Chapter 1

VICKERS HARDNESS TEST

Aim: To determine the Vickers hardness number of the given material

Apparatus: Vickers hardness tester, Diamond pyramid indenter
Theory: Vickers hardness is a measure of the hardness of a material, calculated from the size of an
impression produced under load by a pyramid-shaped diamond indenter. The indenter employed in the
Vickers test is a square-based pyramid whose opposite sides meet at the apex at an angle of 136º. The
diamond is pressed into the surface of the material at loads ranging up to approximately 120 kilograms-
force, and the size of the impression is measured with the aid of a calibrated microscope. The Vickers
hardness number (VHN) is calculated using the following formula:

VHN = 1.854(P/D2)

with ‘P’ being the applied load in Kg and ‘D’ is the arithmetic mean of the two diagonals, d1and d2 in mm.

Vickers’s hardness tester

Procedure:
1. Place the polished specimen on the platform.
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 2. Raise the platform till the surface of the specimen is focused on the microscope screen.
3. Select the load and dwell time.
4. Apply load by pressing start test.

5. Wait till the revolver rotates to its indenter position and makes indentation on sample.

6. Wait till the revolver rotates to its original position i.e., objective
7. Measure the length of the diagonals (d1 and d2) using the travelling micrometer and calculate the
average D
8. For each material make at least three indentations and measure the length of diagonals
9. Using the formula calculate the Vickers hardness number for each trail and calculate their average.

Observations:

Indenter : Diagonal square pyramid ……...º

Least count of travelling microscope = ………..mm

Tabular Column
Sl Material Standard Diagonal width (mm)
No Load P (Kg) d1 Avg d2 Avg

Conclusion: The VHN of given material is found to be ………………

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 Chapter 2
WEAR TEST

AIM: To find out the wear coefficient of the materials of the given specimens (aluminum or brass)
APPARATUS: Pin and Disc Wear Testing machine with weight hanger, electronic weighing balance loads.
THEORY: In materials science, wear is the erosion of material from a solid surface by the action of another
substance. The study of the processes of wear is part of the discipline of tribology. There are five principal
wear processes:

1. Adhesive wear
2. Abrasive wear
3. Surface fatigue
4. Fretting wear
5. Erosion wear

The definition of wear does not include loss of dimension from plastic deformation, although wear has
occurred despite no material removal. This definition also fails to include impact wear, where there is no sliding
motion, cavitation’s, where the counter body is a fluid, and corrosion, where the damage is due to chemical
rather than mechanical action.

Wear can also be defined as a process in which interaction of the surfaces or bounding faces of a solid with
its working environment results in dimensional loss of the solid, with or without loss of material. Aspects of the
working environment which affect wear include loads (such as unidirectional sliding, reciprocating, rolling, and
impact loads), speed, temperature, type of counter body (solid, liquid, or gas), and type of contact (single phase or
multiphase, in which the phases involved can be liquid plus solid particles plus gas bubbles).

In the results of standard wear tests (such as those formulated by the respective subcommittees of ASTM
Committee G-2), the loss of material during wear is expressed in terms of volume. The volume loss gives a truer
picture than weight loss, particularly when comparing the wear resistance properties of materials with large
differences in density. For example, a weight loss of 14 g in a sample of tungsten carbide + cobalt (density =

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14000 kg/m³) and a weight loss of 2.7 g in a similar sample of aluminum alloy (density = 2700 kg/m³) both
result in the same level of wear (1 cm³) when expressed as a volume loss.

Adhesive wear

Adhesive wear is also known as scoring, galling, or seizing. It occurs when two solid surfaces slide
over one another under pressure. Surface projections, or asperities, are plastically deformed and eventually
welded together by the high local pressure. As sliding continues, these bonds are broken, producing cavities on
the surface, projections on the second surface, and frequently tiny, abrasive particles, all of which contribute to
future wear of surfaces.

Abrasive wear

When material is removed by contact with hard particles, abrasive wear occurs. The particles either may
be present at the surface of a second material (two-body wear) or may exist as loose particles between two
surfaces (three-body wear). Abrasive wear can be measured as loss of mass by the Taber Abrasion Test
according to ISO 9352 or ASTM D 1044.

Surface fatigue

Surface fatigue is a process by which the surface of a material is weakened by cyclic loading, which is one
type of general material fatigue.

Fretting wear

Fretting wear is the repeated cyclical rubbing between two surfaces, which is known as fretting, over a
period of time which will remove material from one or both surfaces in contact. It occurs typically in bearings,
although most bearings have their surfaces hardened to resist the problem. Another problem occurs when cracks
in either surface are created, known as fretting fatigue. It is the more serious of the two phenomena because it
can lead to catastrophic failure of the bearing. An associated problem occurs when the small particles removed
by wear are oxidized in air. The oxides are usually harder than the underlying metal, so wear accelerates as the
harder particles abrade the metal surfaces further. Fretting corrosion acts in the same way, especially when water is
present. Unprotected bearings on large structures like bridges can suffer serious degradation in behavior,
especially when salt is used during winter to deice the highways carried by the bridges.

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PROCEDURE:
1. Insert the given specimen in the proper position after initially weighing it.
2. The hanger facilitates loading of required load.
3. The disc is driven by a motor. The speed of the motor is controlled by dimmer stat. The speed is
adjusted to the required value. The machine is run for 15 minutes.
4. The specimen is removed from the holder and weighed again.
5. The loss in volume is noted.
6. The experiment may be repeated for different materials, loads and speeds.

Setup of Pin –On –Disc Wear Testing Machine

OBSERVATIONS:
Sl. Dia. Of the Specimen ‘d’ Track Radius
Specimen
No. in mm ‘R’ in mm

1 Brass

2 Aluminum

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TABULATION:
Time Weight (grams) Wear
Load based on Wear rate
Seconds
Trail No. Specimen in weight loss W= P/A.S
grams W1 W2 (W1 - W2) gmm-3
(grams)

1
Brass
2

1
Aluminum
2

CALCULATIONS:
The wear volume is related to wear coefficient as follows:
W = P/A.S
Where
W= Wear based on weight loss (grams) (W1 - W2)
A = * d 2 / 4
S= V*T
S= Sliding distance
N = Revolutions per min
T=Time duration in Sec.
V= 2π RN/60
Sliding Pressure: Force /Area
RESULTS:
Weight in Wear rate
Sl. No. Specimen
grams gmm-3
1
Brass
2
1
Aluminum
2

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GRAPHS:
a. Weight loss v/s Sliding Distance. b. Wear
rate v/s Sliding Pressure

CONCLUSION: The wear rate of given specimen is …………...