International Economics – 12th Edition Instructor’s Manual

Solution Manual for International Economics 12th Edition

Salvatore 1118955765 9781118955765
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CHAPTER 2
*(Core Chapter)

THE LAW OF COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE

OUTLINE

2.1 Introduction

2.2 The Mercantilists' Views on Trade

Case Study 2-1: Munn's Mercantilistic Views on Trade
Case Study 2-2: Mercantilism Is Alive and Well in the Twenty-first Century

2.3 Trade Based on Absolute Advantage: Adam Smith

2.3A Absolute Advantage
2.3B Illustration of Absolute Advantage

2.4 Trade Based on Comparative Advantage: David Ricardo

2.4A The Law of Comparative Advantage
2.4B The Gains from Trade
2.4C Exception to the Law of Comparative Advantage
2.4D Comparative Advantage with Money
Case Study 2-3: The Petition of the Candlemaker

2.5 Comparative Advantage with Opportunity Costs

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International Economics – 12th Edition Instructor’s Manual

2.5A Comparative Advantage and the Labor Theory of Value

2.5B The Opportunity Cost Theory
2.5C The Production Possibility Frontier Under Constant Costs
2.5D Opportunity Costs and Relative Commodity Prices

2.6 The Basis and the Gains from Trade Under Constant Costs
2.6A Illustration of the Gains from Trade
2.6B Relative Commodity Prices with Trade

2.7 Empirical Tests of the Ricardian Model

Case Study 2-4: Other Empirical Tests of the Ricardian Trade Model

Appendix: A2.1 Comparative Advantage with More than Two Commodities

A2.2 Comparative Advantage with More than Two Nations

Key Terms

Basis for trade Labor theory of value Gains

from trade Opportunity cost theory Pattern of
trade Production possibility frontier
Mercantilism Constant opportunity cost
Absolute advantage Relative commodity prices
Laissez-faire Complete specialization
Law of comparative advantage Small country case

Lecture Guide

1. This is a long and crucial core chapter and may require four classes to cover a
adequately. In the first lecture, I would present Sections 1, 2, and 3. These are short s
sections and set the stage for the crucial law of comparative advantage.

2. In the second lecture of Chapter 2, I would concentrate on Section 4 and carefully

explain the law of comparative advantage using simple numerical examples as in the
text. The crucial parts here are 4b (which explains the law) and 4d (which establishes
the link between trade theory and international finance). I find that the numerical
explanations before the graphical analysis really helps the student to truly understand
the law. The simple lawyer-secretary example should also render the law more
immediately relevant to the student. I would also assign Problems 1-6.

(ch02.doc) 2-2 Dominick Salvatore

International Economics – 12th Edition Instructor’s Manual

3. In the third lecture, I would cover Sections 2.5 and 2.6a. I would pay particular
attention to Sections 2.5c, 2.5d, and 2.6, which are the heart of the chapter.

4. In the fourth lecture, I would cover the remainder of the chapter. The crucial section
here is 2.6b and the most difficult concept to explain is the shape of the combined
supply curve for wheat and cloth. The appendixes could be made optional for the more
enterprising students in the class. I would also assign Problems 7-13.

Answer to Problems

1. In case A, the United States has an absolute advantage in wheat and the United
Kingdom in cloth.

In case B, the United States has an absolute advantage (so that the United Kingdom
has an absolute disadvantage) in both commodities.

In case C, the United States has an absolute advantage in wheat but has neither an
absolute advantage nor disadvantage in cloth.

In case D, the United States has an absolute advantage over the United Kingdom in
both commodities.
2. In case A, the United States has a comparative advantage in wheat and the United
Kingdom in cloth.

In case B, the United States has a comparative advantage in wheat and the United
Kingdom in cloth.

In case C, the United States has a comparative advantage in wheat and the United
Kingdom in cloth.

In case D, the United States and the United Kingdom have a comparative advantage
in neither commodities.

3. In case A, trade is possible based on absolute advantage.

In case B, trade is possible based on comparative advantage.

In case C, trade is possible based on comparative advantage.

In case D, no trade is possible because the absolute advantage that the United States
has over the United Kingdom is the same in both commodities.

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International Economics – 12th Edition Instructor’s Manual

4. a) The United States gains 1C.

b) The United Kingdom gains 4C.

c) 3C < 4W < 8C.

d) The United States would gain 3C while the United Kingdom would gain 2C.

5) a) The cost in terms of labor content of producing wheat is 1/4 in the United States a
and 1 in the United Kingdom, while the cost in terms of labor content of
producing cloth is 1/3 in the United States and 1/2 in the United Kingdom.

b) In the United States, Pw=$1.50 and Pc=$2.00.

c) In the United Kingdom, Pw=£1.00 and Pc=£0.50.

6) a) With the exchange rate of £1=$2, Pw=2.00 and Pc=$1.00 in the United Kingdom,
so that the United States would be able to export wheat to the United Kingdom and
the United Kingdom would be able to export cloth to the United States.

b) With the exchange rate of £1=$4, Pw=$4.00 and Pc=$2.00 in the United
Kingdom, so that the United States would be able to export wheat to the
United Kingdom, but the United Kingdom would be unable to export any
cloth to the United States.

c) With £1=$1, Pw=$1.00 and Pc=$0.50 in the United Kingdom, so that the United
Kingdom would be able to export both commodities to the United States.

d) $1.50 < £1.00 < $4.00.

7. a) See Figure 1.

b) In the United States Pw/Pc=3/4, while in the United Kingdom, Pw/Pc=2.

c) In the United States Pc/Pw=4/3, while in the United Kingdom Pc/Pw=1/2.

8. See Figure 2.
The autarky points are A and A' in the United States and the United Kingdom, respectively.
The points of production with trade are B and B' in the United States and the United
Kingdom, respectively. The points of consumption are E and E' in the United States and the
United Kingdom, respectively. The gains from trade are shown by E > A for the U.S. and
E' > A' for the U.K.

(ch02.doc) 2-4 Dominick Salvatore

International Economics – 12th Edition Instructor’s Manual

9. a) If DW(US+UK) shifted up in Figure 2.3, the equilibrium relative commodity price

of wheat would also rise by 1/3 to PW/PC=4/3. Since the higher DW(US+UK) would
still intersect the vertical portion of the S W(US+UK) curve, the United States would
continue to specialize completely in the production of wheat and produce 180W,
while the United kingdom would continue to specialize completely in the
production of cloth and produce 120C.

b) Since the equilibrium relative commodity price of cloth is the inverse of the
relative commodity price of wheat, if the latter rises to 4/3, then the former falls
to
¾.. This means that DC(UK+US) shifts down by 1/3 in the right panel of Figure 2.3.

(ch02.doc) 2-5 Dominick Salvatore

International Economics – 12th Edition Instructor’s Manual

(ch02.doc) 2-6 Dominick Salvatore

International Economics – 12th Edition Instructor’s Manual

10. If DW(US+UK) intersected SW(US+UK) at PW/PC=2/3 and 120W in the left panel of
Figure 2.3, this would mean that the United States would not be specializing
completely in the production of wheat.

The United Kingdom, on the other hand, would be specializing completely in the
production of cloth and exchanging 20C for 30W with the United States. Since the United
Kingdom trades at U.S. the pre-trade relative commodity price of PW/PC=2/3 in the United
States, the United Kingdom receives all of the gains from trade.

11. See Figure 3 on page 15 and the discussion in the last paragraph of Section 2.6b in
the text.

12. a) The Ricardian model was tested empirically by showing the positive correlation
between relative productivities and the ratio of U.S.to U.K. exports to third
countries and by the negative correlation between relative unit labor costs and
relative exports

b) The Ricardian trade model was confirmed by the positive relationship found
between the relative labor productivity and the ratio of U.S. to U.K. exports to
third countries, as well as by the negative relationship between relative unit labor
costs and relative exports.

c) Even though the Ricardian model was more or less empirically confirmed we
still need other models because the former assumes rather than explains
comparative advantage (i.e, it does not explain the reason for the different labor
productivities in different nations) and cannot say much regarding the effect of
international trade on the earnings of factors of production.

d) The United States has a comparative disadvantage in the production of textiles.

Restricting textile imports would keep U.S. workers from eventually moving
into industries in which the United States has a comparative advantage and in
which wages are higher.

Answer to Problem in Appendix 2

The numbers in the following table refer to the cost or price of commodities X, Y, and Z in
nations A, B, and C in terms of the same currency. Thus, nation A exports commodity X

(ch02.doc) 2-7 Dominick Salvatore

International Economics – 12th Edition Instructor’s Manual

to nations B and C; nation B exports commodity Y to nations A and C; nation C exports

commodity Z to nations A and B.

Nation
B
A C
X 1 2 3
Commodity Y 3 1.5 2
Z 4 3 2

Multiple-Choice Questions

1. The Mercantilists did not advocate:

*a.free trade
b. stimulating the nation's exports
c. restricting the nations' imports
d. the accumulation of gold by the nation

2. According to Adam Smith, international trade was based on:

*a. absolute advantage

b. comparative advantage
c. both absolute and comparative advantage
d. neither absolute nor comparative advantage

3. What proportion of international trade is based on absolute advantage?

a. All
b. most *c. some d. none

4. The commodity in which the nation has the smallest absolute disadvantage is the
commodity of its:

a. absolute disadvantage
b. absolute advantage
c. comparative disadvantage

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International Economics – 12th Edition Instructor’s Manual

*d. comparative advantage

5. If in a two-nation (A and B), two-commodity (X and Y) world, it is established that

nation A has a comparative advantage in commodity X, then nation B must have:

a. an absolute advantage in commodity Y

b. an absolute disadvantage in commodity Y
c. a comparative disadvantage in commodity Y
*d. a comparative advantage in commodity Y

6. If with one hour of labor time nation A can produce either 3X or 3Y while nation B can
produce either 1X or 3Y (and labor is the only input):

a. nation A has a comparative disadvantage in commodity X

b. nation B has a comparative disadvantage in commodity Y
*c. nation A has a comparative advantage in commodity X
d. nation A has a comparative advantage in neither commodity

7. With reference to the statement in Question 6:

a Px/Py=1 in nation A b.
Px/Py=3 in nation B
c. Py/Px=1/3 in nation B
*d. all of the above

8. With reference to the statement in Question 6, if 3X is exchanged for 3Y:

a. nation A gains 2X *b.

nation B gains 6Y c.
nation A gains 3Y
d. nation B gains 3Y

9. With reference to the statement of Question 6, the range of mutually beneficial trade
between nation A and B is:

a 3Y < 3X < 5Y
b. 5Y < 3X < 9Y *c
3Y < 3X < 9Y d.
1Y < 3X < 3Y

10. If domestically 3X=3Y in nation A, while 1X=1Y domestically in nation B:

(ch02.doc) 2-9 Dominick Salvatore

International Economics – 12th Edition Instructor’s Manual

a. there will be no trade between the two nations

b. the relative price of X is the same in both nations
c. the relative price of Y is the same in both nations
*d. all of the above

11. Ricardo explained the law of comparative advantage on the basis of:

*a. the labor theory of value

b. the opportunity cost theory
c. the law of diminishing returns
d. all of the above

12. Which of the following statements is true?

a. The combined demand for each commodity by the two nations is negatively sloped
b. the combined supply for each commodity by the two nations is rising stepwise
c. the equilibrium relative commodity price for each commodity with trade is given
by the intersection of the demand and supply of each commodity by the two nations *d.
all of the above

13. A difference in relative commodity prices between two nations can be based upon a
difference in:

a. factor endowments
b. technology
c. tastes
*d. all of the above

14. In the trade between a small and a large nation:

a. the large nation is likely to receive all of the gains from trade *b.
the small nation is likely to receive all of the gains from trade
c. the gains from trade are likely to be equally shared
d. we cannot say

15. The Ricardian trade model has been empirically

*a. verified b.
rejected
c. not tested
d. tested but the results were inconclusive

(ch02.doc) 2-10 Dominick Salvatore

International Economics – 12th Edition Instructor’s Manual

(ch02.doc) 2-8 Dominick Salvatore

 Part One: International Trade Theory

Chapter 2
The Law of Comparative Advantage

“The division of labor, however, so far as it can be introduced, occasions, in every art, a
proportional increase of the productive powers of labor.”
Adam Smith, W ealth of Nations, Book I, Chapter I.

I. Chapter Outline

2.1 Introduction
2.2 The Mercantilists' Views on Trade
2.3 Trade Based on Absolute Advantage: Adam Smith
2.3a Absolute Advantage
2.3b Illustration of Absolute Advantage
2.4 Trade Based on Comparative Advantage: David Ricardo
2.4a The Law of Comparative Advantage
2.4b The Gains from Trade
2.4c Exception to the Law of Comparative Advantage
2.4d Comparative Advantage with Money
2.5 Comparative Advantage and Opportunity Costs
2.5a Comparative Advantage and the Labor Theory of Value
2.5b The Opportunity Cost Theory
2.5c The Production Possibility Frontier Under Constant Costs
2.5d Opportunity Costs and Relative Commodity Prices
2.6 The Basis for and the Gains from Trade Under Constant Costs
2.6a Illustration of the Gains from Trade
2.6b Relative Commodity Prices with Trade
2.7 Empirical Tests of the Ricardian Model

II. Chapter Summary and Review

International Economics, Twelfth Edition Study Guide

This chapter introduces and begins the development of the law of comparative
advantage. Comparative advantage is the principal idea at the core of modern
trade theory, so it is worthwhile to learn it well now. Subsequent material is more

complex and assumes the law of comparative advantage is understood and

mastered. Consequently, the summary of the material in this chapter will tend to
be somewhat more extensive than subsequent summaries.

One prominent view of trade during the 17 th and 18th centuries is known as
mercantilism. Although mercantilism is a mostly loose collection of writings by
merchants, government officials, and economists, there is a clear thread about
trade that emerges. The mercantilist view of trade is that exports should be
promoted because they produce payments from other countries, while imports
should be discouraged because they produce payments to other countries. During
the mercantilist period, gold or silver bullion was the primary form of domestic and
international payments. This meant that an excess of exports over imports would
generate an inflow of such bullion. In the mercantilist view, the accumulation of
bullion is how a nation gains from international commerce, so the role of
government is to pursue policies that encourage exports and discourage imports.

Mercantilist policies could be beneficial to a nation or special interest groups

in a nation. Merchants constitute a special interest group that would gain either
from the emphasis on increasing their production for export or from protecting their
domestic activity from the competition of foreign imports. The mercantilist view also
may make sense from the point of view of building a nation state in the 17 th and
18th centuries. The accumulation of bullion as reserves can help finance military to
consolidate and expand state power. Finally, an inflow of gold might also help
economies in recession by increasing the money supply which would promote
output and employment.

The mercantilist view of the world is a dim one, however, in that not all
nations can be successful from the mercantilist perspective. Because one nation's
exports are some other nation’s imports, an excess of exports over imports by one
nation means that its trading partners must import more than they export. If one
nation gains from trade, at least from a mercantilist perspective, by successfully
exporting more than it imports, then the nation’s trading partners, as a group, must
necessarily lose. In the mercantilist view, trade is a zero-sum game. Although some
nations will gain from trade, defined as accumulation of bullion, the remaining
nations, as a group, must lose an equal amount. According to the mercantilist view
of the world then, the net world gain from trade is always zero and nations are
8
 Chapter 2 / The Law of Comparative Advantage

pitted against each other in the arena of international trade. One nation’s gain
comes only at the expense of other nations.

Although mercantilism was the predominant view of trade in the 17 th and

18th centuries, it is important to note that modern views of trade, including the press
and the person on the street, as well as national governments, are in many
respects still mercantilists. A trade deficit (excess of imports over exports)
generates a good deal of criticism in the popular press with demands for polices to
correct the situation. This view often meets the approval of citizens.

It was largely in response to mercantilism that Adam Smith in his classic book, An
Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, which was published
in 1776, explained how trade produces gains to all nations. Smith argued that if
two nations freely trade according to their strengths then both nations will gain. The
strength of a nation was identified in terms of labor productivity. The nation with
higher labor productivity in a good has an absolute advantage in the production of
the good and so should produce the good for itself and other nations. In Smith’s
views both exports and imports are good if they occur willingly. If a nation freely
exports a good, then both the exporting seller and the importing buyer must gain
or the transaction would not be willingly made.

The concept of absolute advantage can be explained by considering two

countries, each producing two goods with one input, labor. By comparing the
productivity of labor, as measured by output per laborer per some time period in
each country, the absolute advantage of each country can be determined. This is
best demonstrated with a numerical example.

Table 2.1 provides assumed units of output per laborer (for some given time
period, such as a day) for commodities X and Y in Nations 1 and 2. One laborer in
Nation 1 can produce 10 units of Commodity X or 1 unit of Commodity Y. One
laborer in Nation 2 can produce 1 unit of Commodity X or 20 units of Commodity
Y. Because Nation 1 can produce more of Commodity X per laborer than Nation 2,
Nation 1 has an absolute advantage in the production of Commodity X. Nation 2
can produce more of Commodity Y per laborer than Nation 1, so Nation 2 has the
absolute advantage in Commodity Y.

Table 2.1: Output per Laborer and Absolute Advantage

Nation 1 Nation 2
Commodity X 10 1
Commodity Y 1 20

9
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1079 Keogh Peter
C 14
132 Aug
5952 Kerritt Jacob
D 17
85 Aug
5310 Kerr C L
B 11
2484 Kerr H Cav 2L June 64
 25
178 July
3915 Kertser T
K 25
141 July
2797 Kester Chas
F 2
Oct
1622 Kettle Sol Art 2K
28
95 Sept
9015 Keys R
C 17
April
650 Keyes O S, S’t Cav 5E
20
126 June
1932 Kidd Owen
K 14
125 Aug
4606 Killner Sanford
F 3
June
1864 Kilmer J 5 I
12
115 Oct
10614 Kilson J
E 10
Nov
12026 Kimball S, S’t Art 7F
15
76 July
3262 Kimberly C
B 13
99 Sept
7999 King ——
I 6
21 Sept
9816 King N Cav
G 26
24 Sept
8738 King Sylvanus Bat
- 14
99 July
3787 King Richard, S’t
H 22
12 July
3095 Kinsley D Cav
H 10
9689 Kinsley Jas Cav 5 Sept
- 24
99 Mar
239 Kinney Lucas
H 30
42 Oct
11558 Kinney M
C 27
76 Sept
8400 Kinnie J
F 10
132 April
564 Kinsey B B, S’t
K 15
14 Sept
7977 Kinsman Jno E Art
I 6
86 April
12869 Kinsman W S 65
I 20
12 July
4287 Kirby Chas Cav 64
F 30
Aug
7087 Kirkland I Art 2D
28
12 Mar
12742 Kirkpatrick —— C 65
D 6
125 Aug
5589 Kittle E N, Cor 64
E 14
76 Sept
8873 Kizer G W
B 15
24 Aug
4525 Knapp Henry Cav
A 2
10 Aug
5233 Knapp Philip Cav
C 10
48 June
2604 Knabe F
C 28
142 Sept
7949 Knight Wm
C 6
12818 Knowl H 66 Dec
 C 21
54 Nov
11976 Kossuth W
F 12
65 Sept
8860 Krasipars K
L 15
54 Sept
9211 Krantz H, Cor
E 19
Nov
12115 Kreit J K, S’t Cav 1L
21
13 Nov
11948 Krelar A Bat
- 10
64 July
3892 Kroom C E
G 24
178 May
1208 Krouger G R
K 19
Sept
8956 Lahey P 1D
16
12 Sept
8447 Lacey P Cav
F 11
85 July
3601 Lacey Wm, Cor
K 19
1 Oct
10736 Lackley P I Cav
- 11
22 Oct
10879 Lacks Lee
G 13
85 Sept
8372 Lacoster H
- 10
Oct
10527 Lader A 9E
26
118 Aug
7156 Lagay Frank
B 29
82 Mar
41 Lahey Daniel
I 13
12775 Lahiff D 42 Mar 65
K 14
146 Nov
12100 Lake Wm 64
K 21
39 Aug
6487 Laman C
H 22
76 Aug
6381 Lamareux J
K 21
Nov
11893 Lambright A, Cor Art 7K
7
Oct
11599 Lambly J 1 I
28
Oct
11318 Lampman W S Art 6M
22
98 Oct
11213 Lampert R
D 20
15 Sept
9886 Larrabee E, Cor
D 27
7 July
3283 Landers C Art
- 14
146 Dec
12214 Lane C
E 3
Sept
7462 Lane Chas Cav 3E
1
85 June
2678 Lane G W
C 30
15 Oct
11499 Lane J W Cav
M 26
85 June
2288 Lang A, Cor
F 21
1 Mar
13 Lang Wm W Drag
- 6
8238 Langdon A M 85 Sept
 B 9
12 July
4375 Lansing Wm Cav
B 31
85 July
3788 Lansop J
D 22
39 Sept
10096 Langen A
I 30
24 Aug
4871 Lampan L H Bat
- 6
85 Sept
8087 Larcks G
F 7
100 Aug
6631 Larkins M C
A 23
Mar
14 Lasar Benj Cav 6F
6
Sept
8956 Latey P 1D
19
May
851 Lattaratta J, Cor Cav 1A
3
July
4107 Laugha W Art 1M
27
69 Sept
8162 Lawton J
E 8
Sept
10095 Lawrence J Art 7G
30
July
4101 Lawson John Cav 2D
27
120 Aug
6434 Layman C
K 22
157 June
2374 Leabrook John
B 23
10 June
2119 Leach S Cav
E 17
1737 Lean W H Cav 21 June
C 8
132 Aug
7142 Ledderer Wm
G 29
24 June
1944 Lee A Bat
- 14
15 June
2169 Lee F
F 19
June
2572 Lee P Art 2A
27
Sept
9696 Lee Wm Cav 6L
24
11 Sept
8514 Legrist W
E 10
Aug
6399 Leichinger J Cav 3D
21
39 July
3565 Leiner A
B 19
47 Oct
11697 Lenot V
I 31
24 June
2686 Lent A Bat
- 30
52 Sept
7499 Leonard A
B 1
Nov
12076 Leonard C H Art 7A
18
85 Sept
8987 Leonard J W
K 17
Sept
10065 Lestraff C Art 7A
30
Aug
6150 Letch John Cav 5C
19
8774 Levalley C 140 Sept
 A 14
85 Sept
9045 Lewis C
F 17
52 July
3727 Lewis C F
E 21
May
1329 Lewis F A 9G
24
146 Nov
11515 Lewis G W
G 8
Sept
8297 Lewis J Art 1E
9
85 Aug
5115 Lewis P W
B 9
Oct
10365 Lickley P Cav 1E
5
Oct
11551 Limbach S 7D
27
76 Sept
8419 Linch J H
I 11
Aug
5845 Linchler F Cav 1E
15
147 Oct
10559 Lindlay D
E 9
125 Sept
7815 Lineham Thos
C 4
Aug
6759 Ling Jno Art 4F
25
54 Mar
38 Link Gotlib
K 12
76 Sept
10073 Little C
F 30
Oct
10933 Livingstone A Cav 1C
14
4543 Locher Conrad Art 15 Aug
- 2
98 Aug
5565 Lock A
B 13
12 June
2162 Lodge T
A 18
12 Sept
8246 Loftern H Cav
F 9
11 Sept
9722 Loftus M Cav
E 24
Aug
7010 Longs R Art 2A
27
75 Oct
11591 Long J
A 28
40 Sept
7924 Long L
I 5
Aug
4514 Longle Wm Art 4B
1
14 Aug
5464 Loomis Jno Art
M 12
48 Sept
9712 Loony C
A 25
64 Sept
9088 Lorzbran J
E 29
16 Nov
11906 Louis C Cav
C 7
125 Dec
12329 Love J
A 24
Aug
7146 Lovejoy F Cav 1 I
29
14 Oct
10248 Lovering F Art
I 3
12313 Lowery G 7A Dec
 20
140 June
2568 Lowery Jas F
A 27
22 Sept
9663 Laws H Cav 64
E 24
47 Sept
8395 Lloyd S
D 10
140 Sept
9854 Luce V
D 20
95 Oct
10311 Lucia A
H 4
14 Aug
7268 Lurcock E Art
M 30
14 Sept
9002 Lutton O Art
H 17
164 Aug
5772 Lynch D
A 15
43 Aug
6895 Lynch F, Cor
K 26
99 May
931 Lynch Pat
H 7
Feb
12683 Lyons Chas Cav 2M 65
10
99 May
1427 Lyons Michael 64
E 28
76 Sept
8419 Luch J H
I 11
Sept
6151 Lucha Jno Cav 5C
19
5 Sept
8342 Lyons J H Art
- 10
Aug
6156 Lyons Thos Art 6G
19