LAS 2: ANALYTICAL LABORATORY TECHNIQUES AND

OPERATIONS What is the color of the flame when the air

A. LABORATORY GAS BURNER vents are closed?

When the air vent of a Bunsen

burner is closed, air for the combustion
reaction is only coming from the area near
the top of the burner. As a result,
incomplete combustion occurs, and
elemental carbon is produced. The
temperature of the flame is lower, and it is
a bright yellow, candle-like flame.

Did anything happen to the surface of the

test tube in this flame?

2 Primary Fuel Sources of a BUNSEN Soot was deposited onto the surface
of the test tube.
BURNER
➢ Natural gas (mostly methane)  Soot is the result of incomplete
➢ Liquefied Petroleum gas (propane, butane, or a combustion
mixture of the two)

What happens to the flame size when the

gas control valve is turned?
Flame Colors
The gas valve controls the amount
o Air holes fully close
of gas entering the Bunsen burner.
 Yellow
Allowing more gas to enter the Bunsen
- Safety flame
burner creates a larger flame. Flame
- 300°
increases in a clockwise turn and flame
- Incomplete combustion
decreases with a counterclockwise turn

Describe the effect on flame as the air

vents were opened.

Blue in color, produces less light,

small and steady, does not produce soot,
has three zones, and burns noisily.

B. LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS
o Air holes slightly open I. Volume
 Orange - 50ml Graduated cylinder
- 50ml Erlenmeyer
- 50ml Beaker
o Air holes half open
 Blue II. Mass
- 500° - triple beam balance
- top-loading balance
- analytical balance

III. Length
- Ruler

i. Volume

o Air holes fully open

 Roaring blue
- Hottest flame
- Complete combustion
- 700°
 Two students weighed a 125-mL beaker that
had a weight of 80.562 g on a calibrated top-
loading balance. Each student used their own
top-loading balance, recorded three weights for
Which piece of glassware will give you a more
the beaker, and then determined the average.
accurate measure of liquid: the graduated
Below are the results:
cylinder, the Erlenmeyer flask, or the beaker?
Explain why. Graduated cylinder will give you
accurate measure of liquid since it has zero or
Graduated cylinder will give you
lesser error in volume or % error compared to
accurate measure of liquid since it has zero or
the other volumetric glassware.
lesser error in volume or % error compared to
the other volumetric glassware.

ii. Measuring Mass

➢ Top-loading balance
a. Find the averages.

Student A’s recorded weights for the beaker:

80.56 g

Student B’s recorded weights for the beaker:

80.56 g

b. Which set of results matches the known

weight of the beaker?

• Both have the same average weights

which are closest or near accurate to the
known weight.

c. Which set of results is more precise?

➢ Triple beam balance
• Set of results from Student A is more
precise than Student B because the
recorded weights are closer to one
another.

d. Which student has the more reliable

balance?

• Since Student A has more precise

recorded weights, Student A has more
reliable balance.

C. USE OF VOLUMETRIC WARE

➢ Pipet/Pipette
 ➢ Buret/Burette E. FILTRATION

Filtrate

- liquid that passes through the

filtration filter

Residue

- solid that remains on the filtration

filter

Volume of the Filtrate: __75__ mL

Note: Answers may vary

Is there a difference in the volume

measurement between before and after
filtration of the liquid? Explain why or why
not.

Yes, because the residue remained

in the filter paper resulting to a difference
of the volume or lesser volume of the
liquid, which is not the filtrate.

D. DECANTATION

F. HEATING OF SOLUTION

SUPERNATANT LIQUID

Volume of the supernatant liquid: __80__ mL

Was the NaCl solution successfully heated
Note: Answers may vary under 5 minutes? YES
Is there a difference in the volume Note: Answers may vary
measurement between before and after
What do you think will happen to the
decantation of the liquid? Explain why or why
solution if it will be heated more than the
not.
specified time in the procedure?
Yes, because only the liquid
The temperature would increase
(supernatant liquid) was decanted to the other
and would reach the boiling point of the
container resulting to a difference of the
solution. This may result to the evaporation
volume or lesser volume.
of the solution.
 G. CHECKING THE pH
IONS AND METALS
➢ pH paper
➢ pH meter
Which of the solutions is acidic, Solution A or
Solution B or C? Explain why.
Solution B because the red litmus paper remained
the same in color, or the blue litmus paper turns
to red.
Note: Answers may vary
Which of the solutions is basic/alkaline, Solution
A or Solution B or C? Explain why.
Solution C because the blue litmus paper
remained the same in color, or the red litmus
paper turns to blue.
IONS IN A MIXTURE
- separated by selective precipitation
in qualitative analysis
 The addition of a properly selected reagent to
an aqueous mixture of ions results in the
precipitation of one or more of the ions while
leaving the rest in solution
 After isolating each ion, its identity can be
confirmed using a chemical reaction particular to
that ion.
 acid-base reactions, oxidation-reduction
reactions, and the formation of complex ions are
often used in a systematic way for either
separating ions or for determining the presence
of specific ions
LAS 3: IDENTIFICATION TESTS FOR SELECTED TRACE
QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
- answers the question, “What is in a
sample,” is a common experimental
method used to identify ions in a mixture
GROUP IA: Alkali Metals
- lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium,
cesium, and francium
- s-block (only 1 valence electron)
- ready to lose the valence electron to form
cation with charge +1 and achieve stable
octet electronic configuration
- malleable, ductile, and are good conductors
of heat and electricity
- Soft and shiny and can be easily cut with a
knife
- never exist as free elements and are found
naturally only in salts
- relatively low melting and boiling points
- Low density (float on water)
- Li, Na, K less dense than water
- Cannot be stored under water
 must be stored under oil to prevent
reaction with air due to high
reactivity
- have similar physical and chemical
characteristics
Hydroxides
- white ionic crystalline solids
- deliquescent except LiOH
Oxides
- basic and water-soluble
Halide
- soluble in water except LiF
- a halogen atom bearing a negative charge
(𝐹 − , 𝐶𝑙 − , 𝐵𝑟 − , 𝐼 − )
o Deliquescence is the process by which a
substance absorbs moisture from the air
and dissolve in it
o Aqueous solution is strong alkali dangerous
to handle
o Neutralize acids to form salts
 SOLUTION

PRECIPITATION

Group IIA: Alkali Earth Metals

WHITE CRYSTALLINE
PRECIPITATE - Can be found in the Earth’s crust
- Widely distributed in rock structure
- Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, and Ra
- alkaline – many compounds of these
metals are basic or alkaline
- earth – many of these compounds are
insoluble in water
- tend to lose two electrons to form M 2+
ions (Be2+, Mg2+, Ca2+, and so on)
 these metals are less reactive than
the neighboring alkali metal

Hydroxides

 Magnesium and Beryllium are:

o water-insoluble
o active metals
 Calcium, Strontium and Barium
give strong basic solution
- Carbonates, Phosphates, Sulfates, and
Fluorides are insoluble

FLAME TEST
o Na (Sodium)
- Golden Yellow flame

o K (Potassium)
- Violet/Purple flame

o Li (Lithium)
- Carmine/Crimson Red

FLAME TEST
o Ca (Calcium)
- Brick Red flame
-
o Mg (Manganese)
- Colorless flame

o Ba (Barium)
- Apple Green flame
 Procedure B: TS 1

𝑼𝒏𝒌𝒏𝒐𝒘𝒏 + 𝑵𝑯𝟒 𝑶𝑯 , 𝒂𝒅𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒖𝒓𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝑯𝑵𝑶𝟑

Cupric amino
Azure Blue 𝐶𝑢2+
sulphate
solution (Copper)
𝐶𝑢(𝑁𝐻3 )4 𝑆𝑂4
White Zinc hydroxide
Zn (Zinc)
Precipitate 𝐶𝑑(𝑁𝐻4 )4 𝑆𝑂4
Cadmium –
Ammonium
Colorless Cd
sulphate
solution (Cadmium)
Group IB Metals: Transition/COINAGE/NOBLE METALS (Group complex
11) Ammonium 𝐶𝑑(𝑁𝐻4 )4 𝑆𝑂4
hydroxide White Aluminum
Al
- Cu, Ag, Au and Nitric Gelatinous hydroxide
(Aluminum)
 all relatively inert and corrosion-resistant acid solution 𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)3
metals Nickel
Bluish
 excellent electrical and thermal conductors hydroxide Ni (Nickel)
Green
𝑁𝑖(𝑂𝐻)2
 all soft metals, they are ineffective as
Cobalt
weapons or tools Pink
hydroxide Co (Cobalt)
- occur in the free metallic state, and are relatively easy solution
𝐶𝑜(𝑂𝐻)2
to recover them from their ore Ferric
- are very malleable Reddish
hydroxide 𝐹𝑒 3+ (Iron)
- used throughout historical times to make decorative Brown
𝐹𝑒(𝑂𝐻)3
vessels and jewelry
- employed for centuries as a measure of monetary
wealth and for the fabrication of coins
- d-block or transition metals

Silver (Ag)

- most electrically conductive metal, followed by Cu

and then Au
Procedure B: TS 2
- most thermally conductive and light-reflective
element 𝑼𝒏𝒌𝒏𝒐𝒘𝒏 + 𝑲𝟒 𝑭𝒆(𝑪𝑵)𝟔

Brick Red or Red- Copper or Cupric

Brown ferrocyanide
precipitate 𝐶𝑢4 [𝐹𝑒(𝐶𝑁)6 ]2
Zinc ferrocyanide
White precipitate
𝑍𝑛4 [𝐹𝑒(𝐶𝑁)6 ]2
Potassium
Cadmium
Ferrocyanide White Flocculent
ferrocyanide
precipitate
𝐶𝑑2 𝐹𝑒 (𝐶𝑁)6
Ferric-
Prussian Blue
ferrocyanide
precipitate
𝐹𝑒4 [𝐹𝑒 (𝐶𝑁)6 ]3

Group IIB Metals: ZINC group (Group 12)

- Zn, Cd, Hg, Cn

- have properties in common, but they also differ in
significant respects
- Zinc, cadmium, and mercury are metals with a silvery-
white appearance and relatively low melting points
and boiling points; mercury is the only common metal
that is liquid at room temperature, and its boiling 𝑼𝒏𝒌𝒐𝒘𝒏 + 𝑯𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑪𝑶𝑶
point is lower than any other metal.
- more electropositive than the group 11 elements, so  pale green 𝑭𝒆(𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑪𝑶𝑶)𝟐 = 𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒔
they are less noble  deep-red solution 𝑭𝒆(𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑪𝑶𝑶)𝟑 = 𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒊𝒐𝒏
- dominated by the +2-oxidation state, are almost
always found in nature combined with sulfur
 𝑼𝒏𝒌𝒐𝒘𝒏 + 𝑵𝒂𝑭 + 𝒂𝒍𝒄𝒐𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒄 𝑵𝑯𝟒 𝑪𝑵𝑺

 blue green color at conjunction of 2 liquids = 𝒄𝒐𝒃𝒂𝒍𝒕

𝑼𝒏𝒌𝒐𝒘𝒏 + 𝑯𝑪𝑰 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶𝟐

 blue color which fades rapidly = 𝒄𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒖𝒎