ENUGU URBAN RESIDENTS’ PERCEPTION OF MASS MEDIA FRAMING OF THE

ABDUCTION OF MAZI NNAMDI KANU FROM KENYA

BY

ONYEABOR CHIOMA FAITH

IMT/MC/H2019/3/038

DEPARTMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION

SCHOOL OF COMMUNICATION ARTS
INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT AND TECHNOLOGY, ENUGU

DECEMBER, 2021.
 ii

TITLE PAGE

ENUGU URBAN RESIDENTS’ PERCEPTION OF MASS MEDIA FRAMING OF THE

ABDUCTION OF MAZI NNAMDI KANU FROM KENYA

BY

ONYEABOR CHIOMA FAITH

IMT/MC/H2019/3/038

A PROJECT SUBMITTED
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREFOR THE AWARD OF HIGHER
NATIONAL DIPLOMA (HND) IN MASS COMMUNICATION
INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT AND TECHNOLOGY, ENUGU

DECEMBER, 2021.
 iii

APPROVAL PAGE
This is to certify that the project titled: “Enugu Urban Residents’ Perception of Mass Media
Framing of the Abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu from Kenya”, has been read and approved as
original work submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Higher National
Diploma (HND) in Mass Communication, Institute of Management and Technology (IMT), Enugu.

Mrs. Nnamani Florence U. Sign/Date: -----------------------

Project Supervisor

Dr. (Mrs.) Onyiaji Judith C. Sign/Date: -----------------------

Head of Department

External Examiner Sign/Date: -----------------------

 iv

DEDICATION
I dedicate this work to God Almighty for the strength and wisdom granted unto me
throughout the process.
 v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to say a very big thank you to my mother Mrs. Florence Onyeabor, for her love,
support both financially and prayers. I also want to appreciate my HOD, Dr. Mrs. Onyiaji Judith C.
My warmth appreciation also goes to my project supervisor Mrs. Florence E. Nnamani, for
her guidance and thorough examination of this research project and other lecturers in the department
of Mass Communication.
 vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page - - - - - - - - - - i
Approval page- - - - - - - - - - ii
Dedication - - - - - - - - - - iii
Acknowledgement - - - - - - - - - iv
Table of Contents - - - - - - - - - v
Abstract - - - - - - - - - - vii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study - - - - - - - 1
1.2 Statement of the Research Problem - - - - - - 3
1.3 Objectives of the Study - - - - - - - 3
1.4 Significance of the Study - - - - - - - 4
1.5 Research Questions - - - - - - - - 4
1.6 Research Hypotheses - - - - - - - - 4
1.7 Theoretical Framework - - - - - - - 7
1.8 Scope and Limitations of the Study - - - - - - 7
1.9 Definition of Key Terms (Conceptual and Operational) - - - 8
References 9
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Sources of Literature - - - - - - - - 11
2.2 Review of Relevant Literature - - - - - - 11
2.3 Summary of Literature Review - - - - - - 22
References 23
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Design - - - - - - - - 26
3.2 Area of Study - - - - - - - - - 26
3.3 Population of the Study - - - - - - - 26
3.4 Research Sample - - - - - - - - 26
3.5 Sampling Technique - - - - - - - - 27
3.6 Instrument of Data Collection- - - - - - - 27
3.7 Reliability of the Measuring Instrument - - - - - 28
3.8 Validity of the Instrument - - - - - - - - 28
3.9 Method of Data Collection - - - - - - - - 28
3.10 Method of Data Analysis - - - - - - - 28
3.11 Expected Results - - - - - - - - - 28
 vii

CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION

OF FINDINGS
4.1 Data Presentation and Analysis - - - - - - - 30
4.2 Analysis of Research Questions/Test of Hypotheses - - - - 32
4.3 Discussion of Results - - - - - - - - 38
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary - - - - - - - - - 40
5.2 Conclusion - - - - - - - - - 40
5.3 Contribution to Knowledge - - - - - - - 41
5.4 Recommendations - - - - - - - - 41
References - - - - - - - - - 42
Appendices - - - - - - - - - 44-46
 viii

ABSTRACT
The main focus of this study was on Enugu urban residents’ perception of mass media framing of the
abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu from Kenya. The mass media are important information sources for
the public during the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu. The research method adopted by the
researcher is survey research method. This enabled the researcher to use the sample of 400 drawn
from Enugu urban with a population of 1003419 with reference to the 2006 Nigerian population
census figure and the projected population growth rate for 2021. The sampling technique used was
simple random sampling for the respondents in Enugu urban to distribute the copies of the
questionnaire. The findings of the study show that the public have good perception on media framing
of the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu as pro government. It was recommended the media should
tilt more of their reports on the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu towards positive direction of
allaying fear/tension surrounding the abduction. Also, the media should adopt more of topic
modeling as a useful approach to frame analysis.
 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
Mass media generally have over time increased its importance in the setting public agenda,
especially on issues that draw much public attention (Hu, 2017). Mass media refers to organisations
that use technological channels to distribute messages, attracting audience and conditioning them for
repeated exposures (Potter, 2011). In this regard, Yildirim (2012) said that human life remains
incomplete without mass media. The community gets information through mass media like radio,
television, newspapers and internet. The media have become probably the most important social
institution in the construction and circulation of information in any modern society. The media
permeate our daily lives. They are the main source of information about, and explanation of social,
cultural and political processes. Also, they are veritable reservoir of images and suggestions
concerning modes of self-preservation and general life styles (Daramola, 2003). Media scientists
have often discussed how much influence the media have on people's opinions, behaviour and
attitude. People tend to selectively read what they already agree with and to rationalise their
preformed opinions in the face of contrary arguments. Experimental evidence seems to indicate that
the media have little power to change people's opinions on issues for which they already have
formed a strong opinion, but they have a profound influence when it comes to setting the agenda and
priming people on new issues (Ndolo, 2006).
The media have an important role in the modern society. The population relies on the media
as the main sources of information and the bases on which they form certain habits and behaviour.
According to cultural selection theory, any selection of messages in the media will thus have a
profound effect on the entire society. The media are the most important channel for the propagation
of culture, ideas, and opinions; and also play an important role in shaping people’s attitude and
bringing conformity to some kinds of lifestyles which determine the informed decisions of people
(Daramola, 2003). Most opinion formation takes place when people sit and watch or read news and
articles on the media. Scholars have argued that the mass media has the potential to influence attitude
and behaviours change as well as the perceptions of the public on issues (Leask, Hooker & King,
2010). In Nigeria, the media are used independently or complementarily in the promotion good
social behaviour as to achieve positive lifestyle changes (Wogu, Chukwu, Nwafor, Anikpe,
Ugwuoke & Ugwulor-Onyinyechi, 2020). On the part of the audience, they have their diverse views
and perception on media framing of the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu.
The mass media adopt different angles to publications, which are called news frames.
According to Nsude, Onu, Nwamini and Nwofe (2016, p.24), “news frames refer to the nuances,
bias, opinions and meanings journalists introduce to stories with a view to breaking down complex
reality for readers and viewers to assimilate. Framing explains the power structure of the media to
 10

create news story items with predefined and narrow contextualization to enhance understanding or
used cognitive shortcuts to link stories to the bigger picture (Oso, 2017). The implication of this
submission is that the media can influence news content by subtle submission to downplay the
perceived negative effect of the story on the general public by choosing a particular frame pattern.
The media can also through choice of frame aggravate the supposed subtle effect to more dire
consequences on the general public. In a similar way, the volume of report given to an issue in the
media explains the public knowledge, understanding and perception on the issue.
Framing by the media are usually presented in different types of media content. Nisbet (2009)
is of the view that, framing constitutes important part of the media that contributes to shaping the
audience perception and societal disposition to event covered by the media. It is a modality that the
media organisations adopt in selecting and presenting their contents so as to produce various
perspectives for audience selection (Jibrin, 2019). Framing enables the presentation of news content
in various ways, producing different versions, for the purpose of emphasis or enhancing the
important of issues and events (Jibrin, 2019). Framing emphasizes the issue of methods through
which the media streamline and present news content. Media organisations adopt framing to simply
complex issues to make room for audience to easily understand and form opinion about the issue
through text, pictures or symbols (Tolley, 2016). Through news frames the media provide important
information and knowledge which often influence public or audience opinion and decision (Ofori-
Birikorang, 2010). Framing can sway public opinion on an issue which they have significant
consequences for how the public view and understand an issue, and they respond to it (Chime-
Nganya et al., 2017).
Framing showcases how societal issues are portrayed and how messages are encoded with
meaning by the media so that they can be easily decoded vis-à-vis existing idea (Chilisa, 2012). The
media present and determine what is and is not worth presenting, or reporting as news. Entman in
Jibrin (2019, p.36) describes framing to essentially involves selection and salience. According to
him, “to frame is to select some aspects of a perceived reality and make them more salient in a
communicating text, in such a way as to promote a particular problem definition, causal
interpretation, moral evaluation or treatment recommendation for the item described.” Understanding
framing is further strengthened by the categorization that helps provide specific perspectives on
issues that requires large-scale text data analysis beyond manual annotation alone.
The mass media are important information sources for the public during the abduction of
Mazi Nnamdi Kanu. On Sunday 27th June 2021, Mazi Nnamdi Kanu was abducted. According to
Nigeria’s Attorney General and Minister of Justice, Abubakar Malami, “the leader of the proscribed
Indigenous People of Biafra (IPOB), Nnamdi Kanu, has been re-arrested and brought back to Nigeria
to face his trial.” At a joint press briefing on Tuesday 20 th July 2021, with the State Security Service
 11

(SSS) in Abuja, Mr Malami disclosed that international collaborative efforts with security agencies
led to Mr Kanu’s arrest and repatriation to Nigeria. Mr Kanu and his co-defendant are facing
treasonable felony charges at the Federal High Court in Abuja (Ejekwonyilo, 2021). Meanwhile, the
wide spread notion is that he was abducted. It is against this backdrop that the researcher in this
study sets to appraise the perception of the public on mass media framing of the abduction of Mazi
Nnamdi Kanu.
1.2 Statement of the Research Problem
It is widely believed that the mass media are the watchdog of the society and play an
important role in information gathering and dissemination in the society. As a result of this, there
should be the need to ascertain their framing of the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu. Framing
showcases how societal issues are portrayed and how messages are encoded with meaning by the
media so that they can be easily decoded vis-à-vis existing idea. The media present and determine
what is and is not worth presenting, or reporting as news.
The abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu created a pattern of frame. The incident has shown that
media public attention broadens to a variety of dimensions and perceptions in respect of frame
dominant in the media. The mass media framing which concentrates on specific incidents or cases
like the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu has the tendency to influence public attitudes or reactions.
As part of their essential services, the mass media keep adequate surveillance of the abduction of
Nnamdi Kanu by regularly providing the public with updated information. The media use various
frames of news to inform, educate and sensitise the target audiences about the incident. With the
level of power accredited to media, it is pertinent to establish if they significantly covered and
reported the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu. Also, since there are various news framing categories,
it is important to understand the dominant patterns of framing of the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi
Kanu by the mass media, and as well know if the public see media framing of the abduction of Mazi
Nnamdi Kanu. Furthermore, it is crucial to investigate the perception of the public on mass media
framing of the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
The objectives of this study are:
I. To ascertain if the media significantly covered and reported the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi
Kanu.
II. To find out the dominant patterns of mass media framing of the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi
Kanu.
III. To determine if the public see media framing of the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu as pro
government.
 12

IV. To know the perception of the public on media framing of the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi
Kanu as pro government.
1.4 Significance of the Study
This study will be of great benefit, especially to those who are exposed to and use the mass
media. It will provide them with the effective ways in which the media can be used for information
dissemination. This study will be relevant in that it will give appropriate authorities and stakeholders
the interest to access the media for their different needs and purposes.
Furthermore, this study will be of great benefit to media audience, as well as those who use
the media. This study will enable online media audience to be enlightened on the need to verify
information as well as sources of information for authenticity. For stakeholders, who carry out
sensitisation, this study will enhance their knowledge on the best strategies to use in disseminating
messages. Finally, this study will be beneficial to future researchers who will need information
relating to this study for future references.
1.5 Research Questions
The research questions for this study are:
i. Did the media significantly cover and report the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu?
ii. What are the dominant patterns of mass media framing of the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi
Kanu?
iii. Do the public see media framing of the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu as pro
government?
iv. What is the perception of the public on media framing of the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi
Kanu as pro government?
1.6 Research Hypotheses
The hypotheses for this study are:
Hypothesis One
H1 The media significantly covered and reported the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu.
Ho The media did not cover and report the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu significantly.
Hypothesis Two
H2 Torture and human rights violation are the dominant patterns of mass media framing of the
abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu.
Ho Torture and human rights violation are not the dominant patterns of mass media framing of the
abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu.
Hypothesis Three
H3 The public see media framing of the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu as pro government.
H0 The public do not see media framing of the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu as pro government.
 13

Hypothesis Four
H4 The public have good perception on media framing of the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu as pro
government.
H0 The public do not have good perception on media framing of the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu
as pro government.
1.7 Theoretical Framework
The theories on which this study is anchored on are the Social Responsibility and Cognitive
Dissonance theory.
Social Responsibility Theory
The social responsibility theory can be aptly described as a child of the industrial revolution.
The industrial revolution and emerging multimedia society provided the enabling environment for
the development of a theory that is based on assumption that while the press should be free, it must
nonetheless, be responsible (Daramola, 2003). The origin of the social responsibility theory is traced
to the Hutchins Commission of Freedom of the press, set up in the United States of American in
1947. This commission was set to reconsider the idea of press freedom as propounded by the
libertarian theories. The social responsibility theory, therefore incorporated part of the libertarian
approach and at some time introduced some new elements (Agbo, Ojobor & Ezinwa, 2010).
The ideas of this theory rose from being threatened by ownership restrictions to rich
individuals or large corporations. The purpose, therefore, is to ensure that the press should be open to
anyone with something to say. The press is controlled by community opinion and consumers action
(Ndolo, 2006). According to Eze (2011), the theory emphasizes the need for an independent press
that scrutinizes other social institutions and provides objective, accurate news reports. The most
innovative feature of the social responsibility theory was its call for media to be responsible for
fostering productive and creative great commission. The theory also holds that the press has a right
to criticise government and other institutions, but it also has a responsibility to preserve democracy
by properly informing the people and by responding to society’s needs and interest. The press does
not have the freedom to do as it pleases; it is obligated to respond to society’s requirements (Agbo,
Ojobor & Ezinwa, 2010).
The principles and tenets of this theory are:-
i. The media should accept and fulfill certain obligations to the society;
ii. The obligations are mainly to be met by setting high professional standard of informativeness,
truth, accuracy, objectivity and balance;
iii. In accepting and applying these obligations, media should be self-regulating within the
framework of laws of the land;
 14

iv. The media must avoid whatever could lead to crime, violence or civil disorder or give offence to
minority groups;
v. That the media should be pluralistic and reflect the diversity of the society, giving access to
various points of view and to right of reply.
vi. Journalists and media professionals should be accountable to the society as a whole (Daramola,
2003, p.28).
This theory supports the fact that it is the responsibility of the media to ensure that they report
the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu and keep the public abreast of information on the issue.
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
According to Mberia and Zipporah (2014), this theory is based on the cognitive models of the
information processing that goes on inside a person’s mind such as attention, memory, language,
thinking, consciousness and perception. This is because the personal interaction with others is
strongly affected by the images formed in one’s mind which shapes one’s perception, response,
behaviour, and self-image. When the person interaction finds a match to a significant other, he/she is
more likely to respond.
There are four key elements that explain the perception theory. These elements are in steps.
They take place in a ‘stop-gate’ fashion with selective exposure, selective attention, selective
perception and selective retention.
 Selective Exposure: It is only natural that people seek out information that caters for their
own interests, confirms their beliefs, and boosts their own ego, while avoiding those that are contrary
to their own predispositions and attack their self-image. This determines which papers they subscribe
to or read at all, which television stations they turn to, and which programmes they watch on those
channels.
 Selective Attention: Because the eye processes information much faster than the brain can
interpret, the human brain has to select which information to pay attention to at any given time, in
order to avoid confusion. Physiological impairments or needs (bad eye sight, hunger), physical
hardship (heat in a crowded lecture room, boredom from fatigue, hostile orientation toward
information or source, assumed familiarity with message content, etc. can also severally or in
combination affect the span of attention — during lecture, media programme, etc. (hence advertisers
use all kinds of gimmicks to catch and retain audience attention).
 Selective Perception: The study of perception actually led to the discovery of the selectivity
processes. Each of us tends to perceive and then decode communication messages in the light of our
previous experiences and current dispositions, our needs, moods and memories. The language we
speak and words we use also tend to circumscribe our perception. De Fleur and Bull-Rokeach recall
how scientists for a long time considered the atom indivisible because the Greek word “atom” means
 15

“indivisible”. They also recall how malaria remained uncontrollable for a long time because doctors
believed it was caused by the “bad air” (from Italian “mala aria”) of the tropics.
 Selective Retention: None of us can retain and later recall all the messages we receive.
Moreover, some messages are forgotten more quickly than others. We more accurately remember
messages that are favourable to our self-image than messages that are unfavourable. The saliency of
the message relevance to our needs, the method of transmission and the interests and beliefs of the
receiver are also known to affect retention rate.
Selective exposure, attention, perception and retention work together in rather complex ways,
not in isolation, and they contribute to the cultivation of the attitudes of acceptance, avoidance,
rejection and denial. And they render it unlikely for any person to be a passive, helpless receiver of
media messages. The implication of this theory to this study is that the already formed attitude,
beliefs and dispositions of the public will affect and influence their perception of media framing of
the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu.
1.8 Scope of the Study
The scope of this study is on public perception of media framing of the abduction of Mazi
Nnamdi Kanu, with Enugu urban residents as the focus. It will study any other group except
residents of Enugu urban.
1.9 Limitations of the Study
In the cause of this study, the researcher anticipated some challenges. They range from
indifferent attitude of respondents, and the fact that the researcher couldn’t hire research assistant
with vast experience due to limited resources.
Significant numbers of the respondents approached by the researcher for information were
hesitant and in some cases, unwilling to provide the researcher with the needed information. In most
cases, respondents do not honour the appointment booked with them, neither would they keep to the
time of the appointments and sometimes would ask the researcher to go and come back another day.
The respondents always claim to either be busy or not disposed emotionally to attend to the
researcher.
In another vein, the researcher could not get in touch with highly experienced research
assistants. The researcher used mostly, her course mates. This was due to constraints of resources.
However, the researcher ensured that these challenges faced in the cause of this study did not prevent
her from attaining the objectives of this study.
 16

1.10 Definition of Terms

The terms in this study were defined conceptually and operationally.
Conceptual Definitions
I. Abduction: This is the unlawful and usually forceful carrying away of a person.
II. Enugu urban residents: This is the people who live in the major cities in Enugu state.
III. Framing: This is the critical evaluation of newsworthy issues in the society to help the public
understand concepts associated with such issues.
IV. Mass Media: These are the channels that disseminate information to a large and diversified
audience.
V. Perception: Perception is the process by which people make sense out of experiences and
things they are exposed to.

Operational Definitions
I. Abduction: This is the unlawful and forceful carrying away of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu from
Kenya by the Nigerian government.
II. Enugu urban residents: These are the people who live in the major cities in Enugu state,
and are exposed to mass media framing of the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu.
III. Framing: This is the critical evaluation of the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu from Kenya
to help the public understand concepts associated with such issues.
IV. Mass Media: These are the channels that disseminate information to the large and diversified
audience in Enugu urban on the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu.
V. Perception: Perception is the process by which the people in Enugu urban make sense out of
mass media framing of the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu.
 17

References
Agbo, B., Ojobor, I. & Ezinwa, C. (2010). Issues in development communication. Enugu: John
Jacobs Publishers.

Chilisa, B. (2012). Indigenous research methodologies. International Journal of Critical Indigenous

Studies, 5(1), 93-109.

Chime-Nganya, R., Ezegwu, D. T., & Ezeji, A. (2017). Analysis of Nigerian newspapers framing of
President Mohammadu Buhari’s medical leave to United Kingdom. Media and
Communication Currents, 1(2), 39-56.

Daramola, I. (2003). Introduction to mass communication (2nd ed.). Lagos: Rothan Press.

Ejekwonyilo, A. (2021). Nnamdi Kanu re-arrested, returned to Nigeria – Malami. Retrieved from
https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/470566-updated-nnamdi-kanu-re-arrested-
returned-to-nigeria-malami.html

Eze, M. A. (2011). Fundamentals of communication theories (2nd ed.). Enugu: De-Verge Agencies.

Hu, H. & Zhu, J. J. H. (2017). Social networks, mass media and public opinions. In Journal of
Economic Interaction and Coordination, 1(5), 1-19.

Jibrin, R. (2019). Media framing of the Ruga settlement initiative of the Federal Government of
Nigeria and its implication on government interest. Media and Communication Currents,
3(2), 33-47.

Leask, J., Hooker, C. & King, C. (2010). Media coverage of health issues and how to work more
effectively with journalists: a qualitative study. In Public Health, 10, 535.

Mberia & Zipporah (2014). Mass media:theories and realities. Enugu: Bismark Publications.

Ndolo, I. S. (2006). Mass media systems and society. Enugu: Rhyce Kerex.

Nisbet, M. C. (2009). Communicating climate change: Why frames matter for specific engagement
in environment. Science and Policy for Sustainable Development. 51(2), 12-23.

Nsude, I., Nwamini, S., Onu, C., & Nwofe, E. (2016). Politics of Boko Haram insurgency reportage
during the 2015 general election in Nigeria. Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research,
24(8), 2473-2479.

Ofori-Birikorang, A. (2010). Promoting a new health policy in the Ghanaian media: Newspaper
framing of the national health insurance scheme from 2005-2007. Unpublished doctoral
dissertation, Ohio University, Athens, OH.

Oso, L. (2017). Understanding framing theory. www.researchgate.net

Potter, W. J. (2011). Conceptualizing mass media effect. In Journal of communication, 61(5), 896-
915.

Tolley, E. (2016). Qualitative methods in public health: A field guide for applied research. Medicine
and Science in Sports and Exercise, 37(7), 12-49.
 18

Wogu, J. O., Chukwu, C. O., Nwafor, K. A., Anikpe, E. A., Ugwuoke, J. C., & Ugwulor-
Onyinyechi, C. C. (2020). Mass media reportage of Lassa fever in Nigeria: a viewpoint. In
Journal of International Medical Research, 48(1), 23-36.

Yildirim, T. P. (2012). The impact of advertising and user-generated content on media bias.
Pittsburg: University of Pittsburgh.
 19

CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Sources of Literature
The sources of literature for this study were drawn from books written by renowned authors
which were related to the review. Also, it involved getting information from newspapers, magazines,
journals and browsing the internet.
2.2 Review of Relevant Literature
2.2.1 Overview of the Mass Media
Mass communication media refer to the channels or the means by which information or
messages are conveyed from source to receiver. They are also defined as the organized means for
communicating openly and at a distance to many receivers within a short space of time. According to
Daramola (2003, p.53) mass media are organizations that distribute cultural products or messages
that affect or reflect the culture of society, and also provide information simultaneously to a large
heterogeneous audience. It may take the form of broadcast as in the case of radio and television, or
print media like newspaper and magazine. Usually, mass media aim to reach a very large market,
such as the entire population of a country. The phrase ‘the media’ began to be used in the 1920s, but
referred to something that had its origin much further in the past. The invention of the printing press
in the late 15th century gave rise to some of the first forms of mass media communication, by
enabling the publication of books and newspapers on a scale much larger than was previously
possible (Ramey, 2007, p.58; Galician, 2004, p.53).
The mass media are sometimes used interchangeably with the press. The name ‘press’ was
adopted due to the fact that print journalism started the mass media industry. The press is a channel
which professional communicators use in disseminating messages widely, rapidly and continuously
to arouse intended meaning in large and diversified readers in an attempt to influence them in a
variety of ways. The press refers to all technologically mediated, institutionally organised and
spontaneously expressed form of social communication in both rural and urban areas, although more
widely used among literate group. Mass media are broadly classified into print and broadcast media.
The print media include newspapers, magazines, books, journals etc. while the broadcast media
include radio, television and Cinema.
A newspaper can be defined as a printed product created on a regular (daily or weekly) basis
and distributed to large number of people. Newspaper in terms of format can be classified as tabloid
and blanket sheet or standard. On the other hand, a magazine is a bound publication issued more or
less regularly and containing a variety of reading matters. Magazine is of various types, they are
general interest magazine, specialized magazine, literate or class magazine, Junk or Soft magazine
(Nwabueze, 2005, p.32). However, radio is a broadcast medium that appeals to the sense of sound. It
 20

is one of the most ubiquitous, the most effective and cheapest medium of communication available to
man today. It provides the opportunity for man to understand both his immediate and distant
environment. Through radio, messages or information are received by means of electromagnetic
waves, hence, provides man with the opportunity to send spoken words, music, codes and other
communication signal through the waves to any parts of the world. It is an important instrument of
social change, agent of mobilisation and socialisation. With the unique ability to inform, entertain
and educate, radio has become the daily comparison of millions of people at work, on the high way
and a routes (Nwogbunyama, 2007, p.37)
On the other hand, television is defined as an audio-visual broadcast medium which also
sends signal by means of electromagnetic waves to various receiving sets in different homes and
places. It is neither age specific nor gender discriminatory. It is one of the most powerful forces in
the history of civilisation that appeal to mass audience. Among other media, television has the
greatest creative impact. As a means of reaching mass audience no other medium has the unique
creative ability of television as it combines sight, sound, picture and movement in information
dissemination.
Television has a sense of immediacy which enable the viewer participate in the television
programme. Television is of two kinds. They are broadcast television and non-broadcasting
television. A broadcast television otherwise known as open circuit television, transmit signals
including pictures and sound by radio waves or by cables to the receiving television sets without wire
connection, while a non-broadcast television system also known as close circuit television is mostly
used in schools, industries, banks, laboratories and big stores with the help of wire connection to a
particular television set (Daramola, 2003, p.57).
The mass media, through good programmes and featurised development news reports, could
educate people on how certain developmental activities would be of benefit to them if executed in
their locality. The mass media, especially the broadcast media make use of the people’s language to
bring about desired change in the social system, and educate people on the essence and benefits of a
campaign being embarked upon (Nwabueze, 2005, p.34). “The mass media are powerful tools for
opinion moulding, agenda setting, public debate, integration, entertainment, education, motivation
and mobilisation. In the words of Brain Wenham (a former BBC Director of Programmes) as saying
that ‘Television is credited with almost superhuman powers. It can – they say, start wars, and it can
sap the will to continue those wars. It can prevent the society talking sensibly to itself, and it can
cause trouble to the streets.”
Ndolo (2006, p.29) argues that the mass media can have a profound influence in changing the
ways of the people only if they are fully supported by the informal, social channels of
communication which are intimately related to the basic social process. The mass media have some
 21

special features as an institution. The mass media have numerous functions in the society to play.
Ndolo (2006, p.43) further adds that in the society, the mass media have six distinct and crucial roles
to play: information role; the educator role; the historian role; the forum role; the watch-dog role; the
leadership role. The media is to perform the following functions:
 Information: The collection, storage, processing, dissemination of news, data messages etc.
required in order to understand and react knowledgeably to issues of national and international
concern, as well to be in a position to make appropriate decision.
 Motivation: The promotion of the immediate and ultimate aims of each society, and the
stimulation of personal choices and aspirations, the fostering of individual or community
activities geared towards the pursuit of agreed aims.
 Education: The transmission of knowledge as to foster intellectual development, the formation
of character and the acquisition of skills and capacities at all states of life and political
development.
 Integration: The provision to all persons, groups and nations of access to the variety of
messages which they need in order to know and understand each other and to appreciate other
living conditions, view-points and aspirations.
Ndolo (2006, p.31) posit that the media is essential to the effective functioning of each of the
four major sectors of any society.
I. The economic and technological sector which adapts the society to its physical or natural
environment;
II. The political sector with power to formulate and implement public policy;
III. The legal and administrative sector which coordinates the activities of the other sectors;
IV. The cultural sector which socialises individuals into the society’s ideological and value
process.
The roles of the mass media in the society fundamentally centre on social responsibility,
traditional roles and developmental roles. The traditional role of the press is that of the watch-dog of
the society. The press does this by keeping surveillance of the environment and correlation of the
different parts of the society in responding to social change. The press is not however expected to be
watch-dog alone, but also a ‘crusade dog.’ By this, the press is supposed to live up to the
responsibility of saying or speaking out what has been watched.
The social responsibility function of the press revolves round information, education, and
entertainment. This role informs the knowledge-gap hypothesis which stipulates that nearness to the
press for the generation of information within and outside one’s immediate environment. The press
gathers and disseminates information on various areas that border on social, economic, political and
cultural spheres. The recognition of the importance of the press in the society has continued to be an
 22

essential ingredient of the political system, especially in developing countries. This is because the
press is a very important instrument and tool for meaningful development. Development cannot be
achieved without communication. The press accepts and carryout positive development tasks in line
with nationally established policy. Tony Momoh, a onetime Minister for Information, observes that
‘the truth is that there can be no democracy without the press.’ And democracy is what engenders
development in the society.
The press is a public trust and real journalists see themselves as trustees for the public.
Therefore, the acceptance of a lesser role amounts to a betrayal of the trusteeship. Okenwa (2000,
p.23) stresses that the press contribute to education and learning, and also in human resource
development by serving as ‘The Fourth Estate of Realm.’ The press is the defender of the
defenceless, the unofficial parliament, and a vehicle for rural and national development. The
development role of the press is hinged on the thought that the press helps in strengthening existing
norms, condemning wrong behaviour in the society, in educating people on government policy and
how to achieve government objectives through agenda setting. The mass media basically play the
functions of entertainment, information, education, correlation of the society, and surveillance of the
society.
The roles of the press are not performed without obstacles, challenges and problems.
Pressmen experience and encounter problems of various kinds in carrying out their activities. These
problems range from policy problems, government interference to ethical issues. One of the greatest
problems facing the press in Africa is the inability to formulate, adopt, adapt to and implement an
integrated, holistic, systematic and coordinated regional and national communication policy capable
of promoting media training, planning and utilisation for development.
African countries have either zero-policy situation in communication issues or a rather
diffused set of communication contained in decrees, legislations, constitutions, national development
plans, speeches and direction of government functionaries. There is no blue print yet that identifies
the problems of mass communication which relates to practice, and factors that determine patterns
and standards of performance; the existence of facilities for practice and the utilisation or under-
utilisation of resources. Inadequate training for reporters provoke partisan politics, brown envelop
syndrome and unbalanced attacks on the press. Reporting of news without source of information and
enough investigation leads the reporter into conflict with the government in power. The result could
be devastating for the press; sometimes the reporter is either arrested and detained or jailed.
Lack of modern technological innovations also poses as a problem to the Nigerian journalists
in carrying out their activities. Some media organisations are still to adopt the new mode of
information gathering and dissemination. Journalists are hardly seen equipped with state-of-the-arts
 23

personal equipment like laptops connected to the internet to help them do their job reasonably. This
and other related factors stand as great obstacles to the Nigerian press.
2.2.2 Framing as a Process
The potential of the framing concept lies in the focus on communicative processes.
Communication is not static, but rather a dynamic process that involves frame-building (how frames
emerge) and frame-setting (the interplay between media frames and audience predispositions).
Entman (1993, p.39) noted that “frames have several locations, including the communicator, the text,
the receiver, and the culture.” These components are integral to a process of framing that consists of
distinct stages: frame-building, frame-setting and individual and societal level consequences of
framing (D’Angelo, 2002, p.71).
Frame-building refers to the factors that influence the structural qualities of news frames.
Factors internal to journalism determine how journalists and news organisations frame issues
(Shoemaker & Reese, 1996, p.52). Equally important, however, are factors external to journalism.
The frame-building process takes place in a continuous interaction between journalists and elites and
social movements (Cooper, 2002, p.90). The outcomes of the frame building process are the frames
manifest in the text.
Frame-setting refers to the interaction between media frames and individuals’ prior
knowledge and predispositions. Frames in the news may affect learning, interpretation, and
evaluation of issues and events. This part of the framing process has been investigated most
elaborately, often with the goal to explore the extent to which and under what circumstances
audiences reflect and mirror frames made available to them in the news. The consequences of
framing can be conceived on the individual and the societal level. An individual level consequence
may be altered attitudes about an issue based on exposure to certain frames. On the societal level,
frames may contribute to shaping social level processes such as political socialisation, decision-
making, and collective actions (Cooper, 2002, p.92).
In framing processes, frames can be both independent variables (IV) and dependent variables
(DV). For example, media frames may be studied as the DV, i.e. the outcome of the production
process including organisational pressures, journalistic routines, and elite discourse. Media frames
may also be studied as IV, i.e. the antecedents of audience interpretations. Drawing on the integrated
process model of framing, future research would benefit from linking features of the production of
news with the content (frame-building) and/or content with studies of uses and effects (frame-
setting) (Cooper, 2002, p.93). A link between either production and/or effects is needed to prevent a
proliferation of studies that investigate frames that may have considerable appeal given the ‘layman’
nature of the frame, but that do not provide any evidence or discussion of the use of the frame in
 24

actual news reports. The pitfall of such studies is that we cannot infer whether the frames are in fact,
in the words of Cappella and Jamieson (1997, p.47), “commonly observed in journalistic practice.”
2.2.3 Frames in the News: Broad and Narrow Definitions
The variety of definitions of news frames in both theoretical and empirical contributions is
considerable. Gittin (1980, p.7) defines frames as “persistent patterns of cognition, interpretation,
and presentation, of selection, emphasis and exclusion by which symbol handlers routinely organise
discourse.” Frames are ‘interpretative packages’ that give meaning to an issue. At the core of this
package is a central organising idea, or frame, for making sense of relevant events, suggesting what
is at issue. By virtue of emphasising some elements of a topic above others, a frame provides a way
to understand an event or issue. In this vein, Cappella and Jamieson (1997, p.47) suggest that
“frames activate knowledge, stimulate ‘stocks of cultural morals and values, and create contexts.” In
doing so, frames define problems, diagnose causes, make moral judgments and suggest remedies
(Entman, 1993, p.46).
Communication science framing research is indebted to other disciplines. One obvious
predecessor is the series of ‘Asian decease’-studies by Kahneman and Tversky. Though their framing
manipulation – altering the wording of a scenario outlining the consequences of a fatal illness – was
appropriate to explore the psychological process, this definition of framing is rather narrow. Indeed
simple question wording differences that reverse information are not easily compatible with more
complex communicative situations and politics (Sniderman & Theriault, 2004, p.53). Some
theoretical arguments support the use of the narrow conceptualisation in framing research
(Scheufele, 2000, p.64), but few empirical studies have investigated the ‘reversed information’
phenomenon. The vast majority of framing studies, more or less explicitly, apply a broader definition
of frames. Conceptually, a broader notion of news frames is indebted to a definition of a frame as ‘a
central organising idea or story line that provides meaning to an unfolding strip of events, weaving a
connection among them.
A frame is an emphasis in salience of different aspects of a topic. While agenda-setting
theory deals with the salience of issues, framing is concerned with the presentation of issues. This
brief definition is generally applied to studies of news frames and makes more intuitive sense than
applying a narrow definition of frames as ‘question wording.’ One strong argument for this
conceptualisation is that most issues – political and social – cannot be meaningfully reduced to two
identical scenarios. Political, economic and social events and issues are presented to citizens as
alternative characterizations of a course of action (Sniderman & Theriault, 2004, p.55). When
conceiving of, for example, oil drilling, citizens may be presented with frames such as economic
costs of gas prices, unemployment, environment, US dependency on foreign energy sources (Zaller,
 25

1992, p.31). Frames are parts of political arguments, journalistic norms, and social movements’
discourse. They are alternative ways of defining issues, endogenous to the political and social world.
2.2.4 Typology of News Frames
While newsmakers may employ many different frames in their coverage of an issue, scholars
agree that this abundance in choice in how to tell and construct stories can be captured in analysis as
certain distinctive characteristics. In order to synthesise previous research and the different types of
news frames that have been suggested, a more general typology or distinction with reference to the
nature and content of the frame is suggested here. Certain frames are pertinent only to specific topics
or events. Such frames may be labelled issue-specific frames. Other frames transcend thematic
limitations and can be identified in relation to different topics over time and in different cultural
contexts. These frames can be labelled generic frames (Vreese, 2002, p.26). This typology serves to
organise past framing research focusing on differences that help explain the use of the catch-all
‘framing’ phrase.
An issue-specific approach to the study of news frames allows for a profound level of
specificity and details relevant to the event or issue under investigation. This advantage, however, is
potentially an inherent disadvantage as well. The high degree issue-sensitivity makes analysis
drawing on issue-specific frames difficult to generalise, compare, and use as empirical evidence for
theory building. The absence of comparability has led researchers to ‘too easily find evidence for
what they are looking for’ and to contribute to ‘one of the most frustrating tendencies in the study of
frames and framing [being] the tendency for scholars to generate a unique set of frames for every
study’ (Hertog & McLeod, 2001, pp. 150–151). In the following, studies of frames in the news are
reviewed and classified.
 Issue-specific news frames: Studies of issue-specific news frames have looked at the
framing of the Intifada, the Internet, women’s movement, and labour disputes (Simon & Xenos,
2001, p.49). One study of issue-specific news frames focused on public perceptions of US national
budget deficits. Drawing on a content analysis of several major US newspapers four frames were
identified, and these were labelled ‘talk’, ‘fight’, ‘impasse’, and ‘crisis’. The four frames reflected
the chronology of the development of the issue in the news and were issue-sensitive.
In the realm of elections, Shah, Watts, Domke and Fan (2002, p.53) identified three frames
recurrent in the news during the final stages of the Clinton presidency. They identified ‘Clinton
behaviour scandal’, ‘Conservative attack scandal’, and ‘Liberal response scandal’. In the same vein,
other studies of frames in the news have investigated the presence of frames that pertain to the
particular issue in question.
 Generic news frames: One group of studies of generic frames concentrates on the coverage
of politics, in particular election campaigns. A second group focuses on generic news frames that are
 26

structural and inherent to the conventions of journalism. In the first group, Cappella and Jamieson
(1997, p.49) investigated the consequences of strategically framed news on political cynicism. To
them, “Strategic news is defined as news that (1) focuses on winning and losing, (2) includes the
language of war, games, and competition, (3) contains performers, critics and audiences’, (4) focuses
on candidate style and perceptions, and (5) gives weight to polls and candidate standings.”
According to Cappella and Jamieson (1997, p.52), strategic news dominates American news
coverage of not only election campaigns, but also of policy issues. The focus on winning and losing
and polls are related to the ‘game schema’ in election news. Game refers to strategies and
(predictions of) electoral success, emphasising candidates’ position in the electoral race. There is
historical increase in the use of the game or horse race frame in the press coverage of US elections
from 1960 until 1992.
The second group of studies links news frames to more general features of news coverage
such as journalistic conventions, norms, and news values. In an analysis of the US network coverage
of social issues such as poverty, crime, and unemployment from 1981 to 1986. Iyengar (1991, p.135)
found that “daily news coverage was strongly biased towards an episodic interpretation in which
news depicts social issues as limited to events only and not placed in a broader interpretation or
context (the thematic frame).” He suggested that norms and standards within news organisations and
news production reinforce episodic framing.
This practice ‘simplifies complex issues to the level of anecdotal evidence’ (Iyengar, 1991,
pp.136) and induces a topical, disorganised, and isolated, rather than general and contextual,
understanding of public affairs and social issues. Neuman et al. (1992, p.50) developed frames used
by the audience when discussing current affairs. They found that the frames deduced from their
audience interviews were also present in the news media coverage of a series of current issues. In
their exploratory study they identified ‘human impact’, ‘powerlessness’, ‘economics’, ‘moral
values’, and ‘conflict’ as common frames used by the media and the audience.
The human impact frame focused on descriptions of individuals and groups affected by an
issue. The powerlessness frame referred to the dominance of forces over weak individuals or groups.
The economics frame reflected ‘the preoccupation with “the bottom line”, profit and loss. The moral
values frame referred to the often indirect reference to morality and social prescriptions by e.g.
including certain quotations or inferences (Shah, Watts, Domke & Fan, 2002, p.55). The conflict
frame referred to the journalistic practice of reporting stories of clashing interpretation and it was
found to fit well with news media’s ‘game interpretation of the political world as an ongoing series
of contests, each with a new set of winners and losers.
These frames were found in relation to different issues which suggest that the frames are
more generally applicable than issue specific news frames. This line of research was developed by
 27

Semetko and Valkenburg (2000, p.76), who identified five news frames: “conflict, human interest,
attribution of responsibility, morality and economic consequences.” The conflict frame emphasises
conflict between individuals, groups, institutions or countries. The human interest frame brings a
human face, an individual’s story, or an emotional angle to the presentation of an event, issue or
problem. The responsibility frame presents an issue or problem in such a way as to attribute
responsibility for causing or solving to either the government or to an individual or group. The
morality frame interprets an event or issue in the context of religious tenets or moral prescriptions.
The economic consequences frame, finally, presents an event, problem or issue in terms of
the economic consequences it will have on an individual, group, institution, region or country. The
study found that the attribution of responsibility frame was the most commonly used followed by the
conflict and economic consequences frames based on an analysis of national print and television
news (Semetko & Valkenburg, 2000, p.79). These generic news frames are related to journalistic
conventions and they were found to underlie the coverage of different topics such as an EU summit
of European heads of government and crime. However, the generic nature of these frames has not yet
been tested in a cross-national comparative setting to establish the generality of the frames beyond
national boundaries.
2.2.5 Mass Media Frames in Communicating the Abduction of Nnamdi Kanu
Neuman et al. (1992) explained four types of news frames that are used in framing news
stories. These are economic consequence, human impact, moral and conflict frames. In utilizing the
human impact context, Valkenburg et al. (1999) deconstructed it further by adding the elements of
responsibility and human interest as components on news framing.
Economic Consequences: During a crisis, major businesses and investments are always
economically affected. This is evident in the sit-at-home order that followed the abduction of
Nnamdi Kanu. The effect might be both positive in the way some business generating revenues while
others suffer losses. The financial impact is what is referred to as the economic framing (Iyengar,
1990). The economic and political dimensions of the crises get momentum when the Nnamdi Kanu is
continuously incarcerated by the Department of State Service (DSS).
Human Interest and Impact Frame: In the case of the abduction of Nnamdi Kanu, the mass media
have continued to offer human interest stories that relate to the case. These kinds of stories include
arraignment and trial, court sessions, press releases by the Counsel to Nnamdi Kanu and the position
of the federal government. The use of the human interest frame allows for the integration of the
human face (Beaudoin, 2007) or emotional angle into a news story. Therefore, this adds value to the
news and elevates the credibility of the press.
Attribution of Responsibility: Whenever a crisis or a burning issue erupts, there is always a
possibility of it being coined to a particular situation, person or something that has gone amiss.
 28

Therefore, it is essential to figure out the genesis of the case involving the abduction of Nnamdi
Kanu to be able to analyze it critically before its being reported. The communication during the case
improves the understanding of the crisis by adversely reducing uncertainty and reassuring the public,
especially sympathisers of Nnamdi Kanu. Consequently, this limits the amount of criticism towards
the federal government and creates a mutual understanding in resolving the issue. Therefore, it is
argued that the newsworthiness of a story should pass certain standards. The standards are not
limited to sensationalism, prominence, as well as emotional appeal (Pieri, 2019).
2.2.6 Empirical Review
A number of studies have been conducted on media framing of issues in the society. Adisa,
Mohammed and Ahmad (2016) conducted a study on “Issues and Consequences of Newspaper
Framing on Ethnic Conflict: A Qualitative Study of Ethnic Group Leaders’ Conflict Frames.” The
main aim was to explore the waves of media frames on ethnic group leaders’ conflict frames.
Specifically, the study sought to understand the extent that media frames about ethnic issues have
become the driving force behind volatile ethnic groups in Nigeria. Therefore, series of in-depth
interviews on 26 ethnic group leaders were conducted and data were analyzed thematically using
NVIVO 10 software. The study found that the unswerving newspapers framing on ethnic issues,
especially on interethnic relations and politics, culminated to inciting, double standard, name calling,
all of which stemmed from the ownership interest, are some of the major factors that widen ethnic
differences and eventually stimulated ethnic groups into conflict. It was recommended that the
Nigerian government must also shed its insensitivity and confront the problem with sincerity and
purpose, and that issues that are so loudly echoed by the numerous ethnic groups in the country
should be subjected to dialogue and conference of ethnic nationalities.
Mathes (2009) examined trends in media framing studies in the world's leading
communication journals between January 1990 and December 2005. The study carried out a
quantitative content analysis of a total of 131 framing studies in 15 international journals. Findings of
the study showed that focus was most predominantly on newspaper framing (53%) followed by
television (10%), television and newspaper (8%), magazine (5%), while press release and newspaper
coverage ranked lowest (1%). Most of the studies used purposive sampling (79%) while the least
used sampling technique was the constructed week (2%). Textual framing was more studied than
visual framing, with only 5% of the studies coding on the latter. Of the studies, issues-specific
frames ranked higher in focus (78%) than generic frames (22%). The extent to which framing studies
were theory-driven was also examined and findings showed that majority of the studies (68%) did
not test hypotheses regarding frames. The link between framing antecedents and consequences was
predominantly not focused in the studies: 79% of the studies did not consider the antecedents while
80% did not consider consequences.
 29

Lamidi and Olisa (2016) examined newspaper framing of the APC Change Mantra in the
2015 Nigerian Presidential elections. The study aimed at establishing the patterns of newspaper
framing as well as the factors that inuenced the framing of the APC Change campaigns by the
selected newspapers. Findings of the study revealed that the newspapers adopted more of positive
than negative and neutral frames in reporting the APC Change campaigns, with The Punch adopting
the positive frame more than The Guardian. The primary factors that determined the patterns of
newspaper framing were proximity, prominence and oddity, while the secondary factors were
opposition status, individual interest, profit-making interest and political affiliation.
Slothus and Vreese (2010) conducted a study in Denmark which was to determine how issues
framing, especially those sponsored by political parties, motivated citizens' reasoning about the
issues. Findings of the study showed that the prospect and consequence frames pushed opinions in
opposing directions on both the conflict and consensus issues. Opinions were more supportive on
welfare policy in the pro-frame than in the con-frame, just as in the case of trade agreement among
participants exposed to pro-frame than those exposed to conframe. Also, party attachment was
instrumental to framing effects as opinions among Social Democratic Party voters tended to be more
affected by frames sponsored by their party than when the same frames were promoted by Liberal
Party. The same trend was observed in respect of Liberal Party supporters.
Han and Wang (2012) conducted a study which examined the effects of valence news frames,
in terms of risks and benefits, on the perceptions of, and attitudes of participants towards product-
country image of 'made in China'. Findings showed that participants in the risk conditions had more
negative perceptions of product-country image than those in benefits conditions and in the control
conditions. Positive frames were observed to elicit positive evaluations of 'made in China' products
as they perceived the product aspect of the frame more positively than the country aspect.
Ndinojuo, Ihejirika and Okon (2018) studied “Reinvigorating the Framing Theory:
Appraising Reports on Nigerian Military and Boko Haram Insurgency”. Survey research method
was used in the study. The study found that in presenting the Boko Haram insurgency, the Nigerian
press has been misrepresenting the conflict by a number of studies. This was observed in the
lopsidedness of reporting which have been influenced to a great extent by the government-press
relationship. The study recommended that there should be synergy of thought between the military
and media when reporting the conflict and for the press to focus more on the root causes of such
conflicts rather than dwelling on the effects as the main function of the press should be tilted towards
the resolution of the conflict not to serve as a tool of the government or an opposition by using
sensational reporting to destabilize the society.
 30

2.3 Summary of Literature Review

The mass media, through good programmes and featurised development news reports, could
educate people on how certain developmental activities would be of benefit to them if executed in
their locality. The mass media, especially the broadcast media make use of the people’s language to
bring about desired change in the social system, and educate people on the essence and benefits of a
campaign being embarked upon. The mass media are powerful tools for opinion moulding, agenda
setting, public debate, integration, entertainment, education, motivation and mobilisation. They wield
a lot of power.
The potential of the framing concept lies in the focus on communicative processes.
Communication is not static, but rather a dynamic process that involves frame-building (how frames
emerge) and frame-setting (the interplay between media frames and audience predispositions).
Frames have several locations, including the communicator, the text, the receiver, and the culture.
These components are integral to a process of framing that consists of distinct stages: frame-
building, frame-setting and individual and societal level consequences of framing. A frame is an
emphasis in salience of different aspects of a topic. While agenda-setting theory deals with the
salience of issues, framing is concerned with the presentation of issues. This brief definition is
generally applied to studies of news frames and makes more intuitive sense than applying a narrow
definition of frames as ‘question wording.’ One strong argument for this conceptualisation is that
most issues – political and social – cannot be meaningfully reduced to two identical scenarios.
Political, economic and social events and issues are presented to citizens as alternative
characterizations of a course of action.
While newsmakers may employ many different frames in their coverage of an issue, scholars
agree that this abundance in choice in how to tell and construct stories can be captured in analysis as
certain distinctive characteristics. In order to synthesise previous research and the different types of
news frames that have been suggested, a more general typology or distinction with reference to the
nature and content of the frame is suggested here. Certain frames are pertinent only to specific topics
or events. Such frames may be labelled issue-specific frames. Other frames transcend thematic
limitations and can be identified in relation to different topics over time and in different cultural
contexts.
 31

REFERENCES

Adisa, R. M., Mohammed, R. B., & Ahmad, M. K. (2016). Issues and consequences of newspaper
framing on ethnic conflict: A qualitative study of ethnic group leaders’ conflict frames.
Malaysian Journal of Communication, 32(2), 294-316.

Cappella, J. N., & Jamieson, K. H. (1997). Spiral of cynicism: the press and the public good. New
York: Oxford University Press.

Cooper, A. H. (2002). Media framing and social movement mobilization: German peace protest
against INF missiles, the gulf war and NATO peace enforcement in Bosnia. European
Journal of Political Research, 41, 37–80.

D’Angelo, P. (2002). News framing as a multi-paradigmatic research programme: a response to

Entman. Journal of Communication, 52, 870–888.

Daramola, I. (2003). Introduction to mass communication. Lagos: Rotham.

Entman, R. B. (1993). Framing: toward clarification of a fractured paradigm. Journal of

Communication, 43, 51–58.

Entman, R. M. (1992). Framing U.S. coverage of international news: contrasts in narratives of the
KAL and Iran air incidents. Journal of Communication, 41(4), 6-27.

Galician, M. (2004). Sex, love and romance in the mass media: analysis and criticism of unrealistic
portrayals and their influence. Memphis: Psychology Press.

Gittin, T. (1980). The whole world is watching mass media in the making and unmaking of the new
left. Berkeley, California: University of California Press.

Han, G., & Wang, X. (2011). Understanding made in China: Valence framing and product country
image. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 89(2), 225-244. Retrieved from
https://www.questia.com/read/1P3-2713162401/understanding-made-in-china-valence-
framing-and

Hertog, J. K., & McLeod, D. M. (2001). A multi perspectival approach to framing analysis: a field
guide. In Reese, S. D. Gandy, O. H. & Grant, A. E. (Eds.), Framing public life. Mahwah,
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Iyengar, S. (1991). Is anyone responsible? how television frames political issues. Chicago, IL:
University of Chicago Press.

Lamidi, I. K., & Olisa, D. S. (2016). Newspaper framing of the APC change mantra in the 2015
Nigerian Presidential election: A study of The Punch and The Guardian newspapers. Journal
of Communication and Media Research, 8(2), 201-218.

Mathes, J. (2009). What's in a Frame? A Content Analysis of Media Framing Studies in the World's
Leading Communication Journals, 1990-2005. Journalism and Mass Communication
Quarterly, 862), 349-367. Retrieved from
https://www.questia.com/read/1P3-1860676051/what-s-in-a-frame-a-contentanalysis-of-
media-framing
 32

Ndinojuo, B. E., Ihejirika, W. C., & Okon, G. B. (2018). Reinvigorating the framing theory:
Appraising reports on Nigerian military and Boko haram insurgency. International Journal
of Media, Journalism and Mass Communications (IJMJMC), 4(4), 10-19.

Ndolo, I. S. (2006). Mass media systems and society. Enugu: Rhyce Kerex.

Neuman, W. R., Just, M. R., & Crigler, A. N. (1992). Common knowledge. news and the
construction of political meaning. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Nwabueze, C. (2005). Mass media and community mobilization for development: an analytical
approach. International Journal of Communication, 2, 1-9.

Nwogbunyama, E. (2007). Student companion in advertising. Enugu: Benalice.

Okenwa, S. N. (2002). The mass media: theories and realities. Enugu: Bismark.

Ramey, C. R. (2007). Mass media unleashed: how Washington policy makers short-changed the
American public. London: Roman & Littlefield. Retrieved from
http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/mass_media

Semetko, H. A. & Valkenburg, P. M. (2000). Framing European politics: a content analysis of press
and television news. Journal of Communication, 50(2), 93–109.

Shah, D., Watts, M. D., Domke, D. & Fan, D. (2002). News framing and cueing of issue regimes:
explaining Clinton’s public approval in spite of scandal. Public Opinion Quarterly, 66, 339–
370.

Slothuus, R., & de Vreese, C. H. (2010). Political parties, motivated reasoning and Issues framing
effects. The Journal of Politics, 72 (3), 630-645. Retrieved on Nov. 22, 2015 from
http://ps.au.dk/fileadmin/Statskundskab/Dokumenter/subsites/
Forskersider/runeslothuus/Dokumenter/JOP2010.pdf.

Sniderman, P. M. & Theriault, S. M. (2004). The structure of political argument and the logic of
issue framing. In Saris, W. E. & Sniderman, P. M. (Eds.), Studies in public opinion: attitudes,
nonattitudes, measurements error and change. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University
Press.

Valentino, N. A., Beckmann, M. N. & Buhr, T. A. (2001). A spiral for of cynicism for some: the
contingent effects of campaign news frames on participation and confidence in government.
Political Communication, 18, 347–367.

Vreese, C. H. (2002). Framing Europe. television news and European integration. Amsterdam:
Aksant Academic Publishers.

Zaller, J. (1992). The nature and origins of mass opinion. New York: Cambridge University Press.
 33

CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Design
The research design for this study is the qualitative research design. The qualitative design is
often used to study ideas, beliefs, human behaviors and other research questions that do not involve
studying the relationship between variables. The particular qualitative design that is used is the non-
experimental research design, which does not involve a manipulation of the situation, circumstances
or experience of the participants. This design was adapted because this study is looking at the
perception of the public on the mass media framing of the rearrest of Nnamdi Kanu. The behaviour
of residents of Enugu urban towards mass media framing of the rearrest of Nnamdi Kanu will be
described in line with their exposure to the messages, and how such messages have affected their
knowledge and shaped their perception on the issue.
In this study, this research design will involve structuring and administering questionnaires to
the representative sample of the study. The questionnaire will be used to further the overall analysis
of the findings of this study for validity. The data will be analysed using percentages, tables and
frequencies for the demography of respondents and research questions, while the hypotheses will be
tested using the Chi-square formula.
3.2 Research Method
Research method has to do with a certain approach adopted by a researcher in tackling a
research topic. It is concerned with using a stated method to study a phenomenon as to solve a given
problem. In view of this, the researcher adopts the survey research design. According to Nwodu
(2006, p. 67) survey “is a research method, which focuses on a representative sample derived from
the entire population of study”. In survey method, a subset is chosen from a population and the
subset is studied. The result from the studied subset serves as the basis for generalization on the
whole population. This method is advantageous because it looks at all the elements in a population
and provides for them in the sampling. It also gives convenience of study.
3.3 Area of Study
The area of study for this work is Enugu urban. Considering the geographical make up of
Enugu urban, the following places were carefully selected as clusters to represent the chosen area
and respondents who were drawn from them: Ogui New Layout, Abakpa, Agbani Road, Trans-
Ekulu, Independence layout, New Haven, GRA, Emene etc.
3.4 Population of the Study
The population of this study was drawn from the area of the study which is Enugu urban.
According to the 2006 census figure released by the National Population Commission (NPC), Enugu
urban has a population of 722664. However, to get the current population of Enugu urban, there will
 34

need to use the annual population growth rate projection. According to Nigerian Population
Worldmeters, the average annual population growth rate of Nigeria is 2.59%. This will be used to
determine the population Enugu urban in 2021.
2.59% of 722664 = 18716.9
Annual growth is 18717. From 2006 to 2021 is a period of eleven (15) years. 18717 x 15 =
280755. The population of Enugu metropolis in 2021 according to the projection is 280755 + 722664
= 1003419. The population of study therefore is 1003419.
3.5 Research Sample
The sample of this study was derived from the research population using the Taro Yamane
formula stated as
n = N
1 + N (e)2
Where n = sample size;
N = Population;
e = error margin
Therefore, the sample is;
n = 1003419
1 + 1003419 (0.05)2
n = 1003419
1 + 1003419 (0.0025)
n. = 1003419
1 + 2508.5475
n = 1003419
2509.5475
n = 399.8
n = 400
Therefore the sample for the study is 400.
3.6 Sampling Technique
The researcher adopted the simple random sampling technique to administer the
questionnaire to the respondents. According to Uwakwe (2006, p.18) in simple random sampling,
“each element in the sample has equal and independent chance of being selected in the sample.” This
technique was chosen to enable the categories of the respondents, which form the representative
sample. The representative sample will be studied and the result gotten will be used for
generalisation. The sample will be selected from the various areas that make up the population of the
 35

study which are Ogui New Layout, Abakpa, Agbani Road, Trans-Ekulu, Independence layout, New
Haven, GRA, and Emene.
3.7 Instrument of Data Collection
The instrument of data collection in this study is the questionnaire. The questionnaire is a
structured one and is designed with close-ended and open-ended questions. The questionnaire is also
structured into two parts. The first part deals with the demographic details of respondents, while the
second part contains the question of the research. The questionnaire above all provided for the
confidentiality of the respondents.
3.8 Validity and Reliability of Instrument
In reality, a test instrument possesses validity when it actually measure what it claims to
measure. On the other hand, reliability of a measuring instrument refers to the ability of the test
instrument to produce the same consistent result over time when applied to the same sample.
Therefore, to ensure the validity of the test instrument, the researcher gave the questionnaire to her
supervisor for criticisms and comments. The collation of her comments gave approval for its
suitability; hence the researcher obtained face and content validity for the questionnaire.
In testing the reliability of the study’s measuring instrument, the researcher employed the
test-retest technique. A test-retest technique is a process whereby the researcher administers the
constructed questionnaire on the same sample group more than once with a view to discovering how
consistent each member of the group is in the scoring of the instrument at different times. Thus,
fourty (40) copies of questionnaire were administered to the respondents in Enugu urban area. The
researcher then gave each respondent number from one to fourty to enable her to identify them
accurately. Similarly, the copies of the questionnaire distributed to the respondents were also
numbered from one to fourty. Later, the researcher collected the copies of the questionnaire scored
by the respondents.
After one week of collection of the scored copies of the questionnaire, the investigator shared
the same instrument to the same group as she did in the first place, by numbering the said copies of
the test instrument from one to fourty. Thus, number one was given to the first respondent until
number fourty respondent was given the fortieth copy of the questionnaire. The copies of the
questionnaire were collected from the respondents after filling them for the second time. The
researcher then compared the first scored copies of the test instrument collected with the second
scored questionnaire of each of the sampled respondent, one after the other. This comparison was
repeated until the entire fourty paired test instrument was exhausted. On completion, the researcher
discovered that the responses for the two sets of questionnaire given out were very consistent or near
consistent. The researcher therefore concluded that the measuring instrument was reliable and valid.
 36

3.9 Method of Data Collection

Since the researcher intends to use primary source like the questionnaire in this study, the
researcher will use direct or personal administration of the 400 copies of the questionnaire with the
help of two research assistants, who will make it easier for the questionnaire to be distributed to the
respondents and be returned within one week. These two research assistants are undergraduates of
Mass communication from Institute of Management and Technology (IMT), Enugu, who have
knowledge of how to gather and disseminate information on issues relating to research. This
researcher decided to use them in data collection because of their long experiences and academic
exposure in this area of knowledge acquisition. Through this method of data collection that involves
the researcher distributing the questionnaire herself with the help of research assistants, it will be
easier for the researcher to collect the quantitative data needed for the study. Also, by conducting the
questionnaire session of the study directly, the researcher intends to use data generated which will
be authentic in the presentation and analysis of data from the study.
3.10 Method of Data Analysis
The analysis of data in this study will be done using the Chi-square formula and percentages.
The Chi-square goodness of fit will be used to test the hypotheses, while simple percentages and
tables will be used to analyse the demography of respondents and research questions.
The Chi-square formula is stated as
X2 = fo – fe
fe
 = Summation,
fo = Observed frequency,
fe = Expected frequency
3.11 Expected Results
It is expected in this study that residents of Enugu urban are exposed to media messages on
the rearrest of Nnamdi Kanu to give their perception on it. It is also expected that the respondents of
this study will provide the needed responses on the perception of the public on mass media framing
of the rearrest of Nnamdi Kanu.
 37

REFERENCES
Nwodu, I. C. (2006). Research in communication and other behavioural sciences – principles
methods and issues. Enugu: Rhyce Kerex Publishers.

Uwakwe, O. (2006). Manual for writers and researchers. Enugu: Cecta Nigeria.
 38

CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF FINDINGS
4.1 Data Presentation and Analysis
Data analysis is an explanation of factual information generated in the course of a study
(Nwodu, 2006, p.172). According to Ikeagwu (1998, p.220) data can be analysed to “further the
overall goal of understanding social phenomena achieved through the process of description,
explanation, and prediction.” At the course of this study, the researcher administered four hundred
(400) questionnaires. However, the returned copies of the questionnaire are three hundred and
seventy five (375) copies. The tables below give a description and presentation of the demographic
details of the respondents.
Table 1: Gender Distribution of Respondents
Variable Frequency Percentage
Male 247 65.9%
Female 128 34.1%
Total 375 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2021.
With respect to gender, the table above showed that out of 375 respondents, 247 of the
respondents representing 65.9% are females, while 128 of the respondents representing 34.1% are
males.
Table 2: Age Distribution of Respondents
Variable Frequency Percentage
18-25 80 21.33%
26-30 87 23.20%
31-40 71 18.93%
41-50 99 26.40%
51-60 23 6.14%
61 and above 15 4.00%
Total 375 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2021.
From the table above, 80 of the respondents representing 21.33% are between the age of 18
and 25; 87 of the respondents representing 23.20% are between 26 and 30 years; 71(18.93%) are 31
to 40 years; 99(26.40%) are 42 to 50 years; 23(6.14%) are 51 to 60 years, while 15 of the
respondents representing 4.00% are 61 years and above.
Table 3: Marital Status of Respondents
Variable Frequency Percentage
Single 50 13.3%
Married 325 86.6%
Total 375 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2021.
 39

Table 3 carries the distribution on marital status and showed that 50 of the respondents
representing 13.3% are single, while 325 of the respondents representing 86.6% are married.
Table 4: Educational Qualification of Respondents
Variable Frequency Percentage
O’level 85 22.7%
ND 28 7.5%
HND/BSc 140 37.3%
MSc 83 22.1%
PhD 39 10.4%
Total 375 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2021.
The table indicates that 85 of the respondents representing 22.7% are O’ level holders; 28 of
the respondents representing 7.5% are OND holder; 140 of the respondents representing 37.3% are
either HND or BSc holders, 83 of the respondents representing 22.1% are MSc holders, while 39
representing 10.4% are PhD holders.
Table 5: Occupation Distribution of Respondents
Variable Frequency Percentage
Civil servants 192 51.2%
Business persons 102 27.2%
Teachers 60 16%
Self-employed and other occupations 21 5.6%
Total 375 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2021.
From the above, it is deduced that 192 of the respondents representing 51.2% are civil
servants; 102 of the respondents representing 27.2% are business persons; 60 of the respondents
representing 16% are teachers or lecturers, while 21 of the respondents representing 5.6% are self-
employed and belong to other occupation not mentioned in the variables.
Table 6: Did the media significantly cover and report the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu?

Variables Frequency Percentage

Yes 201 53.6%
No 81 21.6%
Undecided 93 24.8%
Total 375 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2021.
The table indicates that 201 of the respondents representing 53.6%% said that the media
significantly covered and reported the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu; 81 respondents,
representing 21.6% said the media did not significantly cover and report the abduction of Mazi
Nnamdi Kanu, while 93 of the respondents representing 24.8% were undecided.
 40

Table 7: What are the dominant patterns of mass media framing of the abduction of Mazi
Nnamdi Kanu?

Variables Frequency Percentage

Torture 60 16%
Violation of human rights 53 14.13%
All of the above 237 63.2%
None of the above 25 6.67%
Total 375 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2021.
The table indicates that 60 of the respondents representing 16% said that torture is the
dominant pattern of mass media framing of the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu; 53 of the
respondents, representing 14.13% said that vilation of human rights is the dominant pattern of mass
media framing of the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu; 237 of the respondents representing 63.2%
said that torture of violation of human rights are the dominant patterns of mass media framing of the
abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu, while 25 of the respondents representing 6.67% said that neither
torture nor violation of human rights is the dominant pattern of mass media framing of the abduction
of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu.
Table 8: Do the public see media framing of the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu as pro
government?
Variables Frequency Percentage
Yes 258 68.8%
No 97 25.9%
Undecided 20 5.3%
Total 375 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2021.
The table indicates that 258 of the respondents representing 68.8% are of the opinion that the
public see media framing of the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu as pro government; 97 of the
respondents representing 25.9% said the public do not see media framing of the abduction of Mazi
Nnamdi Kanu as pro government, while 20 of the respondents representing 5.3% have no idea
whether or not the public see media framing of the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu as pro
government.
Table 9: What is the perception of the public on media framing of the abduction of Mazi
Nnamdi Kanu as pro government?

Variables Frequency Percentage

Good 201 53.6%
Fair 97 25.9%
Moderate 20 5.3%
Bad 57 15.2%
Total 375 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2021.
 41

The table indicates that 201 of the respondents representing 53.6% are of the opinion that the
perception of the public on media framing of the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu as pro government
is good; 97 of the respondents representing 25.9% said the perception is fair; 20 of the respondents
representing 5.3% said the perception is moderate, while 57 respondents, representing 15.2% said the
perception is bad.
4.2 Test of Hypotheses
The Chi-square formula was used to test the hypotheses in this study.
The Chi-square formula is stated as
X2 = fo – fe
fe
 = Summation
fo = Observed frequency
fe = Expected frequency
Hypothesis One
H1 The media significantly covered and reported the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu.
Ho The media did not cover and report the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu significantly.
Table 10: Test of Hypothesis One
Variables 0 E 0–E (0 – E)2 (0 – E)2
E
Yes 201 125 76 5776 46.2
No 81 125 -44 1936 15.5
Undecided 93 125 -32 1024 8.2
Total 375 69.9
Source: Field Survey, 2021.
Df = K–1
Df = 3–1
Df = 2
Level of significance at 0.05 = 5.991
Decision: Since the calculated Chi-square value (69.9) is greater than the table value (5.991) at 0.05
level of significance and 2 degree of freedom, the alternative hypothesis (H I) is accepted and the null
hypothesis (Ho) is rejected. It holds that the media significantly covered and reported the abduction
of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu.
Hypothesis Two
H2 Torture and human rights violation are the dominant patterns of mass media framing of the
abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu.
Ho Torture and human rights violation are not the dominant patterns of mass media framing of the
abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu.
 42

Table 11: Test of Hypothesis Two

Variables 0 E 0–E (0 – E)2 (0 – E)2

E
Torture 60 93.75 -33.75 1139.0625 12.15
Violation of human rights 53 93.75 -40.75 1660.5625 17.71
All of the above 237 93.75 143.25 20520.5625 218.89
None of the above 25 93.75 -68.75 4726.5625 50.42
Total 375 299.17
Source: Field Survey, 2021.
Df = K–1
Df = 4–1
Df = 3
Level of significance at 0.05 = 7.815
Decision: Since the calculated Chi-square value (299.17) is greater than the table value (7.815) at
0.05 level of significance and 3 degree of freedom, the alternative hypothesis (H 1) is accepted while
the null hypothesis (H0) is rejected. It holds that torture and human rights violation are the dominant
patterns of mass media framing of the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu.
Hypothesis Three
H3 The public see media framing of the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu as pro government.
H0 The public do not see media framing of the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu as pro government.
Table 12: Test of Hypothesis Three
Variables 0 E 0–E (0 – E)2 (0 – E)2
E
Yes 258 125 133 17689 141.5
No 97 125 -28 784 6.3
Undecided 20 125 -105 11025 88.2
Total 375 236
Source: Field Survey, 2021.
Df = K–1
Df = 3–1
Df = 2
Level of significance at 0.05 = 5.991
Decision: Since the calculated Chi-square value (236) is greater than the table value (5.991) at 0.05
level of significance and 2 degree of freedom, the alternative hypothesis (H I) is accepted and the null
hypothesis (Ho) is rejected. It holds that the public see media framing of the abduction of Mazi
Nnamdi Kanu as pro government.
 43

Hypothesis Four
H4 The public have good perception on media framing of the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu as pro
government.
H0 The public do not have good perception on media framing of the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu
as pro government.
Table 13: Test of Hypothesis Four
Variables 0 E 0–E (0 – E)2 (0 – E)2
E
High 201 93.75 107.25 11502.5625 122.69
Very high 97 93.75 3.25 10.5625 0.11
Low 20 93.75 -73.75 5439.0625 58.02
Very low 57 93.75 -36.75 1350.5625 14.41
Total 375 195.23
Source: Field Survey, 2021.
Df = K–1
Df = 4–1
Df = 3
Level of significance at 0.05 = 7.815
Decision: Since the calculated Chi-square value (195.23) is greater than the table value (7.815) at
0.05 level of significance and 3 degree of freedom, the alternative hypothesis (H I) is accepted and the
null hypothesis (Ho) is rejected. It holds that the public have good perception on media framing of
the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu as pro government.
4.3 Discussion of Results
In all, four hypotheses were tested for statistical support. All the alternative hypotheses
received statistical support. The focus of hypothesis one is on whether the media significantly
covered and reported the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu. In the analysis, the calculated Chi-square
value (69.9) was observed to be greater than the table value (5.991), validating the alternative
hypothesis. It holds that the media significantly covered and reported the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi
Kanu. The respondents are of the view that the media had good coverage of the rearrest of Mazi
Namdi Kanu. In the responses, the respondents believed that online had in-depth coverage and
reportage of the issue and kept the public abreast of all information and sides of the issues as
necessary.
In hypothesis two, the focus was on whether torture and human rights violation are the
dominant patterns of mass media framing of the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu. The analysis
showed that the calculated Chi-square value (9) is greater than the table value (3.841), authenticating
the alternative hypothesis. It holds that torture and human rights violation are the dominant patterns
of mass media framing of the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu. The respondents are of the view that
 44

the framing of the rearrest of Nnamdi Kanu by the media took majorly the frames of torture and
human rights violations. In the responses, the respondents submitted that online medic captured most
stories on the rearrest of Nnamdi Kanu with their major highlights centering on torture and human
rights violations.
Hypothesis three dwelt on whether the public see media framing of the abduction of Mazi
Nnamdi Kanu as pro government. In the analysis, the calculated Chi-square value (236) is greater
than the table value (5.991), giving credence to the alternative hypothesis. It holds that public sees
media framing of the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu as pro government. In the responses, the
respondents believe that the reports carried by the media on the rearrest of Nnamdi Kanu were
reported in angles that favoured the government.
Hypothesis four centred on whether the public have good perception on media framing of the
abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu as pro government. In the analysis, the calculated Chi-square value
(195.23) is greater than the table value (7.815), giving credence to the alternative hypothesis. It holds
that the public have good perception on media framing of the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu as
pro government. Though the respondents see the report of the media as pro government, they still
perceive the reports as good. This is because, in the view of the respondents, the media still tried to
keep the public updated on issues surrounding the rearrest of Nnamdi Kanu.
 45

CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary
The focus of this study is on Enugu urban residents’ perception of mass media framing of the
abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu from Kenya. This study started with background information on the
subject matter of the study as to determine the perception of the public on media framing of the
abduction of Nnamdi Kanu from Kenya. This analysis gave rise to the statement of the research
problem; the objectives of the study were stated; research questions and hypotheses were formulated
to further the overall generation and analysis of data.
Literature was extensively reviewed on the subject matter of the study. The reviewed
literature show that frames have an interesting trait of changing and varying across developmental
stages when it comes to appearing in media coverage of a crisis. News media gives limited attention
to certain issues at any given moment and the amount of attention given to any crisis may go through
competitive selection.
The research methodology for this study is the survey research method. Questionnaire was
constructed and administered to the sample of the study, which was drawn from the population, as to
know the effectiveness of radio in promoting personal hygiene practices as a panacea for preventing
the spread of corona virus in Nigeria.
The findings of the study is therefore summarised as follows:
 The media significantly covered and reported the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu.
 Torture and human rights violation are the dominant patterns of mass media framing of the
abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu.
 Public sees media framing of the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu as pro government.
 The public have good perception on media framing of the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu
as pro government.
5.2 Conclusion
The media generally perform vital roles in serving the society’s overall socio-economic and
political system. The media prominently covered the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu from Kenya,
and gave good framing. The media are seen as the mouth piece of the society. They follow events in
the society and portray issues in frames that the people view them in certain perspectives. However,
the perception of the people about media framing of the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu from
Kenya is that the reports are pro government. The image of the media is debased by the perception of
the people about their reports on the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu from Kenya, because they see
the reports as pro government.
 46

5.3 Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations have been made:
 The media should tilt more of their reports on the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu towards
positive direction of allaying fear/tension surrounding the abduction.
 The media should adopt more of topic modeling as a useful approach to frame analysis. Its
inductive component also allows for a more objective interpretation of the meaning of texts
than the traditional manual text analysis with pre-specified frames.
 The media should resist the temptation of focusing mainly on the negatives like tribute and
violation of human rights as such method may result in more tension and agitation.
 The media should engage constructive coverage that balances the negatives and positives in
equal proportions. For instance, trial and arraignment frame can be reported in the same way
torture and violation of human rights frame dominated the coverage.
 The media should engage in active and objective reports of issues.
 The ethical principle of accuracy should be upheld by media practitioners.
 47

References

Adisa, R. M., Mohammed, R. B., & Ahmad, M. K. (2016). Issues and consequences of newspaper
framing on ethnic conflict: A qualitative study of ethnic group leaders’ conflict frames.
Malaysian Journal of Communication, 32(2), 294-316.

Agbo, B., Ojobor, I. & Ezinwa, C. (2010). Issues in development communication. Enugu: John
Jacobs Publishers.

Cappella, J. N., & Jamieson, K. H. (1997). Spiral of cynicism: the press and the public good. New
York: Oxford University Press.

Chilisa, B. (2012). Indigenous research methodologies. International Journal of Critical Indigenous

Studies, 5(1), 93-109.

Chime-Nganya, R., Ezegwu, D. T., & Ezeji, A. (2017). Analysis of Nigerian newspapers framing of
President Mohammadu Buhari’s medical leave to United Kingdom. Media and
Communication Currents, 1(2), 39-56.

Cooper, A. H. (2002). Media framing and social movement mobilization: German peace protest
against INF missiles, the gulf war and NATO peace enforcement in Bosnia. European
Journal of Political Research, 41, 37–80.

D’Angelo, P. (2002). News framing as a multi-paradigmatic research programme: a response to

Entman. Journal of Communication, 52, 870–888.

Daramola, I. (2003). Introduction to mass communication (2nd ed.). Lagos: Rothan Press.

Ejekwonyilo, A. (2021). Nnamdi Kanu re-arrested, returned to Nigeria – Malami. Retrieved from
https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/470566-updated-nnamdi-kanu-re-arrested-
returned-to-nigeria-malami.html

Entman, R. B. (1993). Framing: toward clarification of a fractured paradigm. Journal of

Communication, 43, 51–58.

Entman, R. M. (1992). Framing U.S. coverage of international news: contrasts in narratives of the
KAL and Iran air incidents. Journal of Communication, 41(4), 6-27.

Eze, M. A. (2011). Fundamentals of communication theories (2nd ed.). Enugu: De-Verge Agencies.

Galician, M. (2004). Sex, love and romance in the mass media: analysis and criticism of unrealistic
portrayals and their influence. Memphis: Psychology Press.

Gittin, T. (1980). The whole world is watching mass media in the making and unmaking of the new
left. Berkeley, California: University of California Press.

Han, G., & Wang, X. (2011). Understanding made in China: Valence framing and product country
image. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 89(2), 225-244. Retrieved from
https://www.questia.com/read/1P3-2713162401/understanding-made-in-china-valence-
framing-and
 48

Hertog, J. K., & McLeod, D. M. (2001). A multi perspectival approach to framing analysis: a field
guide. In Reese, S. D. Gandy, O. H. & Grant, A. E. (Eds.), Framing public life. Mahwah,
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Hu, H. & Zhu, J. J. H. (2017). Social networks, mass media and public opinions. In Journal of
Economic Interaction and Coordination, 1(5), 1-19.

Iyengar, S. (1991). Is anyone responsible? how television frames political issues. Chicago, IL:
University of Chicago Press.

Jibrin, R. (2019). Media framing of the Ruga settlement initiative of the Federal Government of
Nigeria and its implication on government interest. Media and Communication Currents,
3(2), 33-47.

Lamidi, I. K., & Olisa, D. S. (2016). Newspaper framing of the APC change mantra in the 2015
Nigerian Presidential election: A study of The Punch and The Guardian newspapers. Journal
of Communication and Media Research, 8(2), 201-218.

Leask, J., Hooker, C. & King, C. (2010). Media coverage of health issues and how to work more
effectively with journalists: a qualitative study. In Public Health, 10, 535.

Mathes, J. (2009). What's in a Frame? A Content Analysis of Media Framing Studies in the World's
Leading Communication Journals, 1990-2005. Journalism and Mass Communication
Quarterly, 862), 349-367. Retrieved from
https://www.questia.com/read/1P3-1860676051/what-s-in-a-frame-a-contentanalysis-of-
media-framing

Mberia & Zipporah (2014). Mass media:theories and realities. Enugu: Bismark Publications.

Ndinojuo, B. E., Ihejirika, W. C., & Okon, G. B. (2018). Reinvigorating the framing theory:
Appraising reports on Nigerian military and Boko haram insurgency. International Journal
of Media, Journalism and Mass Communications (IJMJMC), 4(4), 10-19.

Ndolo, I. S. (2006). Mass media systems and society. Enugu: Rhyce Kerex.

Neuman, W. R., Just, M. R., & Crigler, A. N. (1992). Common knowledge. news and the
construction of political meaning. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Nisbet, M. C. (2009). Communicating climate change: Why frames matter for specific engagement
in environment. Science and Policy for Sustainable Development. 51(2), 12-23.

Nsude, I., Nwamini, S., Onu, C., & Nwofe, E. (2016). Politics of Boko Haram insurgency reportage
during the 2015 general election in Nigeria. Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research,
24(8), 2473-2479.

Nwabueze, C. (2005). Mass media and community mobilization for development: an analytical
approach. International Journal of Communication, 2, 1-9.

Nwodu, I. C. (2006). Research in communication and other behavioural sciences – principles

methods and issues. Enugu: Rhyce Kerex Publishers.

Nwogbunyama, E. (2007). Student companion in advertising. Enugu: Benalice.

 49

Ofori-Birikorang, A. (2010). Promoting a new health policy in the Ghanaian media: Newspaper
framing of the national health insurance scheme from 2005-2007. Unpublished doctoral
dissertation, Ohio University, Athens, OH.

Okenwa, S. N. (2002). The mass media: theories and realities. Enugu: Bismark.

Oso, L. (2017). Understanding framing theory. www.researchgate.net

Potter, W. J. (2011). Conceptualizing mass media effect. In Journal of communication, 61(5), 896-
915.

Ramey, C. R. (2007). Mass media unleashed: how Washington policy makers short-changed the
American public. London: Roman & Littlefield. Retrieved from
http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/mass_media

Semetko, H. A. & Valkenburg, P. M. (2000). Framing European politics: a content analysis of press
and television news. Journal of Communication, 50(2), 93–109.

Shah, D., Watts, M. D., Domke, D. & Fan, D. (2002). News framing and cueing of issue regimes:
explaining Clinton’s public approval in spite of scandal. Public Opinion Quarterly, 66, 339–
370.

Slothuus, R., & de Vreese, C. H. (2010). Political parties, motivated reasoning and Issues framing
effects. The Journal of Politics, 72 (3), 630-645. Retrieved on Nov. 22, 2015 from
http://ps.au.dk/fileadmin/Statskundskab/Dokumenter/subsites/
Forskersider/runeslothuus/Dokumenter/JOP2010.pdf.

Sniderman, P. M. & Theriault, S. M. (2004). The structure of political argument and the logic of
issue framing. In Saris, W. E. & Sniderman, P. M. (Eds.), Studies in public opinion:
attitudes, nonattitudes, measurements error and change. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton
University Press.

Tolley, E. (2016). Qualitative methods in public health: A field guide for applied research. Medicine
and Science in Sports and Exercise, 37(7), 12-49.

Uwakwe, O. (2006). Manual for writers and researchers. Enugu: Cecta Nigeria.

Valentino, N. A., Beckmann, M. N. & Buhr, T. A. (2001). A spiral for of cynicism for some: the
contingent effects of campaign news frames on participation and confidence in government.
Political Communication, 18, 347–367.

Vreese, C. H. (2002). Framing Europe. television news and European integration. Amsterdam:
Aksant Academic Publishers.

Wogu, J. O., Chukwu, C. O., Nwafor, K. A., Anikpe, E. A., Ugwuoke, J. C., & Ugwulor-
Onyinyechi, C. C. (2020). Mass media reportage of Lassa fever in Nigeria: a viewpoint. In
Journal of International Medical Research, 48(1), 23-36.

Yildirim, T. P. (2012). The impact of advertising and user-generated content on media bias.
Pittsburg: University of Pittsburgh.

Zaller, J. (1992). The nature and origins of mass opinion. New York: Cambridge University Press.
 50

APPENDIX I
Letter of Introduction
School of Communication Arts
Department of Mass Communication
Institute of Management and Technology
Enugu

7 December 2021
Dear Respondent,
Request for Filling of Questionnaire
The researcher is a final year student of Mass Communication Department, Institute of
Management and Technology (IMT), Enugu. The researcher is conducting a study on the “Enugu
Urban Residents’ Perception of Mass Media Framing of the Abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu from
Kenya.”
I sincerely assure you that your responses will be treated with utmost confidentiality and will
be used solely for the execution of this study.
Thanks for your anticipated cooperation.
Yours faithfully,

Onyeabor Chioma
(Researcher)
 51

APPENDIX II
QUESTIONNAIRE
Section One: Demographic Data
Instruction: Tick () in the boxes that provided appropriate response to the answer.
1. Gender: Male [ ] Female [ ]
2. Age: 20-25 [ ] 26-30 [ ] 31 and above [ ]
3. Marital Status:Single [ ] Married [ ]
4. Occupation: Student [ ] Civil Servant [ ] Business [ ] Others (specify)………………
5. Educational Qualification: O’ level [ ] OND [ ] HND/Degree [ ] Others (specify)….
Section Two: Thematic Questions
6. Do you listen to radio or watch television? Yes [ ] No [ ]
7. Do you read newspaper and/or magazine? Yes [ ] No [ ]
8. Which mass media do you use most? Radio [ ] Television [ ] Newspaper [ ]
Magazine [ ] Others (Specify)………………………………..
9. How often do you listen to radio or watch television? Regularly [ ] Seldom [ ]
10. How often do you read newspaper and/or magazine? Regularly [ ] Seldom [ ]
11. Do you agree that the media significantly cover and report the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi
Kanu? Agree [ ] Strongly agree [ ] Disagree [ ] Strongly disagree [ ]
12. How can you rate the level of coverage of the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu by the media?
High [ ] Low [ ] Can’t say [ ]
13. Do you think the media were professional in framing the abduction of Mazi NNmadi Kanu?
Yes [ ] No [ ]
14. Do you agree that torture and violation of human rights frame are the dominant patterns of
mass media framing of the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu?
Agree [ ] Strongly agree [ ] Disagree [ ] Strongly disagree [ ]
15. Do you the framing of the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu by the media is pro-government?
Yes [ ] No [ ]
16. How do you view media framing of the abduction of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu?
Good [ ] Fair [ ] Indifference [ ]