Anatomy and Physiology | Chapter 6: Skeletal System | BUCSSP - 2nd Semester

Enrile, Pimentel, Rosero| Group 03 | Psych 2A

Outline: 6.1.4. Mineral Storage

6.1 Functions of the Skeletal System

6.2 Extracellular Matrix ● Some minerals in the blood—principally,
6.3 General Features of Bone calcium and phosphorus—are stored in bone.
6.4 Bone and Calcium Homeostasis
Should blood levels of these minerals
6.5 General Considerations of Bone Anatomy
6.6 Axial Skeleton decrease, the minerals are released from bone
6.7 Appendicular Skeleton into the blood. Adipose tissue is also stored
6.8 Joints within bone cavities. If needed, the lipids are
6.9 Effects of Aging on the Skeletal System and Joints
released into the blood and used by other
tissues as a source of energy.
6.1 Functions of Skeletal System

6.1.5. Blood Cell Production

6.1.1. Body Support

● Many bones contain cavities filled with red

It is well suited for bearing weight and is the major bone marrow, which gives rise to blood cells
supporting tissue of the body. Cartilage provides firm and platelets.
yet flexible support within certain structures, such as
the nose, external ear, thoracic cage, and trachea.
6.2 Extracellular Matrix

6.1.2. Organ Protection

6.2.1. Bone Matrix
● Bone is hard and protects the organs it
surrounds. For example, the skull encloses and ● The matrix always contains collagen, ground
protects the brain, and the vertebrae surround substance, and other organic molecules, as
the spinal cord. The rib cage protects the well as water and minerals. (Ed. 10)
heart, lungs, and other organs of the thorax
● By weight, mature bone matrix is normally
about 35% organic and 65% inorganic
6.1.3. Body Movement material.
○ The organic material consists
primarily of collagen and
● Skeletal muscles attach to bones by tendons,
proteoglycans.
which are strong bands of connective tissue.
○ The inorganic material consists
Contraction of the skeletal muscles moves the
primarily of a calcium phosphate
bones, producing body movements. Which
crystal called hydroxyapatite.
includes:
● Bone matrix can be compared to reinforced
concrete. Like reinforcing steel bars, the
Joints collagen fibers lend flexible strength to the
matrix; like concrete, the mineral components
formed where two or bones come together, allowing
movement between bones. give the matrix weight-bearing strength.
Collagen provides flexible strength.
Smooth Cartilage Hydroxyapatite provides compressional
strength.
covers the end of bones within joints, allowing the bones
to move freely. A. Collagen

Ligaments ● a tough, ropelike protein.

● Examples: Tendons and Ligaments contain
allow some movement between bones but prevent large amounts of collagen. As a result, the
excessive movement. structure is very tough like ropes or cables.
 B. Proteoglycans the blood. These cells are massive,
multinucleated cells whose differentiation
● Large molecules consist of many follows a complex pathway.
polysaccharides and retain large amounts of
water between the polysaccharides.
● Example: Cartilage contains collagen and
proteoglycans. As a result, cartilage is 6.3 General Features of the Bone
relatively rigid, but it springs back to its
original shape after being bent or slightly
compressed, making it an excellent shock 6.3.1. Bone Shapes
absorber.
A. Long Bones
C. Brittle Bone Disease or Osteogenesis
Imperfecta ● are longer than they are wide. This shape
enhances their function in movement of
● Imperfect bone formation is a rare disorder appendages. Most of the bones of the upper and
caused by any one of a number of faulty
lower limbs are long bones.
genes that results in either too little collagen
formation or poor quality collagen. As a
result, the bone matrix has decreased B. Short Bones
flexibility and is more easily broken than
normal bone. ● are approximately as wide as they are long;
examples are the bones of the wrist and ankle.
Short bones help transfer force between long
6.2.2. Bone bones.

A. Osteoblast C. Flat Bones

● Produce bone matrices and become ● have a relatively thin, flattened shape. Flat bones
osteocytes. Osteoblasts connect to one are well-suited to providing a strong barrier
another through cell extensions and around soft organs such as the brain and heart.
surround themselves with bone matrices to Examples of flat bones are certain skull bones, the
become osteocytes. Osteocytes are located
in lacunae and are connected to one another ribs, the scapulae (shoulder blades), and the
through canaliculi…bone forming cells, have sternum.
extensive endoplasmic reticulum and
numerous ribosomes. They produce D. Irregular Bones
collagen and proteoglycans, which are
packaged into vesicles by the Golgi ● include the vertebrae and facial bones, which
apparatus and released from the cell by have shapes that do not fit readily into the other
exocytosis
three categories. These bones tend to have
B. Osteocytes specialized functions, such as providing
protection while allowing bending and flexing of
● Once an osteoblasts has secreted enough certain body regions such as the spine.
bone matrix to become surrounded by it the
cell is then referred to as an osteocyte. The
osteocytes retain their connections to
neighboring osteocytes through their cell
extensions. It becomes relatively inactive,
compared with most osteoblasts, but it is
possible for them to produce the
components needed to maintain the bone
matrix.

C. Osteoclast

● break down bone (with assistance from

osteoblasts). are bone-destroying cells.
These cells perform reabsorption, or
breakdown, of bone that mobilizes crucial
calcium ions and phosphate ions for use in
many metabolic processes. As bone is
broken down, calcium ions goes “back” into

6.3.2. Spongy and Compact Bone
6.3.2.1. Spongy Bone
● Consists of interconnecting rods or plates of
bone called trabeculae. Between
trabeculae are spaces, which in life are filled
with bone marrow and blood vessels.
● Has many spaces; the trabeculae are oriented
along lines of stress and provide structural
strength.
6.3.2.2. Compact Bone
3.2.1. Spongy Bone
● dense with few spaces.
● Compact bone has more matrix and is denser,
with fewer pores than spongy bone..1.
● Compact bone consists of organized lamellae:
Circumferential lamellae form the outer
surface of compact bones; concentric lamellae
surrounding central canals, forming osteons;
interstitial lamellae are remnants of lamellae
left after bone remodeling. Canals within
compact bone provide a means for exchanging
gases, nutrients, and waste products. From the
periosteum or endosteum, perforating canals
carry blood vessels to central canals, and
cana- liculi connect central canals
osteocytes. Spongy Bone
6.3.2.3. Bone Ossification
● Ossification is the formation of bone by
osteoblasts. After an osteoblast becomes
completely surrounded by bone matrix, it
becomes a mature bone cell, or osteocyte. In
the fetus, bones develop by two processes,
each involving the formation of bone matrix
on preexisting connective tissue. Both types of
bone formation result in compact and spongy
bone.
Intramembranous Ossification
● bone formation that occurs within
the
connective tissue membranes
Endochondral Ossification
● bone formation that occurs inside hyaline
cartilage
6.3.2.4. Bone Growth
● Bone growth occurs by the deposition of new
bone lamellae onto existing bone or other
connective tissue. As osteoblasts deposit a new
bone matrix on the surface of bones between
the periosteum and the existing bone matrix,
the bone increases in width, or diameter. This
process is called appositional growth. Growth
in the length of a bone, which is the major
source of increased height in an individual,
occurs in the epiphyseal plate.
to
6.3.2.5. Bone Remodelling
● Bones are dynamic structures. The shape and
composition of bones are constantly changing
through bone remodeling.
● Bone remodeling is the removal of existing
bone by osteoclasts and the deposition of
new bone by osteoblasts and occurs in all
bones.
● Remodeling is responsible for changes in bone
shape, the adjustment of bone to stress, bone
repair, and calcium ion regulation in the body
fluids.
● Remodeling is also involved in bone growth
when newly formed spongy bone in the
epiphyseal plate forms compact bone.

6.3.2.6. Classification of Bone Fractures
● Open fracture (formerly called a compound
fractures) - it occurs when an open wound
extends to the site of the fracture or when a
fragment of bone protrudes through the skin.
● Closed fracture (formerly called a simple
fracture) -iIf the skin is not perforated, the
fracture
● Complicated fracture - if the soft tissues
around a closed fracture are damaged
● Incomplete fracture - does not extend
completely across the bone,
● Complete fracture - the bone is broken into at
least two fragments.
● Greenstick fracture - an incomplete fracture
on the convex side of the curve of the bone
● Hairline fractures - incomplete fractures in
which the two sections of bone do not
separate; hairline fractures are common in the
skull.
● Comminuted fracture - is a complete fracture
in which the bone breaks into more than two
pieces—usually two major fragments and a
smaller fragment.
● Impacted fracture - one fragment is driven
into the spongy portion of the other fragment.
● Linear fractures - run parallel to the length of
the bone
● Transverse fractures - are at right angles to
the length of the bone
● Spiral fractures - take a helical course around
the bone
● Oblique fractures - run obliquely in relation
to the length of the bone.
● Dentate fractures - have rough, toothed,
broken ends
● Stellate fractures - have breakage lines
radiating from a central point
6.4. Bones Calcium and Homeostasis
● Bone is the major storage site for calcium in the
body, and movement of calcium into and out of bone
helps determine blood calcium levels, which is critical
for normal muscle and nervous system function.
● Calcium (Ca2+) moves into bone as osteoblasts build
new bone and out of bone as osteoclasts break down
bone. When osteoblast and osteoclast activity is
balanced, the movements of calcium into and out of a
bone are equal.
● When blood calcium levels are too low, osteoclast
activity increases, osteoclasts release calcium from
bone into the blood, and blood calcium levels increase.
Conversely, if blood calcium levels are too high,
osteoclast activity decreases, osteoblasts remove
calcium from the blood to produce new bone, and
blood calcium levels decrease.
● Calcium homeostasis is maintained by three hormones:
1. Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
● from the parathyroid glands
2. Vitamin D
● from the skin or diet
3. Calcitonin
● from the thyroid gland.
NOTE: PTH and vitamin D are secreted when blood
calcium levels are too low and calcitonin is secreted
when blood calcium levels are too high.
6.5. General Consideration of Bone Anatomy
● It is traditional to list 206 bones in the average
adult skeleton, although the actual number
varies from person to person and decreases
with age as some bones fuse.
● Anatomists use several common terms to
describe the features of bones.
● A depression in a bone is called a fossa. A
rounded projection on a bone is called a
tubercle or a tuberosity, and a sharp
projection from a bone is called a process.
 ● Most tubercles and processes are sites of
6.6.1.1 Lateral View
muscle attachment on the bone. Increased
muscle pull, as occurs when a person lifts
weights to build up muscle mass, can increase
the size of some tubercles.
6.6.1.2. Frontal View
6.6. Axial Skeleton
● The axial skeleton is composed of the skull,
the vertebral column, and the thoracic cage.
● The axial skeleton forms the longitudinal axis
of the body
6.6.1. Skull
● The 22 bones of the skull are divided into
those of the braincase and those of the face.
● The braincase (neurocranium), which encloses
the cranial cavity, consists of 8 bones that
immediately surround and protect the brain
● 14 facial bones (viscerocranium). form the
structure of the face.
● Thirteen of the facial bones are rather solidly
connected to form the bulk of the face.
● The mandible, however, forms a freely
movable joint with the rest of the skull.
6.6.1.3 Interior of the Cranial Cavity
● The parietal bones and temporal bones form a
large portion of the side of the head
● These two bones join each other on the side of
the head at the squamous suture.
● A suture is a joint uniting bones of the skull.
Anteriorly, the parietal bone is joined to the
frontal (forehead) bone by the coronal corona,
crown) suture, and posteriorly it is joined to
the occipital bone by the lambdoid suture.
● A prominent feature of the temporal bone is a
large opening, the external auditory canal, a
canal that enables sound waves to reach the
eardrum.
● The major structures seen from the frontal
view are the frontal bone, the zygomatic
bones, the maxillae, and the mandible.
● Many bones of the face can be easily felt
through the skin from this view, the most
prominent openings into the skull are the
orbits (eye sockets) and the nasal cavity.
● The orbits are cone-shaped fossae, so named
because the eyes rotate within them.
● The bones of the orbits provide both
protection for the eyes and attachment points
for the muscles that move the eyes.
● Can be divided roughly into three cranial
fossae (anterior, middle, and posterior), which
are formed as the developing skull conforms
to the shape of the brain.can be divided
roughly into three cranial fossae (anterior,
middle, and posterior), which are formed as
the developing skull conforms to the shape of
the brain.
 ● The bones forming the floor of the cranial
cavity, from anterior to posterior, are the
frontal, ethmoid, sphenoid, temporal, and
occipital bones.
6.6.1.4. Base of the skull viewed from below
● Many of the same foramina that are visible in
the interior of the skull can also be seen in the
base of the skull, when viewed from below,
with the mandible removed.
● Other specialized structures, such as
processes for muscle attachments, can also be
seen.
● The foramen magnum is located in the
occipital bone near the center of the skull base
6.6.1.5. Hyoid Bone
● This is an unpaired, U-shaped bone. It is not
part of the skull, and has no direct bony
attachment to the skull or any other bones.
● Has the unique distinction of being the only
bone in the body that does not articulate with
another bone.
● Provides an attachment for some tongue
muscles, and it is an attachment point for
important neck muscles that elevate the
larynx (“voicebox”) during speech or
swallowing.
6.6.2. Vertebral Column
● Vertebral column, or spine, is the central axis
of the skel-eton, extending from the base of
the skull to slightly past the end of the pelvis.
● In adults, it usually consists of 26 individual
bones, grouped into five regions, 7 cervical
vertebrae, 12 thoracic vertebrae, 5 lumbar
vertebrae, 1 sacral bone, and 1 coccyx bone.
● The adult sacral and coccyx bones fuse from 5
and 3–4 individual bones, respectively.
6.6.2.1. General plan of the Vertebrae
● Each vertebra consists of a body, an arch, and
different processes
● There is one spinous process posteriorly and
two transverse processes laterally.
● The weight-bearing portion of each vertebra is
the body.
● The vertebral arch surrounds a large opening
called the vertebral foramen.
● Collectively, the vertebral foramina of all of
the vertebrae in the spine form the vertebral
canal.
● The vertebral canal encloses and protects the
spinal cord and protects it from injury.
6.6.2.2. Regional Differences in Vertebrae
● Cervical vertebrae have very small bodies,
except for the atlas, which has no body.
● Because the cervical vertebrae are relatively
delicate and have small bodies, dislocations
and fractures are more common in this area
than in other regions of the vertebral column.
● Each of the transverse processes has a
transverse foramen through which the
vertebral arteries pass toward the brain.
● Several of the cervical vertebrae also have
partly split spinous processes.
6.6.3. Rib Cage 6.7.1. Pectoral Girdle
● The rib cage protects the vital organs within ● Or shoulder figure
the thorax and prevents the collapse of the ● Consists of four bones: two scapulae and two
thorax during respiration. clavicles.
● It consists of the thoracic vertebrae, the ribs
with their associated cartilages, and the
sternum
The 12 pairs of ribs can be divided into true
ribs and false ribs.
● The true ribs, ribs 1–7, attach directly to the
sternum by means of costal cartilages.
● The false ribs, ribs 8–12, do not attach directly
to the sternum.
● Ribs 8–10 attach to the sternum by a common
cartilage; ribs 11 and 12 do not attach at all to
the sternum and are called floating ribs.

Figure 1: Pectoral Girdle

6.7.1.1. Scapulae

● a flat, triangular bone

● Has 4 Fossae which are the three large fossae
and the Glenoid Cavity.
● Consists of Three large Fossae where muscles
extending to the arm are attached
○ Infraspinous Fossa.
○ Subscapular Fossa
○ Supraspinous Fossa
6.6.3.1. Sternum ○ Glenoid Cavity
● Thickened ventral plate on each segment of ■ where the head of the humerus
the body of arthropod connects to the scapula.
● The sternum, or breastbone, is divided into
three parts: the manubrium., the body
(handle), and the xiphoid (sword) process.
● The sternum resembles a sword, with the
manubrium forming the handle, the body
forming the blade, and the xiphoid process
forming the tip.
● At the superior end of the sternum, a
depression called the jugular notch is located
between the ends of the clavicles where they
articulate with the sternum.
Figure 2: Scapulae
6.7.Appendicular Skeleton

● appendicular = appendage
● Acromion Process
● Consists of the bones of the upper and lower
○ extends from the scapular spine to
limbs, as well as the girdles, which attach the
form the point of the shoulder.
limbs to the axial skeleton.
○ Look at the Figure 2
○
6.7.1.2. Clavicle

● is also called as collarbone

● the first bone to begin ossification in the fetus,
and is last to complete ossification.
● Coracoid Process (Figure 2)
○ The scapula curves below the clavicle
and provides for the attachment of
arm and chest muscles.

Figure 4: Arm

6.7.2.2. Forearm
● has two bones: Ulna and Radius
Figure 3: The Clavicle
Ulna Radius

6.7.2. Upper Limb ● on the medial ● on the lateral

side of the side
● consists of bones of the arm, forearm, wrist, forearm
and the hand.
Other Parts which can be seen on the figure 4
6.7.2.1. Arm
● the region between the shoulder and the Trochlear Notch Coronoid Process
elbow which contains the humerus. ● lies on the end of ● Distal to the
the ulna forming trochlear notch
a curve. This fits ● Helps complete
Descriptions in relation to its location: tightly over the the “grip” of the
end of the ulna on the
Proximal end of the Humerus humerus, distal end of the
forming most of humerus
● smooth, rounded head, which attaches the the elbow joint.
humerus to the scapula and the glenoid
cavity. Ocleranon Process Radial Tuberosity
● Anatomical Neck is at the edge of the ● Proximal to the ● Distal to the
humeral head. trochlear notch radial head
● Surgical Neck, a more accessible site for is an extension ● Where one of the
surgical removal is located at the proximal of the ulna. arm muscles, the
end of the humeral shaft. ● Can be felt as the biceps brachii,
point of the attaches.
Lateral to the Head elbow. ● Distal end of the
radius
● has two tubercles: greater tubercle and articulates with
lesser tubercle. the wrist bones
● Deltoid Tuberosity
○ deltoid muscle attaches Styloid Process
● The pointy bony
process at the
distal ends of the
bone.
● Distal end of the
ulna forms a
head, which
articulates with
the bones of the
wrist.
● Located on the
 medial side. for the distal row
● Ulnar head can (Here Comes The Thumb)
be seen as a
prominent
projection on the 6.7.2.4. Hand
posterior ulnar
side of the wrist ● There are five metacarpal bones
○ Attached to the carpal bones and fom
the bony framework of the hand
○ Aligned with the five digits: the thumb
and fingers and are numbered from 1
to 5 from thumb to the little finger
● Knuckles
○ are the ends, or heads, of the five
metacarpal bones.
● Each finger is consists of three phalanges:
1. Proximal
2. Middle
3. Distal

Figure 5: Forearm

6.7.2.4. Wrist
● Relatively short between the forearm and the
hand
● Composed of: 8 Carpal Bones
8 Carpal Bones Description

● Scaphoid They are arranged into

● Lunate two rows of four bones Figure 6: Hand
● Triquetrum each and form a slight 6.7.3. Pelvic Girdle
● Pisiform curvature that is
● Hamate concave anteriorly and ● The place where the lower limbs attach to the
● Capitate convex posteriorly. body
● Trapezoid ● Right and left hip bones join each other
● Trapezium anteriorly and the sacrum posteriorly to form
a ring of bone called the pelvic girdle.
Mnemonics Description
● Sacrum and coccyx form the pelvic girdle but
● So Long Top ● Arranged in is also a part of axial skeleton
Part, Here order:
Comes The From lateral to medial
Thumb for the proximal row.
(So Long Top Part)

From medial to lateral

 Difference between Male and Female Pelvis
(further descriptions with the figure 9 is at the next page)

Male Female

● Larger and ● Broader

massive ● Female pelvis
somewhat
lighter in weight
and wider
laterally but
Figure 7: Pelvic Girdle shorter
6.7.3.1. Hip Bones superiorly
inferiorly and
less
1. Ilium funnel-shaped;
● most posterior less obvious
2. Ischium
muscle
● inferior and posterior
3. Pubis attachment
● inferior and anterior points in females
than in male.
Other descriptions of different parts of the
anatomy of the pelvis.

Iliac crest
● seen along the superior margin of each ilium,
Anterior Superior Iliac Spine
● an important hip landmark, is located at the
anterior end of the iliac crest.
Pubic Symphysis
● where hip bones converge anteriorly and
articulate with the sacrum posteriorly at the
Sacroiliac Joints
Acetabulum
● is the socket of the hip joint.
Obturator Foramen
● is the large hole in each hip bone that is
closed off by muscles and other structures.
Look at the Figure 7:

Figure 8: Pelvis

pelvis, includes the pelvic girdle and the coccyx.

Figure 9: Difference between
Male and Female Pelvis
(a) In a MALE, the pelvic inlet (red dashed line) and pelvic
outlet (blue dashed line)
● are small, and the subpubic angle is less than 90
degrees.
(b) In a FEMALE, the pelvic inlet (red dashed line) and
pelvic outlet (blue dashed line)
● are larger, and the subpubic angle is 90 degrees or
greater.
(c) A Midsagittal Section through the pelvis shows the
pelvic inlet (red arrow and red dashed line) and the pelvic
outlet (blue arrow and blue dashed line).

Practice Question:

Why is there a need for an increase in size of these

openings?
Answer: The increased size of these openings helps Figure 10: Thigh
accommodate the fetus during childbirth.
6.7.4.2. Leg

6.7.4. Lower Limb ● Region between the knee and the ankle
● Contains two bones: Medial Tibia and Lateral
Fibula
● Consists of the thigh, leg, ankle, and foot.
Tibia

6.7.4.1. Thigh ● Is the larger of the two and is the major

weight-bearing bone of the leg.
● region between the hip and the knee ● Rounded condyles of the femur rest on the flat
● Contains the femur condyles on the proximal end of the tibia.
● Tibial Tuberosity
○ Distal to the condyles of the tibia, on
Description of where it articulates: its anterior thigh.
use the provided picture ○ The muscles of the anterior thigh are
attached.
● Head of the femur articulates with the
acetabulum of the hip bone. Fibula
● At the distal end of the femur, condyles
articulate with the tibia. ● Thigh bone
● Epicondyles, located medial and lateral to the ● Does not articulate with the femur but its head
condyles, are the points of ligament is attached to the proximal end of the tibia.
attachment. The femur can be distinguished
from the humerus by its long neck, located
between the head and the trochanters.
● “Broken Hip” is usually a break of the femoral
neck.
● Patella or Kneecap, is located within the major
tendon to bend over the knee
○ Uniquely shaped bone, called a
sesamoid bone.

Figure 11: Bones of the Leg

 Note: Functions similarly to the springs of a car,
6.7.4.2. Ankle allowing the foot to spring back.
● Consists of the distal ends of the tibia and
fibula forming a partial socket that articulates
with the bone of the foot (talus)
○ Look at the Figure 12

Prominence (can be seen on each side of the ankle)

● Medial malleolus of the tibia
● Lateral malleolus of the fibula.
Look at the Figure 11

6.7.4.2. Foot
● consists of seven tarsal bones

The Seven Tarsal Bones

1. Medial Cuneiforms
2. Intermediate Cuneiforms
3. Lateral Cuneiforms Figure 12: Arches
4. Cuboid
5. Navicular
6. Talus
7. Calcaneus

Mnemonics for the Distal Row

● MILC
○ Medial, Intermediate and Lateral
Cuneiforms, and Cuboids
Mnemonics for the Proximal Bones
● NTC = No Thanks Cow
○ Navicular, Talus, and Calcaneus)

Metatarsal Bones
Figure 12: Foot
● Arranged, and numbered in a manner very
similar to the metacarpal bones and
phalanges of the hand.
● metatarsals are somewhat longer than 6.8.1. Joints
metacarpal bones whereas the phalanges of
the foot are considerably shorter than those ● or articulations, are commonly named
of the hand. according to the bones or portions of bones
that join together.
Three Primary Arches in the Foot ● Example: Temporomandibular Joint is between the
temporal bone and the mandible.
1st and 2nd. Two longitudinal arches extend from
the heel to the ball of the foot.
6.8.2.1 Classification of Joints
3rd. Transverse arch extends across the foot.
● Located at the connection between the five ● is based on Structure and Functions.
metatarsal and the three cuneiforms and the
cuboid.
6.8.2.1.1. Structure
Note: The arches serve as an adjustable layer to
assist in the two main functions of the foot: ● Fibrous, Cartilaginous, and Synovial Joints
1. To support the body in its upright position
both while standing and in forward during
walking Fibrous Joint (exhibit little or no movement)
2. And to absorb the shock when the foot
contacts the ground. ● articulating surfaces of two bones united by
fibrous connective tissue
 ● They have no joint cavity and exhibit little
or no movement.
● Joints in this group are further subdivided
on the basis of structure as sutures,
syndesmoses, or gomphoses.
Subdivision Fibrous Joint
1. Sutures
● fibrous joints between the bones of the
skull.
2. Syndesmoses
● bones are separated by some distance and
held together by ligaments.
3. Gomphoses
● consist of pegs fitted into sockets and held
in place by ligaments. The joint between a
tooth and its socket is gomphosis.
Cartilaginous Joints (Slight movement)
● Unite two bones by means of cartilage.
● Slight movement can occur in these joints.
● Connecting Cartilage can be:
○ Hyaline Cartilage (Synchondroses)
○ Fibrocartilage (Symphyses)
Synovial Joints
● freely movable joints that contain fluid
cavity surrounding the ends of articulating
bones.
Note: Most of the joints that unites the appendicular
skeleton are synovial joints.
Features of Synovial Joints
1. Articular Cartilage
● Provides a smooth surface where the bones
meet.
2. Joint Cavity
● Articular surface is enclosed within a fluid
3. Joint Capsule
● Helps to hold the bones together while still
allowing for a movement.
4. Synovial Membrane
● lines the joint cavity everywhere except
over the articular cartilage.
● where Synovial Fluid is produced.
● may also extend a Tendon Sheath
5. Synovial Fluid
● Forms a thin, lubricating film covering the
surfaces of the joint.
● a complex mixture of polysaccharides,
proteins, lipids, and cells.
6. Bursa
● may extend as a pocket or sac in certain
synovial joints.
● Bursitis
○ inflammation of a bursa.
 4. Pivot Joints
● Restrict movement to rotating around a
single axis.
● Each pivot consists of a cylindrical bony
process that rotates within a ring composed
partly of bone and partly of ligament.
● Example: Rotation between the axis and
atlas when shaking the head “no.”

Types of Synovial Joints

● Are classified according to the shape of the

adjoining articular surfaces.

1. Plane Joints
● Or gliding joints
● Consists of two opposed flat surfaces that 5. Ball-and-socket Joints
glide over each other. ● Consists of a ball (head) at the end of one
bone and a socket in an adjacent bone into
which a portion of the ball fits.
● Allows a wide range of movement in almost
any direction.
● Examples: Shoulder and hip joints

2. Saddle Joints
● Consists of two saddle-shaped articulating
surfaces oriented at right angles to each
other.
● Movement can occur in two planes.
6. Ellipsoid Joints (Condyloid Joints)
● Elongated ball-and-socket joints
● The shape of the joint limits its range of
movement nearly to that of a hinge motion,
but in two planes.
● Examples: between occipital condyles of
the skull

3. Hinge Joints
● permit movement in one plane only
● Consists of a convex cylinder of one bone
applied to a corresponding concavity of the
other bone.

6.8.2.1.2. Function
1. Synarthroses (non movable)
● Examples:
○ Sutures
○ Teeth
○ Mandible

2. Amphiarthrosis (slightly movable joints)

● Cartilaginous Joint
● Examples: Vertebrae of the spine

3. Diarthroses (freely movable joints)

● Synovial Joints

6.8.2.2. Types of Movement

Flexion Abduction

● A bending movement that decreases the angle of ● Movement away from the median or midsagittal
the joint to bring the articulating bones closer plane
together. ● To bring together
● Flexion movement in foot: ● Example: Jumping Jacks
○ Plantar Flexion
■ Movement of the foot toward
the plantar surface, as when
standing on toes.
○ Dorsiflexion
■ Movement of the foot toward
the shin.

Pronation and Supination

● unique rotation of the forearm

Extensions

● A straightening movement that increases the

angle of the joint to extend the articulating bones.

Hyperextension

● Usually defined as extension of a joint beyond 180

degrees.
● Can be a normal movement, such as looking up at
the stars, but it can also result in injury.

Eversion Inversion

● Turning the foot so ● Turning the foot so

that the plantar that the plantar
surface (bottom of surface faces
the foot) faces medially
laterally
Rotation 9. Elevation 10. Depression

● The turning of a structure around its long axis, as ● Movement of a ● Movement of a

in shaking the head “no” as well as the rotation in structure in a structure in an
our arms. superior direction. inferior direction
● Closing the mouth ● Opening the
involves elevation mouth involves
of the mandible. depression of the
mandible.

Circumduction

● Occurs at freely movable joints, such as the

shoulder.
● Arm moves tracing a cone-like shape where the
shoulder joint is at the cone’s apex.

11. Excursion

● Movement of a structure to one side, as in moving

the mandible from side to side.

12. Opposition 13. Repositon

Other Movement Types that are identified: ● A movement ● returns the digits
unique to the to the anatomical
thumb and little position
7. Protraction 8. Retraction finger.
● Occurs when the
● glides anteriorly ● Glides posteriorly tips of the thumb
and little finger are
brought toward
each other across
the palm of the
hand

● The thumb can
also oppose the
other digits
Practice Questions
1. What will happen when the bones of a joint are
forcefully pulled apart or torn?
● Sprain
2. If the end of one bone is pulled out of the socket in a
ball-and-socket, ellipsoid, or pivot joint, what is it
called?
● Dislocation
○ Most of the dislocations result in
stretching of the joint capsule.
○ If the joint capsule has been stretched by
a dislocation, the joint may be
predisposed to future dislocations.
○ Some individuals have hereditary “loose”
joints and are more likely to experience a
dislocation.
6.9. Effects of Aging on the Skeletal System and
Joints
Bone Matrix Comparison between Older and
Younger People
● Bone matrix in older bone is more brittle than
in younger bone because of decreased
collagen production which results in relatively
more mineral and less collagen fibers.
● With aging, the amount of matrix also
decreases because the rate of matrix formation
by osteoblasts becomes slower than the rate of
matrix breakdown by osteoclasts.
● At the age 30, bone mass is at its highest:
○ Men generally have denser bones than
women because of the effects of
testosterone and greater body weight.
○ Race and ethnicity affects bone mass.
○ African-Americas and Latinos have
higher masses than Caucasians and
Asians.
● After the age of 40, both men and women
experience a loss of bone of 0.3-0.5% a year.
○ This loss can increase 10-fold in
women after menopause, when they
can lose bone mass at a rate of 3-5% a
year approximately 5-7 years.
● Significant loss of bone increases the
likelihood of bone fractures.
○ Example: Loss of Trabeculae, greatly
increases the risk of fractures of
vertebrae.
○ Loss of bone and the resulting
fractures can cause deformity, loss of
height, pain, and stiffness.
○ Loss of bone from the jaws can also
lead to tooth loss.
● Synovial Joints
○ Changes in this have the greatest
effect and often present major
problems for elderly people.
○ With use, the cartilage covering
articular surfaces can wear down
○ If the person is young, production of a
new, resilient matrix compensates for
the wear.
○ As a person ages, the rate of
replacement declines, and the matrix
becomes more rigid, thus adding to its
rate of wear. Production of synovial
fluid also declines.
● Arthritis
○ An inflammatory degeneration of the
joints, people experience this as they
get old.
● Ligaments and Tendons
○ Shorter and less flexible which results
in decreased range of motion.
● Osteoporosis
○ A disorder of the skeletal system
characterized by significant loss of
bone density, making bones porous
and prone to fracture
● Older People are less physically active causing
the points to become less flexible and
decrease their range of motion.