Renewable Energy Integrated DC Microgrid for EV
Charging Station
K. Raghavendra Naik
Electrical Engineering
Department
Visvesveraya National Institute of Visvesveraya National Institute of
Technology, Nagpur
Nagpur, India
227ragahevndra@gmail.com bhooshanar@eee.vnit.ac.in
Mohan Kolhe
Faculty of Engineering and Science
University of Agder, PO Box 422
NO 4604,
Kristiansand, Norway
mohan.l.kolhe@uia.no
2021 IEEE Transportation Electrification Conference (ITEC-India) | 978-1-6654-2146-1/21/$31.00 ©2021 IEEE | DOI: 10.1109/ITEC-INDIA53713.2021.9932500
Abstract— Renewable energy based DC microgrid (MG) can
be used for EV fast charging stations. Integration of EV
charging station to DC MG is a reliable solution to cope up
with the rapid increasing load demand of EVs. But, due to
intermittent nature of solar PV and EV load the power
management of such MGs is going to be stimulant. Developed
countries like Norway are operating small hydro generator
(SHG) -solar PV-battery storage system (BSS) based DC MGs
to solve the power management issues of EV charging stations.
But, the power flow oscillations with rapid solar PV dynamics
during peak EV load demand cannot be compensated
exhaustively due to slow operating time of SHG and C-rate
restraint of BSS. Despite these constraints, a smart energy
management strategy (SEMS) is proposed in this work to
address power management objective. By predicting the EV
load dynamics on iteration basis, the proposed SEMS is going
to operate the SHG against its slow operating time and ensures
the sustainable power flow control of EV charging station
interfaced DC MG. Moreover, the configured DC MG model
with SEMS is validated in OPAL-RT real time simulator.
Keywords— EV fast charging stations, Norway, Smart energy
management strategy, Battery storage system, Small hydro
generator, Power management of DC MG, OPAL-RT
I. INTRODUCTION
The drastic development of E-mobility technology has
become a significant solution to curb the CO2 emissions of
fossil fuel driven transportation system and ever increasing
fuel prices. According to the recent census given in [1],
Norway has become the most successful country in the
world to install large no. of EVs in the country. But, drastic
increase in the electric vehicle (EV) load demand with
fast/average charging technology may cause the energy
management and reliability issues of MG [2]. Due to
dominant hydro sources and reduced PV prices; Norway has
installed small hydro-PV-battery based grid integrated DC
microgrids (MGs) to solve the grid stability and reliability
issues [3]. The same is shown in Fig. 1.
The fast/average charging scenario of EV causes pulse
loading on the MG. The rapid varying nature of solar PV
during pulse load may cause imbalanced power flow
oscillations. This can be evident from Fig. 1(b). But, due to
source constraints such as BSS’s C-rate limitation, SHG’s
slow operating time and limited output power of grid, these
XXX-X-XXXX-XXXX-X/XX/$XX.00 ©20XX IEEE
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Bhooshan Rajpathak Arghya Mitra
Electrical Engineering Electrical Engineering
Department Department
Visvesveraya National Institute of
Technology, Nagpur Technology, Nagpur
Nagpur, India Nagpur, India
mitraarghya@eee.vnit.ac.in
imbalanced power flow oscillations cannot be compensated
exhaustively [4], [5]. Therefore, these imbalanced power
flow oscillations may cause unregulated voltage control of
DC MG. Due to which, fast/average charging EV load
demand cannot be met. Henceforth, to attain the sustainable
power flow of EV charging station interfaced DC MG, an
assertive energy management is inevitable.
A multi objective based intelligent energy management
strategy is proposed in [6] to realize the power management
of grid connected EV charging station (EVCS) during
transient EV load dynamics. Whereas [7], the grid
connected EVCS load is managed based on the power level
availability of solar PV, BSS, grid and diesel generator. On
contrary, in [8], EV charging station load is managed
through the BSS interfaced bidirectional converter control.
By taking into account the consideration of initial and
required state of charge (SOC) level of each EV, departure
time of each EV, the proposed energy management strategy
in [9] has maintained the power flow control of PV power
plant integrated EVCS.
In [10], a co-ordinated central-local controller is
proposed to achieve the power flow control of grid
integrated EVCS. Whereas, in [11] EVCS load is managed
through the coordinated control scheme of grid connected
solar PV-wind based MG. However, with bidirectional
current control of BSS, the proposed power management
strategy in [12] has managed the EV loads. By controlling
EV loads based on their SOC levels (self-regulation) and
grid interfaced converter control the smart regulating
algorithm proposed in [13] has achieved the power
management of grid connected EVCS load. On contrary, in
[14], [15], EV charging station is used as buffer to realize
the grid to vehicle and grid to vehicle mode of hybrid MG.
Despite the stringent power flow control, the reported
strategies in [4-15] have not realized the power management
objective by taking into account the defined source and EV
load dynamics of MG. However, the proposed SEMS can
achieve the power management objective through iterative
basis prediction algorithm and adjustable energy manager
(AEM).
 Fig. 1. (a) Proposed hybrid MG topology (b) EV load Vs. PV generation

Fig. 2 Working schematic of SEMS

Based on the time varying load demand of EVCS and output and this undergoes the conversion through
available power flow of solar PV, the prediction algorithm uncontrolled AC-DC rectifier and a DC-DC converter as
of SEMS is going estimate the EVCS load and operate the shown in Fig. 2. The governor control loop maintains rated
SHG to compensate EV load dynamics. BSS with the flow of hydro turbine in such a way that 𝑃
cascaded control loop strategy is going to compensate the 𝑃 with neglected losses. The DC-DC converter with
untracked load power of SHG. Despite the constraints of duty cycle control mechanism ensures that the reference
SHG, BSS, if the peak load of EVCS is within the power set by the SEM dispatched to the EVCS connected on
maximum total capacity of MG then with the SEMS the load side of DC link shown in Fig. 1. The following
achieves the power flow control objective without grid equations depict power conversion scenario of hydro
support. If the loading is out of MG’s capacity then SEMS generator.
takes the grid support. The mechanical power developed by the hydro turbine
The rest of the paper is configured into IV sections. in terms of hydraulic input can be expressed as
Section II describes the modeling of DC MG. Section III 𝑃 𝐻 𝑈 𝑈 (1)
discuss the proposed smart energy management strategy.
Section IV illustrates the results and discussion. Finally, Where, 𝑈 𝐴𝑔 𝐻 ,𝐴 ,𝑇 ,𝑄
section V concludes the paper.
𝐴 𝑈
II. MODELING AND CONFIGURATION OF DC MG By taking into account the mechanical response time of
The control configuration of EVCS interfaced DC MG is SHG, the governing mechanical equation can be expressed
shown in Fig. 2. With regard to the EV load dynamics, as
instantaneous power output of solar PV, SEM generates a 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 (2)
reference electrical power output to be delivered by the
dispatchable SHG. Subsequently, the PI governor control The total operating time constant of SHG is 𝑇 8.5sec
loop is going to set a proportional mechanical power to The electrical output power of DC-DC converter is given as
hydro turbine. Then, based on the hydro turbine’s 𝑃 𝐷 𝑉 (3)
mechanical input power, SHG develops AC electrical power

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𝐷 SHG interfaced buck converter’s duty ratio, 𝐼 to achieve the sustainable power management objective of
Output current of rectifier, 𝑉 AverageDC output grid integrated DC MG.
voltage of rectifier SEM tracks the EV load demand (𝑃 , 𝑃 … . . 𝑃 )
The detailed modeling of hydro power plant is given in [16]. on iteration basis (for every 10secs). If ∆𝑃 𝑡 𝑃 𝑡
During normal mode of operation (good weather 𝑃 𝑡 𝑃 𝑡 𝑃 𝑡 𝑃 𝑡 0 occurs due to
condition) solar PV is going to operate in the maximum rapid decrease in 𝑃 during peak EV load demand, then for
power point (MPP) mode and during uneven weather operating the SHG during such situation, SEM is going to
condition, it operates in the non-MPPT mode. The, available set 𝑃 such that peak EV load demand is met in the
power across the PV terminals at any instant is given as upcoming iteration without exceeding the BSS’s limit in
follows [17] charging/discharging mode as given in Fig. 3.
For instance if the no. of load dynamics 𝑛 3 and no. of
load dynamics in an iteration i.e. 𝑧 2, then the predicted
𝑃 𝑉 𝑁 𝐼 𝑁 𝐼 𝑒 1 (4) load for the succeeding iteration is given as
P 'EVn z   PEV1  PEV 2    PEV 2 2 PEV1   PEV 2  PEV 3 (10)
 
𝑉 Terminal voltage of PV module (V)
𝐼 ,𝐼 Reverse saturation and short circuit current of PV The predicted load power for 𝑛 3 and 𝑍 1 is given as
 P  PEV 1 
panel (A), 𝑃 Solar PV power output, 𝑌 Solar P 'EVn  z   PEV 1  PEV 2    EV 2   PEV 3
(11)
irradiance , 𝑁 , 𝑁 No. of series and parallel alignment of  2 
PV panels 𝑎 Ideal factor, 𝑇 Absolute temperature, The predicted load power for 𝑛 4 and 𝑍 2 is given as
𝐾 Boltzmann’s constant, 𝑞 Charge of electron PEV 1  PEV 2  PEV 3  PEV 3  PEV 1 
PEVn  z  
3 2
The untracked power load power of SHG and solar PV   PEV 3  PEV 2    PEV 2  PEV 1   PEV 3  PEV 4 (12)
compensated by BESS during EV load dynamics is given as
follows PEVn 1  PEVn  PEVn 1 , PEVn  2  PEVn 1  PEVn  2 ,
𝑃 𝐼 𝑉 (5) PEVn 3  PEVn  4  PEVn 3
Voltage across the battery terminals during charging ( 𝐼 )
and discharging ( 𝐼 ) are given as follows The generalized expression of predicted load power for the
(6) succeeding iteration can be expressed as follows
V t   V I R
BS OC BS int
PS H P P K 1  P 'E V n  z  PE V n  l  PE V n  1
𝑅 Internal resistance of BSS, 𝐼 Input current of j  n 1 (13)
BESS, 𝑉 Open circuit voltage which is 𝑓 𝑆𝑂𝐶   P 'E V n ( j )  C PA d J
The state of charge of BESS is j 1

𝑆𝑂𝐶 𝑡 𝑆𝑂𝐶 (7) 𝑙 0 if 2 ; else 𝑙 1

𝐶 1 ;| 𝑃 𝑡 | |0.8 𝑃 | in charging mode or
By tracking the voltage deviation corresponding to discharging mode.
imbalanced load power ∆𝑃 , the control loop of BSS Else 𝐶 0
shown in Fig. 2 adjusts the power output 𝑃 in such a way 1 L  X 1 x |P | 
 L 0
that 𝑉 𝑉 under the condition that current control PadJ   L  1   1 BS max 
X 1  sT ADJ  (1  x1 )  0.5 | PBS max | 
loop of BSS does not saturated. The control loop equations
of BESS for ensuring 𝑉 𝑉 are given as follows. (14)
Reference current set by the current control loop shown in X= No. of power levels to make the smooth adjustment in
Fig. 2 is 𝑃𝑆𝐻𝐺 𝑡 , 𝑇𝐴𝐷𝐽 Response time of each power level
𝐼 ∆𝑉 𝐾 𝐾 (8)
The duty cycle of bi-directional converter is given as
A. SEM control Strategy
follows
The rapid varying solar PV power during fast/average
𝐷 ∆𝐼 𝐾 𝐾 (9)
charging EV load dynamics may lead the ∆𝑃 0 or
The above duty cycle ensures that 𝐼 𝐼 . This implies
| 𝑃𝐵𝑆 𝑡 | |0.8 𝑃𝐵𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 |. Then SEM recognizes this
𝑉 𝑉 , and the regulated DC link voltage bus ensures situation and using the prediction algorithm it generates the
the balanced power trade-off between generation and load. reference power to SHG on iteration basis. Then SHG
III. PROPOSED SEMS delivers the predicted output power of SEMS. If there is a
misinterpretation between predicted and actual EV load
The objective of proposed SEMS is to ensure the power demand then SEM check for exceed limit of BSS.
management of EVCS interfaced DC MG during If | 𝑃𝐵𝑆 𝑡 | |0.8 𝑃𝐵𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 | occurs, then AEM regulates the
fast/average EV charging load dynamics against the rapid
𝑃 such that the following equation holds true
solar PV fluctuations. By predicting the load dynamics on
𝑃 𝑡 𝑃 𝑡 𝑃 𝑡 𝑃 𝑡 (15)
iteration basis and adjusting the output power of SHG
If 𝑃 𝑡 𝑃 𝑡 𝑃 𝑡 𝑃 𝑡 0
during the misinterpreted load power, the proposed SEMS
then SEMS let the grid supply extra EV load demand
with a rule based control algorithm shown in Fig. 3 is going

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 Fig. 3. Control algorithm of proposed SEMS

Fig. 4 (a) EV load dynamics, output power of SHG, grid power output, (b) PV power output, BSS output power, (c) BSS’s
input side current (d) 𝑉

maintains the sustainable power management objective of

DC MG.
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In this section, the performance of proposed SEMS is
evaluated against the EV load dynamics shown in Fig. 3(a)
and Fig. 4(a). By keeping in mind, the worst case loading of
DC MG, the test load cases 1 and 2 are adopted in work.

A. Case 1
The rapid varying EV load demand about peak load
condition is shown in Fig. 13(a). In this work, the peak load
of EV at any instant of time is considered as 110kW. In Fig.
13 (a), it can be observed that the EV load is varying with
Fig. 5 OPALRT results for case 1
the magnitude of 10 20 27 37 52 67 77 97 110 kW for 0
23 23 30 30 40 40 50 50 54 54 58 58 63 63
beyond the maximum capacity of DC MG. If the charging 68 68 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 secs respectively. Momentarily at
limit of BSS exceeds, then by checking upon the SOC limit t=50s, an instantaneous fall in PV output to 5kW has led the
i.e. 𝑆𝑂𝐶 𝑆𝑂𝐶 , SEMS divide power between the
BSS reach its | 𝑃𝐵𝑆 𝑡 | |0.8 𝑃𝐵𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 | limit in the
BSS and grid as shown in Fig. 3. This is how using the
discharging mode as shown in Fig. 4(b).
prediction algorithm and AEM, the proposed SEMS

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Fig. 6 (a) EV load dynamics, output power of SHG, grid power output, (b) PV power output, BSS output power, (c) BSS’s
input side current (d) 𝑉
With reference to the algorithm given in Fig. 3, SEM has
identified this situation and set the 𝐾 1. Corresponding to
the EV load variations for 0-50secs, SEM has generated
𝑃 84kW through the prediction algorithm.
Consequently, as per the SEMS’s command, SHG has
delivered 84kW to the load for 𝐾 2 shown in Fig. 4(a).
Similarly, the predicted EV load demand based on the load
dynamics ∆𝑃 10kW, ∆𝑃 7kW… … . . ∆𝑃
10kW for 𝐾 2 is given as 𝑃 84kW. In response, EV load dynamics, it is inferred even though the peak EV
SHG has delivered its maximum power output of 100kW to
the load as shown in Fig. 4(a). With the 10kW from BSS,
SEMS has maintained the power balance in the system as
given below.
PPV   5 kW   PSHGK 1   100 kW   PBSS   5 kW 
 P   110 kW  (16)
L9
Fig. 7 OPALRT results for case 2
Since, the peak EV load demand considered in this case is
100kW and it is within the power capacity of configured DC
MG. Therefore, the proposed SEMS has neither drawn the
power from the grid nor delivered to it as shown in Fig.
4(d). Moreover, due the operation of SHG during the EV
dynamics 𝐼𝐵𝑆 has not exceeded 𝐼𝐵𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 of BSS. This ensures
the reduced current stress levels of BSS during the EV load
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dynamics. The details of plant capacity, peak EV loading
are given in Appendix A. Moreover, the developed Simulink
model of configured DC MG with proposed SEMS is
validated in the OPAL-RT and the results concern with the
proposed SEMS are reported in Fig. 5. With the keen
observation of results presented in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5, it is
evident that simulation results and OPAL-RT results of case
1 are in complete agreement.
From the results of without applying SEMS during the
load demand is within the maximum capacity of DC MG the
configured DC MG is dependent on grid as shown in Fig.
4(a) (red). This reveals that the DC MG is less reliable and
more reliant on main grid whose presence is still
intermittent.
B. Case 2:
As explained in the previous case, with reference to the
EV load dynamics from 0-50secs, SEM has let the SHG
deliver 𝑃 45.5𝑘𝑊 to the load as shown in Fig.
6(a) (green). But, 𝑃 60𝑘𝑊 at t=59 secs and 𝑃
110𝑘𝑊 at t=71secs has led to 𝑃 80% 𝑃 in
discharging mode. Therefore, with reference to the SEM’s
control algorithm shown in Figure 3, AEM has compensated
the misinterpreted load power with the following output
𝑃 (45.5kW) 𝑃 (5kW) 𝑃 (29.5kW) = 𝑃 (80kW)
(17)
𝑃 (75kW) 𝑃 (5kW) 𝑃 (30kW) =𝑃 (110kW)
(18)
Despite the misinterpretation of load power the proposed
SEMS has not let the BSS exceed its maximum power
limits. The same can be observed in Fig.6 (b). Moreover,
with gradual power adjustment scheme, AEM has made
smooth power correction in 𝑃 𝑡 such that equations
(17) and (18) holds true. In spite of slow response time,
active contribution of SHG during EV load dynamics has
reduced current stress levels of BSS. This can be evident
from Fig. 6(c), in which BSS has not exceeded the 𝐼𝐵𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 .
 Since, the peak EV load demand in this case is within the
capacity of DC MG, the proposed SEMS has attained power
management objective with negligible support from the
main grid as shown in Fig. 6(a). On contrary, during EV
load dynamics, the non- operation of SHG due to its slow
response time has made the main grid supply the untracked
EV load variations for maintaining the power balance of DC
MG as shown in Fig. 6(a) (red). Thus, it is realized that
without SEMS, the configured DC MG has become less
reliable and more dependent on main grid.
Since, the proposed SEMS has attained regulated power
flow throughout the load dynamics, a constant voltage of
𝑉𝑑𝑐 380𝑉 is maintained at the DC link of MG as shown in
Fig. 6(d). Moreover, OPAL-RT results of proposed SEMS
shown in Fig. 7 reveals that the Simulink results associated
with SEMS are in complete agreement with the real time
results.
V. CONCLUSION
The proposed smart energy management strategy in this
work has achieved the sustainable power management of
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Appendix A
SHG: PSHGmax =100kW, Efficiency η=75%,Density of water ρ=1000kg/m3
Length of draft tube (L t )=17.6m, J=81.416 kg-m 2 ,
H t =5m,Q t =3m3 /sec,U t =2.5m/sec,TWt =1sec, A t =1.136
Solar PV array:1000 watt/m 2 , Line inductance of boost converter = 0.352mH
Battery storage system: Maximum output power of BSS = 30kW
Maximum BSS current I BS max =164A
Capacity=54Ahr
C-rating of BSS= 3C