y RESEARCH NOTES

Measures of Central Tendency

Central Tendency
- refers to the numerical value in the central region.

THREE MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

1. Mean
- a ser of n numbers is the sum of all numbers divided by n

How to solve for Mean (Ungrouped Data)

x = mean
xi = scores
Exi= sum of the scores
N= total frequency

x = Exi / N

How to solve for Mean (Grouped Data)

x = mean
f = frequency
xm = class mark (average of lower and upper limit)
Efxm = sum of the product of frequencies and classmark
N = total frequency

x = Efxm / N

2. Median
- middle number when the number in a set of data is arranged ascending and
descending order.

How to solve for Median (Ungrouped Data)

N = number of scores

((N+1)/2)

How to solve for Median (Grouped Data)

X = median
xLB = the lower boundary or true lower limit of the median class (lower limit / .5)
N = total frequency
cfb = cumulative frequency before the median class
fm = frequency of the median class
i = interval

x = xLB + [(n/2 - cfb)/fm] i

3. Mode
- a number occurs most often in a set of data

How to solve for Mode (Ungrouped Data)

Find the score that appears the most

How to solve for Mode (Grouped Data)

xLB = lower boundary of the modal class
1 = difference between the frequency of the modal class and the frequency of
the class interval proceeding it
2 = difference between the frequency of the modal class and the frequency of
the class interval succeeding it
I = interval
x = mode

x = xLB = ( 1/ 1+ 2) i

Research According to Goal

Basic Research
- it is conducted solely to come up with new knowledge
- it is conducted to a fuller understanding of a particular subject for its own sake
- deals with the process of, or information about different topics with no concern
for a direct application

Applied Research
- it finds an application of the knowledge
- is that which probes into the unknown using directly the results to the current
problem

RESEARCH ACCORDING TO PURPOSE

1. Directive Research
- method of looking into things, to find out new information or facts and figures
with a specific aim in mind for what the overall outcome of the research will be

2. Predictive Research
- it is typically quantitative research that predicts how institutions will change in
response to trends or product introductions
- is based on past facts and figures

3. Illuminative Research
- is concerned with the introduction of the components of the variables being
investigated

Variables
- is a property or quantity that can take on different values

Kinds of Variables
1. Independent Variable
- variable that is varied or manipulated
- is the presumed cause
2. Dependent Variable
- is the response that is measured
- is the presumed effet

3. Extraneous Variables
- undesirable variables that influence the relationship between the variables that
an experimenter is examining

4. Continous Variables
- are those that take fractional values

5. Discrete Variables
- are those that assume fixed or exact amount

6. Qualitative Variables
- relies on the quality

7. Quantitative Variables
- variables that you can count

LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
1. Nominal
- the numbers in this variable are used only to classify the data
- words, letters and alpha-numeric symbols can be used
2. Ordinal
- used to measure variables in a natural order, such as rating or ranking

3. Interval
- the distance between attributes does have meaning

4. Ratio
- there is always an absolute zero that is meaningful
- means that you can construct a meaningful fraction (for ratio) with a ratio
variable
- most count variables are ratio

COCHRAN"S FORMULA
- considered especially appropriate in situations with large populations

Cochran Equation
N0 = sample size
(Z) squared = the abscissa of the normal curve that cuts off an area at the tails
(1-a) equals the desired confidence level
e = desired level of precision
p = estimated proportion of an attribute that is present in the population
q = (1-p)

The value for Z is found in statistical tables which contain the area under normal
curve.
N0 = (Z) squared (p) (q) / e squared

YAMANE'S FORMULA

n = sample size
N = population size
e = margin of error

n = n = N / 1 + N(e) squared