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Disaster Recovery services, such as healthcare, water supply, and
“Post-Disaster Recovery” – the restoration
and improvement where appropriate, of
facilities, livelihood and living conditions. Of
disaster affected communities, including efforts
to reduce disaster risk factors, in accordance
with the principles of “build back better”. (RA
10121)
Critical Infrastructure
Critical infrastructure encompasses systems
and assets vital for our society's well-being. In
the Philippines, this includes sectors like
energy, transportation, and water supply. An
example is the transportation sector, which
ensures the movement of goods and people,
contributing significantly to our economic
activities.
Examples of “Non-critical infrastructure”
✓ Recreational Facilities
✓ Entertainment Venues
✓ Shopping Centers
✓ Tourist Attractions
✓ Non-Essential Industrial Facilities
✓ Non-Essential Transportation Routes
✓ Residential Areas
In terms of Disaster Recovery: The
importance to know if the infrastructure
is critical or not
Resource Allocation
Critical infrastructure requires prioritized
attention during the recovery process.
Identifying critical infrastructure helps allocate
resources, manpower, and funding where they
are most needed for the swift restoration of
essential services.
Community Well-Being
Critical infrastructure directly impacts public
safety, health, and overall well-being. Focusing
on recovering critical elements ensures that
communities can quickly regain access to vital
SET A-3
emergency response.
Economic Stability
Critical infrastructure, often associated with key
economic sectors, plays a significant role in
maintaining economic stability. Efficient
recovery of critical economic elements helps
minimize economic losses and facilitates the
return to normalcy.
Risk Reduction
Identifying critical infrastructure allows for
targeted measures to reduce risks and enhance
resilience. Recovery efforts can include
improvements and adaptations to critical
systems, aligning with the principle of "build
back better."
Public Services
Critical infrastructure includes systems
essential for providing public services.
Identifying and prioritizing recovery for critical
infrastructure ensures the timely restoration of
services like transportation, energy, and
communication.
National Security
Certain infrastructure is critical for national
security. Identifying and securing the recovery
of such infrastructure is vital to ensuring the
resilience and stability of a nation in the
aftermath of a disaster.
Emergency Response Planning
Knowing which infrastructure is critical informs
emergency response planning. It helps
responders anticipate and address the most
pressing needs, facilitating a more effective and
coordinated response during and after
disasters.
Community Resilience
Focusing on critical infrastructure contributes to
building community resilience. Identifying and
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addressing vulnerabilities in critical systems
enhances the ability of communities to
withstand future disasters.
Interconnected Systems
-Understanding this interconnectedness is
crucial because it helps us see why certain
parts of our society are more critical than
others. If something essential is disrupted, it
can have a cascading effect, impacting various
areas and making the overall situation more
challenging.
Examples:
• A disruption in communication networks,
for example, can impact not just our
ability to make phone calls but also
emergency services, which heavily rely
on communication for coordination
during crises.
• Interruptions in transportation systems
can affect the delivery of goods, making
it challenging for essential supplies like
food and medicine to reach areas that
need them.
• If there's a problem with the water
supply system, it doesn't just affect our
ability to drink water. It can also impact
firefighting capabilities, making it harder
to respond to and control fires.
• In today's digital age, disruptions in
internet connectivity can affect not only
our ability to browse websites but also
online banking, e-commerce, and
remote work, which have become
increasingly important aspects of our
lives.
Risks to Critical Infrastructure
Risks can come from various sources, and in
the Philippines, being an archipelagic country,
we face unique challenges. From natural
disasters like typhoons and earthquakes to
human-induced threats, our critical
infrastructure is constantly exposed to potential
disruptions.
SET A-3
-One significant risk the Philippines faces is the
vulnerability of coastal areas to typhoons.
These areas are more exposed to the impact of
strong winds, heavy rainfall, and storm surges
during typhoon events. Coastal zones often
house critical infrastructure such as ports, water
supply facilities, and energy installations.
-Given the country's location along the Pacific
Ring of Fire, earthquakes pose a considerable
risk. Critical infrastructure, including buildings,
bridges, and communication networks, is
vulnerable to seismic activities.
-The Philippines has several active volcanoes.
An eruption can pose risks to critical
infrastructure, especially if located in close
proximity. For example, volcanic ash fall can
affect transportation systems and damage
power generation facilities.
-Beyond natural disasters, there are risks
stemming from human activities, such as cyber-
attacks on information technology
infrastructure, industrial accidents, or deliberate
acts that could impact critical facilities. Climate
change brings additional risks, including rising
sea levels, extreme weather events, and
changes in temperature patterns, all of which
can affect the stability and functionality of
critical infrastructure.
LAWS GOVERNING INFRASTRUCTURE
DEVELOPMENT IN THE PHILIPPINES
✓ Philippine Development Plan 2023-2028
✓ Republic Act No. 10752 (AN ACT
FACILITATING THE ACQUISITION OF
RIGHT-OFWAY SITE OR LOCATION
FOR NATIONAL GOVERNMENT
INFRASTRUCTURE
✓ PROJECTS)
✓ "Philippine Transportation Law"
(Republic Act No. 4136)
✓ "Electric Power Industry Reform Act"
(Republic Act No. 9136)
✓ Philippine Water Code" (Presidential
Decree No. 1067)
RR324 SET A-3

✓ Republic Act No. 6541 or the National Among the priorities in the PDP 2023-2028
Building Code of the Philippines is to address one of the most binding
✓ Public Private Partnership Act of 2012 constraints to investment:
(Republic Act No. 6957, as amended by INFRASTRUCTURE
RA
EXANDING AND UPGRADING
✓ No. 7718)
INFRASTRUCTURE
RR324 SET A-3

Foreign direct investments in the energy Opportunities in Growth Divers

sector will be pivotal to the country's
socioeconomic transformation. • Agribusiness
• Mining
By 2030, the Philippines will require 35% • Tourism
renewable energy (RE) share in its power • Manufacturing
generation mix and 50% by 2040 under the • Educations
Clean Energy Scenario of the Philippine • Creatives
Energy Plan 2020-2040. This requires a total
• Health
investment amount of about PHP 5.8 trillion or
• Information Technology and Business
USD 103.6 billion in RE power projects by
Process Management (IT-BPM)
2040.
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 10752

Opening up the Energy Sector to RA 10752 establishes policies and guidelines

Investments:
• Amendments to the Implementing Rules
and Regulations of the Renewable
Energy Act of 2008, removing
nationality restrictions on
exploration, development, and utilization
of renewable energy resources such as
solar, wind, biomass, ocean or tidal
energy.
• Leveraging preferred investment areas
under the 2022 Strategic Investment
Priority Plan.
• Proposed amendments to the Electric
Power Industry Reform Act to ensure
lower power costs and 24/7 power
supply in power generating provinces.
Opportunities in Infrastructure
• Energy
• Water and Sanitation
• Airports
• Logistics
• Telecommunications
• Expressways
• Railways
• Hospital
• Schools
for infrastructure projects in the Philippines,
providing a clear legal framework to guide
stakeholders in infrastructure planning,
prioritization, implementation, and
monitoring.
the
The law mandates the creation of a National
Infrastructure Planning Committee (NIPC)
responsible for formulating and updating a
national infrastructure plan.
RA 10752 outlines criteria and procedures for
the prioritization of infrastructure projects
based on their economic, social, and
environmental impact. It emphasizes the
importance of aligning infrastructure
investments with national development goals
and priorities.
RA 10752 encourages the use of public-
private partnerships (PPPs) as a mechanism
for financing, constructing, operating, and
maintaining infrastructure projects. It
provides guidelines for the selection,
negotiation, and implementation of PPP
projects, aiming to attract private sector
investment and expertise in infrastructure
development.
The law emphasizes the importance of risk
management and mitigation in infrastructure
projects, including measures to address
environmental, social, and financial risks. It
requires the incorporation of risk
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assessments and mitigation strategies into
project planning and implementation to
ensure project resilience and sustainability.
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 6541
Republic Act No. 6541, also known as the
National Building Code of the Philippines, was
enacted on June 25, 1972. It serves as the
primary legislation governing the construction,
design, and occupancy of buildings and
structures in the Philippines.
RA 6541 establishes minimum standards and
requirements for building design, materials,
construction methods, structural integrity, fire
safety, sanitation, accessibility, and energy
efficiency. It aims to ensure the safety, health,
and welfare of building occupants and the
general public.
The National Building Code applies to the
design, construction, alteration, repair,
conversion, use, occupancy, location,
maintenance, and demolition of buildings and
structures in the Philippines. It covers both
public and private buildings, including
residential, commercial, industrial,
institutional, and mixed-use structures.
RA 6541 requires the issuance of building
permits by local government units (LGUs)
before the commencement of construction
activities. It mandates inspections and approval
of building plans and specifications by
authorized building officials to verify compliance
with the building code and other applicable
regulations.
The law provides guidelines for zoning and land
use planning to regulate the location, height,
density, and use of buildings and structures. It
seeks to promote orderly and sustainable
urban development, mitigate environmental
impacts, and protect public health and
safety.
The National Building Code incorporates
provisions for fire safety and prevention,
including requirements for fire-resistant
SET A-3
materials, fire detection and alarm systems,
means of egress, fire exits, and firefighting
equipment. It aims to reduce the risk of fire-
related incidents and facilitate emergency
response in buildings.
RA 6541 promotes accessibility and barrier-
free design in buildings to accommodate
persons with disabilities (PWDs) and ensure
their equal access to facilities and services. It
mandates the provision of ramps, handrails,
elevators, and other features to enhance
accessibility and inclusivity in building design.
The law assigns responsibilities to LGUs,
building officials, architects, engineers,
contractors, and other stakeholders for
ensuring compliance with the National Building
Code. It imposes penalties for violations, such
as fines, suspension or revocation of permits,
and demolition of non-compliant structures, to
enforce compliance and deter non-compliance
with building regulations.
DISASTER RISK REDUCTION IS AN
INTEGRAL PART OF DEVELOPMENT. THE
IMPORTANCE OF A RISK-INFORMED AND
RISK-RESILIENT ENVIRONMENT IS
RECOGNIZED BY THREE (3) GLOBAL
POLICY FRAMEWORKS AND
INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS:
(A) THE SENDAI FRAMEWORK FOR
DISASTER RISK REDUCTION 2015-2030;
(B) THE UNITED NATIONS (UN) AGENDA
2030 FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
GOALS; AND
(C) THE PARIS AGREEMENT WITHIN THE
UN FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON
CLIMATE
At the regional level, the Association of
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) community
has ratified the Agreement on Disaster
Management and Emergency Response
(AADMER) in support of the global policy
frameworks.
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As signatory or party to these global policy
frameworks and agreements, the Philippines is
committed to minimizing the loss of life and
resources due to disasters. It passed the
Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and
Management Act of 2010 (RA 10121) and
prepared the National Disaster Risk Reduction
and Management (NDRRM) Framework and
Plan as among the concrete steps towards
safer, adaptive, and disaster-resilient Filipino
communities.
The Philippine Disaster Rehabilitation and
Recovery Framework also builds on these
global policy frameworks and integrates key
principles that will promote resilience and risk
reduction in Post-Disaster Rehabilitation and
Recovery. The framework is also anchored on
the country’s national development goals to
ensure a holistic and coherent approach to
rehabilitation and recovery efforts.
A. The Global Policy Frameworks
The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk
Reduction 2015-2030. This was adopted by UN
member states, including the Philippines, in
March 2015. The Sendai Framework aims to
achieve the following outcome over the next 15
years:
“The substantial reduction of disaster risk
and losses in lives, livelihoods and health
and in the economic, physical, social,
cultural and environmental assets of
persons, business, communities and
countries.”
• Adopt public policies and actions that
support the role of public service
workers to establish or strengthen
coordination, funding mechanisms and
procedures for relief assistance, and
plan and prepare for post-disaster
recovery and reconstruction;
• Ensure the continuity of operations and
planning, including social and economic
recovery, and the provision of basic
services in the post-disaster phase;
SET A-3
• Promote the cooperation of diverse
institutions, multiple authorities and
related stakeholders at all levels,
including affected communities and
business, in view of the complex and
costly nature of post-disaster
reconstruction, under the coordination of
national authorities;
• Promote the incorporation of disaster
risk management into post-disaster
recovery and rehabilitation processes,
facilitate the link between relief,
rehabilitation and development.
• Use opportunities during the recovery
phase to develop capacities that
reduce disaster risk in the short,
medium, and long-term, including the
development of measures such as land
use planning, structural standards
improvement and the sharing of
expertise, knowledge, post-disaster
reviews, and lessons learned. Integrate
post-disaster reconstruction into the
economic and social sustainable
development of affected areas. This
should also apply to temporary
settlements for persons displaced by
disaster;
• Develop guidance for disaster
reconstruction preparedness, by
learning from the recovery and
reconstruction programs over the
decade since the adoption of the Hyogo
Framework for Action, and exchanging
experiences, knowledge, and lessons
learned; and
• Review and strengthen, as
appropriate, national laws and
procedures on international cooperation,
based on the Guidelines for the
Domestic Facilitation and Regulation of
International Disaster Relief and Initial
Recovery Assistance.
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The UN Agenda 2030 for Sustainable
Development Goals
The Sendai Framework complements the
Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs)outlined in the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development. The SDGs embody a
universal call to action to end poverty, protect
the planet, and ensure that all people enjoy
peace and prosperity. The 2030 Agenda
contains 17 interconnected goals covering
areas initially included among the Millennium
Development Goals - such as the fight against
poverty and hunger - and also includes new
areas such as climate change, economic
inequality, innovation, sustainable consumption,
and peace and justice, among other priorities.
As such, disaster risk reduction is at the
forefront of the SDGs. DRRM is incorporated
into ten (10) out of 17 SDGs, which firmly
establishes it as a core development strategy in
achieving sustainable development.
The Paris Agreement within the UN
Framework Convention on Climate
Change.
To address climate change. countries adopted
the Paris Agreement at the 2lst session of the
Conference of Parties to the UN Framework
Convention on Climate Change on December
12,2015 in Paris, France. The agreement was
to limit global temperature rise to below 20C
and to strive for 1.50C. The Paris Agreement
represents an important step in international
efforts to combat climate change and
significantly reduce the risks and impacts of
climate change, including extreme weather
events and slow onset events.
ASEAN Agreement on Disaster
Management and Emergency Response
The ASEAN Agreement on Disaster
Management and Emergency Response
(AADMER) was ratified by all ten (10) ASEAN
member states and entered into force on
December 24, 2009. The AADMER fortifies the
SET A-3
region's policy backbone on disaster
management by giving priority to disaster risk
reduction, thus enabling a more proactive
regional framework for cooperation,
coordination, technical assistance, and
resource mobilization in all aspects of disaster
management. Article 17 ot AADMER specifically
mandates member states to jointly or
individually develop strategies and implement
programs for rehabilitation and promote
bilateral, regional, and international cooperation
for rehabilitation in the aftermath of a disaster.
The key areas to move the implementation of
AADMER forward are articulated in the ASEAN
Vision 2025 on Disaster Management, which
charts the strategic direction for achieving a
people-centered, people-oriented, financially
sustainable, and networked disaster
management approach by 2025.
B. Philippine Disaster Risk
Reduction and Management Act of
2010
The Philippine DRRM Act of 2010 provides the
basic policies and coordination mechanism for
DRRM through the Disaster Risk Reduction and
Management Councils (DRRMC) at the
national, regional, and local levels. Section 15
of the law specifically indicates the criteria for
identifying the lead DRRMC in "preparing for,
responding to, and recovering from the
effects of any disaster."
The National DRRMC is designated with
policymaking. coordination, integration,
supervision, and monitoring and evaluation
functions. It is headed by the Secretary of the
Department of National Defense (DND) as
Chairperson, with the Secretary of the
Department of the Interior and Local
Government (DILG) as Vice-Chairperson for
Disaster Preparedness, the Secretary of the
Department of Social Welfare and
Development (DSWD) as Vice-Chairperson
for Disaster Response, the Secretary of the
Department of Science and Technology
(DOST) as Vice-Chairperson for Disaster
RR324 SET A-3

Prevention and Mitigation, and the Secretary partners, and timelines under each of the four
of the National Economic and Development (4) mutually reinforcing thematic areas of
Authority (NEDA) as the Vice-Chairperson
(1) Disaster Prevention and Mitigation;
for Disaster Rehabilitation and Recovery.
(2) Disaster Preparedness;
C. NDRRM FRAMEWORK
(3) Disaster Response; and
NDRRM Framework provides a comprehensive,
all-hazards, multi-sectoral, inter-agency and (4) Disaster Rehabilitation and Recovery.
community-based approach to DRRM, and
serves as the primary guide to the DRRM
efforts of the country. It is a shift towards a
proactive and preventive approach to DRRM
with the goal of increasing people's resilience
and decreasing vulnerability. The framework
lays down the broad DRRM goal of building
safer, adaptive, and disaster-resilient Filipino
communities working towards sustainable
development, as well as specific goals in the
four (4) thematic areas that comprise DRRM.
For the thematic area on disaster rehabilitation
and recovery, the main goals are to restore and
improve facilities, livelihood, living conditions,
and organizational capacities of affected
communities, and reduce disaster risk in
accordance with the "Build Back Better"
principle.

E. PHILIPPINE DEVELOPMENT PLAN

D. NDRRM PLAN 2011-2028
The NDRRM Plan 2011-2028 sets down the
expected outcomes, outputs, key activities,
indicators, lead agencies, implementing
(PDP)
The PDP is the overall socioeconomic
development roadmap for the country over the
medium-term. It provides the strategic
interventions, implementing policies, and
priority programs for achieving national
development. The PDP integrates DRR into all
its sectors; hence, rehabilitation and recovery
outcomes should likewise be aligned with PDP
objectives to prevent disasters from derailing
the country's sustainable development.
RR324 SET A-3
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The General Framework for Post-Disaster
Rehabilitation and Recovery seeks to align
sectoral or thematic outcomes with medium-
term outcomes for DRR and the country's long-
term goal of having safer, adaptive, and
disaster-resilient Filipino communities.
The framework may also provide a basis for
designing the monitoring framework for the
Rehabilitation and Recovery Program,
particularly on how program and project outputs
contribute towards the attainment of the goal of
"Building Back Better" and fully restoring
economic and social conditions in disaster-
affected areas. Below are the components of
the General Framework:
Long-term Goal
Consistent with the NDRRM Framework, the
long-term goal for disaster rehabilitation and
recovery is to have safer, adaptive, and
disaster-resilient Filipino communities that are
protected from risks and can cope with and
recover quickly from disaster events. This goal
incorporates the principle of "Build Back Better",
where post-disaster reconstruction shall not
only be restoration to its pre-disaster condition
but incorporate a higher level of resiliency
standards as well as climate change and
mitigation measures in all post-disaster
rehabilitation and recovery interventions.
Outcomes
Outcomes are the desired results from the
implementation of a Rehabilitation and
Recovery Program. These must be guided by
the relevant policies and strategies under the
Philippine Development Plan:
Overall Outcome:
Economic and social conditions in disaster-
affected areas restored with higher levels of
resilience and reduced poverty.
Sector Outcomes:
• Livelihood and Business
Development - sustainable income
SET A-3
sources for households are created,
stability of businesses restored.
• Agriculture and Fisheries - agricultural
production restored or increased;
support services for farmers/ fisherfolk/
farm laborers are made accessible.
• Housing and Settlement - families
have access to affordable disaster-
resilient housing that is located in safe
zones and in areas where social
services and public facilities are
available; or to financing assistance to
build their houses.
• Social Services - education, health,
and social protection services are made
accessible or upgraded.
• Physical Infrastructure - public and
privately-owned infrastructure facilities
are reconstructed or rehabilitated
according to improved disaster
resiliency standards.
General Strategies
The general strategies indicate the overall
approaches to achieve expected outcomes.
From these, specific strategies will be crafted
for the areas and sectors affected by the
disaster.
Cross-cutting Issues and Concerns
Several cross-cutting concerns can be
considered in the framework to ensure inclusive
and coherent strategies that address specific
sectoral concerns such as:
• Support and Protection to Vulnerable
Groups and Individuals.
• Culture Sensitivity.
• Gender and Social Inclusivity.
• Environment Protection and
Sustainability.
• Poverty Reduction.
• Disaster Risk Reduction.
• Local Governance.
RR324 SET A-3

DEVELOPMENT OF RESILIENT
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
✓ This resilient structural design aims to
mainstream disaster risk reduction
and climate change adaptation into
local building design practices for
local government, to minimize current
and future risks by reducing vulnerability
and increasing capacity of local
government-built assets through
enhanced design. It is one of the
approaches for reducing damage and
indirect loss in the risk minimization.
✓ The resilience design also aims to offer
quantitative measurement for the
implementation of ‘Build Back Better’
principle. It provides additional
measures that align with the NSCP
requirements, which could potentially
support practices that enhance the
resilience of the built assets of local
government. It sits within the enforced
practices level in climate adaptation and
natural disaster risk reduction.

✓ In general, to fulfill all performance

requirements defined by the NSCP, a
building structure must have sufficient
reliability, which is in association with
the failure probability or capacity
exceedance probability. The lower the
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failure probability, the higher the
reliability.
✓ The performance requirements defined
by the NSCP will be enhanced by
demanding designed structures that
meet a higher degree of reliability for
resilience. This can be achieved by
increasing the basic design load
specified in the NSCP.
✓ The basic design load is normally
defined in terms of the minimum
severity of a hazard that the designed
structure should be able to
withstand, for example, in terms of
design wind speed and seismic peak
ground acceleration.
FUNCTION OF A STRUCTURE
The most common answer to this question
would be to carry loads. Whilst there is truth in
this it needs to be extended to the concept of
carrying loads from one place to another, which
is transferring loads.
THE LOADS AND THE LOAD PATHS
The source of loads on buildings is a
combination of natural loads, that is those
caused by nature -- snow, wind, gravity, etc. --
and those caused by the specific use of the
building, which are useful loads.
• Each load on a building structure is
eventually supported by the foundations
of the building, which is where the
building joins the "rest of the world".
• The sequence of structural elements
that join a specific load to the
SET A-3
foundations is called the load path. The
load path may be different for different
loads. For example, the load from the
weight of people standing on the first
floor of a five-story building will not be
exactly the same as for those standing
on the fourth floor.
HOW DOES THE STRUCTURE TRANSFER
LOADS?
The structure transfers loads by forces that
exist within each element in the load path and
by forces between the elements where they
meet.
WHAT ARE THESE FORCES IN THE
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS?
There is more than one way of regarding the
forces in structural elements, however, in the
majority of cases, the force in an element can
be considered to be a combination of a force
along the element, a force across the element,
a force bending the element and, sometimes, a
force twisting the element.
➢ The idea of conceptual analysis is to
identify which of these forces are acting
on any particular element of any
structure for any load. The modern
approach finds numerical values for
these forces and from known data
checks if each element can support
these forces and so verify that a
proposed structure is satisfactory.
RR324
IS ANY ELEMENT TOO SLENDER?
If a column is short and fat, increasing the load
on it will eventually cause it to "squash" but if
the column is long and thin it will "buckle" at a
load lower than the "squash" load. For a
structure to be satisfactory, slender elements
must be identified in any load path to ensure
that they will not buckle in some way.
The sources of loads can be divided into
natural, useful and accidental loads.
1. Natural loads occur due to the
existence of the structure in the world.
2. Useful loads are ones that occur from
the purpose of the structure.
3. Accidental loads occur from the
misuse of the structure.
NATURAL LOADS
All structures on the surface of the Earth have
to resist the force of gravity. This force acts
through a body in a line joining the body with
the center of the Earth. However, at the local
level these forces can be considered vertical.
So, the first source of natural loads is the
gravity load.
Due to regular and continuous changes in
atmospheric pressure from place to place on
the Earth's surface air flows across the surface
of the Earth, that is, wind. All structures built on
the Earth's surface have to resist forces from
wind. Near to ground level the wind can be
considered to blow along the surface.
If an obstruction is placed in the path of the
wind, it alters the pattern of the wind flow. This
is why kites and planes fly and boats sail. If the
object is fixed to the Earth's surface, like a
building, the wind must flow around and
over it.
How the wind flows around and over an object
depends both on the wind speed and the shape
of the object. These are the basic questions
considered by the complex subject known as
aerodynamics. But the alteration in wind flow
SET A-3
pattern will always cause a force on the
interrupting object.
It is an intellectual feat to see the alteration of
the wind flow pattern around and over a
building as a force or wind load. But this view
allows the action of the wind on a building to be
clear.
Although the pattern of wind flow around
buildings is complex the resulting loads from
the alteration of wind flow are predominately at
right angles to the surfaces of the building.
As far as buildings and their supporting
structures are concerned, gravity and wind
loads are two types of natural loads they
always have to resist.
There are other natural loads that the structure
may have to resist. These are earth or water
pressure, earthquakes, temperature, and
ground movement.
If the local shape of the Earth's surface is
altered to site the building, as it often is, then
parts of the building and its structure may be
subject to loads from earth pressure. This is
because the natural surface has found a shape
that is at rest. So, rather like the wind flow, an
alteration will cause forces. If dry sand is piled
into a heap, there is a maximum slope for the
sides.
What is happening inside the heap is complex,
and is further complicated by the addition of
water (which is why sand castles can be made).
If, however, a heap with a vertical side is
required, forces are needed to keep the heap in
the unnatural shape.
This is usually done by building a (retaining)
wall. Because the heap wants to return to a
natural shape, shown by the dotted line, the
wall must hold back all the sand above the
dotted line.
This causes loads on the wall. In buildings, this
occurs when the building has a basement, or is
built into a sloping site.
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Under the surface of the Earth, depending on
the local geology and climate, there will be, at
some level, water. The top level of this water is
called the water table. This level may be at the
surface in swamps, bogs and beaches, or many
meters down in deserts. If the siting of the
building interrupts the natural water table, an
unnatural water table is created around and
under the building.
Not only are the walls loaded by the water
pressure but it also causes upward loads on
the floor. The building is trying to float.
The structure has to resist natural loads due to
water pressure.
The general shape of the surface of the Earth is
the same over the life-span of most buildings,
but may alter slightly due to climatic or
geological changes. As the building is attached
to the surface of the Earth, local changes will
force a change in the shape of the structure, as
the building is hardly likely to prevent the Earth
changing shape. In particular, load may be
caused if the local shape changes differentially.
It is not obvious how this causes a load on the
structure, if indeed it does. For example,
suppose the plank bridge has a support in the
stream.
If this central support were to sink into the
stream bed, depending on the fixing, it may pull
the plank down (load it) or cease to be a
support at all.
So, ground movements can alter the load-
carrying behavior of a structure, and so can be
considered, in a rather roundabout way, to load
the structure.
Another form of ground movement that can load
a structure is an earthquake. Earthquakes are
SET A-3
caused by sudden internal movements within
the Earth’s crust. This causes a shock to the
system and results in shaking the crust of the
Earth over a certain area. The Earth’s surface
will both bounce up and down and move
backwards and forwards.
In general, the vertical movement is small
compared with the horizontal movement. A
building, during an earthquake, undergoes an
experience similar to a person standing unaided
on a cakewalk.
Again, it is not obvious where or what the load
is but the effect, as far as the building or the
person is concerned, is the same as being
pushed horizontally to and fro with the
foundations (feet) kept still.
So, earthquakes cause horizontal loads similar,
to some extent, to wind loads.
The last type of natural load is caused by
differential dimensional changes in the
structure. All structural materials expand
when heated and contract when cooled. As
structures are often exposed to the ambient
climate, their temperature may vary
considerably, from a hot summer day to a cold
winter night, and in some cases, this may cause
loads. An example illustrates how this may
happen. Suppose a structure consists of two
parts firmly joined by a spanning structure.
As the temperature varies, the spanning
structure will expand and contract. As it is firmly
joined to the supporting structures, it will push
them and pull them causing loads.