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Subject: Environmental systems and societies

(SL)

Internal Assessment

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Research Question: “How does proximity to

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roads impact the heavy metal concentrations
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found in soils in Germany?”

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Introduction

Research Question

I will explore the consequences of traffic and how this impacts the concentration of heavy metals
found in soils in Germany. The research question is, How does the proximity to roads impact the
heavy metal concentrations found in soils in Germany?

Background: Environmental Issue & Connections

Environmental Issue: Heavy metal pollution in soils deriving from vehicles

This investigation highlights the impact of vehicle pollution on the health of soils in Germany. In

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particular, the increased concentration of heavy metals deriving from abrasion of tyres and the

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wearing down of brake pads (zinc (Zn) from tyres and copper (Cu) in brake pads). Anthropogenic

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activity, traffic and transport, has significantly increased levels of heavy metals in soils, water
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sources and the atmosphere.1 Zinc and copper polluted soils can result in phytotoxicity and lower
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productivity in plants. Zinc and copper are considered as micronutrients, necessary for plant
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growth, however, soil levels higher than 1000 mg/kg of Cu and above 400 mg/kg of Zn become
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toxic for plants.2

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Significant to this is the increase of cars on the road. In 1993, the year when the eastern and
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western German motor vehicle registers combined, there were 400 cars per 1,000 inhabitants in
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Germany. By 2015 this car ownership rate had grown to 520 cars per 1,000 inhabitants3.

Increasing the numbers of motor vehicles on roads lowers soil quality due to the unnatural

concentrations of heavy metals leaching in. Soils with lower pHs, i.e. more acidic, tend to have

higher concentrations of heavy metal traces. For instance, high zinc levels are related to a low pH,

1
Weber, Collin J., et al. “Spatial Variability of Heavy Metal Concentration in Urban Pavement Joints – A Case Study.” Soil.copernicus.org, Department
of Geography, Philipps-University Marburg, Marburg, 35032, Germany, 7 Aug. 2020,
https://soil.copernicus.org/preprints/soil-2020-39/soil-2020-39.pdf

2
Yssaad, Houcine Abdelhakim Reguieg, et al. “(PDF) Phytotoxicity of Copper and Zinc in Tomato Plants (Lycopersicon Esculentum. Mill): Impact on
Growth and Mineral Nutrition.” Researchgate, Apr. 2021,
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/350767672_Phytotoxicity_of_Copper_and_Zinc_in_Tomato_Plants_Lycopersicon_Esculentum_Mill_Impact_
on_Growth_and_Mineral_Nutrition.
3
Kraftfahrtbundesamt. (2017). Kraftfahrzeugstatistik. Retrieved 25.4., 2017, from
http://www.kba.de/DE/Statistik/Kraftfahrer/Fahrerlaubnisse/Fahrerlaubnisbestand/fahrerla ubnisbestand_node.html

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ranging from 6.2 - 7 and high levels of copper are associated with a lower pH range of 4.7- 5.7.4 I

predict there will be a higher potential for zinc and copper accumulation as the soil is closer to the

highway, as the soil is at higher risk of contamination due to surface runoff.

Planning

Experimental
Named variable Procedure/ way of measuring given variable
variable

Using a 20-meter measuring tape, measure the

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distance from the road - a larger measuring tape
1. Distance from/ proximity to a

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Dependent
road/highway allows for precision when measuring the

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distances.
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Taking measurements of pH from the field
1. The presence and
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bordering the A5 highway, along with secondary

concentration of heavy metals
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in soil data, I was able to deduce a correlation between

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the proximity of land to a highway and how this

2. Change in pH
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Independent
relates to varying concentrations of zinc and
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3. The number of vehicles on the

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copper. The measurement of pH will be an

road with increased
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urbanisation indicator of the potential zinc and copper

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concentrations in the field’s soil.

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1. Geographic location- field

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These factors (the physical geography and the

bordering the highway (Fig.1)
Controlled metals being investigated) will remain the same
2. Types of heavy metals being throughout this investigation.
investigated: zinc and copper

I chose a stratified sampling method, which allowed me to get greater precision and obtain
Data sampling clear data at specific incremental locations rather than using a random sampling strategy
strategy
where the data would be irregular.

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Sanders, J.R., and T.McM. Adams. “The Effects of Ph and Soil Type on Concentrations of Zinc, Copper and Nickel Extracted by Calcium Chloride from Sewage
Sludge-Treated Soils.” Environmental Pollution, Elsevier, 7 July 2003, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0269749187901588?via%3Dihub.

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Fig .1: Location of the investigation by A5 highway

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Fig.2: pH probe used for data
Materials used to collect data
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1. University research papers

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2. Conference call with a professional geologist (not necessary, recommended)

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3. pH probe (Fig.2)
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4. 20-meter tape measure

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Methodology
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1. Find land bordering a highway (the size of the land for this investigation was 5000 m2,
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100 × 50 meters) - see Fig.3.

2. Get permission from the owner to collect data.
3. Divide the land, parallel to the road, into 10 locations, a distance of 10 meters between
each location. Use the 20-meter measuring tape to plot each location.
4. Once all ten locations have been plotted, vertically, at each location collect the pH at 4
varying distances 5, 10, 25 and 50 meters away from the road.
5. At every location, for each increment away from the road, sink the pH probe
approximately 4-5 cm into the soil.
6. Wait 2 minutes before recording the pH reading.
7. Repeat steps 4 and 5 until the pH for all 40 trials have been recorded.

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Fig.3: diagram of pH collection procedure at field bordering the A5 highway in Frankfurt am Main (not to scale)
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Ethics and Risks

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As the field was not public property it was important to contact the owner of the field, who owns

one of the largest apple companies in Frankfurt. I was given permission to be on his land and to

conduct my trials on his property.

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The risk I faced through conducting this investigation was my physical proximity to the highway.

In order to maintain personal security, I made sure to keep a minimum of 5 meters away from the

highway at all times.

Analysis of primary data

Table.1: Raw data table showing soil pH in relation to distance away from A5 highway

Location # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

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Meters from
pH level

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highway

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5 6.5 6.9 6.6 6.7 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.6 6.5
10 6.7 6.6 6.9 6.8 6.9 6.7 gm 6.8 6.8 6.6 6.7
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25 6.9 6.8 6.7 6.9 6.8 6.8 6.7 6.8 6.7 6.9
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50 6.8 6.9 6.9 6.8 6.6 6.6 6.7 6.5 6.8 6.9
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Table.2: Table showing average soil pH in relation to distance away from the A5 highway
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Meters away from

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Average pH level
highway
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5 6.6
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10 6.75
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25 6.74
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50 7.44

Table.1 shows pH levels recorded from a field bordering the A5 highway in Frankfurt am Main.

The lowest pH recorded, being at location 5 with a 5-meter distance from the road, was 6.4 which

is considered to be on the acidic scale. Additionally, the highest pH value recorded, multiple

times, was 6.9 (this value was mostly measured 25-50 meters from the road). There is a total pH

range of 0.5 within my collected data which indicates that there is a trend between the distance

and pH level; as distance increases so do the pH levels (averages in Table.2).

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According to research conducted by Oregon State University, Fig.6 (Appendix.1), zinc

availability in soils depend on the pH and higher concentrations of zinc are closely related to a low

pH, ranging from 6.2 - 75. As shown in graph Fig.6, (Appendix.1) gradually the zinc trend

decreases as the pH levels get higher. This is concerning as the measured pH levels from the field

adjacent to the A5 highway in Frankfurt fit this optimal pH range, meaning there is high potential

for excess zinc accumulation. On the other hand, the optimal soil pH for high copper

concentrations rages from 4.7 to approximately 5.76 My data yielded higher pH values with the

lowest value, 6.4, indicating that copper toxicity would be unlikely to occur in this field as it is out

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of the optimal pH range.

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Graph.1: The trend between the average pH soil measurements and the increasing distance from the highway
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Sanders, J.R., and T.McM. Adams. “The Effects of Ph and Soil Type on Concentrations of Zinc, Copper and Nickel Extracted by Calcium Chloride from Sewage
Sludge-Treated Soils.” Environmental Pollution, Elsevier, 7 July 2003, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0269749187901588?via%3Dihub.
6
Sanders, J.R., and T.McM. Adams. “The Effects of Ph and Soil Type on Concentrations of Zinc, Copper and Nickel Extracted by Calcium Chloride from
Sewage Sludge-Treated Soils.” Environmental Pollution, Elsevier, 7 July 2003,
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0269749187901588?via%3Dihub.

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Using the pH averages from each distance from the A5 highway, Pearson’s correlation coefficient

was calculated to test the correlation strength between distance and pH.

r = 0.942

This Pearson’s value, 0.942, indicates a strong, positive and linear correlation, suggesting a close

relationship between distance from the highway and pH levels of the field’s soil. There is an

average pH range of 0.84, indicating a large pH difference within 50 meters from the A5 highway.

Overall, the average pH was 6.725, which is still considered acidic and an optimal pH for high

zinc concentrations. The same, however, was not true for copper as it doesn’t fit in the optimal

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range (4.7- 5.7)7.

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Discussion
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Manufacturing European rubber tyres requires zinc oxide to diminish costs, energy and to increase
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their durability and elasticity. Slightly over 50% of global zinc oxide production goes towards the
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manufacturing of vehicle tyres8, shown in Fig.5. Consequently, as more cars drive on the roads, more
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zinc ions from the zinc oxide in the tyres fall on the tarmac. In the data collected by EMEP Centre on
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Emission Inventories and Projections (Fig.7 in Appendix 2 ), Germany has increased zinc emissions
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deriving from road transport and offroad pollution with 129,71 tonnes of Zn recorded in 2012

compared with 140,85 tonnes of Zn in 2019.

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Sanders, J.R., and T.McM. Adams. “The Effects of Ph and Soil Type on Concentrations of Zinc, Copper and Nickel Extracted by Calcium
Chloride from Sewage Sludge-Treated Soils.” Environmental Pollution, Elsevier, 7 July 2003,
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0269749187901588?via%3Dihub.

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“Safer Reduction of Zinc Oxide Amount in the Rubber Vulcanisation Process.” EIT RawMaterials, 21 July 2021,
https://eitrawmaterials.eu/safer-reduction-of-zinc-oxide-amount-in-rubber-vulcanisation-process/.

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Fig.5: Chart taken from mordorintelligence.com

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In Germany alone, there were 64.8 million motor vehicles registered in total in 20199, whereas
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France, for example, had a total of 32.02 million motor vehicles registered in 201910. Further to this,
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Frances’s land area is approximately 50% larger than that of France. This highlights the
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environmental issue of large traffic flow currently in Germany, hence contributing to heavy metal
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intoxication of nearby soils. As concrete is an impermeable material, surface runoff occurs, meaning
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that soils found near major roads are more susceptible to zinc intoxication, as the residue leaches into
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the topsoil.
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Moreover, copper deriving from brake wear is also an increasing issue as, like zinc, the residue of

copper particles from the friction of brake pads leaches into the soil. Up until 2021, the primary

component of brake pads was copper. Countries like the USA have now enacted regulations that

9
“2019 Germany: Total Number of Registered Cars by Brand.” Car Sales Statistics, 30 Jan. 2020,
https://www.best-selling-cars.com/germany/2019-germany-total-number-of-registered-cars-by-brand/#:~:text=In%202019%2C%20the%20number%20of,vehi
cles%2C%20including%2047%20million%20cars.

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Statista Research Department. “Registered Passenger Cars France 2019.” Statista, 2 July 2021,
https://www.statista.com/statistics/455887/passenger-cars-registered-in-france/.

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will reduce and eliminate copper in the manufacturing process of brake pads11. In contrast,

Germany has the largest copper emissions from brake wear in Europe (Fig.8).

European copper emissions (Fig.9) shows Germany had 399.87 tonnes of Cu in comparison to the

Netherlands with only 23.58 tonnes of copper in 2019. According to the Fraunhofer Institute, when

observing the motorcycle market, copper-free products in the manufacturing process could reduce

European copper emissions by 600 tonnes per year. This amount is estimated to be 25% of all

European copper brake wear emissions.12 Even if Germany proves to be a large copper emitter due to

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a large traffic flow, according to my fieldwork pH readings, it is unlikely that the soil from the field is

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suffering from high copper concentrations. Additionally, vehicles don’t typically brake on highways

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as they are driving at high speeds, there would be less copper residue on highway surfaces.
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Fig.8: European Copper emissions in 2019, map taken from www.ceip.at/data-viewer

11
“National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES): Copper-Free Brake Initiative.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, Nov. 2021,
https://www.epa.gov/npdes/copper-free-brake-initiative.
12
“Solution for Clean Mobility: Brake Pads without Copper or Nickel - Fraunhofer IFAM.” Fraunhofer Institute for Manufacturing Technology and Advanced Materials
IFAM, 8 Apr. 2021, https://www.ifam.fraunhofer.de/en/Press_Releases/Solution_for_clean_mobility-Brake_pads_without_copper_or_nickel.html.

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Fig.9: European Copper emissions in 2019, numbers taken from www.ceip.at/data-viewer

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Conclusion
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Through this investigation, I was able to answer my overarching question; yes, the proximity to a
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road influences the heavy metal concentrations in soils. This is primarily due to surface runoff in

which heavy metal residue found on roads washes away and leaches into the soil. There is a

strong, positive correlation between increasing distance from the highway and increasing soil pH,

proven by Pearson’s correlation coefficient, 0.942; as the distance from the road increased, the

acidity of the soil decreased. This relates to my Global Issue as increased traffic flow in Germany

results in heavy metal pollution of closer soils deriving from vehicles parts. These unnatural

concentrations of heavy metals disrupt the stability of the local ecosystem as the health of the soil

diminishes, the conditions are no longer optimal for plant productivity and certain organisms

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cannot survive the new conditions. According to my research, I can also conclude that my initial

prediction was partially correct. It is likely that the field I investigated is suffering from higher

zinc concentrations however, the likelihood of excessive copper concentrations is not as probable.

The measured pH range from the tested soil was optimal for the accumulation of zinc and not for

copper.

Application

From an anthropocentric perspective, stricter regulations and laws must be enforced in the

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manufacturing of automobile parts. For instance, the USA has implemented nearly copper-free

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brake pads by 2025, consisting of no more than 0.5% copper. Their goal for 2021 was to have less
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than 5% (by weight) of copper in brake pads13. Through the implication of legal regulations and
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incentives towards companies, Germany must begin to limit and gradually eliminate the use of
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heavy metals in the production of vehicle parts. From a technocentric approach, it would be
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possible to develop and alter technology to replace our current reliance on these toxic substances
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in vehicle parts. This change is realistic as technology is constantly being developed, it’s only a
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question of gearing the focus to the automobile industry. One negative aspect of ecologically
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altering our current automobile manufacturing habits may be a rise in costs. Finally, from an
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ecocentric perspective, incentivising public transport and biking would reduce the number of cars

driving on roads as individuals choose not to drive.

Another option is for Germany to implement taxes on older cars that do not comply with updated

regulations. This would encourage people to invest in more sustainable cars; however, in LEDCs

(Less Economically Developed Countries) this would be harder to regulate as people are less

13
“National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES): Copper-Free Brake Initiative.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, Nov. 2021,
https://www.epa.gov/npdes/copper-free-brake-initiative.

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wealthy. Governments and individuals cannot always afford to invest in newer, greener modes of

transport that reduce the usage of heavy metals. These suggested solutions may not be affordable

for all, however, this would reduce the underlying problem of this Global Issue, vehicles would

contribute less to heavy metal pollution due to the wearing down of their parts.

Evaluation

Strengths Weaknesses/limitations

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A strength of this investigation was the A limitation of this investigation was the collection and processing

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management of my dependent variable - the of my primary data. I initially went out and conducted additional

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varying distances from the highway. This fieldwork (40 core soil samples were collected along with all the
allowed me to conduct a reliable overall gm
pH values) before having done enough in-depth research on how
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average of all the pH levels in relation to the heavy metals can be tested. I wanted to test for zinc and copper
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distance from the highway as each trail was from my own soil samples, to identify if the field was suffering
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taken at the same increment at all 10 from zinc and copper intoxication. However, after having tried 3
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locations. separate times at my school lab with slightly different methods, I

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realised that my school didn’t have the adequate equipment needed

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An additional strength was the wide use of to test for zinc and copper in soil samples. If I could’ve tested my
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studies and statistics to explain and prove my soil samples for these heavy metals I would have been able to
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initial prediction. This shows how the Global accurately prove/disprove my prediction.
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Issue related to my IA is being acknowledged

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in Germany and around the world. Another weakness in my procedure was my method of measuring
the pH. I didn’t take an individualaverage for each trial, this
would've increased the accuracy of my recorded pH values.

Improvements:

I was not able to include the levels of zinc and copper from the field as I was originally intended to implement.
This limited the accuracy of my conclusion because I could only assume based on external research. This could
have been avoided if I had done in-depth research prior to the fieldwork, I would’ve altered my investigation.
Finally, if I were to conduct this investigation again I would have taken 3 pH readings per trial so I could come up
with a reliable average.

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Bibliography
Statista Research Department. “Registered Passenger Cars France 2019.” Statista, 2 July 2021,
https://www.statista.com/statistics/455887/passenger-cars-registered-in-france/.

“2019 Germany: Total Number of Registered Cars by Brand.” Car Sales Statistics, 30 Jan. 2020,
https://www.best-selling-cars.com/germany/2019-germany-total-number-of-registered-cars-by-brand/#:~:text=In%20
2019%2C%20the%20number%20of,vehicles%2C%20including%2047%20million%20cars.

“2020: Germany - Total Number of Registered Cars by Brand.” Car Sales Statistics, 2 Mar. 2020,
https://www.best-selling-cars.com/germany/2020-germany-total-number-of-registered-cars-by-brand/.

“Impacts of Heavy Metal Emission on Air ... - UMWELTBUNDESAMT.” UMWELTBUNDESAMT, 2018,

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https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/sites/default/files/medien/1410/publikationen/2018-12-13_texte_106-2018_schwe
rmetallemissionen_en.pdf.

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“National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES): Copper-Free Brake Initiative.” EPA,

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Environmental Protection Agency, Nov. 2021, https://www.epa.gov/npdes/copper-free-brake-initiative.
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Petruzzelli, Gianniantonio, et al. “Bioavailability and Bioaccessibility in Soil: A Short Review and a Case
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Study.” AIMS Environmental Science, 24 Apr. 2020, https://www.aimspress.com/article/id/5032.

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“Safer Reduction of Zinc Oxide Amount in the Rubber Vulcanisation Process.” EIT RawMaterials, 21 July
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2021, https://eitrawmaterials.eu/safer-reduction-of-zinc-oxide-amount-in-rubber-vulcanisation-process/.
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Sanders, J.R., and T.McM. Adams. “The Effects of Ph and Soil Type on Concentrations of Zinc, Copper and
w

Nickel Extracted by Calcium Chloride from Sewage Sludge-Treated Soils.” Environmental Pollution, Elsevier, 7 July
th

2003, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0269749187901588?via%3Dihub.
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“Solution for Clean Mobility: Brake Pads without Copper or Nickel - Fraunhofer IFAM.” Fraunhofer
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Institute for Manufacturing Technology and Advanced Materials IFAM, 8 Apr. 2021,
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https://www.ifam.fraunhofer.de/en/Press_Releases/Solution_for_clean_mobility-Brake_pads_without_copper_or_nic
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kel.html.

Weber, Collin J., et al. “Spatial Variability of Heavy Metal Concentration in Urban Pavement Joints – A Case
Study.” Soil.copernicus.org, Department of Geography, Philipps-University Marburg, Marburg, 35032, Germany, 7
Aug. 2020, https://soil.copernicus.org/preprints/soil-2020-39/soil-2020-39.pdf.

Kraftfahrtbundesamt. (2017). Kraftfahrzeugstatistik. Retrieved 25.4., 2017, from

http://www.kba.de/DE/Statistik/Kraftfahrer/Fahrerlaubnisse/Fahrerlaubnisbestand/fahrerla ubnisbestand_node.html

Yssaad, Houcine Abdelhakim Reguieg, et al. “(PDF) Phytotoxicity of Copper and Zinc in Tomato Plants
(Lycopersicon Esculentum. Mill): Impact on Growth and Mineral Nutrition.” Researchgate, Apr. 2021,
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/350767672_Phytotoxicity_of_Copper_and_Zinc_in_Tomato_Plants_Lycop
ersicon_Esculentum_Mill_Impact_on_Growth_and_Mineral_Nutrition.

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“Zinc Oxide Market: 2021 - 26: Industry Share, Size, Growth - Mordor Intelligence.” Zinc Oxide Market |
2021 - 26 | Industry Share, Size, Growth - Mordor Intelligence, 2021,
https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry-reports/zinc-oxide-market.

Appendix
Appendix.1

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Fig.6: The relationship of soil pH and zinc (Zn) in solution extracted from Bashaw and Woodburn soils in Oregon,
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USA
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Appendix.2
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Fig.7: Zn emissions in Germany taken from ceip.at

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