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NOT

Quarter 1 - Module 1B
Properties of Liquids

Department of Education ● Republic of the Philippines

1
General Chemistry 2- SHS
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Quarter 1 - Module 1B: Properties of Liquids
First Edition, 2020

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Senior High School
Senior High School

General Chemistry
 2 Quarter 1 - Module 1B:
Properties of Liquids

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 3
Table of Contents

What This Module is About ...................................................................................................................i

What I Need to Know..............................................................................................................................i
How to Learn from this Module ...........................................................................................................i
Icons of this Module ...............................................................................................................................ii

What I know ...................................................................................................................................iii

Lesson : Properties of Liquids

What I Need to Know ..........................................................................................1

What’s In...............................................................................................................1

What’s New...........................................................................................................1

What Is It………………………………………………………………………………….2

What’s More……………………………………………………………………………..11

What I Have Learned………………………………………………………………….12 What I Can

Do …………………………………….......................................... 12
Summary…………………………………………………………………..13
Assessment………………………………………………………………..14 Key to
Answers………………………………………………………………………..15 References
………………………………………………………………………..18

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 Module 1B
Properties of Liquids
What This Module is About
Water spurts out of the faucet, honey oozes out of a squeeze bottle and
gasoline flows out the pump. These are just three examples of the properties of
liquids. Aside from the ability to flow, the behaviors of different liquids span a broad
range. Some liquids flow easily, like water or oil, while others, like molasses and
honey, flow relatively slow. Some liquids are slippery, and some are sticky. Where do
these different behaviors come from?
In this module, we are going to relate five significant properties of liquids:
surface tension, viscosity, vapor pressure, boiling point, and molar vaporization heat
to the role of intermolecular forces of attraction. Moreover, the properties of water will
be discussed based on its molecular structure and intermolecular forces.

Lesson - Properties of Liquids

What I Need to Know

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. Describe the following properties of liquids and explain the effect of

intermolecular forces on these properties: surface tension, viscosity, vapor
pressure, boiling point, and molar heat of vaporization (STEM_GC11IMF-IIIa-c-
102);

2. Explain the properties of water based on its molecular structure and

intermolecular forces (STEM_GC11IMF-IIIa-c-103).

How to Learn from this Module

To achieve the learning competencies cited above, you are to do the following:
• Take your time reading the lessons carefully.
• Follow the directions and/or instructions in the activities and exercises diligently. •
Answer all the given tests and exercises.

i
Icons of this Module
What I Need This part contains learning objectives
to Know that are set for you to learn as you go
along the module.

What I know This is an assessment as to your level

of knowledge to the subject matter at
hand, meant specifically to gauge
prior related knowledge

What’s In This part connects previous lesson with

that of the current one.

What’s New An introduction of the new lesson

through various activities, before it will be
presented to you

What is It These are discussions of the activities

as a way to deepen your discovery and
under standing of the concept.
 What’s More These are follow-up activities that are in
tended for you to practice further in order
to master the competencies.

What I Have Activities designed to process what

Learned you have learned from the lesson

What I can do These are tasks that are designed to

show case your skills and knowledge
gained, and applied into real-life concerns
and situations.

ii

What I Know
(Pre-test}

Directions: Read and answer each item carefully and choose the letter of the best
answer.

1. Which of the following properties refers to the resistance of liquid to flow?

a. surface tension
b. viscosity
c. vapor pressure
d. heat of vaporization

2. Which of the following properties explains why raindrops are spherical in

shape?
a. surface tension
b. viscosity
c. vapor pressure
d. heat of vaporization

For numbers 3-5, refer to the table below.

Liquid Normal Boiling Point (°C)

J 46.0

K 61.7

L 78.5

3. Which liquid would have the highest vapor pressure?

a. J
b. K
c. L
d. It depends on the temperature.

4. Which has the weakest intermolecular forces?

a. J
b. K
c. L
d. They are equally weak.

5. Which liquid would be the most viscous?

a. J
b. K
c. L
d. They would be equally viscous.

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Lesson
Properties of Liquids
1

What I Need to Know

At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
1. describe the properties of liquids: surface tension, viscosity, vapor pressure,
boiling point, and molar heat of vaporization;
2. explain the effect of intermolecular forces on these properties; and 3. relate
the properties of water to intermolecular forces that operate
among its molecules.

What’s In
Activity 1. Review!

Directions: As part of our review of our previous lessons on

intermolecular forces, list the type/s of intermolecular forces that exist between
molecules (or basic units) in each of the following species:

(a) benzene (C6H6)

(b) CH3Cl
(c) PF3
(d) NaCl
(e) CS2

What’s New
Activity 2: Infer the Topic

Directions: The objective is for you to deduce the subject of the lesson from the
ideas you get from the photos. Look at the pictures in a minute or less and record an
inference about the upcoming subject of study. Based on the images seen, you
should be able to make arguments to support your conclusion. Express your answer
in three to five sentences only.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

© 2004 Thomson/Brooks Cole © 2004

Thomson/Brooks Cole © 2004 Thomson/Brooks Cole

 © 2004

Thomson/Brooks Cole © 2004 Thomson/Brooks ColeKarp, 2010

What is It
In activity 2, you should be able to tell the properties of liquids being depicted in
each photo like surface tension, viscosity, vapor pressure, and boiling point.

You should be familiar with the following relevant vocabulary that will be used
in the lesson:

Fluid
A liquid or gas; a substance that flows.

Surface tension
It is the elastic force in the surface of a liquid. It is the amount of energy required to
increase or stretch the surface of a liquid by a unit area.

Capillary action
It is the tendency of a liquid to rise in narrow tubes or to be drawn into small
openings.

Viscosity
A measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow.

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Vapor
A gaseous substance that exists naturally as a solid or liquid at normal temperature.

Vaporization
The change of phase from liquid to gas/vapor.

Vapor pressure of a liquid

The pressure exerted by the vapor above the surface of the liquid in a closed
container. It is the equilibrium pressure of a vapor above its liquid.

Boiling point
The temperature at which a liquid boils. Normal boiling point is boiling point of a
liquid when the external pressure is 1 atm.

Molar heat of vaporization (ΔHvap)

The amount of energy (usually in kilojoules) required to vaporize 1 mole of a liquid at
a specific temperature.

1) Now that you are familiar with those words, we will continue our discussion
 on the Properties of Liquid

Intermolecular forces give rise to several structural features and properties of liquids.
In this section we will look at five such phenomena associated with liquids in general:
surface tension, viscosity, vapor pressure, boiling point, ang molar heat of
vaporization. The properties of liquids that were observed are consequences of the
interactions of particles that make up the liquid.

1. Surface Tension
Molecules within a
liquid are pulled in all
directions by intermolecular
forces. There is no
tendency for them to be
pulled in any one way.
However, molecules at the
surface are pulled
sideways and downward
by other molecules, but not
upward away from the
surface (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Intermolecular
forces acting on a molecule in
the surface layer of a liquid and
in the interior region of the liquid

Karp, 2010

These intermolecular attractions appear to draw the molecules into the liquid and
like an elastic film, cause the surface to tighten. A drop of water assumes the form of
a small round bead. There is little to no attraction between polar water molecules and

3
the nonpolar
molecules since a
sphere minimizes
the surface area of a
liquid. This effect is
also created by a
wet apple's waxy
surface (Figure 2).

Figure 2.Water beads on an

apple, which has a waxy
surface

Karp, 2010
 Surface tension is a measure of the elastic force on a liquid's surface. It is the
amount of energy needed by a unit area to stretch or increase the surface of a fluid
(for example, by 1 cm2). There are also high surface
tensions in liquids that have solid intermolecular forces.
Thus, water has a much greater surface tension than most
other liquids because of hydrogen bonding.

Figure 3. Surface tension

enables the water strider to
“walk” on water.

Karp, 2010

Capillary action is another example of surface tension. Figure 4(a) reveals a

capillary tube, water rises spontaneously. A thin water film adheres to the wall of a
tube of glass. This film is caused to contract by the surface tension of water as it pulls
the water up the tube.
Capillary action is brought on by two types of forces: cohesion and adhesion.
Cohesion is the intermolecular attraction between similar molecules (water
molecules, in this case). Adhesion is an attraction between unlike molecules, such
as those in water and in the sides of a glass tube. If adhesion is stronger than
cohesion, as it is in Figure 4(a), the contents of the tube will be pushed upward. This
process continues until the adhesive force is balanced by the weight of the water in
the tube. This action is by no means universal among liquids, as Figure 4(b) shows.
In mercury, cohesion is greater than the adhesion between mercury and glass, so
that when a capillary tube is dipped in mercury, the result is a depression at the
mercury level—
that is, the height of the liquid in the capillary tube is below the surface of the mercury.

Figure 4. (a) When adhesion is greater than cohesion, the

liquid (for example, water) rises in the capillary tube. (b) When
cohesion is greater than adhesion, as it is for mercury, a
depression of the liquid in the capillary tube results. Note that
the meniscus in the tube of water is concave, or rounded
downward, whereas that in the tube of mercury is convex, or
rounded upward.

2. Viscosity Brown, 2015

 The term "slow as January molasses" owes its reality to another physical property of
liquids called viscosity. Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid to flow. The
greater the viscosity, the more the liquid flows steadily. As temperature increases,
the viscosity of a liquid normally decreases; hot molasses thus flow much faster than
cold molasses.
Liquids with strong intermolecular forces are higher in viscosity than those with weak
intermolecular forces (Table 1). Owing to its ability to form hydrogen bonds, water
has a higher viscosity than many other liquids. It is noteworthy that glycerol's
viscosity is significantly higher than all of those other liquids mentioned in Table 1.
Glycerol has the
structure like water. It
can form hydrogen
bonds. Each glycerol
molecule has three-
OH groups that can
participate in
hydrogen bonding
with other glycerol
molecules.

Figure 5. 3D and 2D
structures of glycerol - a clear,
odorless, syrupy liquid used to
make explosives, lubricants
and ink.

Brown, 2015

5
Table 1. Viscosity of Some Common Liquids at 20°C

*The SI units of viscosity are newton-second per meter squared.

Brown, 2015

3. Vapor Pressure
 By evaporation, molecules may escape from the surface of a liquid into the gas
phase. Suppose we place in an evacuated, closed container a quantity of ethanol
(CH3CH2OH), as in (Figure 6). Quickly, the ethanol starts evaporating. The pressure
exerted by the vapor in the space above the liquid increases consequently. The
pressure of the vapor reaches a constant value after a short period, which we call
vapor pressure.

Figure 6. Vapor pressure over a liquid

Brown, 2015

6
Any of the ethanol molecules on the liquid surface have ample kinetic energy at any
moment to overcome their neighbors' attractive forces and thus, escape into the gas
phase. The passage of molecules from the liquid phase to the gas phase
continuously goes on at every given temperature. However, as the number of gas
phase molecules increases, the likelihood increases that a molecule will reach the
liquid surface in the gas phase and be recaptured by the liquid, as shown in Figure 6
in the flask on the right. The rate at which molecules return to the liquid is, finally,
equal to the rate at which they escape. In the gas phase, the number of molecules
then
reaches a stable value and the pressure exerted by the vapor becomes constant.
The situation in which two opposing processes occur at equal rates simultaneously is
called dynamic equilibrium (or simply equilibrium). Chemical balance, in which
chemical reactions are the opposite mechanisms, is a type of dynamic equilibrium.
When evaporation and condensation occur at similar rates, a liquid and its vapor are
in dynamic equilibrium. It might appear that since there is no net shift in the system,
nothing happens in equilibrium. In fact, however, as molecules constantly move from
liquid state to gas state and from gas state to liquid state, a great deal happens. The
vapor pressure of a liquid is the pressure exerted by its vapor when the liquid and
vapor are in dynamic equilibrium.

4. Boiling Point

A liquid's boiling point is the temperature at which its vapor pressure, acting on the
liquid surface, equals the external pressure. The thermal energy of the molecules at
this temperature is high enough for the molecules within the liquid to break free from
their neighbors and enter the gas phase. As a consequence, bubbles
of vapor form inside the liquid. If the external pressure rises, the boiling point
increases. The boiling point of a liquid at 1 atm (760 torr) pressure is called its
normal boiling point. From Figure 7, we see that the normal boiling point of water is
100°C. The time required for food to be cooked in boiling water depends on the
water. The temperature is 100 °C in an open container, but it is possible to boil at
higher temperatures. Pressure cookers operate by only allowing steam to escape
when it exceeds a predetermined pressure; therefore, the pressure above the water
can rise above atmospheric pressure. The higher pressure allows the water to boil at
a higher
temperature, making it easier for the food to get hotter and cook quicker. The
influence of pressure on the boiling point also explains why cooking food at high
elevations takes longer
than it does at sea level.
At higher altitudes, the air
pressure is lower, so water
boils at a temperature
lower than 100 °C, and
food typically takes longer
to cook.

Figure 7. Vapor pressure for four liquids as a function of temperature.

Brown, 2015

5. Molar Heat of

Vaporization

A measure of the strength of intermolecular forces in a liquid is the molar heat of

vaporization (ΔHvap), defined as the energy (usually in kilojoules) required to
vaporize 1 mole of a liquid. The molar heat of vaporization has a direct relationship to
the strength of intermolecular forces that exist in the liquid.

Table 2.Molar heats of vaporization and boiling points of some substances

Substance ΔHvap (kJ/ Boiling
mol) Point* (OC)

Argon (Ar) 6.3 -186

Pentane(C5H12) 26.5 36.1
Acetone (CH3COCH3) 30.3 56.5
Ethanol (C2H5OH) 39.3 78.3
Water (H2O) 40.79 100

*Measured at 1 atm

Rubbing ethyl alcohol on your hands is a realistic way to illustrate variations in the
molar heat of vaporization. Compare what is felt while using water. Ethyl alcohol has
a lower ΔHvap than water so that heat from our hands is enough to increase the
kinetic energy of these molecules and provide additional heat to vaporize them. As a
consequence of the loss of heat from the skin, our hands feel cool.

8
B. The Structure and Properties of Water

On Earth, water is so prevalent a material that we often forget its special existence.
All processes of life include water. For several ionic compounds, as well as other
substances capable of forming hydrogen bonds with water, water is an excellent
solvent.

Table 3. The Specific Heats of Some Common Substances

Substance Specific Heat (J/goC)

Al 0.900

Au 0.129

C (graphite) 0.720

C (diamond) 0.502

Cu 0.385

Fe 0.444

Hg 0.139

H2O 4.184

C2H5OH (ethanol) 2.460

 As Table 3 shows, water has a high specific heat. The explanation is that to boost
water temperature (that is, to raise the average kinetic energy of the water
molecules), we must break the several hydrogen intermolecular bonds first. Water
can also consume a large quantity of heat while its temperature increases just
slightly. The reverse is also true: with just a small reduction in its temperature, water
will give off a lot of heat. For this reason, by absorbing heat in the summer and giving
off heat in the winter, with just minor changes in the temperature of the body of
water, the vast amounts of water that are present in our lakes and oceans will
effectively moderate the climate of neighboring land areas. Water's most striking
property is that its solid form is less dense than its liquid form on the surface of liquid
water, that is why ice floats (Figure 9). The density of almost all other substances is
greater in the solid state than in the liquid state.

We have to analyze the electronic structure of the H2O molecule to understand why
water is different. There are two pairs of nonbonding electrons, or two lone pairs, on
the oxygen atom:

Figure 8. Electrostatic potential

map of water.
Brown, 2015

Karp, 2010
Figure 9.Left: Ice cubes float on water. Right: Solid benzene
sinks to the bottom of liquid benzene.

While intermolecular hydrogen bonds can be formed by many compounds, the

difference is that each oxygen atom will form two hydrogen bonds between H 2O and
other polar molecules, such as NH3 and HF, the same as the number of lone electron
pairs on the oxygen atom. Thus, in an extensive three-dimensional network in which
each oxygen atom is roughly tetrahedrally bound to four hydrogen atoms, by two
covalent bonds and by two hydrogen
bonds, water molecules are joined together.
This equality in the number of hydrogen
atoms and lone pairs does not define NH3 or
HF, or any other molecule capable of
forming hydrogen, for that matter.
Consequently, rings or chains, but not three-
dimensional structures, may be formed by
these other molecules.

Figure 10. The three-dimensional

 structure of ice. Each O atom is
bonded to four H atoms. The
covalent bonds are shown by short
solid lines and the weaker hydrogen
bonds by long dotted lines between
O and H. The empty space in the
structure accounts for the low
density of ice.

Brown, 2015

The highly ordered three

dimensional ice structure (Figure 10) makes it difficult for the molecules to get too
close to each other. But remember what happens with the melting of ice. A number of
water molecules have enough kinetic energy at the melting point to break free from
the intermolecular bonds of hydrogen. In the cavities of the three-dimensional
structure, which is broken down into smaller clusters, these molecules become stuck.
As a consequence, in liquid water, more molecules per unit volume are present than
in ice. Thus because of mass/volume density, the water density is higher than that of
ice. More water molecules are released from intermolecular hydrogen bonding with
further heating, so that the water density continues to rise only above the melting
point with the increasing temperature. Water expands as it is heated at the same
time of course, so that its density is decreased. These two processes work in
opposite directions: the trapping of free water molecules in cavities and thermal
expansion. Trapping prevails from 0 °C to 4 °C and water becomes increasingly
denser. However, thermal expansion predominates above 4 °C and water density
decreases with rising temperatures (Figure 11).

10

Brown, 2015

Figure 11.Plot of density versus temperature for liquid

water. The maximum density of water is reached at 4°C. The density of ice at
0°C is about 0.92 g/cm3.

What’s More
Activity 3. Let’s Test Your Understanding!

Directions: Read and answer each question carefully. Write your answers on a
separate sheet of paper.

The boiling points, surface tensions, and viscosities of water and several alcohols
are as follows:
 (a)

For ethanol, propanol, and n-butanol the boiling points, surface tensions, and
viscosities all increase. What is the reason for this increase?
(b) How do you explain the fact that propanol and ethylene glycol have similar
molecular weights (60 versus 62 amu), yet the viscosity of ethylene glycol is
more than 10 times larger than propanol?
(c) How do you explain the fact that water has the highest surface tension but has
the lowest viscosity?

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What I Have Learned

Activity 4. Let’s Think!

Directions: Read and answer each question carefully. Write your answers on a
separate sheet of paper.

1. Which of the following affects the vapor pressure of a liquid?

a. Volume of the liquid
b. Surface area
c. intermolecular attractive forces
d. temperature
e. density of the liquid

2. a. What is the relationship between surface tension and temperature?

b. What is the relationship between viscosity and temperature?
c. Why do substances with high surface tension also tend to have high
viscosities?

3. Explain the following observations:

a. The surface tension of CHBr3 is greater than that of CHCl3.
b. As temperature increases, oil flows faster through a narrow tube. c.
Raindrops that collect on a waxed automobile hood take on a nearly
spherical shape.
d. Oil droplets that collect on a waxed automobile hood take on a flat shape.
4. At 50 °C, the vapor pressure of ethanol is 0.30 atm, acetic acid is 0.08 atm,
water is 0.12 atm, and acetone is 0.84 atm.

a. Arrange these substances in order of increasing rates of evaporation. b.

Arrange these substances in order of increasing boiling point temperature. c.
Arrange these substances in order of increasing intermolecular forces.
 What I Can Do
Activity 5. Imagine and Analyze!

Directions: Read and analyze each situation. Answer the questions

that follow and write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.

a. Two pans of water are on different burners of a stove. One pan of water is
boiling vigorously, while the other is boiling gently. What can be said about the
temperature of the water in the two pans?
b. A large container of water and a small one are at the same temperature. What
can be said about the relative vapor pressures of the water in the two
containers?

12
Summary:

1. Liquids tend to assume a geometry that minimizes surface area. Surface tension
is the energy needed to expand a liquid surface area; strong intermolecular
forces lead to greater surface tension.
2. Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a liquid to flow; it decreases with
increasing temperature.
3. Vapor - A gaseous substance that exists naturally as a liquid or solid at normal
temperature.
4. Vaporization - The change of phase from liquid to vapor (gaseous phase). 5. A
liquid in a closed vessel eventually establishes a dynamic equilibrium between
evaporation and condensation. The vapor pressure over the liquid under these
conditions is the equilibrium vapor pressure, which is often referred to simply as
“vapor pressure”.
6. Boiling point - The temperature at which a liquid boils. The boiling point of a liquid
when the external pressure is 1 atm is called the normal boiling point. 7. Molar heat
of vaporization (ΔHvap) - The energy (usually in kilojoules) required to vaporize 1
mole of a liquid at a given temperature.
8. Water molecules in the solid state form a three-dimensional network in which
each oxygen atom is covalently bonded to two hydrogen atoms and is hydrogen
bonded to two hydrogen atoms. This unique structure accounts for the fact that
ice is less dense than liquid water, a property that enables life to survive under
the ice in ponds and lakes in cold climates.
9. Water is also ideally suited for its ecological role by its high specific heat, another
property imparted by its strong hydrogen bonding. Large bodies of water are
able to moderate Earth’s climate by giving off and absorbing substantial
amounts of heat with only small changes in the water temperature.
 13

Assessment: (Post-Test)
Directions: Read and answer each item carefully and choose the letter of the best
answer.

1. What would be the boiling point of liquid L at the top of a mountain where the
atmospheric pressure is lower than 1 atm?
a. 78.5 °C
b. less than 78.5 °C
c. greater than 78.5 °C
d. It depends on the amount of heat the liquid is exposed to.

2. The vapor pressure of ethyl alcohol at 60 °C is 47.02 kPa. What would be its
vapor pressure at 20 °C?
a. 47.02 kPa
b. greater than 47.02 kPa
c. less than 47.02 kPa
d. cannot be determined

3. With all other factors held constant, which of the following places will rice cook
for a longer time?
a. at the peak of a mountain
b. at sea level
c. It would take the same time to cook rice regardless of location.
d. It depends on the variety of rice.

4. What property of water explains why water inside the tiny cracks in rocks helps
the latter break when it freezes?
a. Water has a high boiling point.
b. Water has high surface tension.
c. Water has a greater volume in its solid state.
d. Water has high heat of vaporization.

5. What property of water explains why our body temperature remains essentially
constant?
a. Water has high heat of vaporization.
b. Water has a high specific heat.
c. Water has high density in its liquid form.
d. Water has high boiling point.

14
References

Ayson, M.F., De Borja, R.S., Ysmael, M.C. (2016). General Chemistry 2

( Teacher’s Manual). Vibal Group, Inc. Araneta Avenue, Quezon City
Brown, T.L., LeMay Jr., H.E., Bursten, B.E., Murphy, C.J., Woodward, P.M.,
Stoltzfus, M.W. (2015). Chemistry The Central Science. 13th Edition. Pearson
Education Inc. United States of America

Canva. Accessed November 5, 2020. https://www.canva.com/education

Chang, R. (2010). Chemistry. Tenth Edition.McGraw-Hill. America, New

York

Licuanan, P.B. (2016). Teaching Guide for Senior High School (GENERAL
CHEMISTRY 2). Commission on Higher Education. Diliman, Quezon City

18
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Department of Education – Division of Cagayan de Oro

City Office Address:Fr. William F. Masterson Ave., Upper
Balulang, Cagayan de Oro
Telephone Nos.: (08822)855-0048
E-mail Address:cagayandeoro.city@deped.gov.ph

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