University

of Zakho

Abstract Algebra
Chapter One : Group Theory
Dr. Chenar Abdul Kareem
Mathematics Science Dept.
University of Zakho

Chenar.ahmed@uoz.edu.krd
Theorem: Let (G,*) be a group, then (H,*) is a subgroup of (G,*)
if and only if ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻.
Proof: Let H≤ 𝐺, then H is a group
→ H is a closed under *
→ ∀ a,b ∈H→ a*b ∈H, ∵ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻, and H is a group
so H has inverse so 𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻
∵ a, 𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻 → a*𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻 .

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Conversely: Let ∀ a,b ∈H→ a*𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻 … (1)
We must prove that H is a subgroup of G
So we must prove that H is a group
(1) we use ∀ a,b ∈H→ a*𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻. . (1) to show H has identity
put a=b in equation (1) we get ∀ b,b ∈H→ b*𝑏 −1 = 𝑒 ∈ 𝐻
(2) We use ∀ a,b ∈H→ a*𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻. . (1) to show H has inverse
put a=e in equation (1) we get ∀ e,b ∈H→ e*𝑏 −1 = 𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻
(3) we use ∀ a,b ∈H→ a*𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻. . (1) to show H is closed
put b=𝑏 −1 in equation (1) we get ∀ b,b ∈H→ a*(𝑏 −1 )−1 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻

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(4) If G is a associative then H is associative

Let a, b, c∈ H → a, b, c ∈ G, ∵ G is asscoiative
→ a ∗ b ∗ c = a ∗ b ∗ c , ∴ H is associative.

From (1), (2), (3) and (4) H is a group

∴ H is a subgroup of G.

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 Theorem: 𝐿𝑒𝑡 (𝐻1 ,∗)𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝐻2 ,∗)𝑏𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 (𝐺,∗), 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛

(𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2 ,∗) 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 (𝐺,∗).

P𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒇: 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐻1 ,∗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻2 ,∗ 𝑏𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝐺,∗

𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2 ,∗ 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝐺,∗ .

(1)Since 𝐻1 ≠ ∅ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻2 ≠ ∅, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2 ≠ ∅

(2)𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2 ⟹ 𝑇𝑜 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2
⟹ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2 ⟺ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻2
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐻1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻2 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝐺,∗
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻2 ⟹ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2 ,∗ 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝐺,∗ .
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𝑹𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒌: 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝
𝐺,∗ 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝐺,∗ 𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙.
𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆:
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐻1 = 0ത , 2ത , 4ത , 6ത , 8ത , 10 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻2 = 0ത , 6ത , 𝐻3
= 0ത , 3,6,9 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑧12 , +14 .

𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻2 = 0ത , 2ത , 4ത , 6ത , 8ത , 10, , 6ത 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓

𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 (𝑍12 , +12 ).but 𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻3 = 0ത , 2ത , 4ത , 6ത , 8ത , 10, , 3,9 is not
subgroup since 2+3 = 5∉ 𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻3 .

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T𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒎: 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐻1 ,∗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻2 ,∗ 𝑏𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝
𝐺,∗ , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 (𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻2 ,∗) 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝
𝐺,∗ 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝐻1 ⊆ 𝐻2 𝑜𝑟𝐻2 ⊆ 𝐻1 .

Proof: 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐻1 ,∗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑

𝐻2 ∗ 𝑏𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝐺,∗
• 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻1 ⊆ 𝐻2 𝑜𝑟 𝐻2 ⊆ 𝐻1 . 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡
• 𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻2 ,∗ 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝐺,∗ .

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(1) 𝐻1 ≠ ∅ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻2 ≠ ∅ , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻2 ≠ ∅

(2) 𝑖𝑓 𝐻1 ⊆ 𝐻2 ⟹ 𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻2= 𝐻2 , 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐻2 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝐺,∗

𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻2 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝐺,∗
𝐼𝑓 𝐻2 ⊆ 𝐻1 ⟹ 𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻2 = 𝐻1 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐻1 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝐺,∗
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻2 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝐺,∗

Therefore 𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻2 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝐺,∗

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𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐞𝐥𝐲: 𝑆𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐻1 ,∗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝐻2

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 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻2 , 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻2 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 (𝐺,∗)

𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻2 ⟹ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻1 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻2

𝐼𝑓 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻1 ⟹ 𝑎−1 ∗ (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 −1 ) = (𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑎) ∗ 𝑏 −1 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑏 −1 = 𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻1

𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐻1 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 (𝐺,∗), 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑏

∈ 𝐻1 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝐼𝑓 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻2 ⟹ (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 −1 ) ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 −1 ∗ 𝑏) = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻2

𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐻2 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 (𝐺,∗), 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻2 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠

𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐻1 ⊆ 𝐻2 𝑜𝑟 𝐻2 ⊆ 𝐻1

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