due to pressure and temperature variations. Deviations from ideal behavior
occur at high pressures and low temperatures.

 Solution Gas Drive:

In a solution gas drive, dissolved gas (usually in oil) comes out of solution as pressure decreases during
production. This released gas helps maintain reservoir pressure and drives oil toward producing wells.

 Secondary Gas Cap:

A secondary gas cap forms above an oil reservoir when gas accumulates due to capillary forces. It enhances oil
recovery by providing additional energy to displace oil toward production wells.

 Residual Gas Saturation (Sor):

It represents the remaining gas saturation after water or gas injection displaces most of the oil. It characterizes
the non-wetting phase (oil) left behind during displacement processes.

 Interfacial Tension:

Interfacial tension refers to the force per unit length acting at the interface between two immiscible fluids (e.g.,
oil and water). It affects fluid distribution and capillary pressure in porous media.

 Productivity Index (PI):

The productivity index measures the well’s ability to deliver hydrocarbons to the surface. It relates production
rate to drawdown pressure and reservoir properties.

 Drainage Process:

The drainage process involves the movement of fluids (oil, gas, or water) through porous rock toward producing
wells. It occurs as reservoir fluids are produced and the pressure decreases, allowing fluids to flow from higher-
pressure regions to lower-pressure regions
Question seven

(a) Initial Oil in Place (OOIP): To calculate the initial oil in place, we’ll use the following information:

 Acreage of the oil field: 650 acres

 Average thickness of the oil-bearing region: 30 feet
 Effective porosity: 15%
 Water saturation: 25%
 Oil formation volume factor: 1.306 rbbl/STB

Vb × ɸ×(1−Sw)
OOIP ( N )=
Boi

7758× 650 ×30 ×0.15 ×(1−0.25)

OOIP=
1.306

7758× 650 ×30 ×0.15 × 0.75

OOIP=
1.306

22039500× 0.1125
OOIP=
1.306

2479443.75
OOIP=
1.306

2479443.75
OOIP=
1.306

So, the initial oil in place is approximately 1,897,836.4 stock tank barrels (STB).

(b) Recovery Methods for Initial 42%: Three common methods for recovering the initial 42% of oil are:

1. Primary Recovery (Natural Drive Mechanisms):

o Utilizes natural reservoir energy (e.g., gas expansion, water drive, or gravity drainage).
o No external energy input required.
o Limited recovery efficiency.
2. Water Flooding (Secondary Recovery):
o Inject water into the reservoir to displace oil.
o Improves sweep efficiency by pushing oil toward production wells.
o Commonly used method.
3. Gas Injection (Secondary Recovery):
o Inject gas (e.g., natural gas or nitrogen) to maintain reservoir pressure.
o Enhances oil mobility and displaces oil.
o Suitable for reservoirs with low viscosity oil.

© Secondary Oil Recovery Methods for Remaining 58%: Two secondary oil recovery methods to recover
the remaining 58% are:

1. Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) Techniques:

o Steam Injection (Thermal EOR):
 Inject steam into the reservoir to reduce oil viscosity.
 Heats the oil, making it flow more easily.
 Effective for heavy oil reservoirs.
 o Chemical Flooding (Polymer or Surfactant EOR):
 Inject polymers or surfactants to alter fluid properties.
 Improves sweep efficiency and reduces residual oil saturation.
 Suitable for reservoirs with high water saturation.
2. Miscible Gas Injection (CO₂ or N₂):
o Inject miscible gases (CO₂ or N₂) to mix with oil.
o Reduces oil viscosity and enhances displacement.
o Effective for light oil reservoirs.
o Requires careful reservoir characterization.

(d)

1. Drainage:
o Drainage refers to the movement of fluids (such as oil, gas, or water) through porous rock or
soil.
o During drainage, the fluid phase with higher mobility displaces the other immiscible fluid phase.
o In an oil reservoir, for instance, drainage occurs as oil is produced from the reservoir, leading to
a decrease in reservoir pressure.
o The driving force for drainage is typically the pressure gradient, which pushes fluids from
regions of higher pressure to regions of lower pressure.
2. Imbibition:
o Imbibition is the opposite process of drainage.
o It involves the movement of a wetting fluid (usually water) into a porous medium containing a
non-wetting fluid (such as oil or gas).
o Capillary forces play a significant role in imbibition. These forces cause the wetting phase to
infiltrate the porous rock against gravity.
o Imbibition can occur during water injection into an oil reservoir, where water displaces oil from
the rock matrix.

In summary:

 Drainage: Fluid movement out of the reservoir.

 Imbibition: Fluid movement into the reservoir.

More questions

1. What is difference between OIIP/Resource and Reserves?

2. What are different types of flow geometries? (Radial, Linear, hemispherical and spherical) What is the type of
flow geometry in case of channel reservoirs?(Radial around well bore and linear as we go away from well
bore)
3. What is difference between Brown field and Green field?
4. What are basic types of depositional environments? (Fluvial, Marine, Transitional, Deltaic)
5. When you call field as “Matured Field”?
6. Draw relative permeability curve for oil-wet reservoir?
7. What is difference between Free water level (FWL) and OWC? Are they same or different?
8. What is the favorable mobility ratio for waterflooding? (M>>>1)
9. If the porosity of two reservoirs are 5% and 20%, which one would have larger transition zone height and Why?
(low porosity reservoir, 5%)
10. If a same reservoir, first case having a gas and second case having oil. Would both have same height of
transition zone or not? Why or why not?
11. When should we start EOR in the life of the field?
12. If the Swc (irreducible water saturation) is 20%, what is the movable oil saturation? (less than 80%)
13. For 2 phase reservoir, If relative permeability of water is 0.4 at particular saturation what will be relative
permeability of oil at same saturation? (“Kro+Krw” never equals to 1) Further, what is the difference between
relative permeability and effective permeability of a phase??
14. According to API classification of reserves what does 1P, 2P and 3P signifies? What does P1, P2 and P3 stands
for?
15. If porosity of a conventional reservoir is 8% what would be the approximate value of its perm 1000 mD, 100md,
10mD or 0.1mD?
16. What is the work of reservoir engineer? What are the task it performs?
17. What are the things you can determine from well test analysis? (Permeability, Skin, Initial Pressure, Presence of
Flow boundary i.e. fracture, channel, closed boundary or parallel sealing faults)
18. What do you mean by miscibility? What is First-Contact Miscibility (FCM) and Multi-Contact Miscibility (MCM)?
19. Which drive mechanism would give maximum recovery for gas reservoir and why? (depletion)
20. Why it is recommended to produce oil from reservoir at pressure just below the bubble point pressure?
21. What are different types of traps? (Structural, Stratigraphic, Hydrodynamic)
22. What are the basic components required for hydrocarbon reservoir? (Source Rock, Reservoir Rock, Cap Rock-
Seal)
23. What are the different methods used to determine permeability? (PTA, Core Analysis)
24. 5000 Bbls of oil occupies 4000 Bbl at surface and yields 20,000 SCF of gas. What is Bo and Rs?
25. If Sp Gr of Oil is 1.0 , what will be its value in API?
26. What is mobility ratio? What do you mean by favourable mobility ratio?
27. What happens when unfavourable mobility ratio exists between displacing and displaced phase?
28. Is Recovery factor dependent on mobility ratio? How can we alter unfavourable mobility ratio to favourable?
29. What is Amott Harvey Wettability Index? How will the performance of an oil wet reservoir reflect?
30. What is IOR and EOR?
31. What are the means to reduce ROS to waterflood?
32. Classify the petroleum reservoir systems based on the P-T diagram.
33. What is the difference between absolute and effective porosity?
34. What are the factors which plays important role during the primary production?
35. What is retrograde condensation? What can be done to stop the loss due to retrograde condensation process
in the reservoir?
36. At what pressure the viscosity of oil is minimum and why?
37. If Solution Gas (Rs) or Formation volume Factor (FVF) curve of typical oil is provided then how will you identify
the saturation pressure from the data. In an under-saturated reservoir initial reservoir pressure should be more
or less than Saturation/Bubble point pressure?
38. Why solution gas is constant above Saturation/Bubble point pressure?
39. What is the difference between oil Formation Volume Factor and Shrinkage factor?
40. When pressure is lowered, why does oil Formation Volume Factor increases till bubble point and subsequently
decreases?
41. What are the secondary recovery mechanisms and which kind of fluids are injected? What is the difference
between secondary & tertiary recovery methods?
42. In which kind of reservoir, retrograde condensation takes place?
43. Why Gas Deviation Factor (GDF) is used in reservoir engineering calculations? What is the range of GDF and
what is the value of GDF for ideal gases?
44. What is saturation/bubble point pressure (Pb)?
45. What will be the producing GOR behavior in an under saturated oil reservoir when reservoir pressure goes
below Bubble Point pressure? And why ? What is the basic use of oil and gas FVF? What is application of two-
phase oil FVF ?
 Porosity and Permeability Concepts

1. What is the difference between absolute porosity and effective porosity?

2. What are the factors controlling porosity? (Depth, lithology,grain size distribution)
3. What is the porosity for cubicle packing of uniform spheres. Which arrangement of uniform spheres has the most
compact packing? (Ans. 47.6 %, Rhombohedral packing : 25.96 %)
4. What is the difference between primary porosity and secondary porosity?
5. Which kind of grain size distribution is likely to have more porosity, well sorted uniform size or poorly sorted?
6. What is the difference between rock compressibility and pore compressibility?
7. Define Darcy’s law. What is 1 Darcy permeability?
8. What is the average permeability of beds in series and beds in parallel?
9. What all factors can affect permeability measurements in laboratory?
10. What is Klinkenberg effect? How can liquid permeability be estimated from air permeability?

Capillary pressure, Wettability and Relative permeability

1. What is the difference between imbibition and drainage process?

2. What all factors govern the shape of capillary pressure curve? (Ans. Size and distribution of pore throats, fluids and
solids involved and history of saturation process)
3. What are the different commonly used methods for measuring capillary pressure in laboratory? (Ans. Desaturation
or displacement process, Centrifuge method, Dynamic capillary pressure method and mercury injection method)
4. What is Leverette’s ‘J’ function and what is it used for?
5. What are the different types of wettability that reservoir rocks have?
6. What is the difference between absolute permeability, effective permeability and relative permeability?
7. Draw and explain different elements of oil-water or gas-oil relative permeability?
8. What is relative permeability hysteresis?
9. What are factors affecting the shape of relative permeability curve? (Ans. Pore size distribution, wettability and
saturation history)
10. What are the different methods of measuring relative permeability in laboratory? (Ans. 1. Steady state flow process
2. Unsteady state process 3 capillary pressure method)

Fundamentals of behaviour of hydrocarbon fluids

11. Draw and explain the phase diagram of a multi-component hydrocarbon system.
12. What is retrograde condensation?
13. What is the difference between a wet gas and a retrograde gas condensate reservoir?
14. What are disadvantages of producing gas condensate field on depletion? How can these loses be minimised?
15. What is the difference between a high shrinkage and a low shrinkage oil reservoir? Draw the phase envelope to
illustrate the difference?
16. What is gas deviation factor or Z-factor of natural gases?
17. What are pseudo-critical and pseudo-reduced properties for mixtures of natural gases?
18. What are the different methods of obtaining representative reservoir fluid sample?
19. When is re-combination sampling preferred?
20. What are different PVT studies carried out for normal black oil system?
21. What other PVT studies are done for gas-condensate systems?
22. Why is multi-stage separation done?
23. What is the difference between flash liberation and differential liberation process?
24. What is formation volume factor. Show its relationship with pressure?
25. How does viscosity of undersaturated oil changes with pressure?
26. What are different uses of PVT data in reservoir engineering studies?
27. In absence of laboratory data how can the properties of oil and gas be estimated? What all basic data is required
for PVT correlations?
28. In FVF and pressure relationship, when pressure decreases from initial, the FVF increases upto bubble point and
then subsequently declines with pressure. Why?

Reservoir drive mechanism, MBE and displacement processes

1. What are the different drive mechanisms?

2. Which drive mechanism is most efficient and which is least efficient?
3. What all information can be derived from MB calculations? What basic data is required for MBE?
4. What are drive indices?
5. How can GIIP be estimated graphically from pressure data of a volumetric dry gas reservoir?
6. How can you establish whether a gas field is having aquifer support or not by P/Z vs Gp plot for dry gas reservoir.
7. What are the typical characteristics of solution gas drive reservoir? Why does produced GOR trend initially
decreases, increases subsequently and again declines?
8. What are the typical characteristics of water drive reservoir?
9. Which kind of reservoirs are rate sensitive? Is depletion type reservoir rate sensitive ?
10. What is a fractional flow curve ?
11. What is mobility ratio? How does it affect breakthrough ?
12. What is the shape of fw vs Sw curve for less than unity mobility ratio displacement process? How does shape of
fractional flow curve changes with mobility ratio?
13. Why recovery of gas is less in a water drive reservoir than in a depletion drive reservoir?

Enhanced Oil Recovery

1. What is EOR? What are the different types of EOR methods being used?
2. What are the basic screening criterions for identifying appropriate EOR techniques?
3. What is the difference between enhanced oil recovery process and artificial lift method?
4. What is the difference between a miscible displacement and immiscible displacement?
5. What is the role of polymer flooding in reservoirs? What advantages it offers over waterflooding?
6. What is the purpose of Surfactant EOR processes?
7. What is viscous fingering? How can it be minimised?
8. What is the difference between a cyclic steam process (huff-n-puff) and steam flooding?
9. What is the concept that works behind Polymer flooding process?
10. What is the concept that works behind Thermal processes?
11. What is the concept that works behind Surfactant flooding?
12. Name the fields and EOR methods under application in ONGC?