LESSON 5: FIBER COMPOSITES ● ROCK WOOL - made from basalt rock that is

melted and spun into fibers.

FIBER REINFORCED COMPOSITES
- Discontinuous phase grains 4. SYNTHETIC FIBERS - does not naturally occur in
- Continous phase matrix nature. They are man-made polymers designed to make
- Interface region a fabric.

THREE GROUPS OF FRC: ● NYLON - first synthetic fiber and it is

● Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) thermoplastic that may have melt-processess.
● Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs) ● RAYON - made from wood pulp.
● Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs)
CLASSIFICATION OF FRCs BASED ON MATRICES
PROPERTIES OF FRC
● TENSILE STRENGTH - capable of withstanding greater A. POLYMER MATRIC COMPOSITES (PMCs) -
loads and forces. comprising a polymer resin matrix reinforced with fibers.
● FLEXURAL STRENGTH - withstand bending and
deformation better CHARACTERISTICS:
● TOUGHNESS - preventing the start and spread of ● Vibration Damping
cracks ● Chemical Resistance
● DURABILITY - protect the matrix material against ● Thermal Insulation
various forms of deterioration.
● LIGHTWEIGHT - offering a favorable strength-to-weight TYPES OF POLYMERS USED AS MATRICES:
ratio. ❖ EPOXY
● NON-CORROSIVE - unlike metal materials that can ❖ POLYESTER
degrade over time when exposed to corrosive ❖ VINYL ESTER
environments. ❖ PHENOLIC
● IMPACT RESISTANCE - making it ideal for impact ❖ POLYIMIDE
loading scenarios.
B. CERAMIC MATRIC COMPOSITES (CMCs) - composed
CLASSIFICATION OF FIBERS of ceramic fibers embedded within a ceramic matrix.

NATURAL FIBERS - biopolymers that are either plant- or CHARACTERISTICS:

animal-sourced. ● Lightweight
a. CELLULOSE - plant-based natural fibers ● High Strength and Stiffness
b. PROTEINS - animal-based natural fibers ● Corrosion and Wear Resistance

TYPES OF NATURAL FIBERS TYPES OF CERAMICS USED AS MATRICES:

❖ Silicon Carbide (SiC)
1. PLANT FIBER - ones that are obtained from plants. ❖ Alumina
❖ Zirconia
● BLAST FIBER - Fibers obtained from the inner, ❖ Silicon Nitride
fibrous stems of plants (the phloem and xylem) ❖ Mullite
● LEAF FIBER - obtained from leaves of
monocotyledonous plants. SOFT fiber groups. C. METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES (MMCs) - composed of
● SEED FIBER - collected from the seeds of a metal matrix reinforced with ceramic, metallic, or
various plants. COTTON is the most common. organic fibers or particles.

2. ANIMAL FIBERS - are natural fibers that can be CHARACTERISTICS:

sourced from animals. ● Dimensional Stability
● Damping Capacity
● SILK - “natural” protein fiber. ● Fabrication Flexibility
● WOOL - derived from the furs of animals that
belong to the Caprinae family. TYPES OF METALS USED AS MATRICES:
❖ Aluminum Alloys
3. MINERAL FIBER - a wide range of fibers possessing ❖ Titanium Alloys
high elasticity and outstanding resistance against ❖ Magnesium Alloys
corrosion. ❖ Copper Alloy
❖ Nickel-based Superalloys
● ASBESTOS - most important fiber among the
mineral fibers, very tough and flexible. IMPORTANCE OF FRC MANUFACTURING
● FIBERGLASS - made by melting silica sand ➢ High Strength-To-Weight Ratio
and other raw materials. ➢ Customize Mechanical Properties
➢ Design Flexibility
 ➢ Control Costs APPLICATIONS OF FIBER REINFORCED COMPOSITES
➢ Corrosion And Chemical Resistance ● Infrastructure Construction
● Military and Aircraft Applications
PROCESS ON HOW FRC IS MADE WITH ● Marine Applications
TOOLS/INSTRUMENTS USED: ● Automotive Applications
● Sporting Goods Applications
1.1. CONVENTIONAL MANUFACTURING PROCESSES -
include casting, forging, stamping, and machining. DISADVANTAGES OF FRCS
● Greater reduction in workability
● HAND LAY-UP - most common open mold composite ● Increase in specific gravity of concrete
manufacturing process involves placing fiber preforms ● High price per cubic meter of concrete
into a mold treated with anti adhesive coating. ● Corrosion of steel fibers

INSTRUMENT/EQUIPMENT USED:
➔ Released Agent LESSON 6: TIMBER / WOOD
➔ Rollers
➔ Release Film and Peel Ply WOOD - fibrous material that makes up the trunk, branches, and
roots of trees.
● SPRAY UP - uses a handgun that sprays resin and - Wood is known as Xylem.
chopped fibers on a mold.
TIMBER - wood that has been processed and prepared for use in
INSTRUMENT/EQUIPMENT USED: construction, furniture making, and other industries.
➔ Spray Gun - The word timber is derived from an old English word
➔ Rollers 'timbrian' which means to build.

● RESIN INJECTOR - allows for precise control over resin CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOD/TIMBER
flow and impregnation. ● Color and Odor
● Specific Gravity
INSTRUMENT/EQUIPMENT USED: ● Grain
➔ Resin Injection Gun ● Shrinkage and Swelling
➔ Injection Ports ● Moisture Content
● Strength
● COMPRESSION MOLDING - prepared reinforcement ○ Density
package from prepreg is placed in between the two ○ Moisture Content
halves of the mold. ○ Presence of defects

INSTRUMENT/EQUIPMENT USED: TYPES OF WOOD/TIMBER

➔ Ejector Pins
➔ Mold ❖ HARDWOOD - wood from deciduous or dicot trees that
lose their leaves every autumn.
1.2. ADVANCED MANUFACTURING PROCESS - improve - used to make flooring, furniture, and other
products or processes with modern technology woodworking products
- has a longer lifespan
● ELECTROSPINNING - electrostatic fiber fabrication
technique. COMMON TYPES OF HARDWOOD
- Oak - Hickory
INSTRUMENT/EQUIPMENT USED: - Poplar - Maple
➔ Electrospinning Setup - Cherry - Walnut
➔ Collector - Mahogany

1.3. AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING TECHNIQUES - Using ❖ SOFTWOOD - conifers or come from coniferous trees,
programmable devices, systems, and tools such as artificial and their leaves and cones are typically needlelike
intelligence, robots, and computer-controlled machines. - pale in color and have lower densities
- more affordable, more easily worked
● FILAMENT WINDING - a continuous process, that offers
self-automation, reducing costs. COMMON TYPES OF SOFTWOOD
- Pine - Cedar
INSTRUMENT/EQUIPMENT USED: - Fir - Spruce
➔ Filament Winding Machine - Redwood - Cypress
➔ Mandrel - Larch
➔ Resin Bath
➔ Nip Rollers
 ❖ ENGINEERED WOOD - composite wood, is a wood ❖ OIL BORNE
product made by utilizing adhesives to join wood ➢ CREOSOTE - treatment for outdoor wood
veneers, fibers, or particles. structures to prevent rot.
➢ PENTACHLOROPHENOL (PCP) - used as
COMMON TYPES OF ENGINEERED WOOD both a pesticide and a disinfectant.
- Plywood - Medium Density Fiberboard
- Particle Board - Oriented Strand Board ❖ WATER-BORNE
- Finger-Jointed Wood ➢ WATER-BORNE - lead to swelling and/or
- Laminated Veneer Lumber warping of the wood to be treated.
- Glued Laminated Timber
- Cross-Laminated Timber STRUCTURE OF WOODS

TIMBER PRODUCTION PROCESS 1. HEARTWOOD - central, darker-colored section of a

1. Harvesting tree's trunk, consisting of older, inactive cells.
2. Milling 2. SAPWOOD - outer, lighter-colored section of a tree's
3. Drying & Processing trunk, containing active cells responsible for transporting
4. Making Timber Panels water and nutrients throughout the tree
5. End of Life 3. BARK - protective outer layer of a tree trunk
- a barrier against pests, pathogens, and
SEASONING OF WOODS/TIMBER - process by which moisture environmental stressors.
content in the timber is reduced to required level. 4. CAMBIUM LAYER - thin layer of actively dividing cells
located between the inner bark and the sapwood of a
REASONS FOR SEASONING: tree.
➢ To prevent shrinkage, splitting, checking and warping - producing new bark cells
➢ To achieve greater stiffness and strength. 5. ANNUAL GROWTH RINGS - formed in the trunk of a
➢ To allow penetration of preservatives tree because of seasonal variations in growth rate.
➢ To obtain a surface that will accept paint, polish or glue. - Each ring represents one year of growth
➢ To protect against decay. 6. MEDULLARY RAYS (RAY CELLS) - specialized cells
that extend from the center of a tree trunk outward
METHODS OF SEASONING toward the bark
- facilitate the lateral transport of water, nutrients,
➢ NATURAL SEASONING - e process in which wood is and metabolites.
seasoned by subjecting it to natural elements such as air 7. PITH - central, spongy core of a tree trunk, consisting of
or water. the tree's earliest growth and surrounded by the
youngest wood.
● WATER SEASONING - wood is immersed in - Structural support
water flow which helps to remove the sap
present in the timber. USES OF TIMBER
● AIR SEASONING - arrangement done by - Fuel Source - Construction Materials
maintaining some gap with the ground. - Furniture - Paper and Pulp

➢ ARTIFICIAL SEASONING - wood is seasoned with in ADVANTAGES OF WOOD:

5-6 days. ● Renewable resource
● Low embodied energy
● SEASONING BY BOILING - achieved by ● Insulation properties
boiling it in water for 3 to 4 hours. ● Aesthetic appeal
● CHEMICAL SEASONING (SALT ● Versatility
SEASONING) - salt solution has the tendency
to absorb water from the wood DISADVANTAGES OF WOOD:
● KILN SEASONING - subjected to hot air in an ● Susceptibility to moisture and decay
airtight chamber. ● Fire risk
● ELECTRICAL SEASONING (RAPID ● Pest infestation
SEASONING) - subjected to high frequency ● Limited span and load-bearing capacity
alternating currents. ● Dimensional changes

CHEMICALS USED IN WOOD PRESERVATION

❖ CHROMATE COPPER ARSENATE LESSON 7: GLASS

➢ CHROMATE COPPER ARSENATE (CCA) -
protects wood against termites, fungi and other GLASS - state of matter rather than a single material.
pests. - formed when a molten material cools too quickly to allow
for the formation of a crystalline structure.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GLASS PROCESSING OF GLASS
● Hardness and Brittleness 1. Melting Process
● Weather resistance 2. Shaping Process
● Insulation 3. Annealing Process
● Chemical resistance 4. Inspection Process
● Colour and Shape varieties
● Transparency APPLICATIONS OF GLASS
● Fire Resistance Glazing
● Property Modification ● CURTAIN WALL - made using lightweight materials that
will reduce construction costs.
PROPERTIES OF GLASS ● CURVED FACADES - heated past its softening point
and formed into a curved shape.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES: ○ HEATED-TREATED BENDING - the alternative
❖ VISCOSITY - force is applied resulting in velocity is to bend the glass during heat treatment
gradient ○ COLD BENDING - cold bent by mechanically
❖ DURABLE - strong bonds between molecules capturing an otherwise flat panel within a bent
❖ HEAT - absorbed and transmit it frame.
● SPANDRELS - opaque glass that conceals structural
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES: building components
❖ STRESS - glass will deform due to the nature of bonding ● ROOD AND SKYLIGHTS - reduce the need for artificial
structure. lighting, while still addressing solar control and thermal
❖ HARDNESS - ability of material to resist being insulation needs.
scratched, fractured, or deformed. ● BALUSTRADES - allow light to pass through, reducing
❖ IMPACT RESISTANCE - withstand stress or surface the need for artificial lighting and providing a natural
abrasion. source of daylight.
❖ ELASTICITY - does not exhibit permanent deformation ● WINDOWS - admits light and permits vision through it,
while satisfying most of the requirements of an element
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES: in an exterior wall.
❖ THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY - poor conductor of heat ● DOORS - lited doors” and individual panes of glass are
❖ SOFTENING POINT - glass starts softening and lose its called “lites.”
rigidity,
❖ ANNEALING POINT - relieves internal stress during TESTING OF GLASS
manufacturing process
❖ MELTING POINT - softens gradually over a range of ❖ VISUAL INSPECTION - examined for any visible
temperatures. defects such as scratches, bubbles, or distortions.
➢ Flashlight
TYPES OF GLASS: ➢ Microscope
➢ Magnifying Glass
1. FLOAT GLASS - made using a melt process in which ❖ DIMENSIONAL ACCURACY - it meets the required
silica sand, potash, line, soda, and recycled glass are dimensional specifications.
melted and floated on a bed of molten metal. ➢ Caliper
2. SHATTERPROOF GLASS - highly resistant to ➢ Micrometer
breakage due to the inclusion of plastic polyvinyl butyral ➢ Tape Measure
during manufacture. ❖ TRANSPARENCY TEST - determines the clarity and
3. LAMINATED GLASS - two plies of normal glass are transparency of the glass.
typically bonded (strongly) together with interlayers to ➢ Haze Measurement
form strong, permanent bonds. ➢ Spectrophotometry
4. EXTRA CLEAR GLASS - transparency and ❖ IMPACT RESISTANCE TEST - subjected to impacts or
colorlessness. dynamic loads to assess its resistance to breakage.
5. TINTED GLASS - characterized by its unique colors. ➢ Weighted Ball
6. HARDENED/TEMPERED GLASS - breaks into tiny ➢ Pendulum
granular pieces rather than shards with sharp edges. ❖ HARDNESS TEST - evaluate the glass’s resistance to
7. GLASS BLOCK - glass bricks, are made by fusing two scratches and abrasions.
halves with a partial vacuum. ➢ Vickers
8. GLASS WOOL - insulating material made with melted ➢ Knoop
glass as its primary raw material. ❖ THERMAL SHOCK TEST - ability to withstand rapid
9. INSULATED GLASS UNITY - cavity between two or temperature changes.
more glass panes before carefully sealing the edges. ➢ Thermal Shock Chamber
10. WIRED GLASS - a safety glass due to its impressive fire ❖ STRENGTH TEST - withstand applied force without
resistance breaking.
 ❖ WEATHERING TEST - assess its durability and
performance under prolonged exposure to environmental
conditions.
➢ Accelerated Weathering Chambers
➢ Outdoor Exposure Racks
❖ SOUND TRANSMISSION TEST - ability to reduce
sound transmission.
➢ Sound Transmission Class Apparatus

IMPORTANCE OF GLASS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

● Thermal Insulation
● Sustainability
● Aesthetics

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

● GLASS PRODUCTION
○ Resource Depletion
○ Energy Consumption
○ Air Pollution
○ Water Usage
● GLASS DISPOSAL
○ Landfill Overload
○ Leachate Production
○ Wildlife Hazard
● GLASS RECYCLING
○ Resource Conservation
○ Energy Conservation
○ Waste Reduction

BY: KINLEY “POGI” TAM