CHAPTER I3 487
Power and Politics
13-1 Contrast leadership
and power.
power The capacity that Ahas to
influence the behavior of Bso that B
acts in accordance with A's wishes.
dependence B's relationship to A
when Apo0ssesses something that B
requires.
http://www
Apologizes Bribery Scandals in His Inner Circle," CNN, July 24, 2012,
for
Asso
Chn.com/2012/07/24/world/asia/south- korean -president-apology/index. html;York Post,
ciated Press, "Impeached South Korean President Indicted, Faces Trial," New
April 17 2017, http://nypost.com/2017/04/17/impeached-south-korean-presideni
bBC Profiles, "Profile: South Korean President Park Guen-hye," BBC News,
drcn 10, 2017, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-20787271; A. E. Marimow d
O. WIggins, "Code Word 'Lollipon': That Was Bribe Cue for Maryland State Senator, Investi
iarge, The Washington Post. April 7, 2017: J. Weaver, "Opa-locka Politician Pleads
y to Dribery, as FBI Continues Corruption Probe," Miami Herald, January 10, 201/,
http://www.miamiherald.com/news/local/article125617409. html; R. Jennings, "Five
Ihings to Know about South Korea's Presidential Scandal," Forbes, November 9, 2016,
https://www.forbes.com/sites/ralphjennings/2016/11/09/5-sad-and-creepy-things-you
Should-know-about-south-koreas-presidential-scandal/#59a510541556; and K. Rapoza,
"Transparency International Spells It Out: Politicians Are the Most Corrupt," Forbes, Iuly 9,
2013, htps://www.forbes.com/sites/ kenrapoza/2013/07/09/transparency-international
spells-it-out-politicians-are-the-most-corrupt/#7497bca2 1c33.
n tnis chapter, we will learn about power, including how a person obtains
power and the tactics employees use to exert their will over others. We will
also learn the role of political behavior in maintaining power within an organi
zation. Power in organizations is a compelling force: People who have power
deny it, people who want it try not to look like they're seeking it, and those who
are good at geting it are secretive about how they do so. We begin by exploring
our natural association of power with leadership.
Power and Leadership
In organizational behavior (0B), power refers to the capacity that 4 has to
influence the behavior of B so that B acts in accordance with 's wishes.
Someone can thus have power but not use it; it is a capacity or potential.
Probably the most important aspect of power is that it is a function of depen
dence. The greater B'sdependence on 4, the greater A'spower in the relation
ship. Dependence, in turn, is based on alternatives that B perceives and the
importance B places on the alternative(s) that A controls. A person can have
power over you only if he or she controls something you desire. If you want
acollege degree and have to pasS a certain course to get it, and your current
instructor is the only faculty member in the college who teaches that course.
she has power over you because your alternatives are highly limited and
you place a high degree of importance on the outcome. Similarly, if you're
attending college on funds provided by your parents, you probably recognize
the power they hold over you. But once you're out of school, have a job, and
are making a good income, your parents' power is reduced significantly,
Money is a powerfulvariable for dependence. Who among us has not heard
of a rich relative who controls family members merely through the implicit or
exnlicit threat of "writing them out of the will"? Another example is found on
Wall Street,where portfolio manager Ping Jiang allegedly was able to coerce his
Subordinate, analyst Andrew long, into taking female hormones and wearing
lipstick and makeup. Why such power? Jiang controlled Tong's access to day
trading and thus his livelihood3
 4B8
PART 3
The GreuD
\ careful comparnson of our descripton of power witlh or
concepts are closely
lendershin n (hapter 12 recals the
group yoals. low are
ISeoer as a means of attaining
require go0:al
ship and power, diflerent' Pouer loes not
dependence I exdership, on the other hand, requfes some
the goalk of the leader and those being led.
Asecond
dretion of ntluence I caderslhip rescarch focuses on the
compathty
dif Congr
erenceuehce ho
downwar nlem
on followeIs It minimizes the importance of lateral and upward in
consideration
lens PoWer research takes all factors into For athird
lcadership rescarch oicn emphasizes style. It sccks answers
to lfere
as: "How supportive should a lcader be?" and "low much
should be shared with followers?"" In contrast, the resecarch
que s
ondecpower
isiontOnsmak m
on tactics for gaining compliance. Leadership concentrateson
leader's influence, while the study of power acknowledges that the
individuals can use power to control otherindiviiduals or groups.groups iasnyuwel
You may have notcd that, for a power situation to exist. one person or
necds to have control over resources that the other person or
Is usuallythe case in established leadership situations.
group values. Th
However,
ships are possible in allareas of life, and power can be obtained power relation.
Let'sexplore the various sources of power next. many w

Bases of Power
13-2 Explain the three Where does power come from? \What gives an individual or a
bases of formal power group iniluen o
over others? We answer these questions by divid1ng the bases or sourras
and the two bases of
personal power. power into two general groupings-formal and personal-and breaking de
cach into more specific categories."

coercive power Lpower base that
depends on fear of the negalive
results from failing tc onply
Formal Power
Formal power is based on an individual's position in an
organization. It
come from the ability to coerce or reward, or from formal authority.
Coercive Power The coercive power base depends on the target's fear e
negative results from failing to comply. On the physical level, coereive ponar
rests on tlhe application, or the threat of application, of bodily distress throy
lhe inliction of pain, the restriction of movement. or the
withholding of bav
plhysiological or safety nceds.
AL he organizational level, Ahas coercive power over B ifA can
disls
suspend, or deniote B, assuming B values her job., If Acan assign BwoN a
lics B Tinds unpleasant, or treat B in a manner B finds
embarrassing, Aposse
COCrcive power over B. Cocrcive power comes also from withholding keyinkyr
mation. Pcople in an organization who have data or knowledge that others
Can make others dependent on them. When subordinates are beingabusedby
supervisOrs, cocrcive power is the main force that keeps them from retaliatine

reward power Compliance achieved
based on the ability to distribute
rewards that others view as valuable.
Reward Power The opposite of coercive power is reward power, who
people comply with because it view as positive
can distribute rewards that othersproduces valuable benefits;
SOmeone
has power Over thenm.

psitimatepower The power a
receives as a result of his or
oositon nthe formallhierarchy
ser
an organzation
expert power Influence based on
special skills or knowledge.
Iinternet ertrepreneur Mark Zucker
berg, cofounder and CEO of Facebook,
has expert power. Shown here talking
with ernployees, Zuckerberg earned
the title "software guy" during
because of his expertise in college
programming, Today, Facebook
computer
depends on his expertise to achieve
company goals.
Source: Tory
Aveler/FR155217/AP Irmages
Power and PolitiCs CHAPTER I3 489
These rewards can be fnancial such as controlling pay rates. raises. aid
bonuses ornonfinancial. includng recogn1tion, promotions, interestrng work
assignments. friendly colleagues, and prcferredwork shifts or sales territories.
Legitimate Power In formal groups and organ1zations. probably the most
commonaccess to one or more of the power bases Is through legitimate power
I1 represents the formal authority to control and use organizat ional resources
based on the person's structural position in the organization.
Legitimate power is broader than the power to coerce and reward Specifi
cally, it includes members' acceptance of the authority of a hierarchical posi
tion. We associate power so closely with the concept of hierarchy that just
drawing longer lines in an organization chart leads people to infer the leaders
are especially powerful.'In general, when school principals. bank presidents.
or army captains speak, teachers, tellers, and first lieutenants usually comply.
Personal Power
Many of the most competent and productive chip designers at Intel have power.
but they aren't managers and they have no formal power. What they have is per
Sonal power, which comes from an individual's unique characteristics.' There
are two bases of personal power: expertise and the respect and admiration of
others. Personal power is not mutually exclusive from formal power. but it can
be independent.
Expert Power Expert power is influence wielded as a result of exper
tise, special skills, or knowledge. As jobs become more specialized. we
become dependent on experts to achieve goals. It is generally acknowledged
that physicians have expertise and hence expert power: Mlost of us
tollow our
doctor's advice. Computer specialists, tax accountants, economists,
industral
psychologists, and other specialists wield power as a result of their expertise.
Loader
Spirit
 bouscs
INNpnCnts, uClly colleapues, md

l.egitimate Power In lonal legitimate power

legitinatepower The o\We werbes rthough
md
II presents the lomthouty lo cool
the oualhet uctuwal polion omzalio
hc
Iascd on the peson'
po
membe'ceetauICe of c bonly of a hCrheal
Clly, it mcldes brarchy lat jut
aSsoCiale power so cloely withh he coccpt ol
on. We the lcad
longer lines in anowizion chrt lcad, peopeto mler prcatlent.
Twng bank
espeeally powerlul.'n ene:al, when schoolpucpal, ally oiply
ile lechers, tellers, und heutent,
0 ariy caplans speak,

Personal Power power

most cOmpetent and proluctivechip des1pncr, at Intel havc
the
Many ol
mamagers and they bave no fomal power. Whatthey have p
but they aren't individals Diquc characteristics.
Therc
which comes from a
sOnal pOwer, admiraion of
personal power: expertise and he respcct and
are (wo bases of' ulually exclusive from formal power,
but it can
others. lPersonal power is not
be independent.
cxper
Power Expert power is inlluence wiclded as a result of
Expert we
As jobs become nore specalizcd.
based on
expert power Influence knowlcdge."
specialsklis or knowledge. tise, special skills, or ledycd
achicve goals. It is gener:ally acknow
become dependent on cxperts to follow our
hence expert power: Most of us
that physicians have expertise and accountants, cConomsts, ndustrial
Computer spccialists, tax
doctor's advice. result of their expertise.
psychologists, andother specialists wicld power as a
Internet entrepreneur Mark Zucker
berg, cofounder and CEO of Facebook,
hàs expert power Shown here talking
with employees, Zuckerberg earned
the title "software guy" during college
because of his expertise in computer
programming. loday, Facebook
depends on his expertise to achieve
company goals.
Source: lony Avelat/ki59217/AP mages

Logder
rit
490 PART 3 The
Group
referent power Influence based on
identification with aperson who has Referent Power Referent power is based on
who has desirable resources or personal
identification
traits."" If I like
desirable resources or personal traits. you, you can exCrcise power over respect
me because I want to please you., and
admiration of another
Referent power develops out of and a
like that person. It helps explain, for instance, why celcbrities are paid
of dollarsto endose productsin commercials.
Marketing d es
research mliom
ire in be

influSencehows pe
ple such as Virat Kohli and Priyanka Chopra have the power to
choice of athletie shocs and insurance policies. With alittle
could probably deliver as smooth a sales pitch as these
practice, you ant
celebrities,
ing public docsn't identify with us. Some people who are not in
but the bu:
ship positions have referent power and exert influence Over formal leate:.
others
their charismatic dynamism, likability, and emotional appeal!! because
Which Bases of Power Are Most Effective?
Ofthethree bases of formal power((coercive, reward, legitimate) and two
of personal power (expert, referent), which are most important? Researhbases
gests the personal sources of power are most effective. Both
expert and re.
erent power are positively related to employees' satisfaction with
their organizational commitment, and their performance, whereas rewari na supervision.
legitimate power seem to be unrelated to these outcomes. One source of forma
powercoercive powercan be damaging.
Referent power can be a powerful motivator. Consider the practice of matth.
ing popular film actors and actresses with corporations that want to promote te:
brands. Aamir Khan is paired with Titan, Samsung, and Coca Cola, Shahnit
Khan with Airtel, Tag Heuer, and DishTV, and Amitabh Bachhan with Parke.
Gujarat Tourism, and Justdial. This is about drawing on referent pouer
The credibility of artists and performers is used to reach youth culture. Tk
buying public identifies with and emulates the spokespersons and theretor
thinks highly of the represented brands.

Dependence: The Key to Power

13-3 Explain the role of The most important aspect of power is that it is a function of dependence.
dependence in power this section, we show how understanding dependence helps us understundthe
relationships. degrees of power.

The General Dependence Postulate mor'

Let's begin with a general postulate: The greater Bs dependence on A,thealon
power A hus over B. When you possess anything others require that you ove
control, you make them dependent on you and therefore you gain power maniÑ
them.'" As the old saying goes, In the land of the blind, the One-eyedpowet.
king!" But if something is plentiful, possessing it will not increase your place
Therefore, the more you can expand your own options, the less power you multjpk
in the hands of others. This develop
explains why most organizations whys0
suppliers rather than give their business to only one. It also explains
NHN NIle aspr w inancial indenndence. lndependence reduces the power

What Creates Dependence?

\N sS nhen the rsne ou ontol is important, scarce, and

Importance t noho wants what vou have, it's not going to crate
i n oe, hnN hat thew aN many degees ot inuportance, fiom
Im the NNw drNurNialoaning a esUre that is in tashion or adds to

Scarcity Ferio lamboghini, who cetd the cotie supcrcars that still
am his name, ndsN the mpTNCe o' scarity and used it to his advan
tage dunng lord ar ll. Mhen Lamboghini was in Rhodes with the lalian
am,. his sUNnON wee essdwith his mehanical skills because he dem
sIratian a s nany ability to air tnkS nd cas lo one clse could
i Afier the war, he admted his abiliy was largely duc to his haN Ng been the
ist Nson on dhe island l Nene he pair mauals, whih he memorizd
atd then destnyedto make hmsclt ndispensable
We see the scarviy ciependee elaionship in he pomer siluation of
eunlonen Wher he spl o laboris lw elatie to deman, workes c
neouatc ompensaliOn and leneis rhages tar more raiNe than those
n wunations ith anabundalee ot cand1dates. For cample, loday, collee
ynstralors have lo publem mdng Ingish nstruos because there is a
highsuyly and lm temand ln conuast, the market tor newotk systems anA
lSIS IN ompaanel, ught. ith demand high and suppl, linuited. The reult
ins hayammg eT tyuteTelgnemg tàul1y members allous hem
neoiate higheTsalanes, lighter iehng lods, and other benetits
492 PART 3 The Group

Nonsubstitutability The fewer viable substitutes for a

power a person controlling that resource has. At universitiesreSource,
that he
publishing, for cxample, the more recognition the faculty
member
through publication, the more control that person has because other
value mme Yaclty
recevey
want faculty members who are highly publishedand visible.
Social Network Analysis: ATool for
universit es
Resources
One tool to assess the cxchange of resources and dependencies
Assessiwithinng
nization is social network analysis. This method an orga-
examines
munication among organizational members to identify how patterns of
between them. Within a social network, or connections information lo
com-
betweena people who
share professional interests, each individual or group is called
links between nodes are called ties. When nodes communicate node, and the
or
resources frequently, they are said to have very strong ties. Other exchange
are not engaged in direct communication with one another achievenodes
rac that
flows through intermediary nodes. In other words, some nodes act as broko.
between otherwise unconnected nodes. A graphical illustration of the assori.
tions among individuals in asocial network is called a
tions like an informal version of an organization chart. Thesociogram is func.a
and
difference that
formal organization chart shows how authority is supposed to flow,
whereas a
sociogram shows how resources really flow in an organization. An example of a
sociogram is shown in Exhibit 13-1.

Exhibit 13-1 An Organizational Sociogram

Suppliers

Operations
Eric
Albert

Project Team

Rakesh
Finance
Sales &
Marketing Divya Meeng

Customners Customer
Service
 CHAPTER |3 493
Power and Politics

enforcing norms
Nctworks can crcate power dynamics, such as Thus. employces
substantial
(see Chapter 9) or Creatng change within an organization.
organizational social network are less ikely
e iany COnncctions to an
brokers tend to have more
CIgage in corruption, Those in the nosition of
rom
OWer bCcause thcy can leverage the unigue resources they can acquire givesS
on brokers, which
re groups. In other words, many people depend such as
organizational culture changes
e ookelS more power. For examplc,
in a single con
COpoale social responsibility (CSR) awarcness oftcn begin
move to other
ecied gOup of individuals, grow in strength. and then slowly Kingdom s
COnccted groups through brokcrs over time !" pata from the United
National Hcalth Service show that change agentspcople entrusted with help
if they are
ng an organization to makeasignificant change-have more success
intormation brokers, These functions are not without cost, however. One study
to
Tound that people identified as central to advice networks were more likely
extra work without
quit their jobs, possibly because thev did a grcat deal of
reward. l9
A social network analysis in an organization can be implemented in many
communications
ways. Some organizations keep track of the flow of e-mail
way
Or document sharing across departments. These big-data tools are an easy
information.
to gather objective information about how individuals exchange
sys
Other organizations look at data from human resources (HR) information
with one another.
tems, analyz1ng how supervisors and subordinates interact
These data sources can produce sociograms showing how resources and power
flow. Leaders can then identify powerful brokers who exert the strongest
influence on many groups, and address these key individuals.

Power Tactics
13-4 ldentify power or What power tactics do people use to translate power bases into specific
influence tactics and action? What options do they have for influencing their bosses, coworkers, or
their contingencies. employees? Research has identified nine distinct influence tactics:
power tactics Ways in which indi Legitimacy. Relying on your authority position or saying that a request is
viduals translate power bases into inaccordance with organizational policies or rules.
specific actions.
Rational persuasion. Presenting logical arguments and factual evidence
to demonstrate that a request is reasonable.
Inspirational appeals. Developing emotional commitment by appealing
to atarget's values, needs, hopes, and aspirations.
Consultation. Increasing support by involving the target in deciding how
to accomplish your plan.
Exchange. Rewarding the target with benefits or favors in exchange for
acceding to a request.
Personal appeals. Asking for compliance based on friendship or loyalty.
Ingratiation. Using flatery, praise, or friendly behavior prior to making
a request.
Pressure. Using warnings, repeated demands, and threats.
Coalitions. Enlisting the aid or support of others to persuade the target to
agree.
494 PART 3 The Group

Using Power Tactics

than others. Rational
Some tactics are morc cffective persuasion,
appeals, and consultation tend to be
the most
audicncc is highly interestcd in the outcomes
sure tactictends to backfire and is
effective
of a decision
typically the least effective of
by using twO or more
ithenspniirnTheae.ti"oYompre,s
especiprocess.
al y when the
can incrcasc your chance of success tactics
sequentially, as long as your choices are
compatible.23
Using
legitimacy together can lessen negative reactions, but only when the
togeth
ingratiationer or
does not really care about the outcome of a decision process or
r'outine 24 the apoludeicynce
Let's consider the most effective way of getting a raise. You can start
a rational approach-figure out how your pay compares to that your of
nizational peers, land a competing job offer, gather data that
performance, or use salary calculators like Salary.com to testify to orga- your
with others in your occupation- -then share your findings compare
with
your Da
ager. The results can be impressive. Showing your boss superior your mar-
can get you araise, or showcasing the speedy turnaround time for
sales figure
the service
complaints can get you recognition, or coming up with an
tion to address an unhappy customer can help a hotel staffinnovat
an
ive solu-
reward. on-the-spot
While rational persuasion may work in this situation, the effectivenes :
some influence tactics depends on the direction of influence,25 andof cn
on the audience. As Exhibit 13-2 shows, rational persuasion is the onlvy tac.
tic effective across organizational levels. Inspirational appeals work best as :
downward-influencing tactic with subordinates. When pressure works, it's gen
erally downward only. Personal appeals and coalitions are most effective s
lateral influence. Other factors relating to the effectiveness of influence include
the sequencing of tactics, a person's skill in using the tactic, and the organizi
tional culture.
In general, you're mnore likely to be effective if you begin with "softer" ac
tics that rely on personal power, such as personal and
inspirational appeas.
rational persuasion, and consultation. If these fail, you can move to "harder
tactics, such as exchange, coalitions, and pressure, which emphasize forma
power and incur greater costs and risks.° A single soft tactic is more
than asingle hard tactic, and combining two soft tactics or a eeu
soft tactie au
rational persuasion is more effective than any single tactic or combinationof
hard tactics 27

Exhibit 13-2 Preferred Power Tactics by

Influence Direcuou
Upward Influence
Downward Influence Lateral Influence
Rational persuasion
Rational persuasion Rational persuasion
Inspirational
Pressure
appeals Consultation
Ingratiation
Consultation Exchange
Ingratiation Legitimacy
Exchange Personal appeals
Legitimacy Coalitions
 CHAPTER |3 495
Power and Politics

28
n We mentioncd, the eflectivencss of tactics depcnds on the audicnce.
People CSpecially likely to comply with sof power tactics tend to be more
and ntrinsically motivatcd: 1hev bave high sclf-estcem and a greater
desire tor control. Those ikey to comnly with hard power tactics are moe
action-orientcd and extrinsically motivatcl, and mnorc focuScd on gctting along
with others than on getting their
own way.
Cultural Preferences for Power Tactics
rieterence for power tacties varies across cultures.29 Those from individ
uaist countries tend to sce power in nersonalized terms and as a legiti
hmate means of advancing their personal cnds, whereas those in collectivist
cOuniries see power in social terms and as a legitimate means of hclping
Oners, A study comparing managers in the United States and China
found U.S. managers preferred rational appeal, whereas Chinese managers
preferred coalition tactics, 3! Reason-based tactics are consistent with the
U.S. preference for direct confrontation and rational persuasion to influ
ence others and resolve differences, while coalition tactics align with the
Chinese preference for meeting difficult or controversial requests with indi
rect approaches.

Applying Power Tactics

iticalskill Theability to influence People differ in their political skill, or their ability to influence others to
ers so that one's objectives are
ined. attain their own objectives. The politically skilled are more effective users
of allinfluence tactics, leading tomany positive outcomes in the workplace.
People who are politically skilled have higher self-efficacy, job satisfac
tion, work productivity, and career success. They are less likely to be vic
timsof workplace aggression. Political skill is alsomore effective when the
stakes are high, such as when the individual is accountable for important
organizational outcomes. Finally, the politically skilled are able to exert
their influence without others detecting it, a key element in effectiveness
(it's damaging to be labeled political).2 These individuals are able to use
their political skills in environments with low levels of procedural and dis
tributive justice. Politically skilled individuals tend to receive higher per
formance ratings when they ask strategically for feedback in a way that
enhances their image in the organization. However, when an organization
has fairly applied rules, free of favoritism or biases, political skill is actually
negatively related to job performance ratings 4
We know cultures withinorganizations differ markedly-some are warm,
relaxed, and supportive; others are formal and conservative. Some encourage
participation and consultation, some encourage reason, and stillothers rely
on pressure. People who fit the culture of the organization tend to obtain
more influence.35 Specifically, extraverts tend to be more influential in team
oriented organizations, and highly conscientious people are more influential
inorganizations that value working alone on technical tasks. People who fit
the culture are influential because they can perform especially well in the
domains deemed most important for success. Thus, the organization itself
influences which subset of power tactics is viewed as acceptable for use.
496 PART 3
The Group

How Power Affects People

13-5 Identify the causes Until this point, we ve discussed what power is and how it
is
and consequences
of abuse of power.
we`ve not yet answered one important question: "Does
There is certainly cvidence that there are corrupting
acquired,
pOWer corrupt
aspects of
leads people to placc their own interestsahead of others'
does this happen? Power not only leads people to focus on needs orpower.
goas. PoMeWr
their
because they can, it liberates them to focus inward and
greater weight on their own aims and interests. Power also
thus come to
to plac
viduals to "objectify" others (to see them as tools to obtainappears \ead
self-i nteresintd
goals) and to see relationships as more peripheral. 36 their instrumenta
That's not all. Powerful people react-especially
to their competence. People in positions of power hold on to negatively--to
power
any threat
when the
can, and individuals who face threats to their power are
ing to take actions to retain it whether their actions harm
others
given power are nmore likely to make self-interested decisions
exceptionally
wil .
or not. Those
a moral hazard, such as when hedge fund managers take more when faced with
risks with
people's money because they're rewarded for gains but less often punished &
losses. People in power are more willing to denigrate others. Power also lesd-.
Overconfident decision making. 37
Frank Lloyd Wright, perhaps the greatest U.S. architect, is a
of power's good exampl:
corrupting effects. Early in his career, Wright worked for and z
mentored by a renowned architect, Louis Sullivan (sometimes known as th.
father of the skyscraper). Before Wright achieved
in his praise for Sullivan. Later in his career, that
greatness, he was generouy
praise faded, and Wright esen
took credit for one of Sullivan's noted designs. Wright was
never a benevolent
man, but as his power accumulated, so did his potential to
behave in a "mor
strous way toward others, B

Power Variables
As we've discussed, power does appear to have some
important disturbiny
effects on us. But that is hardly the whole storypower is more complicak
than that. It doesn't affect everyone in the sanme way, and there are even
posU
effects of power. Let's consider each of these in turn.
First, the toxiceffects of power depend on the wielder's personality. Kesa
suggests that if we have an anxious personality, power does not coiTup
because we are less likely to think that using DOwer benefits us. 39 Secon,
corrosive effect of power can be contained by organizational Systems. One stud
found, for example, that while power made people behave in a self-serving man-
ner, when accountability for this behavior was initiated, the self-serving behav
ior stopped. Third, we have the means to blunt the negative effects of pOwer.:One
study showed that simply expressing gratitude tovward powerful others makes
them less likely to act aggressively against us. Finally, remember the sayingthat
truth
those with little power abuse what little they to be Some
to this in that the people most have? There seems Start
low in
likely to abuse power are those who andthe
status and gain power. Why? lt appears
fear this creates iS used in having low status is threatening,
negative ways if p0wer is later given. 40
 CHAPTER I3 497
Power and Politics

negative effects of power.

As you can
sce, SOme factors can moderate the
increases moul
tiiete can bc gencral nositive effects Power energizes and
o to achieve goals, It can also enhance our motivation to
help others. One
translated into actual work
uia, tor example, that a desire to heln others
behavior when peoplc fclt a sense of power."
not so much that
Ts study points to an important insight about power. It is
POWer corrupts as it reveals what we value. Supporting this line of reasoning,
another study found that power led to self-interested behavior only in those
someones
Wmua Weak moral identity (the dcgree to which morals are core to
ldentity). In those with astrong moral identity, power enhanced their moral
awareness and wvillingness to act.2

Sexual Harassment: Unequal Power

sexual harassment Any unwanted
activity of a sexual nature that affects
an individual'semployment and cre
ates a hostile work environment.
in the Workplace
Sexual harassment is defined as any unwanted activity of a sexual nature
that affects an individual?s emplovment or creates a hostile work environment.
According to the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC).
Sexual harassment happens when a person encounters "unwelcome sexual
advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of
a sexual nature on the job that disrupts work performance or that creates an
"intimidating, hostile, or offensive" work environment.** Although the defini
tion changes from country to country, most nations have at least some poli
cies to protect workers. Whether the policies or laws are followed is another
question, however. Equal employment opportunity legislation is established in
Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Oman, for example, but studies suggest it might not
be well implemented.4

During the 1990s, Rajasthan state gov

ernment employee, Bhanwari Devi, a
worker in the state's Women Develop
ment Program, enraged the upper
caste landlords of the community
when she tried to prevent child mar
rlage. To teach her (a woman-that
t00 of a lower caste and status) a les
MMeToo
Son, the feudal patriarchs of the village
raped her repeatedly. When she was
ot meted justice by the High Court in
Majasthan, a group of women's rights
Broups named Vishakha approached
e Supreme Court. Bhanwari Devi's
Lase brought attention of the nation
Meloo #MErOC
METOM00
Othe fact that there was no law to
Protect women from sexual harass
nent at their workplaces. Thus, in
S97,the Supreme Court of India
MeToo
PaSSed a judgment, The Vishakha
Guidelines, which were superseded
2013 by the Sexual Harassment or
WOmen at Workplace (Prevention,
rohibition and Redressal) Act.
Source: Hemin Yulan
Shutterstock
498 PART 3 The Group

more prevalent in
Generally. sexual harassment is
For example, a study in
Pakistan found that un to 93 male-domipercentnated socicies
n Singapore, up to 54 of
workers were sexually harassed.
ers (womnen and nnen) reported they were
sexually harassed 46
The percent femal
of

\o10werpepercent
rcenbuttagsl,oi
other countries are generally much
in the United States and some
one-quarter of U.S. Women and
troubling. Surveys indicate about
Data from the
men have bcen scxually harassed. EEOC suggest
that
harassmcnt is decrcasing: Sexual harassment claims now make up
of all discrimination claims, compared with 20 percent in the
10 percerN
this perccntage, though, claims from men48 have increased from ||
mid-|
total clains in 1997to 17.5 percent today.* Sexual harassmentt is of percent
ately prevalent for women in certain types of jobs. In the
instance, 80 percent of female wait staff reported having been
restaurant disinpdusroportryti.on.
for
bycoworkers or customers, compared to 70 percent of male wait stafr 49 sexualy harassed
Most studies confirm that power is central to
ment." This seems true whether the harassment comes
understanding
sexual
haras-
from
coworker, or employee. And sexual harassment is more likely to occur
a
supervisor.
there are large power differentials. The supervisor employee dyad best chowhe
terizes an unequal power relationship, where formal power gives the
the capacity to reward and coerce. Because employees want favorable perfor. supervISOt
mance reviews, salary increases, and the like, supervisors control resourpas
most employees consider important and scarce. When there aren't effective mn.
trols to detect and prevent sexual harassment, abusers are
more likelv to a
For example, male respondents in one study in Switzerland who were
high in
hostile sexism reported higher intentions to engage in sexual
organizations that had low levels of justice, suggesting that failureharassment
in
to have cot
sistent policies and procedures for all employees might
harassment S1 increase levels of sevua.
Sexual harassment can have a detrimental impact on
individuals and the
organization, but it can be avoided. The manager's role is critical:
1. Make sure an active policy
defines what constitutes sexual harassmen.
informs employees they can be fired for inappropriate behavior and estur
lishes procedures for making
2. Reassure employees that theycomplaints.
will not encounter retaliation if they' )ik e
complaint.
3. Investigate every complaint, and inform the legul and HR
4. Muke sure offenders are departmet
5. Set up disciplined or terminated.
in-house seminaIs to raise employee
issues. awareness of'sexual harassme
The bottom line is that managers have a responsibility to protecttheit
employees from ahostile work environment. They may easily be unaware that
one of their employees is being sexually harassed, but being unaware does not
protect them or their organization. If investigators believe a manager could
have known about the canbe
held liable. harassment, both the manager and the company Ca
 Power and Politics CHAPTER |3 499

13-6 Describe how politics

work in organizations.
Politics: Power in Action
Whenever wantpeopltoe carve
nizations get together
ouut a in groups,
niche to exertpower wil becarnexertrewards.
influence, ed. Peoplande inadvance
orga-
their carecrs. If they
engaged in politics. Thoseconvert their power into action, we describethem as being
bases of with good political skills have the ability to use their
power
essential, too (sce cffectively.S2
OB Poll).
Politics are not only inevitable: they might be

Definition of Organizational Politics

litical behavior Activities that are
not required as part ot aperson's for
mal role in the organization but that
infuence, or attempt to influence, the
dictribution of advantages and disad
vantages within the organization.
There is no shortage of
type of politics focuses definitions of organizational politics. Essentially. this
on the use of power to affect decision
organization, sometimes for self-serving and organizationally making in an
unsanctioned
behaviors. For our purposes, political behavior in organizations consists of
activ+ties that are not reauired as part of an individual's formal role but
that
muence, or attermpt to influence, the distribution of advantages and disadvan
tages within the organization.4
Ihis definition encompasses what most people mean when they talk about
organizational politics. Political behavior is outside specified job requirements.
t requires some attempt to use power bases. It includes efforts to influence the
goals, criteria, or processes used for decision making. Our definition is broad
enough to include varied political behaviors such as withholding key infor
mation from decision makers, joining a coalition, whistle-blowing, spreading
rumors, leaking confidential information to the media, exchanging favors with

|OB POLL
Importance of Organizational Politics
How do employees get ahead in your organization?
60%
51%
50%

40%

30% -27%
20% 18%
10%
4%
0%
Creativity Initiative Hard work Politics

about Their Jobs Changing?" (September 28, 2012),

Crampton, "Is How Americans Feel http://corevalues.com/employee-motivation/
Source: Based on D.
is-how-americans-feel-about-their-jobs-changing.
500 PART 3 The Group

lobbying on behalf of.or against a

others for mutual benefit, and
vidual or decision alternative. In
this way, political isbehavior paofrtteicnular indh
but not always.
negaive
The Reality of Politics that most
Intervicvws with expericnccd managers show believe political
Iife. Many managers
ior is a major part of organizational
political behavior is ethical, as long as it doesn't directly
report
Some buSeehelavse. of
harm anyone
They describe politics as nccessary and believe someone who
cal behavior will have a hard time getting things done. Most also
never uses politi.
they have never been trained to use political behavior
you may wonder, must politics exist? Isn't it possible for an
effectivelyin.dicButate towhy,tha
politics-free? It's possible -but unlikely. organi z ati o n he
Organizations have individuals and groups with different
values, goals,
interests.'o This sets up the potential for conflict over the allocation of
and
resources, such as budgets, work space, and salary and bonus pools. If limited
were abundant, all constituencies within an organization could satishy resources
goals. But because they are limited, not everyone 's interests can be saticfa
Furthermore, gains by one individual or group are often perceived as Com
ing at the expense of others within the organization (whether they are or noty
These forces create competition among members for the organization's limitei
resourCes.
Maybe the most important factor leading to politics within organizations
is the realization that most of the "facts" used to allocate limited resources
are open to interpretation. When allocating pay based on
instance, what is good performance? What's an adequateperformance,
for
What constitutes an unsatisfactory job? The improvement?
baseball team knows a .400 hitter is a high manager of any major league
poor performer. You dontneed to be a baseball performer and a .125 hitter is a
play your .400 hitter and send the.125 hitter back to
genius to know you should
the minors. But what i
you have to choose between players who
tive factors come into play: fielding hit.280 and.2902 Then less obje
perform in a clutch, loyalty to the team, expertise, attitude, potential, ablity
sions resemble the choice between a and so on. More manageral
125 hitter and a.400 hitter. It is .280 and a .290 hitter than bewecu
in this large and middle ground
of
organizational ambiguous
politics flourish. life-where
the facts don't speak for themselves- -that
Because most decisions have to be
where facts are rarely made in a climate of ambiguity-
within organizations willobjective and thus
use whatever influence
open they can to supportpeople
to interpretation- their
goals and interests. That, of
One person's course, creates the activities we call pooliticking
"selfless effort
as a blatant attempt to further to his
benefit the interest"7
or her Narendra
organization" byanother
is seen Kumar, who
ioined the Indian Police Service in 2009, was posted as an IPS officer inthe
Chambal district of Uttar Pradesh. He was killed in 2012 when he blewthe
whistle on illegal stone mining in the
district 58
 Power and Politics CHAPTER 3 501

Therefore, to answer the question of whether it is possible for an organiza-

tion to be
hold the samepolitics-free,
goals and
we can say yesif all members of that organization
if interests, if organizational resources are not scarce, and
performance
describethe outcomes are completely clear and objective. But that doesn't
organizational world in which most of us live.

The Causes and

42.7 ldentify the causes,
of PoliticalBehavior Consequences
consequences, and Now that we've
ethics of political let's discussed the constant presence of politickingin organizations,
discuss the causes and
behavior. consequences of these behaviors.
Factors Contributing to Political Behavior
Not all groups or
politicking is overtorganizations are equally political. In some organizations,
and rampant, while in others politics
plays a small role
in influencing outcomes. Why this
variation? Research and
1dentified a number of factors that appear to encourage observation have
Some are individual characteristics., derived political behavior.
from the qualities of the people
employed by the organization; others are a result of the
or internal environment. Exhibit 13-3 organization's culture
illustrates how both individual and orga
nizational factors can increase political behavior and provide
comes (increased rewards and averted favorable out
in the organization. punishments) individuals and groups
for

Exhibit 13-3 Factors That Influence Political

Behavior
Individual factors
" High selfmonitors
" Internal locus of control
" High Machiavellian personality
" Organizational investment
Perceived job alternatives
"Expectations of success
Political behavior Favorable outcomes
Low "Rewards
Organizational factors High " Averted punishments
" Reallocation of resources
"Promotion opportunities
" Low trust
" Role ambiguity
Unclear performance
evaluation system
" Zero-sum reward practices
" Democratic decision making
" High performance pressures
" Self-serving senior managers
502 PART 3 The Group
level, researchers have
Atthe individual
Individual Factors
tain personality traits, needs. and
other
we find that
factors likely to be related
employecs who are high identifipolediticcera .
to
behavior. In
possess an
terms
internal
to engage
to social
Iikely
of traits,
locus of control. and
in political
cues, exhibits
behavior. The
have a high
high
need
self-monitor is semorelf-mosensinitotrivse
for power are
are
higher levels of social conformity, and is more likely t,
more

behavior than the low self-monitor. Because the

be skilled in political environmcnt, individuals with an internal locus
their
theyof belcontroieve
thev more control
are can prone to take a proactive stance and attempt to manipulate situuations
surprisingly, the Machiavellian personality trait-
in their favor. Not
ized bv the will to manipulate and
the desire for power is
personal interests.
charausing
consistent with cter-
politics as a means to further
organization and perceived
An individual's investment in the
intluence the degree to which he or she will pursue illegitimate means of polit.
increased future benefits from +
alternatve
cal action. The more a personexpects
nization, and the more that person has to lose if forced out, the less likely he
n
or she is to use illegitimate means. Conversely, the more alternate joh
tunities an individual has-due to afavorable job market, possession of se
skills or knowledge, prominent reputation, or influential contacts outside tha
organization-the more likely the person is to employ politics.
An individual with low expectations of success from political means is
unlikeiy to use them. High expectations from such measures are most likelt
to be the province of both experienced and powerful individuals with polished
political skills, and inexperienced and naive employees who misjudge ther
chances.
Some individuals engage in more political behavior because they simply are
better at it. Such individuals read interpersonal interactions well, fit their beha
1or to situational needs, and excel at networking,°0 These people are often ind
rectly rewarded for their political efforts. For example, a study of aconstructot
firm in southern China found that politically skilled subordinates were mere
likely to receive recommendations for rewards from their supervisors and th.
politically oriented supervisors were especially likely to respond positively
politically skilledsubordinates.ol Other studies from countries aroundthe world
have also shown that higher levels of political skill are
levels of perceived job performance.°2 associated with ng

Organizational Factors Although we acknowledge the role that individual

differences can play, the evidence more strongly suggests that certain Situations
and cultures promote politics.
Specifically,
declining, when tlhe existing pattern Organization's
when isan changing,
of resources
resources e
and when thereis
opportunity for promotions, politicking is more likely to surface."63 When resources
are reduced, people may engage in political actions to safeguard whattheyhave.
Also, any changes, especially those implying significant reallocation of resources
within the organization, are likely to politicking.
stimulate
Cultures characterized by low trust, role conflict
ambiguity, unclear performance
and increase
evaluation systems, zero-sum (win-lose) reward allocation practices, demo-
cratic decision making, high pressure for performance, and self-serving senior
managers will also Create breeding grounds for politicking. 6 Because political
 Power and Politics CHAPTER 13 503

Should I become
is so political! Everyone is
My ofifice
lookingfor ways to get ahead by
just
plotting and scheming rather than
doingthejob. Should I just go along
withit and develop my own political
strategy?
- Julia
DearJulia:
There's definitely a temptation to
Joinin when other people are behav-
advance
ing politically. If you want to
need to think about
Vour career, you
social relationships and how to work
with other people ina smart and diplo
matic way. But that doesn't mean you
have to give in to pressure to engage in
organizationalpolitics.
Of course, in many workplaces, hard
work and achievement aren't recog
nized, which heightens politicking and
lowers performance. But politics aren't
just potentially bad for the company.
People who are seen as political can be
gradually excluded from social networks
and infornal communication. Cowork
ers can sabotagea person with a repu
tation for dishonesty or manipulation
so they don't have to deal with him or
her. It's also likely that apolitical person
political?
willbe the direct target of revenge from
those who feel they've been wronged.
If you want to provide a positive
alternative to political behavior in your
workplace, there are a few steps you
can take:
" Docunment your work efforts, and
find data to back up your acCom
plishments. Political behavior
thrives in an ambiguous environ
ment where standards for success
are subjective and open to manip
ulation. The best way to shortcut
politics is to move the focus toward
clear, objective markers of work
performance.
Call out political behavior when you
see it. Political behavior is, by its
very nature, secretive and under
handed. By bringing politics to light,
you limit this capacity to manipu
late people against one another.
" Try to develop a network with only
those individuals who are inter
ested in performing well together.
This makes it hard for a very politi
cal persSon to get a lot done. On
the other hand, trustworthy and
cooperative people will be able to
Career OBjectives
find many allies who are genuinely
supportive. These support networks
will result in performance levels
that a lone political person simply
cannot match.
Remember, in the long run a good
reputation can be your greatest asset!
Sources: Based on A. Lavoie "How to Get
Rid of Toxic Office Politics," Fast Company,
April 10, 2014, http://www.fastcompany.
com/3028856/work-smart/how-to-make-office
politicking-a-lame-duck; C. Conner, "Office
Politics: Must You Play?," Forbes, April 14,
2013, http://www.forbes.com/sites/chery
snappconner/2013/04/14/office-politics-must
you-play-a-handbook-for-survivalsucCcess/; and
J. A. Colquitt and J. B. Rodell, "Justice, Trust,
and Trustworthiness: A Longitudinal Analy
sis Integrating Three Theoretical Perspec
tives," Academy of Management Journal 54
(2011): 1183-206.
The opinions provided here are of the man
agers and authors only and do not neces
sarily reflect those of their organizations.
The authors or managers are not respon
sible for any errors or omissions, or for
the results obtained from the use of this
information. In no event will the authors
or managers, or their related partner
ships or corporations thereof, be liable to
you or anyone else for any decision made
action taken in relignce on the opinions
provided here.

activities are not required as part of the employee's formal role, the greater the
role ambiguity, the more employees can engage in unnoticed political activity.
Role ambiguity means that the prescribed employee behaviors are not clear:
therefore, there are fewer limits to the scope and functions of the employee's
political actions.
The more an organizational culture enmphasizes the zero-sum or win
Jose approach to reward allocations, the more employees will be motivated
Zero-sum approach An approach to engage in politicking. The zero-sunm approach treats the reward "pie"
that treats the reward pie" as fixed so
that any gains by one individual are at
as fixed, so any gain one personor group achieves conmes at the expense of
the expense of another. another personor group. For example, ifR1,50,000 is distributed among five
employees as a raise, any employee who gets more than S0,000takes money
away from one or more of the others, Such a practice encourages making oth
ers look bad.
 CHAPTER I3 505
Power and Politics

Ce are also political forccs at work in the relationships belween orga

on the organizational
nizations, where politics work differently depending
cultures,"S Onestudy showedthal when two organizations with very politieal
CiVronments interactcd with onc another. the political interactions betwecn
hem hurt pcrformance in collaborative proijccts. On the other hand, when
cOmpanics with less internal political bchavior interacted with one another,
Cven politicaldisputes bctwccn them did not lcad to lower performance in col
laborative projccts. This study shows companies should be wary of forming
alliances with companies that have high levels of internal political behavior.

How Do People Respond to Organizational

Politics?
series but
Trish loves her job as a writer on a weekly U.S. television comedy
kissing
hates the internal politics. A couple of the writers here spend more time
our head writer clearly
up to the executive producer than doing any work. And creativity,
has his favorites. While they pay me a lot andIget to really use my
having to self
I'm sick of having to be on alert for backstabbers and constantly
and getting little
promote my contributions. I'm tired of doing most of the work complain
regularly
of the credit." We all know friends or relatives like Trish who
organiza
about the politics at their jobs. But how do people in general react to
tional politics? Let's look at the evidence.
unwilling to play the
For most people who have modest politicalskils or are
negative. See Exhibit 13-4
politics game, outcomes tend to be predominantly
indicates per
for a diagram of this situation. However, very strong evidence
to job satisfaction, o6
ceptions of organizational politics are negatively related perhaps
Politics may lead to self-reported declines in employee performance,
which demoti
be unfair,
because employees perceive political environments to
vates them. 67 Not surprisingly, when politicking becomes too
much to handle,

Bxhibit 13-4 Employee Responses to Organizational Politics

Decreased job
satisfaction

Increased
Organizational anxieBy and stress
politics may
threaten
employees
Increased
turnover

Reduced
performance
 506 PART 3 The Group
employees of
it can lcad employees
to quit. °n When
environments as
two
political. agencies
in a
work they reported
coworkers. Thus, higahelshrtuougdy ein
Nigeriavicwed thcir
less likely to help their
cls of job distress and were Nigeria present perhaps more
developing countries such as
therefore more political
cnvironments in which to work, the
qucnces of politics appear to
be the
There are some qualificrs. First,
same as in the
the politics-
individual's
United
na
e
-performance
mgo
ar
tg
ivu
States.o
e us
69
conseand

defensive behaviors Reactive and
protecrive DenaViors io avoid action,
blame or change
long run it wears them dowI. People who
they iose the irusi adsupport of their peers,
appears to be moderated by an
of organizational politics.
Rescarchers noted, An
understanding of the
individual howsrehaslatiandonsahNwhy
who
understanding of who is responsible for making decisions and dlea
selected to be the decision makers would have a better why they Wer-
and why things happen the way they do than
the decision-making process in the
someone who does
organization."70 When
underbothstanotndinunderstg and
no of hN
understanding are high, performance is likely to increase because polthesitiecs and
viduals see political activity as an opportunity. This is consistent with
might expect for individuals with well-honed political skills. But whatindiyow-
standing is low, individuals are more likely to see politics as athreat,when under-
have a negative effect on job performance.
work moderates
can which
Second, political behavior at the effects of
ship." One study found that male employees were more responsive to leader. ethical
leadership and showed the most citizenship behavior when levels of ethica
tics and ethical leadership were high. Women, on the other hand, both poi-
likely to engage in citizenship behavior when the environment wasappeared most
ethical and apolitical. consistent
Third, when employees see politics as a threat, they often
respond wjth
defensive benaviors--reactive and protective behaviors to avoid action
blame, or change.' (Exhibii 13-5 provides some
examples.) In the short run.
employees rnay find that defensiveness protects their
self-interest, but in the
consistently rely on defensiveness
find that evontualiy it is the only way they know how to behave. At that pom.
bosses, employees, and clients.

Impression
We know people
Management
have an
them. For example, North ongoing interest
Americans spendin billions
how others perceive and evaluate
of dollars on diets, health
club menmberships, cosmetics, and plastic surgery -all intended to make them
more altractive to others. Being perceived positively by others has benefitsin
an
organizational setting. It might, for instance, help us initially to get itheSupe-
we want in an
jobs
rior salary organization and, once hired, to get favorable evaluatios,
increases, and
viduals attempt to controlmore rapid promotions.
the impressions that others
bywhichindi
form of themiscaled
The process
impression management (IM) The
process by which individuals attempt
to control the impressions that others
impression management (IM)."
Who might we predict will engage in IM? No surprise here. Its our old
form of them.
friend, the high self-monitor. Low self-monitors tend to presentimagesof
themselves that are consistent with their personalities, regardless ofthebe
eficial or detrimental effects for them. In contrast, high self-monitors are
good at reading situations and molding their appearances and behaviortofii