16.03.

2021

WORK STUDY & ERGONOMICS

Ergonomics(Introduction to ergonomics, physical
ergonomics)

-Lecture 4-

Ergonomics
An applied scientific discipline concerned with how humans
interact with the tools and equipment they use while
performing tasks and other activities
 Derived from the Greek words ergon, meaning work, and
nomos, meaning laws
 The word ergonomics was coined by British scientist K. F. H.
Murrell and entered the English language in 1949 (It had
been used first by Polish scientist W. Jastrzebowski in an 1857
newspaper article)

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Human factors
 Human factors is synonymous with ergonomics
 Ergonomics emphasizes work physiology and anthropometry
 Europe – industrial work systems
 Human factors emphasizes experimental psychology and
systems engineering
 U.S. – military work systems

Objectives in Ergonomics
 Greater ease of interaction between user and machine
 Avoid errors and mistakes
 Greater comfort and satisfaction in use of the equipment
 Reduce stress and fatigue
 Greater efficiency and productivity
 Safer operation
 Avoid accidents and injuries

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Methods Engineering vs. Ergonomics

Emphasis in Methods Emphasis in Ergonomics and
Engineering Human Factors
Efficiency Safety
Cost reduction Comfort
Labor reduction Interaction between human and
Workplace layout equipment
Facility layout Workplace environment
Elimination of waste Fitting the work to the individual
“One best way” Reduction of human errors
Accident avoidance

Ergonomics Application Areas

 Work system design
 Objectives: safety, accident avoidance, improved functional
performance
 Also includes environment such as lighting
 Product design
 Objectives: safety, comfort, user-friendly, mistake proof,
avoidance of liability lawsuits

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Ergonomists – What They Do

 Research on human capabilities and limitations
 Discover the characteristics of human performance, e.g., how
much can an average worker lift?
 Design and engineering applications
 Use the research findings to design better tools and work
methods

Fitting the Person to the Job

 Considers worker’s physical and mental aptitudes in
employment decisions
 For example, using worker size and strength as criteria for
physical work
 Common philosophy prior to ergonomics
 FPJ is still important
 For example, educational requirements for technical positions

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Fitting the Job to the Person

 Opposite of FPJ
 Philosophy: design the job so that any member of the work
force can perform it
 Why the FJP philosophy has evolved:
 Changes in worker skill requirements
 Demographic changes (e.g. more women in the workforce)
 Social and political changes (e.g., equal opportunity laws)

Physical and Cognitive Demands

Most work activities require a combination of physical and
cognitive exertions

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Human-Machine Systems
 Basic model in ergonomics
 Defined as a combination of humans and
equipment interacting to achieve some desired
result
 Types of human-machine systems:
1. Manual systems
2. Mechanical systems
3. Automated systems

Human-Machine Interactions

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System Components
 The human
 The equipment
 The environment

Human Components
 Human senses - to sense the operation
 Vision, hearing, touch, taste, and smell
 Human brain - for information processing
 Thinking, planning, calculating, making decisions,
solving problems
 Human effectors - to take action
 Fingers, hands, feet, and voice

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Machine Components
 The process – function or operation performed by
human-machine system
 Displays - to observe the process
 Direct observation for simple processes
 Artificial displays for complex processes
 Controls - to actuate and regulate the process
 Steering wheel, computer keyboard

Environmental Components
 Physical environment
 Location and surrounding lighting, noise, temperature,
and humidity
 Social environment
 Co-workers and colleagues at work
 Immediate supervisors
 Organizational culture
 Pace of work

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Topic Areas in Ergonomics

 Physical ergonomics
 Cognitive ergonomics
 The physical work environment
 Occupational safety and health

1. Physical Ergonomics
 How the human body functions during physical
exertion
 Physiology – vital processes carried out by living
organisms and how their constituent tissues and cells
function
 How physical dimensions of the body affect
capabilities of worker
 Anthropometry – physical dimensions of the human
body

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2. Cognitive Ergonomics
 Concerned with the capabilities of the human brain
and sensory system while performing information
processing activities
 Human cognitive processes include:
 Sensing and perception
 Use of memory
 Response selection and execution

3. Physical Work Environment

 Visual environment
 Lighting levels and workplace design
 Auditory environment
 Intensity and duration of noise
 Climate
 Air temperature, humidity, air movement, and radiation

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4. Occupational Safety and Health

 Occupational safety – concerned with the avoidance
of industrial accidents
 One-time events that cause injury or fatality
 Occupational Health – concerned with avoiding
diseases and disorders caused by exposure to
hazardous materials or conditions
 Develop after prolonged periods of exposure
 May take years before symptoms reveal the onset of the
malady

1. Physical Ergonomics: Work

Physiology and Anthropometry
 Physiology - a branch of biology concerned with the
vital processes of living organisms and how their
constituent tissues and cells function
 Important in work because work requires expenditure
of physical energy
 Anthropometry – a branch of anthropology
concerned with the dimensions of the human body,
such as height and reach
 Important in work because the dimensions of the human
body affect capabilities of worker

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Human Physiology
 Human musculoskeletal system
 Primary actuator for performing physical labor and
other activities requiring force and motion
 Composed of muscles and bones connected by tendons
 206 bones in human body
 Energy to perform physical activity provided by
metabolism

Joint Types for Body Movement

1. Ball-and-socket – shoulder and hip joints
2. Pivot – elbow and knee
3. Hinge – wrist and ankle
 Ball-and-socket joints can apply greater force than
pivot joint
 Pivot joint can apply greater force than hinge joint

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Skeletal Muscles
 Approximately 400 skeletal muscles
 40 percent of human body weight
 Provide power for force and motion in the
musculoskeletal system
 Blood vessels and nerves distributed throughout
muscle tissue to deliver fuel and provide feedback

Metabolism
Sum of the biochemical reactions that occur in the cells
of living organisms
 Functions:
1. Provide energy for vital processes and activities,
including muscle contraction
2. Assimilate new organic material into the body

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Types of Metabolism
 Basal metabolism – energy used only to sustain the
vital circulatory and respiratory functions
 Activity metabolism – energy associated with physical
activity
 Digestive metabolism – energy used for digestion
 Daily metabolic rates:
 TMRd = BMRd + AMRd + DMRd

Biochemical Reactions in
Metabolism
 Food categories:
 Carbohydrates (4 kcal/g) – converted into glucose
(C6H12O6) and glycogen
 Primary source of energy muscle

 Proteins (4 kcal/g) – converted into amino acids

 Lipids (9 kcal/g) – converted into fatty acids (acetic
acid and glycerol)

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Converting Glucose to Muscle

Energy
 Glucose reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and
water, releasing energy in the process

C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + energy

 Called aerobic glycolysis if sufficient oxygen is available

Anaerobic Glycolysis
 Occurs when insufficient oxygen is available and the
reaction produces lactic acid
 Aerobic versus anaerobic glycolysis:
 Aerobic glycolysis produces about 20 times the amount
of energy as anaerobic
 Accumulation of lactic acid in muscle tissue is a
principal cause of muscle fatigue, weakness, and muscle
pain

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Cardiovascular System
 Arteries - deliver oxygen, glucose, & other nutrients
from lungs and digestive tract to muscle tissue and
organs
 Veins - deliver carbon dioxide & waste products to
lungs, kidneys, and liver
 Capillaries - small blood vessels between arteries and
veins to exchange nutrients and waste between blood
and tissue

Respiratory System
 Nasal cavity (nose) - inhales air (oxygen) and exhales
carbon dioxide
 Air passageway connecting nasal cavity and lungs
 Lungs - consist of alveoli (air-containing cells) that
provide for exchange of gases in the blood circulating
through them
 200 to 600 million alveoli in adult human lungs
 Surface area = 70 to 90 m2 (750 to 970 ft2)

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Respiratory and Cardiovascular

Systems

Muscular Effort and Work

Physiology
 Capacity of human body to use energy and apply forces
depends on :
1. Capacity of cardiovascular and respiratory systems to
deliver required fuel and oxygen to muscles and carry
away waste products
2. Muscle strength and endurance
3. Ability to maintain proper heat balance within the body

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Cardiovascular/Respiratory
Capacity and Energy Expenditure
 Oxygen consumption and heart rate are proportional
to energy expenditure in physical activity
 4.8 kcal of energy expenditure requires an average of
one liter of O2
 As physical activity becomes more strenuous, energy
expenditure increases, and so does oxygen
consumption and heart rate
 ERm = BMRm + AMRm

Work Activity and Energy

Expenditure

Energy expenditure, heart

rate, and oxygen
consumption for several
categories of work activity

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Expenditure Rates
 Sleeping BMRm
 Standing (not walking) 2.2 kcal/min
 Walking at 4.5 km/hr 4 kcal/min
 Jogging at 7.2 km/hr 7.5 kcal/min
 Soldering work (seated) 2.7 kcal/min
 Mowing lawn (push mower) 8.3 kcal/min
 Chopping wood 8 kcal/min
 Shoveling in front of furnace 10 kcal/min
(The energy expenditure rates are assumed to be for a person who weighs
72 kg (160 lb.). If a person’s weight differs from 72kg. Then an
adjustment should be made by multiplying the ER value in the table by
the ratio W/72. )

Basal Metabolic Rate

 The basal metabolic rate of an individual depends on the
person’s weight, gender and age as well as other factors such
as heredity and percentage of body fat. The following values
for weight and gender will be used and an age correction will
be applied to these values. The values are hourly rates (BMRh)
 For a 20 year-old-male, BMRh/kg = 1kcal/hr per kg of body
weight.
 For a 20 year-old-female, BMRh/kg = 0.9 kcal/hr per kg of
body weight.
As a person ages, his or her basal metabolism rate declines
slowly, so the age correction is simply to subtract 2% from the
preceding values for each decade above 20 years.

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Digestive Metabolic Rate

It is 10% of the sum of basal metabolic rate and activity
metabolic rate.
DMR = 0.10 (AMR + BMR)

Example: Total Daily Metabolic

Rate
 35-year old woman (59 kg.)
 Sleeps 8 hours
 Walks to and from work for 1 hour at 4.5 km/hr
 Stands for 2 hours
 Performs soldering work for 6 hours while seated
 Watches TV and rests for 7 hr
 Determine her total metabolic rate for 24-hour
period

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Daily Basal Metabolic Rate (BMRd)

 She is 35. 15 years more than 20. The age correction is :
 (35-20)/10*0.02=0.03
 The adjusted BMRh/kg value is 0.9*(1-0.03)=0.873 kcal/hr
per kg of body weight.
 Then since her weight is 59 kg. For 8 hours sleeping:
 0.873*59*8=413 kcal.

Total Metabolic Rate – TMR

Activity Time ER Weight Total energy
factor
Sleeping 480 min 0.86 (no 413 kcal
kcal/min correction)
Walking 60 min 4.0 59/72 = 0.81 194 kcal
kcal/min
Standing 120 min 2.2 59/72 = 0.81 214 kcal
kcal/min
Soldering work 360 min 2.7 59/72 = 0.81 787 kcal
kcal/min
Other activities 420 min 1.5 59/72 = 0.81 510 kcal
kcal/min
1440 min BMRd + AMRd= 2,118 kcal
Digestive 0.10(BMRd + AMRd) = 212 kcal
metabolism
TMRd = 2,330 kcal

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Recommended Energy Expenditure

Physiological measure Male worker Female

worker
Energy expenditure rate of the physical activity 5.0 kcal/min 4.0 kcal/min
(maximum time-weighted average during shift) ER m
Energy expenditure of the physical activity for the 2400 kcal 1920 kcal
entire 8 hr shift ER8h
Heart rate (maximum time-weighted average during 120 110
shift) HR m beats/min beats/min

Rest Periods
 Common in industry
 Paid for by the employer as regular work time
 Rest breaks usually included in allowance factor built
into the time standard
 Relatively short duration - 5 to 20 minutes
 Meal periods - not included

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Rest Periods

Example
A male worker performs physical labor that has an energy
expenditure rate of 8.2 kcal/min for 20 min. How long a rest
break should the worker be allowed at the end of this work
period?

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Solution

Work-Rest Cycles (Pulat Model)

RT = 0 for K<S

[(K/S – 1) * 100] + [(T(K – S)) / (K – BM)]

RT = -------------------------------------------------- for S≤K<2S
2

RT = (T(K – S) / (K-BM)) * 1.11 for K≥2S

RT is the allowed rest time in min.

Basal Metabolism (BM): 1.4 kcal/min. for female, 1.7 kcal/min. for male
K is the energy required for work (kcal/min.)
S is the accepted standard energy consumption (4 kcal/min. for females and 5
kcal/min. for males)
T is the total expected duration of task in min.

Work-rest cycle duration= RT * Age multiplier

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Age Multipliers
Age Multiplier
20-39 1.0
40-49 1.04
50-59 1.1
60-64 1.2
65- 1.25

Example:
A 60 year-old gardener mows lawn with a machine. This task
requires the energy of 7.7 kcal/min. Estimated task time is
100 minutes. What is the work-rest cycle duration for the
worker?

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Muscle Strength and Endurance

 Static strength – human subject applies as high a force
as possible against an immovable object
 Duration of test is short (e.g., a few seconds)
 Results influenced by joint type (arm vs. leg) and joint
angle
 Dynamic strength – tested under conditions that
involve changes in joint angles and motion speed

Static vs. Dynamic Muscular

Activities
Static muscular activity
Description Sustained contraction
Examples Holding a part in a static
position
Squeezing a pair of pliers
Physiological Reduced blood flow to tissue
effect restricts oxygen supply and
waste removal.
Lactic acid is generated.
Metabolism is anaerobic.
Dynamic muscular activity
Rhythmic contraction and
relaxation
Cranking a pump handle
Turning a screwdriver
Adequate blood flow allows
oxygen supply and waste
removal needs to be
satisfied.
Metabolism is aerobic.

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Dynamic and static work

Factors Affecting Strength

 Size (e.g., height, body weight, build)
 Gender
 Age
 Maximum strength at age 25 to 35

 About 80% of peak in mid-fifties

 Physical conditioning
 Physical exercise can increase strength by as much as 50
percent

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Muscle Endurance
 Muscle endurance is defined as the capability to
maintain an applied force over time
 Ability to maintain maximum static force lasts only a
short time
 After about 8 to 10 minutes, a person can only apply
about 25% of maximum static force achieved at
beginning of test
 Finding supports the use of a mechanical workholder
rather than requiring worker to grasp work unit

Muscle Endurance

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Rohmert model: Dynamic works

RT (%) : Resting time as the percentage of working time

Twrk : Working time
Neff : The power used during the work
Nlcp : Limit of continuous performance

Example: Determine the resting time in a material handling work which

requires an energy level as 1.2 times of limit of continuous performance
and takes 20 minutes.

Rohmert model: Static works

RT (%) : Resting time as the percentage of working time

T= tmax : Maximum holding time (minutes), t =Holding time (minutes)
Fmax : Maximum holding force (N), F=Holding force in the work (N)

If F/ Fmax< 0,15 ise, no need to have rest

Example: How many minutes should be given to a worker who uses 60% of
the maximum holding force in a material handling work taking 15 minutes.

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Heat Balance and Thermoregulation

 Normal body core temperature = 37C (98.6 F)
 Body core temperatures above or below this value mean
trouble
 Above 38C (100F), physiological performance is reduced
 Above 40C (104F), body is disabled
 Above 42C (107F), death likely
 Below 35C (95F), coordination is reduced
 Below 32C (90F), loss of consciousness likely
 Below 30C (86F), severe cardiovascular stress

Body’s Thermoregulation System

HC = M – E  R  C – W
where
 HC = net change in heat content in the body
 M = metabolic energy produced
 E = heat lost through perspiration and evaporation
 R = radiant heat loss or gain
 C = heat loss or gain through convection
 W = work performed by the body

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Regulating Body Temperature

 Automatic body mechanisms
 Sweating
 Shivering
 Constricting or dilating blood vessels
 Conscious actions
 Clothing
 Sun / shade
 Exercising

NIOSH (Lifting Equation)

 The recommended weight limit (RWL) is defined for a
specific set of task conditions as the weight of the load that
nearly all healthy workers could perform over a substantial
period of time (e.g., up to 8 hours) without an increased risk
of developing lifting-related low back pain (LBP).
 The RWL is defined by the following equation:
RWL = LC x HM x VM x DM x AM x FM x CM

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RWL (Recommended Weight Limit)

RWL = LC x HM xVM x DM x AM x FM x CM

Frequency Multiplier (FM) and

Coupling Multiplier (CM)

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Lifting Index (LI)

RWL example -1-

As seen in the figure next, there
is a worker taking a part
weighing 44 libres from the
ground and putting it to the top
of the machine. The worker
makes this lifting work for one
hour and with a frequency of 10
minutes. It is neither easy nor
difficult to couple the part.

What is the recommended

weight limit (RWL) and load
index for such a work ?

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RWL example -2-

As seen in the figure next, there is
a worker taking a part weighing
40 libres from the roof 1 and
putting it to the roof 2. The
worker makes this lifting work for
one hour and 5 times per minute.
Due to the shape and surface of
the part, it is difficult to couple it.

What is the recommended weight

limit (RWL) and load index for
such a work ?

Anthropometry
Empirical science concerned with the physical
measurements of the human body, such as height, range
of joint movements, and weight.
 Derived from the Greek words anthropos (man) and
metron (to measure).
 Usually considered a branch of anthropology
 Strength characteristics also sometimes included in the
scope of anthropometry

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Anthropometry
 Anthropometry deals with the measurement of the
dimensions of the body and other physical
characteristics
 Engineering use of the available information and
development of new information for such use is called
engineering anthropometry
 Royal cubit was used by the ancient Egyptians (1314-
1197 B.C.) as a standard unit of measure
1 cubit = the distance from elbow to tip of the longest
finger = 28 finger widths = 7 * the width of palm

69

The Primary Areas of Application

 Clothing design
 Workspace design
 Design of equipment, tools, and machinery
 Consumer product design

Anthropometric data establish proper sizes of and the dimensional

relationships between the things people use

70

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Design Properties

 Ergonomic designs cannot accommodate every user, the

extremes will always be special cases to be uniquely
accommodated.

 Ergonomic designs must accommodate a range of user

dimensions, typically from a 5th percentile woman to a 95th
percentile man. This range will accommodate 9.5 out of 10
users.

 5 - 95 percentile for one population is only 90% (95-5%

=90% of people), and only 95% for a 50/50 mixed gender
population. If you design for 90%, you'll fit 9 out of 10, 90
out of 100, 900 out of 1000, etc.
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Use of percentiles
in anthropometry
µ ±1,645σ
% 90
Universal operability requires that at least 90 –
95 % of population within target group must be
able to use the design.

Classic design: Anthropometric data should fit

90 % of target population. (Between 5th and
95th percentiles in normal distribution.)

95th percentile: measure of 95 % of target

population is below this value

5th percentile: measure of 95 % of target

population is above this value
72 µ - 1,645σ µ + 1,645σ
5th percentile 95th percentile

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Anthropometric Analysis and Data

1. Static dimensions – Body measurements while in a fixed position
 Data are more easily determined, so much more static data are available
 Skeletal dimensions - measures distance of bones between joint centers
 Doesn't include clothing or packages.
 Measures refer to a naked person (with some adjustments)
2. Dynamic dimensions – body measurements while performing some
physical activity. Distances are measured when the body is in motion or
engaged in a physical activity like reaching to some point.

Human Variability
 Differences in body dimensions exist among people
because of:
 Ethnicity and Nationality
 Heredity
 Diet
 Health
 Gender
 Age
 Living conditions

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Static Dimensions of Human Body

Standing

Seated

Standing Heights of Males and

Females throughout the World
Males Females
Region Centimeters Inches Centimeters Inches
North America 179 70.5 165 65.0
Northern Europe 181 71.3 169 66.5
Central Europe 177 69.7 166 65.4
Southeastern 173 68.1 162 63.8
Europe
India, North 167 65.7 154 60.6
India, South 162 63.8 150 59.1
Japan 172 67.7 159 62.6
Southeast Asia 163 64.2 153 60.2
Australia 177 69.7 167 65.7
(European)
Africa, North 169 66.5 161 63.4
Africa, West 167 65.7 153 60.2

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Examples of static human body dimensions

Stature
STATURE cm (std.dev.)
(Pulat, 1992)
Percentiles
%5 % 50 % 95
FEMALE
USA-civilian 150(99) 160(63) 170(66,9)
UK-civilian 149,5(58,7) 160,1(63) 171,2(67,4)
Japan-civilian 145,3(57,2) 153,2(60,3) 161,3(63,4)
MALE
USA-civilian 162(63,7) 173(68,1) 185(72,8)
Italian- 160,2(63,3) 170,8(67,2) 180,8(71,2)
military per.
Japan- 155,8(61,4) 163,3(65,1) 174,8(68,9)
civilianl
Turkish- 160,6(63,2) 169(66,5) 179,2(70,5)
military per.
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Anthropometric measurement
tools/methods

Manual measurement
*using anthropometer

*2D Software

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Anthropometric measurement
tools/methods

*3D scanners

3D Whole body scanner

Head scanner
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Anthropometric Data
 Anthropometric data for a homogeneous population
usually obeys normal distribution
 Published data indicate not only mean values but also some
measure of dispersion
 Percentile limits on the variable
 5th and 95th percentile points common

 Standard deviation
 Applies to specific anthropometric variable (e.g., heights of females
from Northern Europe)

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Normal Distribution in Anthropometry

Normal distribution for a given anthropometric variable of interest

Anthropometric Design Principles

 Design for extreme individuals
 Design for adjustability
 Design for the average user
 Design different sizes for different size users

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1.) Design for Extreme Individuals

 Designing for the maximum
 Doorway heights
 Automobile door openings
 Mattress sizes
 Designing for the minimum
 Heights of kitchen cabinets
 Locations of levers and dials on equipment
…

Design for Extreme Individuals

Clearances are based on 95th percentile Reach lengths are based on 5th percentile

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2.) Design for Adjustability

 To accommodate a wide range of users
 Examples:
 Automobile driver seats
 Adjustable steering wheel in an automobile
 Office chairs
 Worktable heights
 Tilt angles of computer monitors
 Lawnmower handle heights
 Bicycle handlebars

3.) Design for Average User

 For situations in which design for extreme individuals
and adjustability are not feasible
 Examples:
 Stair heights
 Stadium seats
 Sofas
 Heights of checkout counters at supermarkets

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4.) Different Sizes for Different Size

Users
 When the only way to accommodate user population
is to make the product in different sizes
 Examples:
 Clothing
 Shoes
 Elementary school desks and chairs

Different Sizes for Different Size

Users
Example: Men’s suit coat sizes available from mail-order clothing
store

Coat sizes 37 38 39 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60
Short (under 5’8”) x x x x x x
Regular (5’8” to 5’11”) x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Long (6’ to 6’3”) x x x x x x x x x x x
Extra long (over 6’3”) x x x x x x x x
Portly short (under 5’8”) x x x x
Portly regular (5’8” to x x x x x x
5’11”)

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Calculation of percentile value

 Find the mean and standard deviation

Percentile Normal dist.
 Find the normal distribution multiplier according Multiplier (NDM)
to percentile %5 1.645
 Apply formula below % 10 1.282
% 25 0.674
For percentiles < 50 % : % 50 0
Percentile value = Mean - (Std. dev.x NDM) % 75 0.674
% 90 1.282
For percentiles > 50 % :
% 95 1.645
Percentile value = Mean + (Std. dev.x NDM)

90

Example
The mean and standard deviation of heights for males and females in a
group are given below. Depending on this information, the height of the
door is wanted to be determined. What is the height of the door?

Gender Mean of height Standard deviation of

(cm) height (cm)
Male 170 15
Female 160 10

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 16.03.2021

Example-Solution
It is necessary to design a door which is suitable at least for
the 95% of the whole population. So it will be proper to design
the door regarding the 95% of the male.

Door height = Mean + (Std. dev. x NDM)

Mean : 170 cm
Std. dev. : 15 cm
NDM : 1.645

Door height= 170 + 15*1.645

195 cm.

References
 Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of
Work by Mikell P. Groover.
 Applications Manual For the Revised NIOSH Lifting
Equation : Thomas R. Waters, Ph.D., Vern Putz-Anderson,
Ph.D., Arun Garg, Ph.D. Centers for Disease Control &
Prevention

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