Fiber Composites

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS | GROUP 5 | WRITTEN REPORT BASED

6. NON-CORROSIVE - property makes

I. INTRODUCTION composites suitable for use in applications
where corrosion resistance is essential.
Fiber Reinforced Composite (FRC) - a composite
material made of a polymer matrix reinforced with
7. IMPACT RESISTANCE - fiber-based
fibers.
composition absorbs and distributes
THREE MAIN COMPONENTS: energy, reducing the risk of surface
damage or structural failure.
1. discontinuous phase grains
2. continuous phase matrix
III. CLASSIFICATION OF FIBERS
3. interface region

THREE GROUPS OF FRC:
1. Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs)
2. Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs)
3. Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs)
Natural Fibers - biopolymers that are either plant-
or animal-sourced.
 Cellulose - major constituent of plant-
based natural fibers.
 Proteins - animal-based natural fibers

II. PROPERTIES OF FRC TYPES OF NATURAL FIBERS

1. TENSILE STRENGTH - capable of

1. PLANT FIBERS - Extracted from the plants
withstanding greater loads and forces.
to make fabrics.
2. FLEXURAL STRENGTH – helps withstand
 Bast Fiber - Fibers obtained from the
bending and deformation better. Because
inner, fibrous stems of plants (the
fibers are included into the composite
phloem and xylem).
material to provide reinforcement
 Leaf Fiber - hard, coarse fiber obtained
throughout.
from leaves of monocotyledonous
3. TOUGHNESS - preventing the start and
plants (flowering plants have parallel-
spread of cracks. Serve as barriers when a
veined leaves) used mainly for
fracture starts, absorbing energy and
cordage.
slowing the crack's rate of propagation.
 Seed Fiber - collected from the seeds of
4. DURABILITY - fibers provide protection to
various plants. (Cotton – most common
the matrix material against various forms
seed fiber)
of deterioration.
5. LIGHTWEIGHT - are lightweight yet possess
2. ANIMAL FIBERS - natural fibers that can be
high strength, offering a favorable
sourced to animals.
strength-to-weight ratio.

DE VERA, F. 1
Fiber Composites
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS | GROUP 5 | WRITTEN REPORT BASED

 Silk - “natural” protein fiber. This Enhancing the composite's mechanical

animal fiber may be woven into properties like strength and stiffness.
textiles.
 Wool - animal fibers that are CHARACTERISTICS:
derived from the furs of animals  Vibration damping
that belong to the Caprinae family.  Chemical resistance
 Thermal insulation
3. MINERAL FIBERS - possessing high
TYPES OF POLYMERS USED AS MATRICES
elasticity and outstanding resistance
against corrosion, humidity, heat, wear 1. Epoxy
and tear, etc. 2. Polyester
 Asbestos - most important fiber 3. Vinyl ester
material among the mineral fibers. Fiber 4. Phenolic
is very tough, flexible and 5. Polyimide
comparatively longer.
 Fiberglass - made by melting silica sand B. Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs) -
and other raw materials. advanced materials composed of ceramic
 Rock wool - made from basalt rock that fibers embedded within a ceramic matrix. Its
is melted and spun into fibers. high-temperature resistance, mechanical
strength, and wear resistance.
4. SYNTHETIC FIBERS - unique type of fiber
CHARACTERISTICS:
that does not naturally occur in nature.
They are man-made polymers designed to  Lightweight
make a fabric.  High strength and stiffness
 Nylon - Thermoplastic. The first  Corrosion and wear resistance
synthetic fiber used in the making of TYPES OF CERAMICS USED AS MATRICES
ropes, sleeping bags, parachutes,
different types of clothes. 1. Silicon Carbide (SiC)
 Rayon - It is made from wood pulp. 2. Alumina (Al2O3)
Known as artificial silk as it has 3. Zirconia (ZrO2)
characteristics resembling silk. 4. Silicon Nitride (Si3N4)
5. Mullite
IV. CLASSIFIATION OF FRCs BASED ON
MATRICES
C. Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) - materials
A. Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) - composed of a metal matrix reinforced with
comprising a polymer resin matrix reinforced ceramic, metallic, or organic fibers or particles.
with fibers, such as glass, carbon, or aramid.

DE VERA, F. 2
Fiber Composites
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS | GROUP 5 | WRITTEN REPORT BASED

CHARACTERISTICS:
2. Spray-up - uses a handgun that sprays
 Dimensional stability
resin and chopped fibers on a mold.
 Damping capacity
 Fabrication flexibility
INSTRUMENT/EQUIPMENT USED:
TYPES OF METALS USED AS MATRICES  Spray gun
 Rollers
1. Aluminum Alloys
2. Titanium alloys
3. Resin Injector - In Resin Transfer Molding
3. Magnesium Alloy
(RTM), involves injecting liquid resin into a
4. Copper Alloy
preform or mold containing reinforcement
5. Nickel-based superalloys
fibers.
V. IMPORTANCE OF FRC MANUFACTURING
INSTRUMENT/EQUIPMENT USED:
1. High Strength-to-Weight Ratio
 Resin Injection Gun
2. Customize Mechanical Properties
 Injection Ports
3. Design Flexibility
4. Control Costs
4. Compression Molding - A prepared
5. Corrosion and Chemical Resistance
reinforcement package from prepreg is placed
VI. PROCESS ON HOW FRC IS MADE WITH in between the two halves of the mold, then
TOOLS / INSTRUMENTS USED pressed against each other to get a desired
Fiber Preforms - involve weaving, knitting, shape of the mold.
braiding, and stitching of fibers in long sheets or INSTRUMENT/EQUIPMENT USED:
mat structure.  Ejector pins
 Mold
1.1 Conventional Manufacturing Processes -
include casting, forging, stamping, and 1.2. Advance Manufacturing Process - use of
machining innovative technology to improve products or
1. Hand Lay-up - most common open mold processes with modern technology.
composite manufacturing process involves 1. Electrospinning - uses electrical forces to
placing fiber preforms into a mold treated generate continuous fibers of two nanometers to
with anti-adhesive coating. several micrometers.
INSTRUMENT/EQUIPMENT USED: INSTRUMENT/EQUIPMENT USED:
 Release Agent  Electrospinning Setup
 Rollers  Collector
 Release Film and Peel Ply

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Fiber Composites
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS | GROUP 5 | WRITTEN REPORT BASED

1.3. Automated Manufacturing Techniques - Using

programmable devices, systems, and tools such as
artificial intelligence, robots, and computer-
controlled machines.

1. Filament Winding - a continuous process, offers

self-automation. The winding angle, tension, and
winding pattern can be controlled to tailor the
mechanical properties of the composite.

INSTRUMENT/EQUIPMENT USED:
 Filament Winding Machine
 Mandrel
 Resin Bath

VII. APPLICATIONS OF FRCs

1. INFRASTRUCTURE CONSTRUCTION
2. MILITARY AND AIRCRAFT APPLICATIONS
3. MARINE APPLICATIONS
4. AUTOMOTIVE APPLICATIONS
5. SPORTING GOODS APPLICATIONS

VIII. DISADVANTAGES OF FRCs

1. Greater Reduction in Workability.

2. Increase in specific gravity of the concrete.
3. High price per cubic meter of concrete.
4. Corrosion of steel fibers.
5. Proper proportioning of the exact amount of
fibers in the batch of concrete is important

DE VERA, F. 4
Timber / Wood
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS | GROUP 6 | WRITTEN REPORT BASED

II. DEFINITION OF WOOD / TIMBER d. SPRUCE

3. Engineered Wood - called composite wood, a
Wood (Xylem) - fibrous material that makes up the wood product made by utilizing adhesives to
trunk, branches, and roots of trees. Material join wood veneers, fibers, or particles.
derived from the stems and branches of trees.

Timber - refers to wood that has been prepared for COMMON TYPES OF ENGINEERED WOOD:
use in construction or various applications. “ a. PLYWOOD
Timbrian” - means to build b. MEDIUM DENSITY FIBERBOARD (MDF)
c. PARTICLE BOARD
III. CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOD/TIMBER
d. ORIENTED STRAND BOARD (OSB)
 Color and Odor e. FINGER-JOINTED WOOD
 Specific Gravity f. LAMINATED VENEER LUMBER (LVL)
 Grain g. GLUED LAMINATED TIMBER (GLULAM)
 Shrinkage and Swelling h. CROSS - LAMINATED TIMBER (CLT)
 Moisture Content
V. TIMBER PRODUCTION PROCESS
 Strength – (Density , Moisture Content,
Presence of defects) Part 1: Harvesting - Raw materials are harvested
from sustainably managed forests and
IV. TYPES OF WOOD / TIMBER
transported to the mill for processing
1. Hardwood - wood from deciduous or dicot
Part 2: Milling - Each log is processed to achieve
trees that lose their leaves every autumn.
maximum yield. Boards are then sorted into board
Used to make flooring, furniture. Hardwood
sizes and stacked in preparation for the drying
has a longer lifespan than softer wood.
process.
COMMON TYPES OF HARDWOOD:
a. OAK e. CHERRY Part 3: Drying & Processing - green timber is then
b. HICKORY f. WALNUT dried in kilns or air dried to lower the moisture
c. POPLAR g. MAHOGANY content which helps to reduce shrinkage.
d. MAPLE
Part 4: Making Timber Panels - the mill it is
2. Softwood - conifers or come from coniferous
transported to the customer (retailers,
trees (needlelike). More affordable, more easily
manufacturers, builders, etc.)
worked, and more widely available.
Part 5: End of Life - timber can be recycled into
COMMON TYPES OF SOFTWOOD:
woodchip, mulch and new particle board among
a. PINE e. REDWOOD many things.
b. CEDAR f. CYPRESS
VII. SEASONING OF WOODS/TIMBER
c. FIR g. LARCH

DE VERA, F. 1
Timber / Wood
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS | GROUP 6 | WRITTEN REPORT BASED
 Process by which moisture content in the
timber is reduced to required level.
REASONS FOR SEASONING
 To prevent shrinkage, splitting, checking and
warping.
 To achieve greater stiffness and strength.
 To allow penetration of preservatives
 To obtain a surface that will accept paint,
polish or glue.
 To protect against decay
METHODS OF SEASONING
1. NATURAL SEASONING – process in which wood
is seasoned by subjecting it to the natural
elements such as air or water.
 Water Seasoning - wood is immersed in
water flow which helps to remove the sap
present in the timber. (2-4 weeks)
 Air Seasoning - process that has
arrangement done by maintaining some
gap with the ground. The platform is built on
ground at 300mm height from ground.
2. ARTICIFIAL SEASONING - wood is seasoned
with in 5-6 days.
 Seasoning by Boiling - achieved by boiling it
in water for 3 to 4 hours. After boiling timber
is allowed to dry.
 Chemical Seasoning (Salt Seasoning) -
Wood is stored in a suitable salt solution for
some time.
 Kiln Seasoning - Wood is subjected to hot
air in an airtight chamber.
 Electrical Seasoning (Rapid Seasoning) -
Wood is subjected to high frequency
alternating currents.
VII. CHEMICALS USED IN WOOD
PRESERVATION
Wood Preservative Products - control wood
degradation problems due to fungal rot or decay,
sapstain, molds, or wood-destroying insects.
1. Chromate Copper Arsenate (CCA) - a pesticide
containing chromium, copper and arsenic that
protects wood against termites, fungi and other
pests.
2. Oli-borne
 Creosote - treatment for outdoor wood
structures to prevent rot – such as railroad
ties and bridgework.
 Pentachlorophenol (PCP) - an
organochlorine compound that can be used
as both a pesticide and a disinfectant.
(spraying ,brushing, etc.)
3. Water-borne - cheapest options. Application
can often will lead to swelling and/or warping of
the wood to be treated.
VIII. STRUCTURE OF WOODS
1. Heartwood - central, darker-colored section of
a tree's trunk, consisting of older, inactive cells.
Denser and more durable than sapwood.
CHARACTERISTICS: rich colors and distinctive
grain patterns, making it prized for its aesthetic
appeal
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Timber / Wood
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS | GROUP 6 | WRITTEN REPORT BASED

2. Sapwood - outer, lighter-colored section of a the center of a tree trunk outward toward the
tree's trunk, containing active cells responsible bark.
for transporting water and nutrients
CHARACTERISTICS: visible as fine lines or streaks
throughout the tree.
running perpendicular to the grain.
CHARACTERISTICS: less dense and more
7. Pith - central, spongy core of a tree trunk,
susceptible to decay, and insect infestation
consisting of the tree's earliest growth and
compared to heartwood.
surrounded by the youngest wood.
3. Bark - protective outer layer of a tree trunk,
CHARACTERISTICS: In mature trees, the pith may
composed of dead tissues. Bark serves as a
become less prominent or disappear altogether as
barrier against pests, pathogens, and
new wood is added around it.
environmental stressors.
IX. USES OF TIMBER
CHARACTERISTICS: may be smooth or rough, thin
or thick, and can exhibit unique patterns and colors 1. Fuel Source
2. Construction Materials
4. Cambium Layer - thin layer of actively dividing
3. Furniture
cells located between the inner bark and the
4. Paper and Pulp
sapwood of a tree.
X. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF
CHARACTERISTICS: essential for the radial
WOOD
expansion of tree trunks, allowing them to increase
in girth over time. ADVANTAGES:

5. Annual Growth Rings - Concentric rings formed 1. Renewable Resource

in the trunk of a tree because of seasonal 2. Low Embodied Energy
variations in growth rate. Each ring represents 3. Insulation Properties
one year of growth. 4. Aesthetic Appeal
5. Versatility
CHARACTERISTICS: tree's age, growth rate, and
environmental conditions during its lifetime. DISADVANTAGES:

 Earlywood: Lighter, less dense wood formed 1. Susceptibility to Moisture and Decay
during the early part of the growing season. 2. Fire Risk
 Latewood: Darker, denser wood produced 3. Pest Infestation
later in the growing season. 4. Limited Span and Load-bearing Capacity
 Annual Rings: Visible rings formed by the 5. Dimensional Changes
contrast between early wood and latewood.
6. Medullary Rays (Ray Cells) - Radial structures
composed of specialized cells that extend from

DE VERA, F. 3
Glass
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS | GROUP 7 | WRITTEN REPORT BASED

I. INTRODUCTION 2. DURABLE - strong bonds between the

molecules.
Glass - state of matter rather than a single
3. HEAT - if you heat a glass then the temperature
material. Formed when a molten material cools too
of the contents inside of it will react.
quickly to allow for the formation of a crystalline
structure. ~ MECHANICAL PROPERTIES ~

II. CHARACTERISTICS OF GLASS 1. STRESS - will deform due to the nature of its
atomic bonding structure.
2. HARDNESS - ability of a material to resist being
1. Hardness and Brittleness - great impact
scratched, fractured, or permanently deformed
resistance against applied load.
by the sharp edges.
2. Weather Resistance - withstand the backlash of
3. IMPACT RESISTANCE - withstand not only
rain, sun and wind.
continuous stress or surface abrasion, but also
3. Insulation - excellent insulator against heat,
impact.
electricity and electromagnetic radiation.
4. ELASTICITY - does not exhibit permanent
4. Chemical Resistance - can withstand the effect
deformation, until breakage.
of the chemical reaction under different
environment. ~ CHEMICAL PROPERTIES ~
5. Color and Shape Varieties - can be blown,
1. WATER RESISTANCE - resist the penetration of
drawn and pressed to any color, shape, and
water to some degree but not entirely.
variety.
2. ACID RESISTANCE - extremely robust and
6. Transparency - creates a visual connection
stable atomic structure, it is unaffected by acid.
with the outside world. With the advent of
3. PHOSPHATE RESISTANCE - withstand exposure
technology, clear glass can also be altered.
to phosphate-containing environments.
7. Fire Resistance Glazing - Modern glazing
products allow fire protection up to 120 ~ THERMAL PROPERTIES ~
minutes.
1. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY - poor conductor of
8. Property Modification - possible to change
heat compared to metals.
some of its properties to suit different purposes
2. SOFTENING POINT - starts to soften and lose its
PROPERTIES OF GLASS rigidity.
3. ANNEALING POINT - annealed to relieve
~ PHYSICAL PROPERTIES ~
internal stresses introduced during
1. VISCOSITY - force is applied on the glass manufacturing processes.
sample.

DE VERA, F. 1
Glass
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS | GROUP 7 | WRITTEN REPORT BASED
4. MELTING POINT - it softens gradually over a
range of temperatures. The actual melting
behavior depends on the specific composition.
III. TYPES OF GLASS AND THEIR USES
1. Float Glass - made using a melt process in
which silica sand, potash, line, soda, and
recycled glass are melted and floated on a bed
of molten metal.
2. Shatterproof Glass - highly resistant to
breakage due to the inclusion of plastic
polyvinyl butyral during manufacture.
3. Laminated Glass - two plies of normal glass are
typically bonded (strongly) together with
interlayers to form strong, permanent bonds.
4. Extra Clear Glass - transparency and
colorlessness. This is a unique float glass with
extremely low iron content. Transmits up to
92% of sunlight, providing an extremely clear
view.
5. Tinted Glass - unique colors. Manufacturers
introduce color-producing ingredients that help
to add a bit of color without affecting other
properties of the glass.
6. Hardened/Tempered Glass – Tempered glass
known as hardened glass, process normal
glass with chemical or thermal treatments that
introduce strength-enhancing properties.
7. Glass Block - known as glass bricks, are made
by fusing two halves with a partial vacuum.
8. Glass Wool - well-known insulating material
made with melted glass as its primary raw
material.
9. Insulated Glass Unit - recommended in areas
with high air conditioning costs. Made by
creating a cavity between two or more glass
panes before carefully sealing the edges.
10. Wired Glass - used as a safety glass due to its
impressive fire resistance.
IV. PROCESSING OF GLASS
1. Melting Process - smelting process.
2. Shaping Process - gobs of glass are sliced off
and then shaped with the machine into the
desired shape.
3. Annealing Process - glass holders are cooled
down after the shaping handle.
4. Inspection Process - glass produced undergoes
a series of inspections to ensure that it is free
from defects.
V. APPLICATIONS OF GLASS
1. Curtain wall - non-structural outer covering of
a building that can be made using lightweight
materials.
2. Curved facades (bent glass) - has been heated
past its softening point and formed into a
curved shape.
 Gravity bending - plate of glass is laid over
or inside a curved mold, into which it
gradually sinks by gravity.
 Heat-treated bending- An alternative is to
bend the glass during heat treatment in a
furnace, which either fully tempers or heat-
strengthens the glass.
 Cold bending- Insulating Glass Units (IGUs)
can be cold bent by mechanically capturing
an otherwise flat panel within a bent frame.
DE VERA, F. 2
Glass
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS | GROUP 7 | WRITTEN REPORT BASED

3. Spandrels - opaque glass that conceals INSTRUMENT USED:

structural building components.
 Haze Measurement
4. Roofs and skylights - safely be used throughout
 Spectrophotometry
the roof of a building, providing a natural
source of daylight that helps reduce the need
4. Impact Resistance Test - subjected to impacts
for artificial lighting.
or dynamic loads to assess its resistance to
5. Balustrades - allow light to pass through,
breakage.
reducing the need for artificial lighting and
providing a natural source of daylight. INSTRUMENT USED:
6. Windows - admits light and permits vision
 Weighted Bal
through it, while satisfying most of the
 Pendulum
requirements of an element in an exterior wall.
7. Doors - Doors with glass are commonly
5. Hardness Test - evaluate the glass’s
referred to as “lited doors” and individual
resistance to scratches and abrasions.
panes of glass are called “lites.”
INSTRUMENT USED:

VI. TESTING OF GLASS  Vickers

 Knoop
1. Visual Inspection - glass is visually examined
for any visible defects such as scratches,
6. Thermal Shock Test - test assesses the glass’s
bubbles, or distortions.
ability to withstand rapid temperature
INSTRUMENT USED:
changes.
 Flashlight
INSTRUMENT USED:
 Microscope
 Thermal Shock Chamber
 Magnifying Glass
2. Dimensional Accuracy - ensure it meets the
7. Strength Test - Evaluates the glass's ability to
required dimensional specifications, including
withstand applied force without breaking.
thickness, width, length, and overall shape.
8. Weathering Test - assess its durability and
INSTRUMENT USED:
performance under prolonged exposure to
 Caliper
environmental conditions.
 Micrometer
 Tape Measure
3. Transparency Test - determines the clarity and INSTRUMENT USED:
transparency of the glass by assessing the  Accelerated Weathering Chambers
amount of light that passes through it.  Outdoor Exposure Racks

DE VERA, F. 3
Glass
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS | GROUP 7 | WRITTEN REPORT BASED

9. Sound Transmission Test - evaluates the glass

’s ability to reduce sound transmission.
INSTRUMENT USED:
 Sound Transmission Class (STC) Apparatus

VII. IMPORTANCE OF GLASS IN CIVIL

ENGINEERING

1. Thermal Insulation
2. Sustainability
3. Aesthetics

VIII. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

GLASS PRODUCTION ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS:

 Resource Depletion
 Energy Consumption
 Air Pollution
 Water Usage

GLASS DISPOSAL ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS:

 Landfill Overload
 Leachate Production
 Wildlife Hazards

GLASS RECYCLING ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS:

 Resource Conservation
 Energy Conservation
 Waste Reduction

DE VERA, F. 4