SEPARATING MIXTURE
sublimated as soon as it got heated.
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1: LESSON 4
LAST TIME……….
Heterogeneous mixtures are composed of two or more
pure substances combined physically.
Now: Techniques or processes to separate these
substances from one another which are not only applicable
inside the laboratory but also in real life scenarios.
DIFFERENT SEPARATION TECHNIQUES
1. FILTRATION – this technique is used to separate
materials on the basis of differences in size.
- Used to separate insoluble solid particles from
the liquid material.
• Filter – material that is used to separate
mixture.
• Filtrate – the liquid that has been collected
after passing through the filtering device
• Residue – the materials left on the filter.
2. EVAPORATION AND BOILING- These techniques
are used to separate solid and liquid materials.
• In evaporation, the only particles with enough
energy to evaporate are the ones in the
surface which are exposed to the source of
heat such as sunlight.
• All liquid particles in boiling have enough
energy to transform from liquid to gas.
• Solid materials are left in the container.
• Collecting salt from sea water is a simple
application of these processes.
particles of the ammonium chloride
3. DECANTATION
• This technique is used to separate heavy solid
particles and liquid.
6. CHROMATOGRAPHY
• The heavy solid particles must be settled at the
• This technique is used to separate components
bottom of the container before pouring out or
with different solubility dissolved in a fluid,
collecting the liquid.
either gas or liquid.
• An example application of this process is when
• Root extract of a plant as an example.
you wash your rice before cooking.
• One ml of extract is dropped in the
chromatography paper. After few minutes the
components of the extract such as
4. DISTILLATION
anthocyanin, chlorophylls, flavonoid and
• This technique is used when the components
carotenoids start to move through the paper at
of the mixture differ in volatility.
different rates.
o For example, alcohol solution.
• Since alcohol has lower volatility or boiling
point with water the former will first evaporate
7. USE OF SEPARATING FUNNEL
leaving the latter in the flask. The evaporated
• This technique can be done to separate
alcohol will pass through the condenser to
immiscible materials like oil and water.
transform it into liquid alcohol again. The
alcohol will be received by another flask.
8. USE OF MAGNETS
• Ferromagnetic materials such as nickel, iron,
5. SUBLIMATION
cobalt and magnet can be separated from
• This technique can be used to remove or
other nonmagnetic components with the use
separate sublimable substances from the
of another magnet.
components of the mixture with the
application of heat.
• For example, separation of ammonium
chloride and table salt, you may put the
mixture inside the test tube and heat it. You
will notice that the table salt particles will
remain at the bottom while the particles of
ammonium chloride will be stuck at the edge
of the test tube. This indicates that the
COMMON ISOTOPES AND THEIR USES ❑ mass concentrates at the nucleus position in the chemical periodic table of elements and
have the same chemical properties have differences
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1: LESSON 5 ❑ atomic mass is the sum of total protons and
because of their isotopic components. One significant
neutrons.
ATOM difference is the mode of radioactive decay of similar
chemical elements occupying the same place in the
❑ smallest particle periodic table. The Isotope itself may have a heavier mass
That’s why: than then parent chemical. Isotopes made it possible to
❑ three sub particles
isolate the pure form of a chemical.
❑ electron, neutron, proton

❑ one way of determining the number of these sub

particles in an atom is through the use of periodic COMMON ISOTOPES AND THEIR USES
table of elements Isotopes

❑ are atoms of the same element which contain the

same number of protons but different number of
neutrons
According to John Dalton, all atoms of the same element
are the same. Can you point out why this statement was ❑ same atomic number but have different atomic
disproved? mass
Let us go back in time! ❑ ex: hydrogen; protium, deuterium and tritium
The term isotope was first used by Scottish doctor
Margaret Todd in a conversation with her cousin,
In a Periodic Table, you can see: renowned chemist F.Soddy, in 1913. F. Soddy is believed to
❑ element symbol have taken the first steps in isolating the isotope by
degenerating uranium. H.N. McCoy and W.H. Ross later
❑ atomic number conclusively showed the method of isolating the
radioactive isotope of uranium. J.J. Thompson and his
❑ atomic mass or mass number
associate, F.W. Aston, conducted many experiments to
Take note that: show that many substances, when ionized, had species
that were much heavier than the main content. In 1931,
❑ atomic number = no. of protons
Harold Urey and G.M. Murphy discovered the effect of
❑ atom is in neutral state isotopes on the mass of an atom. Average Atomic Mass

❑ no. of protons = no. of electrons ❑ is the sum of the masses of isotopes, each
multiplied by its natural abundance.
❑ protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus The discovery of the isotope showed that no two chemicals
can be the same. Substances that occupy the same ❑ what’s written in your periodic table of elements
To calculate the average mass of element you must use
the given formula below:
(mass of isotope1) (natural abundance) / 100 +
(mass of isotope2) ( natural abundance) / 100
Let’s try to calculate the average atomic mass of the
isotopes of Magnesium ( Mg ).
TYPES AND USES OF ISOTOPES
Stable Isotopes
❑ have a stable proton-neutron combination and do
not display any sign of decay.
❑ stability comes from the amount of neutrons
present in an atom.
❑ If an atom has too many or too few neutrons, it is
unstable and tends to disintegrate.
❑ Since stable isotopes do not decay, they do not
produce radiation or its associated health risks.
❑ helped uncover migratory routes, trophic levels, ❑ Anthropogenic isotopes come from human-made
and the geographic origin of migratory animals. nuclear activities, such as weapons testing and
nuclear fuel production
❑ used to trace origin, history, sources, sinks and
interaction in water, carbon and nitrogen cycles. ❑ Radiogenic isotopes are the end result of
radioactive decay.
Uses of Stable Isotopes
Uses of Unstable Isotopes
❑ in performing environmental and ecological
experiments use stable isotopes of oxygen, ❑ uses in agriculture, food industry, pest control,
hydrogen, sulfur, nitrogen and carbon. archeology and medicine.
❑ For example, in geochemistry, scientists study the ❑ Radiocarbon dating, which measures the age of
chemical composition of geological materials such carbon-bearing items, uses a radioactive isotope
as minerals and rocks. known as carbon-14. I
❑ Stable isotopes are dependable tools for ❑ In medicine, gamma rays emitted by radioactive
determining many facts about geological materials, elements are used to detect tumors inside the
such as their age and where they came from. human body.
❑ Food irradiation - the process of exposing food to a
controlled level of gamma rays --kills many types of
Radioactive/ Unstable Isotopes
bacteria, making food safer to eat.
❑ unstable combination of protons and neutrons.
❑ These isotopes decay, emitting radiation that
includes alpha, beta and gamma rays.
❑ Scientists classify radioactive isotopes according to
their creation process: long-lived, cosmogenic,
anthropogenic and radiogenic
❑ Long-lived radioactive isotopes emerged during
the creation of the solar system.
❑ Cosmo genic radioactive isotopes occur as a
reaction of the atmosphere to cosmic rays emitted
by stars.
REPRESENTING COMPOUNDS USING CHEMICAL AND
STRUCTURAL FORMULAS
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1: LESSON 6
WHAT’S NEW
They say never trust an atom because they make up
everything! Atoms are the fundamental building blocks of
matter and are made up of protons, neutrons and
electrons which we called subatomic particles.
Different scientist proposed different model for an atom.
Dalton compared it to a billiard ball while Thomson picture
it out like a plum pudding and continues to change as time
passed by to electron cloud model with the discovery of
subatomic particles and the presence of energy levels
where electrons can be possibly found.
COMPOUND
❑ a substance that contains atoms of two or more
different elements, and these atoms are chemically
joined together.
❑ For example, water is a compound of hydrogen
and oxygen. Each of its molecules contains two
hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.
❑ Can be organic or inorganic
❑ Can be binary or polyatomic.
❑ The bonding between each atom in a compound
can also be used to describe what characteristics
or properties these compounds possessed.
Compounds can be represented using a chemical formula, Mn3(PO4 )4
a structural formula and a model.
* To count the total number of atoms for formulas with
polyatomic ions enclosed in parenthesis, use the subscript
as a multiplier for each atom or number of atoms.
CHEMICAL FORMULA
❑ an expression that shows the kind of elements
present in a compound and the relative
proportions of those elements.
❑ Water, for example, is composed of hydrogen and
oxygen in a 2 : 1 ratio. The chemical formula for
water is H2O: two atoms of hydrogen and one
atom of oxygen.
The subscripts in a chemical formula are part of the
compound’s definition—if they change, the formula no
longer specifies the same compound. A chemical compound is a chemical substance composed
of many identical molecules that is why it is best to
represent them in different ways. We can use formulas,
structures and model to describe the atoms making up
them, how they are arranged and how they are bonded
from one another.
TYPES OF CHEMICAL FORMULA
Certain groups of atoms are bonded together to form what
is called a polyatomic ion that acts as a single unit. 1. Empirical Formula
2. Molecular Formula
Polyatomic ions are enclosed in parenthesis followed by a 3. Structural Formula
subscript if more than one of the same ion exists in a
chemical formula
An empirical formula indicates the types of atoms present
and the simplest whole number ratio of the number of
atoms (or ions) in the compound.
A molecular formula gives the actual number of atoms of MOLECULAR FORMULA
each element in a molecule of the compound.
❑ are three-dimensional representations of
molecules that are used to represent compounds.

A structural formula uses lines to represent chemical ❑ We use two types of molecular models:
bonds and shows how the atoms in a molecule are
❑ 1. ball-and-stick
connected to each other.
❑ 2. space-filling

BALL AND STICK MODEL

EXAMPLE: Hydrogen peroxide
❑ represent atoms as balls and chemical bonds as
Molecular formula: H2O2
sticks.
Empirical formula: HO
❑ The balls and sticks are connected to represent
Structural Formula: H — O — O — H the molecule’s shape. The balls are color coded,
and each element is assigned a color.

SPACE-FILLING MODEL
EXAMPLE: Water
❑ atoms fill the space between each other to more
Molecular formula: H2O
closely represent our best idea for how a molecule
Empirical formula: H20 might appear if we could scale it to a visible size

Structural Formula: H — O — H METHANE

EXAMPLE: Butane

Molecular formula: C4H10

Empirical formula: C2H5

Structural Formula:
NAMING COMPOUNDS WRITING CHEMICAL FORMULA

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1: LESSON 7

STEPS IN WRITING CHEMICAL FORMULA

1. Identify

➢ CATION – positively charged ion (METAL)

➢ ANION – negatively charged ion (NONMETAL)

➢ OXIDATION NUMBERS

Naming Compounds
STOCK METHOD

➢Roman numeral is used to express the oxidation number

2. Apply the CRISS-CROSS METHOD
of a metal

TRADITIONAL METHOD

➢ Latin name (if there is any) and the suffix

–ic and –ous for the cation is used

Rules in Naming Compounds

1. Naming Binary Ionic Compounds

3.Simplify the subscripts.
Name of metal (cation) + Root name of nonmetal (anion) +
suffix –ide
Common Root Names of Elements 5. Naming Binary Molecular (covalent) compounds

Prefix for the first element + Name of the first element +

Prefix for the second element + Root name of the second
element + Suffix –ide

6. Naming Binary Acids

Prefix hydro- + Root name of the second element +

3. Naming Oxyanion
Suffix –ic + Acid
Root name of the nonmetal + Suffix –ate or –ite

2. Naming Binary Compounds with Multiple Oxidation

Numbers

Stock Method

English name of metal (cation) + Roman numeral

(oxidation number) + Root name of nonmetal (anion) +
Suffix –ide
7. Naming Ternary Acids

CATIONS WITH STOCK AND TRADITIONAL NAMES Oxyanion ends in –ate or –ite + Change –ate to suffix –ic or
–ite to –ous + Acid
4. Naming Compounds with Polyatomic Ion

Name of cation + Name of anion

EMPIRICAL FORMULA/MOLECULAR FORMULA

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1: LESSON 8

Percent composition by Mass

is the percent of each element in a compound.

Mathematically,
Molecular Formula
Empirical Formula shows the exact number of atoms of each element in the
shows the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms in a smallest unit of a substance.
substance and can be calculated from the percent
composition. Because percentage is given, it is convenient
to assume 100.00 grams of a compound
WRITING BALANCE CHEMICAL EQUATION ❑ 2 way of balancing chemical equation: inspection
and algebraic method
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1: LESSON 9

INSPECTION METHOD
CHEMICAL EQUATION
Step 1. Write the skeleton equation for the reaction
❑ Is the shorthand method to describe the course of
a chemical reaction.

In writing chemical equation, you must consider the

following: Step 2. Count the number of atoms of elements in the
1. Knowledge on the chemical formula of the compounds. reactant and product sides.

2. Identify the compounds that you should place in

REACTANT and PRODUCT side.

▪ Reactants: substances written in the left side and

substances being used up in chemical reaction.
▪ Products: substances formed after a chemical
reaction.

3. Use an arrow (→), doubled headed arrow ( )

if the reaction is reversible, or equal sign to separate the
two sides of the chemical equation.

REMEMBER:

❑ All chemical equation must be balanced.

❑ We balance it because of LAW OF CONSERVATION

OF MASS

❑ States that matter cannot be created nor
destroyed.
❑ Mass of the reactants should be the same
with the mass of its products
Step 3. Check which atom is unbalanced.
Step 4. Balance the unbalanced elements/atoms by using
coefficients.
Coefficients are whole numbers written before the
chemical formula.
 ALGEBRAIC METHOD

Step 5. Make sure that the coefficients are in their lowest

term.

Step 6. Check again the number of atoms on both sides.

MOLE OR MASS RATIO
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1: LESSON 10
MOLE RATIO
❑ Stoichiometry: describes the relationships
between reactants and/or products in a chemical
reaction to determine desired quantitative data.
Mole Ratio convert from moles of the given substance to moles of the
unknown.
❑ is a conversion factor that relates the amounts in
moles of any two substances in a chemical
reaction.
How many moles of water (H2O) is produced if 4.20 moles
❑ The numbers in a conversion factor come from the of oxygen (O2 ) is reacted with an excess of hydrogen (H2)?
coefficients of the balanced chemical equation.
*Use Given-Unknown-Formula-Solution (GUFS) method to
The following are the mole ratios of forming water
solve the problem.

❑ It comes from a Greek word stoikhein which

means element, and metron which means
measure

❑ so literally means as the measure of

elements.

❑ Chemical equations: express the amount of

reactants and products in a reaction.

❑ Coefficient of a balanced equation represents the

number of moles or molecules of each substance.

❑ Mole is the counting unit used by a chemist to

indicate the number of atoms, ions, molecules, or
formula unit present in a chemical reaction.

Note: A chemical reaction should be balance first before

you can exactly tell the number of moles of compounds in
a given reaction

Thus, the result corresponds to the 1 : 2 ratio of oxygen

(O2 ) and water (H2O) from the balanced equation

In calculating a problem about mole ratio, the given

substance expressed in moles is written first. The
appropriate conversion factor can be used in order to
How many moles of nitrogen (N2 ) are needed to react
with 6.0 moles of hydrogen (H2 ) to produce ammonia
(NH3 ).

*Follow G-U-F-S step in solving this problem

Mass Ratio

❑ is mass of one substance in relation to another

substance.

❑ Law of conservation of mass stating that matter

can neither be created nor destroyed.

❑ When the reaction takes place, the amount of

reactant is the same with the amount of product.

In some reaction, one element can combine with the other

element in more than one ratio which the law of multiple Problem B: A 100 g each of two compounds of carbon and
proportions state. oxygen were analyzed and found to contain the following:
Compound A: 57.1 g O2 and 48.9 g C and Compound B:
1. A + B → AB 72.7 g O2 and 25.3 g C. Determine the value of the ratio in
2. 2A + 2B → AB2 each compound.

Thus, by following the law of multiple proportions the (Use GUFS method in calculations)
mass ratio calculations can be applied.

Problem A: Calcium reacts with chlorine to form two

compounds. Compound A consists of 4.8 g of calcium for
every 2.4 g of chlorine. Compound B consists of 7.5 g of
calcium for every 8.4 g of chlorine. What is the lowest
whole number mass ratio of calcium that combines with a
given mass of chlorine?

(Use GUFS method in calculations)

AMOUNTS OF Reactants and products: STOICHIOMETRY ATOM TO MOLE Percent Yield and Theoretical Yield
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐹𝑒
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1: LESSON 11.1 1.8 x10^24 Fe x 6.02𝑥10^23 = 3.0mol of Fe GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1: LESSON 11

MOLE CONCEPT MOLES TO GRAMS: In chemical reaction:

1mol = mass in grams of the element
❑ a unit of measurements used in chemistry to ❑ in reality doesn’t always go as planned on papers,
express amounts of a substance. 1mol C = 12g of C a chemist before performing a laboratory
experiment must calculate first to be able to know
❑ a Chemist’s dozen 1mol S = 32g of S how much product will be formed.
❑ collection of atom Ex: 5 mol S x 132𝑔 𝑆
= 160g of S
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑆 ❑ During experiment there are many factors that
❑ also known as Avogadro’s number in honour for may contribute why the products that actually
Amadeo Avogadro. formed is less compared to the calculated one.
GRAMS TO MOLE:
❑ represented by n ❑ Chemists measures how successful the experiment
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑙
99g Cl x 35𝑔𝐶𝑙 = 2.83 mol of Cl by percentage yield.
❑ 1 n = 6.022x10^23

❑ Ex: 1mol of Fe = 6.022x10^23 atoms of Fe

CHEMICAL FORMULA: To calculate percent yield:

❑ weight of the chemical formula • identify first how much product is formed using
MOLES TO ATOM: stoichiometry.
One mole of each chemical species contains Avogadro’s ❑ Formula Mass : amu/atom
number of particles. • This is called theoretical yield, the maximum
❑ Molar Mass : g/mol amount of product formed from the given amount
❑ 1n Na = 6.022 x 1023 Na atoms of reactants.
❑ 1n Cl2 = 6.022 x 1023 Cl2 molecules • The actual yield on the other hand is the actual
H2O
❑ 1n Mg 2+
= 6.022 x 10 23
Mg 2+
ions product formed when the reaction is carried out in
H: 2 atoms x 1 amu = 2 amu the laboratory.
❑ 1n KBr = 6.022 x 1023 KBr formula units
O: 1 atom x 16 amu = 16 amu • And the percent yield is the ratio of actual yield to
the theoretical yield expressed as percentage.
18 amu
• 3mol Fe x 6.022𝑥10^23 = 1.8x10^24 of Fe (success of the experiment.
1𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐹𝑒
FM: 18 amu

MM: 18g
Formula of percent yield:
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
From the following statements identify what is the actual
and theoretical yield. And calculate the percent yield.
Before performing an experiment Mateo calculated that
the reaction of 20.7 grams of CaCO3 will produce 11.59
grams CaO. After performing the experiment he found out
that only 6.81 grams of CaO was produced.
Theoretical Yield is 11.59 grams CaO
Actual Yield is 6.81 grams CaO
Percent yield: 58.76%
In a certain experiment, 40.0g KClO3 is heated until it
completely decomposes. 15.7g O2 is expected to be
collected. The experiment is performed and the oxygen gas
is collected and its mass is found to be 14.9g.
Theoretical Yield is 15.7g O2
Actual Yield is 14.9g O2
Percent Yield: 94.90%
Given the reaction, calculate the unknown. Ag2S = 2.87 g Ag2S
Na2S(aq) + 2 AgNO3(aq) → Ag2S(s) + 2 NaNO3(aq) Answer: 2.87 g of Ag2S will be produced from 3.94 g of
AgNO3.
How many grams of Ag2S will form when 3.94 g of AgNO3
and an excess of Na2S are reacted together?
Calculate the theoretical yield then calculate the percent
yield.
SOLUTION:
For the balanced equation shown below, if the reaction of
Step 1 - Find the atomic weight of AgNO3 and Ag2S.
20.7 grams of CaCO3 produces 6.81 grams of CaO, what is
Atomic weight of the percent yield?
AgNO3 = 169.88 g
Atomic weight of Ag2S = 247.75 g
A. The key to solving this type of problem is to find the
mole ratio between the product and the reactant.
Step 2 - Find mole ratio between product and reactant
The reaction formula gives the whole number of moles
needed to complete and balance the reaction. For this
reaction, two moles AgNO3 is needed to produce one mole
of Ag2S. The mole ratio then is 1 mol Ag2S/2 mol AgNO3
Step 3: Find amount of product produced.
The excess of Na2S means all 3.94 g of AgNO3 will be used
to complete the reaction.
EXCESS AND LIMITING REACTANTS
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1: LESSON 12
3Fe + 2O2 → Fe3O4
45.2 g of Iron metal reacts with excess Oxygen gas to
produce 56.1 g of Fe3O4. What is the theoretical yield of
Fe3O4 and the reactions percent yield.
You must remember how to calculate the amount of
product formed in terms of moles or mass from each of
the given reactants. And the reactant that gives the least
number of moles or mass of the product formed is the
limiting reagent while the other reactant is the excess
reagent
Answer the problem:
Sample Problem:

Suppose you need to produce barium fluoride (BaF2), and

Think thought:
Suppose you want to make 10 sandwiches. For you to
prepare that, you must have 10 buns and 10 eggs. But
what if you have 10 pieces of buns and only 7 pieces of
eggs? How many egg sandwiches do you think you’ll be
able to produce?
LIMITING AND EXCESS REAGENTS
• The concept of limiting and excess reagents is the
same as the concept of the egg sandwich.
• Limiting reagent is the reactant that has been
used up in the chemical process while the excess
reagent is the reactant that is present with large
amount greater than the necessary to react with
the limiting.
you have 120 g of barium nitrate (BaNO3), and 360 g of
sodium fluoride (NaF); which do you think is the limiting
and which is the excess reagent?
You need to produce water, if only 30 grams of vinegar
reacts with 50 g of baking soda, which do you think
between the two reactants is the limiting reagent?
Find the limiting reactant when 4.687g of SF4 reacts with
6.281g of I2O5 to produce IF5.
5SF4 + 2I2O5 → 4IF5 + 5SO2
4.5 moles of antimony reacts with 5.5 moles of oxygen
according to the balanced equation, what is the limiting
reactants? (Antimony →1 × 121.8 = 121.8 g/mol, oxygen
(O2) → 2 × 16.0 = 32.0g/mol)
4Sb + 302 → Sb4O6

• So in the given scenario, the eggs is the limiting

reagent while the buns is the excess reagent.
GAS LAW VOLUME the air can occupy increased while its pressure
decreased.
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1: LESSON 13  amount of space an object occupies
 Relationship of volume to/and pressure at
To study the behavior of gas, you need to familiarize  the common unit for volume is liter (L)
constant temperature.
yourself to its physical properties:
 SI unit is m3
 when at a constant temperature the volume of air
 Pressure
TEMPERATURE is inversely proportional to its pressure.
 Temperature
 degree of hotness or coldness of a material  when the volume increase the pressure decrease
 Volume or vice versa.
 Kelvin (K) is the SI unit
 No. of mole  PV = k (mathematical expression)
 common unit used is Celsius (0C
 changing the pressure will result to a new volume
No. of mole and this can be expressed as P1V1 = P2V2
PRESSURE
 n
 Force per unit area
 present in a gas molecule
𝐹
 P=𝐴

 SI: N/m2 GAS LAW

 At normal condition: 760 mmHg = 76 cmHg = 760
torr = 1 atm
 Apparatus to measure atmospheric pressure is
barometer / manometer.
 Pressure is proportional to force, pressure is
inversely proportional to area.
 The higher the altitude the lower the pressure, the
lower the altitude the higher the force.
 Boiling point of H2O at normal pressure is 100
degree Celcius
 Scientists observe the relationships among the SAMPLE PROBLEM:
properties of gases which led to the formulation of A sample of a gas occupies a volume of 73.5 mL at a
the different gas laws pressure of 71.0 cm Hg, the pressure change at 76.0 cm Hg
in a temperature of 30C. What will be the volume at 30C?
 Boyle’s Law, Charles’ Law, Gay-Lussac’s Law, and
the Combined Gas Law SOLUTION:
Boyle’s Law
 Have you ever tried pushing the plunger of an
unused syringe without a needle while covering its
tip with your finger? You probably noticed that
while its tip was covered, you reached a point
when the plunger can no longer be pushed further
and you had to exert extra effort to prevent the air
from escaping the syringe. On the other hand,
when you tried to pull the syringe (while still
covering the tip) you noticed that the space that
SAMPLE PROBLEM:  Mathematical expression: kP=𝑉𝑇 Gay-Lussac’s Law

A sample of helium gas has a volume of 0.250 L at 800 torr.
If the volume is changed to 500 mL, what is the new
pressure, assuming no change in temperature or number
of moles?
SOLUTION:
 Note: always add 273 at the temperature given for
it to be Kelvin
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
Suppose there are 10 L of a gas at 20C. If the pressure
does not change, what will be the volume of the gas at
0C.
 One practical application of Gay-Lussac’s Law is an
aerosol can. It is a small metal canister where a
substance is stored and pushed out as a spray, mist
or foam. This small canister can be dangerous
when subjected to a hot environment. The
vaporized gases exert pressure on the wall of the
container. As the temperature increases, the
pressure inside the canister also increases as per
Gay-Lussac’s law. Finally, the canister might
explode when the pressure inside is too much. This
is the reason why aerosol cans are advised not to
be exposed to too much heat

 A temperature-pressure relationship, known as

Charle’s Law
 The human lungs play an important role in
respiration. During cold weather, the temperature
of air decreases. Therefore, the temperature and
the volume of the air inside the body also
decreases as explained by Charles’ law. It contracts
the lungs and makes physical activities like running
and jogging difficult.
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
The volume of a gas at 0C is 2 liters. At what
temperature in degree C should the gas be to increase
its volume to 4 liters.
Gay-Lussac’s Law states that the pressure of a gas
is directly proportional to its temperature as long
as the volume and amount of gas remain constant.
 Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac formulated the law in
1808.
 Directly proportional
 When the temp. increases, the pressure increases
and vice versa
 Mathematical expression: kv=𝑃𝑇

 French physicist Jacques Charles in 1787 proposed

the relationship between volume and SOLUTION:
temperature. Charles’ Law states that at constant
pressure, the temperature and the volume of a gas
are directly related.

 Directly proportional

 When the temp. increases, the volume increases

and vice versa
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
Suppose a can of insecticide with a pressure of 4.0 atm
at room temperature (28C) is thrown into a fire. If the
temperature of the gas inside the can reaches 400C,
what will be its pressure?
SOLUTION:
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
If a gas in a closed container is pressurized from 15.0
atmospheres to 16.0 atmospheres and its original
temperature was 25.0 0C, what would the final
temperature of the gas be in degrees Celsius?
SOLUTION:
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
Combined Gas Law
 This gas law combines Boyle’s Law, Charles’ Law
and Gay-Lussac’s Law.
 Unlike the three previous gas laws, combined gas
law doesn’t have an official discoverer.
 It states that the ratio of the product of pressure,
volume and temperature of a gas is equal to a
constant.
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
 For example, to determine the new volume when
both temperature and pressure are changed, you  A gas that has a volume of 28 liters, a temperature
have to consider how the volume will change as of 45 0C, and an unknown pressure has its volume
temperature changes when pressure is held increased to 34 liters and its temperature
constant. Then, how the volume will change when decreased to 35 0C. If I measure the pressure after
pressure changes assuming the temperature is the change to be 2.0 atm, what was the original
held constant. pressure of the gas
SOLUTION:
2.00 L of a gas at 35C and 0.833 atm is brought to
standard temperature and pressure (STP). What will be
the new gas volume
IDEAL GAS LAW
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1: LESSON 14
IDEAL GAS LAW
 This law came from the three related Gas Laws
that you have learned from the previous module.
First, the Boyle’s Law which describes that
pressure and volume is inversely proportional to
each other at constant temperature, thus as
pressure increases, volume decreases. Next,
Charles’ Law which describes that as volume
increases, temperature also increases. This
describe a directly proportional relationship. Lastly,
Avogadro’s Law which describes that volume is
directly proportional to the number of moles of
gas present, thus as the volume increases , the
number of moles also increases.
BELOW IS THE REPRESENTATION OF THE THREE LAWS
MATHEMATICALLY.
DMITRI MENDELEEV SOLUTION:
 combined these three equations and calculated
one constant, R known as the universal gas
constant which is equal to 0.0821 L.atm/K.mol or
8.3145L.kPa/ K.mol. The Ideal Gas Law works
when gases behave ideally at Standard
Temperature and Pressure (STP). The universal
value of STP is 1 atm at 273.15 K and 1 mole of a
gas will take up 22.4 L of the volume of the
container. SAMPLE PROBLEM:
How many moles of gas is present in a volume of 30 L
container having a pressure of 1.2 atm at a
temperature of 85C? ( If the temperature is expressed
in degree Celsius, you need to convert it into Kelvin
first before you continue with your computation)
SOLUTION:
REMEMBER
 PV=nRt (Ideal gas equation)
 equation used for stoichiometric calculations in
gases
 required in computing in gas stoichiometry
 pressure, volume, molar mass/mole, SAMPLE PROBLEM:
temperature and gas constant
 What is the pressure inside in a 60 L container
having 3 mole of gas at 400 K?
SAMPLE PROBLEM: Given: n = 3 mole V = 60 L T = 400 K
What is the temperature of a 4 mole of gas in a volume
of 10 liters with 5.5 atm pressure? (Use GUFS method
in calculating)
 DALTON’s LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE SAMPLE PROBLEM 2

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1: LESSON 15 A gas mixture has a total pressure of 94.7 kPa. It
contains hydrogen, neon, helium, and argon. If the
partial pressure of neon, helium and argon are 17.5
Dalton’s Law Of Partial Pressure kPa, 27.2 kPa, and 38.8 kPa, respectively. What is the
pressure extended by the hydrogen?
• 1810 when John Dalton proved and concluded in
his experiment that the total pressure of a mixture SOLUTION
SAMPLE PROBLEM: of gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressure
What volume does a 1.00 mole of oxygen occupies with a exerted by each individual gas.
pressure of 98.6 kPa at 50C temperature? • total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the
SOLUTION: sum of the partial pressure

• Mole fraction can also be used in calculating

partial pressure

“Using Dalton’s law of partial pressure, we can compute

for the mole fraction of each gas.”

DALTON’s LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
 Sum of all partial pressure of the given element.
A glass container has three gases namely helium, carbon
 Pt = P1+P2+P3+P4……… dioxide and oxygen. The partial pressure of the three gases
are 5.00 atm, 4.00 atm and 3.00 atm respectively. What is
Ex: Pt = P(He)+P(H2)+ P(F2) the total pressure inside the glass container?
=720torr + 500torr + 650torr SOLUTION
=1870torr
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3

A gas mixture that is composed of N2, Ne, and He has

the following partial pressure of 0.50 atm, 1.1 atm, and
0.80 atm, respectively. Calculate the mole fraction of
each gas.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 4

A mixture of gas has 5 mol of nitrogen, 3 mol of oxygen

and 2 mol of argon. The total pressure of the mixture is
1000 torr. Find the mole fraction and partial pressure
of each gas.
RELATING THE RATE OF GAS EFFUSION WITH MOLAR while gases diffuse rather quickly, liquids diffuse SAMPLE PROBLEM
MASS slower.
 Identify the gas that has 4x faster rate of effusion
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1: LESSON 16  Solids essentially do not diffuse. than Oxygen (O2) gas.

 A related process to diffusion is effusion.

NOTE THAT:

 Temperature increases, the gas of atom and EFFUSION

molecules move faster.
 It is the process in which gas particles escape
SOLUTION
 Temperature is also a way of demonstrating though a tiny hole.
average kinetic energy.

 The kinetic energy expresses the connection

between a particle’s velocity and mass.

 In this lesson, you are going to learn the process by

which gases travel through a tiny hole.

GRAHAM’S LAW OF EFFUSION

GRAHAM’S LAW OF EFFUSION
 means that the rate of motion of a gas is inversely
 Scottish Chemist Thomas Graham (1809-1869) proportional to the square root of its molar mass.
proposed the law of effusion of gases It is expressed mathematically as
 He explained how fast the gases pass through the
barrier.

 He measured the rates of effusion for various

gases, the heavier the gas is, the slower it moves.

 Meanwhile, the lighter the gas, the faster it finds

exit.
 where r1 and r2 are the rates of effusion of the
two gases, and the mm1 and mm2 correspond to
DIFFUSION their molar masses respectively.

 It is the tendency of molecules to move from an

area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration until the concentration is uniform,
PRINCIPLES OF STOICHIOMETRY SOLUTION

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1: LESSON 17

Stoichiometry

• one of the most crucial topics in general chemistry.

• It is primarily introduced after discussing parts of

the atom and unit conversions.

• Studies the amount of substances that are involved

in the reaction.

APPLYING STOICHIOMETRY IN SOLVING FOR NUMBER OF

APPLYING STOICHIOMETRY IN SOLVING FOR VOLUME
MOLES
Assume that excess CuO reacts with 5.6 L H2 at STP
• How many grams of H2O is needed to react with
according to the following equation:
O2 to yield 100 grams of H2O2?
CuO + H2 → Cu + H2O

1nH2
5.6L of H2 x 22.4 L
= 0.25n of H2

SAMPLE PROBLEM

What volume of N2 is needed to react with 3.2 L of O2 to

produced NO2.

Balanced equation: N2 + O2 → NO2