Chapter 3 Chemical Formulae and Equations

Activity 3.1.2 To determine the empirical formula of magnesium oxide

Aim: To determine the empirical formula of magnesium oxide.
Materials: 10 cm magnesium ribbon and sandpaper.
Apparatus: Crucible with lid, tongs, Bunsen burner, tripod stand, pipe-clay triangle and electronic
balance.
Procedure:
1. A crucible and its lid are weighed.
2. A 10 cm length of magnesium ribbon is cleaned with sandpaper to remove the oxide layer on its
surface.
3. The ribbon is coiled loosely and is placed in the crucible. The crucible with its lid and content
are weighed.
4. The apparatus is set up as shown in figure below.
5. The crucible is heated strongly without its lid.
6. When the magnesium starts to burn, the crucible is covered with its lid.
7. Using a pair of tongs, the lid is carefully raised a little at intervals.
8. When the burning is complete, the lid is removed and the crucible is heated strongly for 1 to 2
minutes.
9. The crucible with its lid still on is allowed to cool to room temperature.
10. The crucible with its lid and content are weighed again.
11. The processes of heating, cooling and weighing are repeated until a constant mass obtained is
recorded.

Results:
Description Mass (g)
Crucible + lid
Crucible + lid + magnesium
Crucible + lid + magnesium oxide
Magnesium
Oxygen

1
Calculation:
[Relative atomic mass: O = 16, Mg = 24]
Element Magnesium, Mg Oxygen, O
Mass(g)
Number of moles of atoms
Simplest ratio of moles

Based on the calculation, ___moles of magnesium atoms combine with __moles of oxygen atoms.
Therefore, the empirical formula of magnesium oxide is _____.

Discussion:
1. The purpose of rubbing the magnesium ribbon with a sand paper before using it is to remove
the oxide layer on the surface of magnesium ribbon.
2. Magnesium reacts with oxygen in the air to form white fumes, magnesium oxide.
Magnesium + Oxygen  magnesium oxide
3. Below are the precautions taken in this activity:
(a) The lid is removed at intervals to allow oxygen to enter the crucible and react with
magnesium.
(b) The crucible is then quickly covered with its lid to prevent the white fumes of magnesium
oxide from escaping. This would affect the accuracy the mass obtained.
(c) Heating, cooling and weighing are repeated until a constant mass is obtained to ensure that
the magnesium ribbon reacts completely to form magnesium oxide.
4. The method can also be used to determine the empirical formulae of oxides of other high
reactivity metals such as calcium oxide, aluminium oxide and zinc oxide.

5. If the white fumes are released into the environment, the results obtained is not accurate and
could affect the determination of the empirical formula.

6. Failure to properly react all the magnesium with oxygen is the possible source of error. Possible
improvements that could be made for subsequent experiment by reacting magnesium in a pure
oxygen environment.

Conclusion:
The empirical formula of magnesium oxide is ______.

2
Experiment 4.1 Reaction of Group 1 metals with water
Aim: To investigate the chemical properties of Group 1 metals in their reactions with water.
Problem Statement: What are the chemical properties of Group 1 elements, when they react with
water?
Materials: Small pieces of lithium, sodium and potassium, distilled water, red litmus paper and
filter paper
Apparatus: Basin, small knife and forceps
Hypothesis: Going down the group, the reactivity of alkali metals with water will increase.
Variables:
(a) Manipulated: Type of alkali metal
(b) Responding: Reactivity of alkali metal with water
(c) Fixed: Size of alkali metal
Procedures:
1. A small piece of lithium is cut out using a knife.
2. The oil on the surface of lithium is removed by rolling it on a piece of filter paper.
3. The lithium is then placed slowly onto the water surface in a basin with the help of forceps.
4. All changes that occur are recorded.
5. When the reaction stops, the solution formed is tested with a piece of red litmus paper.
6. Step 1 to 5 are repeated using sodium and potassium respectively to replace lithium.
Observation:

Alkali metal Observation

Lithium Lithium moves slowly on the water surface with a soft ‘hiss’ sound. A colourless
solution that turns red litmus paper blue is formed.
Sodium Sodium melts to become a small sphere, moves rapidly and randomly on the
water surface with a ‘hiss’ sound. A colourless solution that turns red litmus
paper blue is formed.
Potassium Potassium melts to become a small sphere, burns with a lilac flame, moves very
rapidly and randomly on the water surface with ‘hiss’ and ‘pop’ sounds. A
colourless solution that turns red litmus paper blue is formed.
Discussion:

1. The alkali metals fizz and push around on the water surface like a hovercraft due to the
liberation of hydrogen gas as they react with water.
2. Lithium, sodium and potassium react with water to produce a colourless gas (‘hissing’ sound)
and an alkaline solution (metal hydroxide) that turns red litmus paper blue. Hence, lithium,
sodium and potassium exhibit similar chemical properties.
3. The observations also show that the reactivity of the alkali metals in their reactions with water
increases from lithium  sodium  potassium.
4. Alkali metals react with water to produce a metal hydroxide solution (an alkaline solution) and
hydrogen gas.
2Li (s) + 2H2O (l)  2LiOH (aq) + H2 (g)
2Na (s) + 2H2O (l)  2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)
2K (s) + 2H2O (l)  2KOH (aq) + H2 (g)

Conclusion: The alkali metals exhibit similar chemical properties in their reactions with water. The
reactivity of alkali metals increases down Group 1.
3
Experiment 5.1 Properties of ionic and covalent compounds
Aim: To compare the solubility of ionic and covalent compounds in water and organic solvents.
Problem statement: What are the difference in solubility of ionic and covalent compounds in water
and organic solvent?
Materials: Magnesium chloride crystals, diethyl ether, cyclohexane and distilled water.
Apparatus: Dropper, spatula, 10 cm3 measuring cylinder and test tubes.
Hypothesis: Ionic compounds soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvent while covalent
compounds soluble in organic solvent but insoluble in water.
Variable:
(a) Manipulated: Type of solute.
(b) Responding: Solubility of ionic or covalent compound.
(c) Fixed: Volume of water, volume of cyclohexane, temperature of solvent.

Procedures:
1. A quarter spatula of magnesium chloride crystals are placed in a test tube.
2. 5 cm3 of distilled water is added to the test tube.
3. The mixture in the test tube is shaken well.
4. All the changes are recorded.
5. Steps 1 to 4 are repeated using liquid cyclohexane to replace distilled water.
6. Steps 1 to 5 are repeated using 5 cm3 of diethyl ether to replace the magnesium chloride
crystals.
Results:

Solubility in water and organic solvents

Substance Observation Inferences

Solubility in water Solubility in
cyclohexane
Magnesium chloride The white solid The white solid does Magnesium chloride
dissolves in water to not dissolve in is soluble in water but
form a colourless cyclohexane. insoluble in
solution. cyclohexane.
Diethyl ether Two layers of The colourless liquid Diethyl ether is
colourless liquids are dissolves in insoluble in water but
formed. cylcohexane to form soluble in
a colourless solution. cyclohexane.

4
Discussion:

1. Magnesium chloride, as an ionic compound, is

 soluble in water, but
 insoluble in cyclohexane (organic solvent)
2. Diethyl ether, as a covalent compound, is
 insoluble in water, but
 soluble in cyclohexane (organic solvent)

Conclusion: Ionic compounds are usually soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvents while
covalent compounds are usually insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents.

5
Experiment 6.3 Relationship between pH and molarity of acid
Aim: To investigate the relationship between the concentration of hydrogen ions, H+ and pH value of
acid.
Problem statement: What is the relationship between pH values and the molarity of an acid?
Hypothesis: The higher the concentration of hydrogen ion, H+, the lower the pH value of the acid.

Variables:
(a) Manipulated variable: Concentration of hydrogen ions, H+
(b) Responding variable: pH values
(c) Controlled variable: Type of acid

Materials: Hydrochloric acid with concentrations of 0.1 mol dm-3, 0.01 mol dm-3 and 0.001 mol dm-3

Apparatus: 100 cm3 beaker, 50 cm3 of measuring cylinder and pH meter

Procedure:
1. 20 cm3 of hydrochloric acid, HCl of different concentrations is poured into three beakers.
2. The pH value of each hydrochloric acid, HCl is measured with the pH meter.
3. The readings are recorded in table below.

Results:
Concentration of hydrochloric acid, HCl (mol dm-3) 0.1 0.01 0.001
Concentration of hydrogen ions, H+ ( mold m-3) 0.1 0.01 0.001
pH 1 2 3

Discussion:
1. Molarity measures the number of moles of acid in 1 dm3 of solution.
2. When an acidic solution is diluted, concentration of hydrogen ions, H+ decreases, pH increases
and the degree of acidity of the aqueous solution decreases.

3. Based on table above, increasing the molarity of an acid decreases its pH value.
Reason:
Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid. When the molarity of hydrochloric acid increases,
• the number of moles of hydrochloric acid dissolved in 1 dm3 of solution increases
• more hydrochloric acid molecules ionize to hydrogen ions
• the concentration of hydrogen ions also increases
• the pH value decreases
Hence, increasing the molarity of an acid will decrease its pH value.

4. When the concentration of hydrogen ions, H+ increases, pH value decreases and the acidity of
the aqueous solution increases.

Conclusion:
The higher the concentration of hydrogen ion, H+, the lower the pH value of the acid. The hypothesis
can be accepted.

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Activity 6.4 To study the chemical reactions of acids with metals
Aim: To study the chemical reactions of acids with metals.
Materials: 2.0 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid, 2.0 mol dm-3 ethanoic acid, magnesium powder
Apparatus: Test tubes, spatula, test tube holder, Bunsen burner, stopper, evaporating dish, filter
funnel, filter paper and wooden splint.

Procedure:
1. About 5 cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid is poured into a test tube.
2. One spatulaful of magnesium powder is added to the acid.
3. A lighted wooden splint is brought to the mouth of the test tube to ignite the gas liberated.
4. All observations are recorded.
5. The unreacted magnesium is filtered out.
6. The filtered is evaporated until one-third of the original volume remains.
7. The hot solution is allowed to cool for crystals to form.
8. The crystals formed are removed by filtration and dried by pressing the crystals between sheets
of filter paper.
9. The features of the crystals are noted and recorded.
10. Steps 1 to 9 are repeated using dilute ethanoic acid to replace dilute hydrochloric acid.

Observations:
Acid Observation
Hydrochloric acid The grey solid dissolves to form a colourless solution. A colourless gas
that burns with a ‘pop’ sound is produced. White crystals are obtained.
Ethanoic acid The grey solid dissolves to form a colourless solution. A colourless gas
that burns with a ‘pop’ sound is produced. White crystals are obtained.

Discussion:
1. Magnesium is a reactive metal.
2. Reactive metals react with acids to form salts and hydrogen. Unreactive metals such as
copper and silver do not react with dilute acids.
2 HCl (aq) + Mg (s) → MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
2 CH3COOH (aq) +Mg (s) → Mg(CH3COO)2 (aq) + H2 (g)
3. The hydrogen gas liberated can be identified using a lighted wooden splint. Hydrogen gas
burns with a ‘pop’ sound.
4. The white crystals are magnesium chloride and magnesium ethanoate. They dissolve in
water to form colourless solutions.

Conclusion:
An acid reacts with a reactive metal to produce a salt and hydrogen gas.

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Activity 6.7: Preparation of Stock Solution and Standard Solution
Preparation of Stock solution

Aim: To prepare a 100 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm-3 of sodium hydroxide solution
Materials: Distilled water and solid sodium hydroxide
Apparatus: Electronic balance, filter funnel, 250 cm3 volumetric flask, dropper, wash bottle,
250 cm3 beaker and glass rod.
Procedure:
𝑀𝑉
1. The mass of solid sodium hydroxide is determined needed using the formula, 𝑛 = 1000.
2. The mass of solid sodium hydroxide is weighed by using electronic balance and a beaker.
3. 10 cm3 of distilled water is added into the beaker.
4. The mixture is stirred with a glass rod until all the solid sodium hydroxide is completely
dissolved in the distilled water.
5. The sodium hydroxide solution is transferred into a 100 cm3 volumetric flask via a filter funnel.
6. The beaker is rinsed with distilled water and measured all the remaining solution is transferred
into the volumetric flask.
7. The filter funnel is rinsed with a little distilled water and transferred into the volumetric flask.
8. The filter funnel is removed. Distilled water is added until it approaches the calibration mark on
the volumetric flask.
9. Distilled water is added slowly by using dropper until the meniscus level is aligned exactly on
the calibration mark of the volumetric flask.
10. The volumetric flask is closed using a stopper. The volumetric flask is shake well by inverting
several times until the solution is homogenous.

Sodium
hydroxide, NaOH

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Activity 6.8 Preparation of standard solution using dilution method (from stock solution)
Aim: To prepare a 100 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm-3 of sodium hydroxide solution
Materials: Distilled water and 1.0 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide solution, NaOH from activity
6.7.
Apparatus: 100 cm3 volumetric flask, dropper, filter funnel, pipette, wash bottle, pipette filler
and 100 cm3 beaker.
Procedure:

1. The volume,V1, of 1 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide solution is calculated by using: M1V1 =M2V2
2. V1 of 1 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide solution is taken out with a pipette and transferred into
100 cm3 volumetric flask.
3. Distilled water is added slowly by using dropper until the meniscus level is aligned exactly on
the calibration mark of the volumetric flask.
4. The volumetric flask is closed using a stopper. The volumetric flask is shake well by inverting
several times until the solution is homogenous.
Discussion:
1. A beaker cannot accurately measure the volume of desired standard solution.
2. A pipette has been accurately calibrated and the volume of the solution that comes out of the pipette
is as shown on the pipette label. Hence, no need to remove the last drop of the solution in the pipette.

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Activity 6.13 The neutralization of sodium hydroxide solution with hydrochloric acid
using titration method.
Aim : To determine the end point during the neutralization of sodium hydroxide solution with hydrochloric
acid using acid-base titration.

Materials :125ml sodium hydroxide, 125ml hydrochloric acid 0.1 mol dm-3, distilled water, phenolphthalein.

Apparatus : Pipette 25ml, burette 50 ml, conical flask 100ml, burette clamp, retort stand, 2 beaker 100 ml,
dropper, pipette filler

Procedure:

1. A clean burette was rinsed with a small amount of 0.1 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid, HCl.
2. The burette was clamped on a retort stand.
3. The burette was filled with 0.1 mol dm- 3 hydrochloric acid. The meniscus level of the acid was adjusted to a
reading at ‘0’ or slightly below the ‘0’ mark.
4. The initial burette reading is recorded.
5. 25.0 cm3 of sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution was pipetted into a conical flask.
6. Two drops of phenolphtalein were added to the sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution and the solution was
shaken well.
7. The conical flask with its content was placed below the burette. A piece of white tile was placed below the
conical flask.
8. The hydrochloric acid, HCl was added carefully and slowly from the burette into the conical flask. The
conical flask was swirled throughout the process of titration.
9. When the colour of mixture turned paler, the hydrochloric acid, HCl was added a drop at a time while swirling
the flask. The change in colour of mixture was observed.
10. The addition of hydrochloric, HCl was stopped as soon as the solution in the conical flask turned colourless.
11. The final burette reading was recorded.
12. Steps 1 to 11 were repeated twice. The readings were tabulated

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Data and Observation:

Titration I II III
Final burette reading
(cm3)
Initial burette reading
(cm3)
Volume of HCl
needed (cm3)

Calculation: [Show your working steps]

1. The average volume of acid used is __________________

2. The chemical equation for the neutralization in this reaction is ______________.
Thus, based on the equation,
_______ mol of HCl reacts with ___________ mol of NaOH

3. The number of mole of HCl used in this experiment is ______________.

4. Thus, the number of mole of NaOH used in this experiment is ______________.

Discussion:

1. A white tile is used in this activity so that the colour change in the solution in the solution in the conical flask
can be clearly observed.
2. The burette should be washed with distilled water followed by acid to ensure that water does not dilute the
acid. Similarity too, the pipette should be washed with distilled water, followed by alkali.
3. The conical flask should not be washed with alkali to ensure that no alkali remains in the flask before NaOH
is added.
4. Operational definition for the end point in this activity is a point where the colour of the solution in the
conical flask changes from pink to colourless when hydrochloric acid, HCl is titrated into the conical flask
containing sodium hydroxide solution, NaOH.
5. The white tile is used to enable the change in colour of the solution in the conical flask to be seen clearly.
6. There must be no bubble of air trapped in the jet of the burette because it will causes the reading of the volume
will not accurate.

Conclusion:

The end point of neutralisation between an acid and an alkali can be determined by titration method.

The molarity of sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution in this activity is ____________.

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Activity 6.20 Preparation of a soluble salt from the reaction of an acid and a metal
oxide
Aim: To prepare copper (II) nitrate by mixing an acid with a metal oxide.
Materials: 2 mol dm-3 nitric acid, copper (II) oxide and filter paper.
Apparatus: 100 cm3 measuring cylinder, filter funnel, evaporating dish, Bunsen burner, tripod stand,
retort stand and clamp, beaker, glass rod, spatula and wire gauze.
Procedure:
1. A measuring cylinder is used to measure 50 cm3 of 2 mol dm-3 nitric acid into a beaker. The
acid is carefully heated.
2. A spatula is used to add copper (II) oxide powder bit by bit with stirring to the hot acid until
some of it no longer dissolves.
3. The unreacted copper (II) oxide powder is removed by filtration. The filtrate is poured into an
evaporating dish.
4. The salt solution is gently heated to evaporate the solution to one-third of its original volume to
obtain a saturated solution.
5. The hot saturated salt solution is allowed to cool for crystallization to take place.
6. The crystals formed are filtered out, washed with a little cold distilled water and dried by
pressing the crystals between sheets of filter paper.

50 cm3 warm

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Observations:
1. The black copper (II) oxide dissolves to form a blue solution.
2. Blue crystals of the copper (II) nitrate are obtained.

Discussion:
1. Copper (II) oxide is a base and it neutralises the nitric acid according to the following equation.
CuO (s) + 2HNO3 (aq) Cu(NO3) (aq) + H2O (l)
2. Excess copper (II) oxide is used to ensure that all the nitric acid is completely reacted.
3. The acid is heated to speed up the reaction.
4. The first filtration is to remove excess copper(II) oxide. The second filtration is to obtain
copper(II) nitrate crystals.
5. The reaction between nitric acid, HNO3 and copper(II) oxide, CuO is a neutralization reaction
because salt and water are produced.
6. Another base to replace copper (II) oxide is copper (II) hydroxide.
Cu(OH)2 (s) + 2 HNO3 (aq) Cu(NO3)2 (aq) + 2H2O (l)
7. The copper (II) ion causes the solution to acquire a blue colour.

Conclusion:
A copper (II) salt can be prepared by an acid-base reaction.

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Activity 6.24 To prepare insoluble salts by precipitation method
Aim: To prepare insoluble salts by precipitation method / double decomposition reaction,

Materials: 0.5 mol dm-3 lead (II) nitrate solution, 0.5 mol dm-3 potassium iodide solution and filter
paper.
Apparatus: Beakers, filter funnel, retort stand and clamp, glass rod and 100 cm3measuring cylinder.

Procedure:
1. About 20 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm-3 lead (II) nitrate solution is measured into a beaker.
2. About 20 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm-3 potassium iodide solution is measured and mixed with the
solution in the beaker. The mixture is stirred with a glass rod.
3. The precipitate formed is removed by filtration. The precipitation is then washed with distilled
water and dried by pressing it between sheets of filter paper.

Discussion:
1. Lead (II) iodide is a yellow insoluble solid.

2. Lead (II) iodide is formed according to the following equation.

Chemical equation: Pb(NO3)2 + 2KI  PbI2 + 2KNO3
Ionic equation: Pb2+ + 2I-  PbI2

3. The filtered lead(II) iodide salt, PbI2 rinsed with distilled water to remove potassium nitrate that
might be struck to the surface of lead(II) iodide.

14
Experiment 6.10 To identify the cations present in aqueous solutions.
Aim: To identify the cations present in aqueous solutions.
Problem statement: How to identify the cations present in aqueous solutions?
Hypothesis: Types of cations present in a solution can be identified through observations of the cation
tests.

Variables:
(a) Manipulated: Types of cations present in aqueous solutions
(b) Responding: Observation made
(c) Fixed: Volume of aqueous salt solution

Materials: 1 moldm-3 solutions of: aluminium nitrate, ammonium chloride, magnesium nitrate, calcium
nitrate, lead(II) nitrate, zinc nitrate, iron (II) sulphate, iron (III) chloride, copper (II) sulphate,
2.0 moldm-3 sodium hydroxide solution, 2.0 moldm-3 ammonia solution and red litmus paper.

Apparatus: Test tubes, beakers and dropper.

A. Using sodium hydroxide solution to test for metal cations

1. About 2 cm3 of aluminium nitrate solution is poured into a test tube.
2. A dropper is used to add sodium hydroxide solution drop by drop to the solution in the test tube. The
mixture is shaken after each addition of alkali.
3. Any changes that occur are noted.
4. If a precipitate is produced, the addition of sodium hydroxide solution is continued until in excess.
The mixture is shaken well after each addition of alkali.
5. Observation on whether the precipitate dissolves in excess alkali is noted.
6. Step 1 to 5 are repeated using each of the cation solutions listed in table below to replace aluminium
nitrate solution

B. Using ammonia solution to test for metal cations

1. Step 1 to 6 in section A are repeated using ammonia solution to replace sodium hydroxide solution.
2. The results are recorded in a table.

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Observations:
Cation solution Cation
Sodium hydroxide
solution
Aluminium nitrate Al3+ White precipitate.
Dissolves in excess alkali
to produce a colourless
solution.
Calcium nitrate Ca2+ White precipitate.
Insoluble in excess alkali.
Copper (II) sulphate Cu2+ Blue precipitate.
Insoluble in excess alkali.
Iron (II) sulphate Fe2+ Green precipitate.
Insoluble in excess alkali.
Iron (III) chloride Fe3+ Brown precipitate.
Insoluble in excess alkali.
Observation
Ammonia solution
White precipitate.
Insoluble in excess alkali.
No precipitate.
Blue precipitate.
Dissolves in excess alkali to produce a
dark blue solution.
Green precipitate.
Insoluble in excess alkali.
Brown precipitate.
Insoluble in excess alkali.

Lead (II) nitrate Pb2+ White precipitate. White precipitate.

Dissolves in excess alkali
to produce a colourless
solution.
Magnesium nitrate Mg2+ White precipitate.
Insoluble in excess alkali.
Zinc nitrate Zn2+ White precipitate.
Dissolves in excess alkali
to produce a colourless
solution.
Ammonium chloride NH4+ No precipitate.
Insoluble in excess alkali.
White precipitate.
Insoluble in excess alkali.
White precipitate.
Dissolves in excess alkali to produce a
colourless solution.
No precipitate.

Discussion:
1. Sodium hydroxide solution is a strong alkali, providing a high concentration of hydroxide ions.
Hence, it is able to precipitate all the metal cations used.
2. The weaker ammonia solution is unable to ionize fully to provide a high concentration of hydroxide
ions needed to precipitate calcium ions.
3. Transition metal cations form coloured precipitate, whereas non-transition metal cations form white
precipitate.
4. Aluminium hydroxide, lead (II) hydroxide and zinc hydroxide dissolve in excess sodium hydroxide
solution due to their amphoteric property, that is, they exhibit both acidic and basic properties.
5. Copper (II) hydroxide and zinc hydroxide dissolve in excess ammonia solution because they are able
to form complex ions with ammonia molecules.
Conclusion:
Most metal ions can be precipitated in the form of metal hydroxides.
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Experiment 7.3 Factor of rate of reaction (Temperature)
Aim: To investigate the effect of temperature on the rate of reaction.

Problem statement: How does temperature affect the rate of reaction?

Hypothesis: An increase in temperature will increase the rate of reaction.

Variable:
(a) Manipulated: Temperature of sodium thiosulphate solution
(b) Responding: Rate of reaction
(c) Fixed: Volume and concentration of sodium thiosulphate solution, volume and concentration of
sulphuric acid, size of conical flask

Materials: 0.2 mol dm-3 sodium thiosulphate solution, 1 mol dm-3 sulphuric acid, white paper
with a mark ‘X’ at the centre.

Apparatus: 150 cm3 conical flasks, 50 cm3 measuring cylinder, 10 cm3 measuring cylinder, digital
stopwatch ( electronically operated with an accuracy of 0.01 s), thermometer, Bunsen burner, tripod
stand, wire gauze.

Procedure:

1. 50 cm3 of 0.2 mol dm-3 sodium thiosulphate solution is measured using a measuring cylinder
and poured into a conical flask.
2. The temperature of this solution is measured using a thermometer.
3. The conical flask is placed on top pf a piece of white paper with a mark ‘X’ at the centre.
4. 5 cm3 of 1 mol dm-3 sulphuric acid is measured using a 10 cm3 measuring cylinder.
5. The sulphuric acid is then poured quickly and carefully into the conical flask and a stopwatch is
started immediately.
6. The mixture in the conical flask is swirled a few times. The conical flask is the placed back on
the white paper.
7. The mark ‘X’ is viewed vertically from the top through the solution, as shown in diagram.
8. The stopwatch is stopped immediately once the mark ‘X’ disappears from sight.
9. The time t required for the mark ‘X’ to disappear from sight is recorded.
10. Steps 1 to 9 are repeated using 50 cm3 of 0.2 mol dm-3 sodium thiosulphate solution at 40 C,
45 C, 50 C and 55 C respectively by heating the solution as shown in diagram before 5 cm3
of 1 mol dm-3 sulphuric acid is added. All other conditions remain unchanged.

17
Results:
Experiment Temperature (C) Time, t (s) 𝟏
(𝒔−𝟏 )
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆
I
II
III
IV
V

Interpreting data:
1
1. Use the data obtained to plot a graph of rate of reaction, 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 against temperature of sodium
thiosulphate solution, Na2S2O3.
2. Based on the graph, state the relationship between rate of reaction and the temperature of
sodium thiosulphate solution, Na2S2O3.

Discussion:
1. Ionic equation for the reaction between sodium thiosulphate solution, Na2S2O3 and sulphuric
acid, H2SO4 :
S2O32-(aq) + 2H+(aq)  S(s) + SO2(g) + H2O(l)

2. In this experiment, if hydrochloric acid of the same concentration is used to replace sulphuric
acid, the rate of reaction will become lower.
This is because hydrochloric acid is a strong monoprotic acid whereas sulphuric acid is a strong
diprotic acid. Hence, the concentration of hydrogen ions in hydrochloric acid is only half the
concentration of hydrogen ions in sulphuric acid.

3. (a) From the graphs plotted, the following inference can be deduced:
1
“Temperature increases linearly with 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒.”
1
(b) Rate of reaction 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
(c) Hence, rate of reaction increases linearly with temperature.

4. The temperature increases, the rate of reaction also increases.

5. The rate of reaction approximately doubles for every 10 C rise in temperature.

Conclusion:
When the concentration of a reactant increases, the rate of reaction also increases. Hence, the
hypothesis can be accepted.

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